Aircraft Power361422455427797587

B11-12-13
Aircraft Systems
Part 7 - Electrical Systems
Air Service Training

Aircraft Systems:
Electrical Power

Electrical Revision
Ohm’s Law
V=IxR
Our aim in electrical distribution systems is to

keep voltage ‘V’ at a constant value

Why?
Resistance in a simple circuit is a fixed value
If voltage increases and resistance is fixed

then current ‘I’ will increase
More current = more heat = damage

Electromagnetism
When current is passed through a
wire we get:
Heat Magnetism

Relays

Simple Relay

Complex Relay

Introduction
Chapter 1
Section 1

Types of Power
• Four common sources of power

• DC Alternator
• DC Generator
• AC Alternator
• Battery

Distribution System
• Power source will connect to Power source

a busbar
• Busbar is designed to carry Bus
the entire electrical load
• Then through protection Fuse/Circuit breaker
device to power user
Power user

Busbar

• Connected to the
positive output
terminal of power
source …. battery or
generator
• Normally located close
to the power source
(battery), to reduce
losses due resistance
• Big and thick, copper!
Distribution
• Typically use a
• single wire
• negative earth return system

Single Wire Return
• Saves weight and space
• Not possible in all aircraft, instead may use
• Two wires
• Install a ground plane to the aircraft

Types of Busbars
• Different types of busbar
• AC or DC
• Subdivided to essential and non-essential
DC Busbar
DC essential DC non-essential

Types of Busbar
• Depending on aircraft there may be others
• Emergency
• Battery
• Hot
• The above are all connected directly to the

aircraft battery

Essential Busbars
• They supply power to circuits which allow

the aircraft to perform its main function
Fly and power systems

during emergencies
Non-Essential Busbars
• They supply power to circuits which are

not vital to aircraft operation

Protective Devices
• Prevent damage to the wiring due to large

currents ......... short circuits/faults
• Fuses
• Circuit breakers
• Cut-out relays

Circuit Breakers

Circuit Breakers
• Termed a ‘Trip free’ circuit breaker

• They can be reset
• When fault occurs they will open
• Should not be able to be manually overridden

Fuses
• Must carry spares

• At least 10% of each
value/type or minimum of 3
• Whichever is the greatest!!
• If only 1 fuse of a value/type
will need to carry 3 spares!

Protective Devices
• Must be clearly identified so they can be

easily be located
• Not required in main circuits of starters
• Why??????
DUE TO LARGE CURRENT
DURING START WHICH MAY
FUSE

Essential Circuits
• Each circuit for essential loads must
• Have individual protection
• The protection device should be accessible to
crew members in flight
DC essential
Fuse Fuse
Captain’s ADI 1st Officer’s ADI

Non-Essential Circuits
• Non-essential loads may
• Share protection
• Do not have be accessible to crew in flight
DC non-essential
Fuse
IFE Galley
Distribution Systems
• Aircraft may use a combination of electrical

power, typically:
• 28 volts DC
• single phase 115 volts AC 400 Hz
• three phase 115/200 volts AC 400 Hz

Converting
• If we have AC or DC we can convert to the

other:
• AC to DC we use a transformer rectifier unit (TRU)
• DC to AC we use an inverter (static or rotary) but
normally only supplies small amount of power.

TRU (AC to DC)
DC out
AC in

Inverter (DC to AC)

Aircraft Systems
• Two basic configurations

• Split bus system - rotary and twin aircraft
• Parallel system - large transport aircraft
• Could have a combination of the two

(hybrid)

Split Bus System
• Generators are
never connected
together on a
busbar
• Cheap system

Split Bus System
• Simpler and cheaper
• May have power breaks during switching
• Rotary wing and twin aircraft
• Generators not connected to same busbar

Parallel System
• Generators are
connected
together on a
busbar
• More complex
• No break in
supplies

Batteries
Chapter 1
Section 2

Batteries
• Secondary
• Alkaline, or,
• Acid
• Provide ultimate power source

• Can act as a buffer
• Normally 30 mins of power
Batteries
• Located in special compartments
• Close to Busbars
• Secured in place
• PVC covered metal trays for acid
• Metal trays for alkaline
• Vented to remove corrosive gases
Venting of Gases
• Different methods used to remove the

corrosive gasses
• Venturi effect
• Using pressurised air, via a one way valve, from
the passenger/crew compartment

Battery Protection
• Protected against
• Short circuits
• Overcharging
• Both could cause overheating or thermal

runaway; so we monitor:
• Current flow and temperature

Typical Short Circuit
Protection

• Current monitored
• If fault condition
contactors either
side of battery
disconnect
• That way battery
protected

Standby Battery
• In addition to main battery/batteries
• Independent of normal battery power
• Provides power to
• vital circuits
• power protection circuits

Typical Operation

• Temperature monitored
• Provides power to
• Emergency lights
• Flight instruments
• Remember ..... if
emergency battery in a
system detects no main
battery it will supply
power!

Norm/Emergency
Switch Function
NORM Relay
Standby
Battery EMERG
Main
Bus Bar
Battery OFF
ON

Norm/Emergency
Switch Function
NORM Relay
Standby
Battery EMERG
Main
Bus Bar
Battery OFF
ON

Testing
• In this typical example in the notes
• Pressing the test switch will put the battery
under a test load this will
• Illuminate a TEST OK light if battery at a
minimum of 70% capacity
• Simulate an overheat and illuminate FAIL light

Norm/Emergency
Switch Function
• Never set the BATT/GND PWR switch to ON
unless the aircraft battery or a ground power
unit is connected
• Never set the NORM/EMERG switch to
EMERG unless the aircraft power system is
energised; if not, the standby battery will be
discharged

Series Battery
Configuration
1.5 v 1.5 v 1.5 v
1 amp 1 amp 1 amp
4.5 v
1 amps

Parallel Battery
Configuration
1.5 v 1.5 v 1.5 v 1.5 v

1 amp 1 amp 1 amp 3 amps

Battery Switching
• Some aircraft with multi battery systems

switch the configuration during starting of
engines
• Start >>>>> parallel to series
• After start >>>>> series to parallel
• Reduces initial torque on starter
Battery Switching

Battery Charging
• Many methods to charge batteries

• direct from a generator/busbar
• from a dedicated battery charger

Typical Charger Shut Down
• If voltage is
• Below 94 volts: undervoltage
• Above 134 volts: overvoltage
• If temperature is > 63 C 0
• Will reconnect at 570C

Battery Safety

Thermal Runaway
• Factors that can cause overheating :

• Incorrect voltage regulation
• High load current (multiple engine starts).
• Loose links between cells
• Low electrolyte
• Leakage current between cells & container
• Cell unbalance

Acid/Alkaline
• Alkaline advantages over lead acid batteries:
• Can handle higher charge/discharge currents.
• Can be left in any state of charge with no detrimental effects.
• Normally more robust
• Voltage between charged and discharged changes very little.
• The alkaline cell is lighter than the lead acid cell. In a 24 volt
battery there are 20 alkaline cells,12 lead acid cells, this leads to
the alkaline battery being heavier than the lead acid battery
• They normally have a longer life

Charging Methods
• In servicing bays all batteries are charged by
the constant current method
• In aircraft
• acid batteries charged by constant voltage
method.
• alkaline batteries are high initial current
then pulse charged to allow temperature
stabilisation before switching to constant
potential (voltage)
DC Generators
Chapter 1
Section 3

A Generator

Output Depends on
• Strength of magnetic field

• Number of coils in armature
• Speed of rotation

DC Generator

Parts
• Yoke
• Armature
• Commutator
• Quill drive (shear point)
• Brushes
• Suppressor

DC Generator Faults
• Failure to excite
• Voltage fails to build up
• Reversed polarity
• Insufficient voltage
• Excessive voltage
• Sparking at all brushes
Generator System
Requirements
• Output voltage to be constant

• This is a problem due to varying speed of
connected engine
• Only thing we can alter is the magnetic
field strength

Voltage Regulators

Carbon Pile

Faults
• Voltage incorrect then the regulator is

faulty!
• Too low = weak spring
• Too high = voltage coil problem
• Can perhaps adjust using the variable

resistor?

Solid State

Solid State
• The output to the field coil is pulsed on/off
Voltage Average
Time

Advantages
• Solid state has many advantages

• No moving parts, more reliable
• Cheaper
• Smaller
• Less weight
• Less interference

Generator Switching
Chapter 1
Section 4

Generator Requirements
Busbar
• ‘Online’ when the generator

connected to bus bar,
• Should be run up off load, when
voltage high enough connected
• Generator voltage should always be
higher than battery supplying busbar

Differential Cut-out

Circuit Protection
& Interlocks
Chapter 1
Section 5

Single Generator System
• Differential cut out acts on 20-30 amps

• RCCB acts on large currents, 100s of amps
• may remove generator field
• Over voltage relay removes generator field

• If generator field is removed generator is
always taken offline!

Hold off Systems
• The battery or generators are never
connected to a busbar that external power
is connected to .... never ‘Paralleled’
• Systems called
• ‘hold off relays’ or ‘flashback relays’
• The relays cause the aircraft power to be

isolated from the bus bars.

Hold Off
System

28 volts

Multi-generator
DC Systems
Chapter 1
Section 6

Parallel Systems
• Advantages of paralleling:
• Normally no break in supplies if a generator
fails.
• The system can handle the switching of high
transient loads.
• Disadvantages of paralleling:
• Additional circuitry to ensure that both
machines share the loads equally

• If one generator takes more load then its output
voltage rises
• Current flows from lightly to heavily loaded generator
in equalising circuit
• Aids voltage coil in heavily loaded generator
• Fights against voltage coil in lightly loaded generator

GCU GCU GCU GCU

AC Power
Chapter 2
Section 1

Why Alternating Current?

So …..
• We can use high voltage low current
resulting in smaller cables
• Use AC because:
• more efficient, less losses
• easier to step up or down

AC Systems
• Two main ways of producing AC power

• Frequency wild (swings around 400 Hz)
• Constant Frequency (exactly 400 Hz)

Frequency Wild
• The generator is connected directly to the

engine gearbox
• As engine speed changes so will output
frequency
• Output is 3 phase 115/200v

Frequency Wild
• Only supplies resistive loads ie anti-icing

• Can supply DC via TRUs
• Cannot be operated in parallel

Constant Frequency
• The generator is always driven at a

constant speed via a constant speed unit
• Can supply resistive and reactive loads
• Can be paralleled

Frequency Wild

Compounding Transformer

• This is an externally excited generator,
until it is running, then self excited
• Voltage regulators perform poorly, so a
compounding transformer used as well

General AC Protection
• Heater loads which are not thermostatically

controlled may overheat on the ground
• A method to stop this problem is to link
weight-on-wheel switches to a system which keeps
output to heaters at low voltage ie 75 volts

Constant Frequency
Generation Systems
• Typical systems used on large transport
• produces 115/200 volts 3 phase at 400 Hz
• Two methods using either

• constant speed drive unit (CSDU)
• variable speed constant frequency (VSCF)

Integrated Drive Generator

CSDU
• Purpose:
• To drive the generator at a constant RPM for
varying engine speeds
• What is it?
• A hydro-mechanical unit

• If engine speeds up
• Mechanical governor senses and underdrives the
motor so keeping frequency steady
• Governor is insensitive so fine electrical control
by GCU
CSDU Disconnects
• Manually
• Oil or temperature by crew
• Automatic
• Thermal (ie 1680C)
• Shear (ie > 3300 inch pounds)
• Can only be reset on the ground

Brushless Generator
• Brushes, biggest problem in a generator

• Brushless has less moving parts

AC DC
AC
DC
AC
VSCF

VSCF

Simple VSCF

VSCF Built-In-Test
• Typically, 3 reasons to carry out BIT

• System malfunction
• Low residual voltage
• Scheduled check

Simple Fault Conditions
Chapter 2
Section 2

Fault Conditions
• Overheat
• Earth leakage
• Under voltage
• Over voltage
• Over load
• Differential protection
Overheat
• Normally due to poor cooling

• A temperature sensitive switch will provide
a logic 1 or 0
• Normally sensed in exhaust
• Sense temperature change and:
• Illuminate light on flight deck

Earth Leakage
• If there is a problem with insulation there

would be current in the neutral line
• This sensed and crew informed
• Can cause bearing wear in engines due to
the unbalance it causes

Earth
Leakage/Undervoltage

Under Voltage
• Uses same warning light as for leakage

• Crew would refer to aircraft voltmeter to
decide if an under voltage or earth leakage
• Earth leakage = very low voltage
• Under voltage = low voltage

Over Voltage
Changes OFF ON
AC to DC
Over Voltage
Voltage rises
ON OFF

Overload
• Current transformers sense this and:
• De - excites the generator (GFR)
• Remove it from the bus bar (GLC)

Differential Protection
X = Y = OK X not equal Y = US
Power Distribution

System Components
Chapter 2
Section 3

Generator Control Unit
(GCU)
• Controls an individual generator
• Voltage regulation
• Protection
• BITE
• Normally powered by PMG

• Or a battery if PMG damaged or not
rotating

Protection Circuits
• Monitors for fault conditions

• Voltage levels
• Loading
• Frequency
• Distribution

BPCU
• A Bus Power Control Unit looks after

power management
• Controls switching
• Receives information from GCU
• Monitors current transformers
• Monitors load controllers

TRU
• Transformer Rectifier Units
• AC to DC conversion

Three Phase

• Basic protection of TRU
• Overheat
• Voltage (cuts off if < 22 or > 33)
• Reverse current (if > 1 amp)

Voltage Regulator

Point of Regulation
• As close to the bus bar as possible

• Between generator and GCB
Contactors (Relays)
Chapter 2
Section 4

Simple Relay

Complex Relay

Relays

Contactors
• They are large relays
• Latched - power applied only
when switching
• not latched - always have power applied

Examples of Constant
Frequency Generating Systems
Chapter 2
Section 5

Split Bus
System
• RAT, APU,
Ground power,
never paralleled
• RAT extends if
above a certain
speed

Split System Operation
During Auto Landing
• Require independent supplies
• Above 200ft if generator fails BTB operates
• Below 200ft BTB does not operate

Constant Frequency
Advantages/Disadvantages
• Advantages • Disadvantages
• Shock load handling • Complicated
• Constant supply • Fault propagation
• Generator life • Independent supply
not fulfilled

To Parallel Generators
• We must ensure the following are correct

• Voltage
• Frequency
• Phase rotation
• No other sources feeding bus bar

Load Sharing
• We have 2 types of load
• Active (Kilowatts KW)
• Reactive (Kilovolts amp reactive KVAR)

Load Sharing
• Generators should have equal loading, so:

• Active Load = Active Load
• Reactive Load = Reactive Load

2 Load Sharing Systems
• Active - modifies generator torque

• Increases torque of generators carrying too
little active load
• Reactive - modifies excitation

• Increase excitation of generators carrying too
little reactive load

Monitoring
• Crew can look at

which load they
require
• Normal operation
loads are equal

Active Load
Sharing Loop
• Current transformers
on phases
• Main BTB GCB
closed
• Auxiliary BTB GCB
open

Reactive Load
Sharing Loop
• Uses mutual reactors

• Main BTB GCB
closed
• Auxiliary BTB GCB
open

Mutual Reactor

Load Sharing
• Only takes place when generators paralleled

• When not paralleled auxiliary BTB/GCB
short out load sharing circuit for that
generator. It becomes invisible.

? ? ?
20V 20V 20V
20 Volts

20V 115V 115V

0V 115V 115V

115V 115V 115V

GCU Fault Protection
• Protection in a parallel system

• Over excitation • Instability protection
• Over voltage • Negative voltage sequence
• Under excitation • Over frequency
• Under voltage • Under frequency
• Differential protection

Over Excitation
• Over excited generator will take more load
• System trips BTB/BTR
• Caused by Faulty
• Voltage regulator
• Reactive load sharing circuit
• If tripping BTB/BTR clears fault, fault is load

sharing circuit
Over Voltage
• Generally operates above 225 volts

• The higher the voltage the longer the
generator is taken off line
• GFR tripped
• GCB tripped
• Normally caused by faulty voltage regulator
Under Excitation
• Trips BTB/BTR
• Caused by faulty
• Voltage regulator
• Reactive load sharing loop

Under Voltage
• Trips
• GFR
• GCB

Differential Protection
• As mentioned before, operates if

• line to line fault
• line to earth fault
• Detected at places between generator and

bus bar

Instability Protection
• It detects oscillating between generators,
• If greater than typically 8Hz
• BTB/BTR tripped (so we can isolate the fault)
• GFR tripped
• GCB tripped
• Caused by faulty CSD, Voltage regulator

or generator

Negative Sequence
• Trips all BTBs/BTRs

Over Frequency
• Normally caused by low oil level in CSD
• Will damage capacitive loads
• Trips
• GFR
• GCB
• CSD into underdrive

Under Frequency
• Could damage inductive loads

• Does not operate during engine shut down
• because would cause nuisance fault indications

APU
• Same generator as
on engines
• No CSD as APU
drives at constant
speed
• Not paralleled
• Provides electrical
power + air
Ram Air Turbine
• Deployed
above certain
speeds
• Re-stowed on
ground
• When below
certain speed
battery/inverter
takes over
Ram Air Turbine
• Drives hydraulic
pump which has in
the system a
hydraulically driven
generator
• Or directly drives
a generator

Ground Power

Helicopter Systems
Chapter 3
Section 1

Generators

Generators
N o 1
o
N 2

Generators
• The Number 1 Generator supplies

Essential AC loads.
• The Number 2 Generator supplies

Non- essential AC loads

Static Inverter

Transformers
Step Down
Auto
TRU

Battery

RCCB

Reverse Current Cut-out Breaker
• When the TRU’s output is above 26 V DC connects the

output to the Essential DC Bus Bar.
• Disconnects the TRU from the essential DC bus bar

when its output is below 26 V DC.
• There is also a relay inside which helps in the

connection/disconnection of power to the Non-
Essential DC Bus Bar and also controls the “TRU Fail”
light in the cockpit

Non-essential DC Bus Bar Relay
• Its purpose to shed the Non-essential DC Bus Bar in

the event of a TRU failure.
• Energised when both TRUs are operating each
RCCB’s relays energises
• They are connected in series with the energising coil
of the non-essential DC bus bar relay, which
energises and connects the Essential DC bus bar to
the NON-Essential DC bus bar.
• When a TRU fails its, relay contacts open removing
the coil supply of the non-essential DC relay whose
contacts open shedding the non-essential DC bus
bar.
External Power Sockets
DC Socket AC Socket

GCU

Under Frequency
Protection
• Only operates on the ground the ground because:
• in an emergency, i.e. double engine failure, the helicopter can

autorotate.
• To slow the descent of the helicopter the pilot increases collective

which increases the blade pitch (lift) and drag
• The rotor head and connected generator to slow down, so the

frequency of the AC reduces.
• In this emergency situation it is better to have out of tolerance

AC voltage than none at all. .

o
N 1 Main Line Contactor

Bus Tie Breaker
• Connects the output from No 2 Generator to the essential bus
bar, when the No1 generator fails.

Weight-on-Wheels Switch

AC Power Relay
• Determines where the helicopters AC supplies come
from. It’s energised when at least one generator is
providing 115/200v.
• If there is no generators suppling AC, the relay de-

energises, this allows 28v DC from the Essential DC
Bus Bar to supply the inverter.
• The inverter supplies AC to a limited amount of

systems

AC Power Distribution
• The following slides will cover:
• Normal operation
• Failure of
• No 1 Generator
• No 2 Generator

Normal Operation

28 v DC
No 1 No 1 No 1 Essential
GCU Generator MLC Bus Bar
28 v DC
BTB
No 2 No 2 No 2 Non-Essential

28 v DC
28 v DC
BTB
28 v DC

N o 1 Generator Failure
• No 1 Main-line Contactor De-energises
• No 1 Generator” Fail light comes on
• BTB de-energises
• Power Supply is removed from the Non-essential AC

Bus Bar
• No 2 AC Generator supplies the Essential AC Bus Bar

BTB
28 v DC

• No 2 Generator” Fail light comes on
• No 2 BTB remains energised
• Power supply is removed from the Non-essential AC

Bus Bar

• “No 2 Generator” fail light comes on

• No 2 Bus-tie Breaker Remains energised
• Power Supply is Removed from the Non-essential AC

• Bus Bar

28 v DC
28 v DC
BTB

DC Power Distribution
No 1 RCCB
No 1 No 1 AC
Gen TRU Inverter
Output
AC Power
Relay
Essential
DC Bus Bar
Battery Non-Essential
Bus Bar DC Bus Bar
No 2 No 2
Gen TRU
No 2 RCCB Non-Essential
DC Bus Bar
Relay

Normal Operation
• Both TRUs supplied with 115/200v AC
• TRUs Produce 28v DC
• The RCCBs energise to connect TRUs to Essential

DC Bus Bar
• The contacts in the RCCB relay change over
• Contact opens and removes supply a TRU “Fail light
• Other contacts connected in series with Non-essential bus bar

relay

Normal Operation (cont)
• Non-essential bus bar relay energises
• Connects 28v dc from the DC Essential bus bar to

non-essential bus bar

No1 TRU Failure
• When the output of the TRU goes below 26v DC
• The RCCB removes the TRU from the Essential DC Bus Bar
• The No1 RCCB relay contacts change over
• Connecting supply to No1 TRU fail light
• Other contact opens removes supply to the Non-essential DC bus bar relay
• Non-essential DC bus bar relay de-energises, contacts open
• Removes Essential DC bus bar connection to Non-essential DC bus bar so

shedding the Non-essential DC loads

No2 TRU Failure
The same operation occurs as for No 1 TRU failure, except The relay in
No 2 RCCB changes over.

How AC Failure Affects the Power
Distribution System
•For any generator failure, Non-essential AC loads shed
•Each TRU is fed by it own generator, if the generator

fails the TRU has no output so:
• Non-essential DC Loads are shed
•If any generator fails AC and DC Non-essential loads

are shed

How AC Failure Affects the Power
Distribution System
• Both Generator fail:
• A/C power relay de-energise and its contacts close
• Allows DC Essential bus bar to supply the inverter
• Helicopter is supplied with limited AC

External Power Application

Generators on

External Power
Application

Three Generator Helicopter

The End

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B11-12-13

Air Service Training

Air Service Training

Our aim in electrical distribution systems is to

Air Service Training

If voltage increases and resistance is fixed

More current = more heat = damage

Air Service Training

Air Service Training

Air Service Training

Air Service Training

Air Service Training

Air Service Training

• Four common sources of power

Air Service Training

• Power source will connect to Power source

Air Service Training

Air Service Training

Air Service Training

Air Service Training

Air Service Training

• The above are all connected directly to the

Air Service Training

• They supply power to circuits which allow

Fly and power systems

• They supply power to circuits which are

Air Service Training

• Prevent damage to the wiring due to large

Air Service Training

Air Service Training

• Termed a ‘Trip free’ circuit breaker

Air Service Training

• Must carry spares

Air Service Training

• Must be clearly identified so they can be

Air Service Training

Captain’s ADI 1st Officer’s ADI

• Aircraft may use a combination of electrical

Air Service Training

• If we have AC or DC we can convert to the

Air Service Training

Air Service Training

Air Service Training

• Two basic configurations

• Could have a combination of the two

Air Service Training

Air Service Training

Air Service Training

Air Service Training

Air Service Training

• Provide ultimate power source

• Different methods used to remove the

Air Service Training

• Both could cause overheating or thermal

Air Service Training

Air Service Training

Air Service Training

• power protection circuits

Air Service Training

Air Service Training

Air Service Training

Air Service Training

Air Service Training

Air Service Training