Name: Samson Svondo

Department: Chemical Engineering

Faculty: Industrial technology

Registration Number: N01310912L

Course: Chemical engineering Laboratory

Experiment 2 Calibration of flow meters

INTRODUCTION

There are many different meters used to measure fluid flow: the turbine-type flow meter, the
rotameter, the orifice meter, and the Venturi meter are only a few. Each meter works by its
ability to alter a certain physical property of the flowing fluid and then allows this alteration to
be measured. The measured alteration is then related to the flow. The subject of this experiment
is to analyze the features of certain meters.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the operation and characteristics of three different basic types of flowmeters,
including accuracy and energy losses.

THEORY

The operating principles of these various meters need to be developed in order to meaningfully
compare their performance.

The Venturi Meter The Venturi meter is constructed as shown in Figure 1. It has a constriction
within itself. When fluid flows through the constriction, it experiences an increase in velocity.
This increase in velocity causes a decrease in static pressure at the constriction (throat). The
greater the flow, the greater the pressure drop at the throat. The pressure difference between the
upstream and the downstream flow, Δhflow, can be found as a function of the flow rate.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation to points and of the Venturi meter and relating the pressure
difference to the flow rate yields
p2  p1 V12  V22

 2 gc
(1)
2  1 
1
 p2  p1   h flow g Qtheo  
1
 A2 A2


 gc 2g c  1 2 . (2)
This equation relates the pressure difference, Δhflow, to the flow rate Qtheo, and represents the
theoretical curve for the Venturi meter.
h flow

1
2

Figure 1—Schematic of the Venturi meter [1]

To determine Qtheo, first, one needs to find the relationship between the velocities V1 and V2
using Bernoulli’s equation.
 p1 g V2 p g V2
 z1  1  2  z2  2
1 gc 2gc 2 gc 2gc
. (3)
1   2  
For and p1  p2  gh flow and z1 = z2
p1  p2 gh flow V 2  V12
  gh flow  2
  2
(4)
Knowing that V = Q/A and Q1 = Q2 = Q
2
Q  Q 
2
 1 1 
2 gh flow  V22  V12   2    1   Q 2  2  2 
 A2   A1  A 
 2 A1  .
(5)
Thus, the Venturi meter is characterized by small pressure losses due to viscous shear and
frictional effects. Thus, for any Δhflow, the actual flow rate will be less than the theoretical flow
rate.
Qact
 Cv
Qtheo
(7)
where Cv is the Venturi meter discharge coefficient. As flow increases, the discharge coefficient
for a Venturi meter levels off at about 0.9. Note: Reynolds number for the Venturi meter is based
on the inlet diameter not the throat diameter.

The Orifice Meter: The orifice meter consists of a throttling device (an orifice plate) inserted in
the flow. This orifice plate creates a measurable pressure difference between its upstream and
downstream sides. This pressure is then related to the flow rate. Like the Venturi meter, the
pressure difference varies directly with the flow rate. The orifice meter is constructed as shown
in Figure 2.

1 2
2

Figure 2—Cutaway view of the orifice meter [1]

Applying Bernoulli’s equation to points and yields

Q 2  1 1 
 p2  p1   h flow g
 
A

gc 2gc  1
2
A22 
. (8)
For any pressure difference, Δhflow, there will be two associated flow rates: the theoretical flow
rate from the above equation and the actual flow rate measured in the laboratory. As in the
Venturi meter case, the difference between these flows is indicated by a discharge coefficient
,Co, defined as
Qact
Co 
Qtheo
. (9)
With increasing flow, values for the discharge coefficient level off at around Co 0.8 for the
orifice meter.

Referring to Figure 2, recall that Bernoulli’s equation was applied to Points end . However,
because it is difficult to place a pressure tap in the orifice itself, pressure measurements are
actually made at end . The flow is almost the same as the slug of flow and thus the pressures
are almost the same. This is true for a short distance downstream of the orifice—then pressure
recovery sets in. With these assumptions, Bernoulli’s equation is the same, except pressure
measurements.It should also be noted that the shape of the orifice is important to the flow
quality.

1 2

2

Figure 3–(a) The approximate velocity profiles at several planes near a sharp-edged orifice
plate. Note: the jet emerging from the hole is somewhat smaller than the hole itself; in
highly turbulent flow the jet necks down to a minimum cross section at the vena contracta.
Note that there is some backflow near the wall. (b) It is assumed that the velocity profile at
is given by the approximate profile shown. It is also assumed that the velocity profile at is
uniform [4]. From boundary layer theory, the pressure of the plug flow at is transmitted
across the (assumed stagnate) interval from the plug to the pressure port.
The Variable Area Meter (Rotameter): The variable area meter consists of a tapered metering
tube and a float that is free to move inside the tube. The tube is mounted vertically with the inlet
at the bottom. At any flow rate within the operating range of the meter, fluid entering the bottom
raises the float and the tube inside diameter increases (because of the tapering). The flow rate is
indicated by the float position read against the graduated scale.
 Fluid enters the tube from the bottom. As it enters,
it causes the float to rise to a position of
equilibrium. The position of equilibrium is at the
point where the weight of the float is balanced by
the weight of the fluid it displaces (the buoyant
force exerted on the float by the fluid) and the
pressure due to velocity (dynamic pressure). The
higher the float position the greater the flow rate.
Note that as the float rises, the annular area
formed between the float and the tube increases.
Maximum flow is at maximum annular area or
Measure flow at when the float is at the top of the tube. Minimum
area, of course, represents minimum flow rate and
corner of float
is when the float is at the bottom of the tube.

Figure 5—The rotameter and its operation [1]

Three common types of graduated scales are:

1. Percent of maximum flow—a meter factor is given or deter-mined to convert a scale
reading to a flow rate. Many fluids can be used with the meter, the only variable being the scale
factor.
2. Diameter ratio type—a calibration curve is associated with the ratio of the tube’s cross-
sectional diameter to the diameter of the float.
3. Direct reading—a scale shows actual flow rate in the desired units.

Experimental Procedure: The fluid meter apparatus is shown in Figure 6. It consists of a

centrifugal pump that draws water from a tank and pumps it to any of the four meters. In testing
any of the four meters, the actual flow, Qact, is measured by diverting the flow to the collec-tion
tank (volumetric measuring tank) which is graduated in gallons, and measuring with a stopwatch
how long it takes to collect a volume of water. Strive for collection times in excess of 1 minute—
a little extra time spent in collecting good data significantly improves the quality of the results.

For all four meters, the flow is regulated by the upstream valve. For several valve positions,
record the appropriate meter data that indicates flow rate, the actual flow rate, and the pressure
hfric, which is measured with a manometer. Be extremely careful that
the pressure differences to be measured by manometers are not so great that the water column on
either side of the manometer goes over the top of the inverted U-shaped manometer tube. Thus, it
is recommended that one establishes a maximum flow that does not cause this problem by
adjusting the upstream valve. Then subsequent, lesser, flow can be set by slightly closing the
valve.

Venturi Meter
Two manometers are associated with this meter. The first manometer measures the total
frictional pressure drop across the entire length of the Venturi meter, hfric, as a difference in
head pres-sure. The second manometer measures the head pressure difference, hflow, between
points of Figure 1. From hflow, the theoretical volumetric flow rate, Qtheo, can be determined
from Equation 6.

Figure 6—Flow Meters Apparatus

Orifice Meter
Use the procedure and write up requirements as specified for the Venturi meter. The expected
discharge coefficient is 0.8.

Rotameter
For the rotameter, record the position of the float, the pressure drop across the meter, and the
measured flow rate.
 RESULTS:

Test Orifice Venturi Volume Time to Variable H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 H8

Pipe Area Area collected collect area
Area (t)sec meter mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
(A2)m^2 (A2)m^2 (V)m^3 reading
(A1)m^2 10^-4 10^-4 (l/min)
10^-4
7.92 3.14 1.77 0.005 35.23 2 160 115 135 125 67 65 32 30
7.92 3.14 1.77 0.005 33.13 3 326 265 301 290 235 240 197 195
7.92 3.14 1.77 0.005 26.59 4 357 284 328 314 256 260 205 200
7.92 3.14 1.77 0.005 22.15 5 305 205 271 262 206 194 135 133
7.92 3.14 1.77 0.005 18.89 6 317 228 280 276 219 207 142 138
7.92 3.14 1.77 0.005 15.13 7 323 234 282 281 226 211 139 135
7.92 3.14 1.77 0.005 11.77 8 311 215 267 275 217 200 130 122

Time Variable Orifice Venturi Variation Orifice Venturi Variable Orifice Venturi Timed
flow area plate meter area % area % meter area plate meter flow
rate flow flow flow flow rate flow % flow head head head rate
rate rate rate Error rate rate loss loss loss squared
Qt Qa Qo Qv error error
m^3/s m^3/s m^3/s m^3/s % % % Ha Ho Hv
10^-4 10^-4 10^-4 10^-4 10^-8
1.42 0.333 1.9447 1.2787 76.5 36.95 9.95 58 35 25 2.016
1.51 0.5 2.205 1.2787 66.9 46.03 15.3 55 45 25 2.280
1.88 0.667 2.5462 1.3772 64.5 35.43 26.7 58 60 29 3.534
2.257 0.833 2.5673 1.4912 170.9 12.07 33.9 56 61 34 5.094
2.647 1 2.7309 1.5556 62.2 3.17 41.2 57 69 37 7.01
3.305 1.17 2.8661 1.6375 64.6 13.28 50.5 55 76 41 0.1092
4.25 1.33 2.9036 1.6964 68.7 31.68 60.08 58 78 44 0.181
Conclusion:

1. Due to the variations in flow rates and inaccuracies of the flow meters there is a need for
calibration of the instruments for them to render accurate results. One should note the calculated
flow rates are extremely accurate at the lowest rate (5 litres/ second) but become far more
proportionally volatile at higher rates (12 and 20 litres/second). This suggests there could be
more losses or greater potential for error at higher speeds – water levels could “wave” more and
turbulence could occur. There is also greater chance of air bubbles infiltrating unnoticed.
Many factors could have caused the flow meters to lose accuracy:
 buildup of deposits;
 wearing, breakage, or failure of internal mechanical parts;
 leakages in the elbow leading to the valve and different flow regimes in the measuring
instruments
 Reaction time area in recording time for the hydraulic bench flow rate
 Parallax Errors. This occurs if the level on a gauge is read from a non-normal angle,
or more importantly an inconsistent angle. The degree of error varies depending on
thickness of glass and size of scale, and this could effect the pressure calculations for
all meters as well as the “real” flow calculations.
 Waves. The real volumetric flow is measured by timing the period to output a
specified volume of water, but this rate could be inaccurate because of the wavy
nature of the scale to measure water volume.
 Surface Tension. When measuring the height of a water surface, it is possible for
inconsistency to occur due to the curved nature of surface because of surface tension.
The surface height in the tubes (at the centre of Figure 1) is used to calculate the
pressure, making this a major potential error. To reduce error, readings are taken from the
lowest possible surface point.

A flow meter calibration, usually carried out by the manufacturer, adjusts the output of the meter
to bring it back to a value within the specified accuracy tolerance.

Flow meter Calibration Relativity

Flow meter calibrations are not absolute operations. A calibration compares a flow meter
measurement relative to a standard. The comparison establishes a relationship between what the
flow meter measures and what the standard measures. The standard consists of a system of
pumps, pipes, fluids, instrumentation, quantity reference measurement, calculations, and
operators — all combined to measure the quantity of fluid passing through the flow meters in a
unit of time.

The relationship between the flow meter under test and the standard must be expressed in a way
that gives a meaningful expectation of how the flow meter will perform in use. In practice,
accuracy is the term that most users can relate to and that can usefully express an expectation and
general specification. Accuracy is a qualitative term, and the number associated with it must be
taken in the spirit of this concept. It indicates how close the flow meter measurement agrees with
the true measured flow rate. As the flow rate increases the flow rates measured by the orifice get
more accurate. For the venture meter at low flow rates it is more accurate. The variable area
meter is less affected by the flow rates.

2. The pressure drop is mostly resulting from the weight of the float

where the subscript f represents the float, Vf is the volume, Af is the cross section area, and f is
the density of the float. From the above equation we see that the pressure drop depends on
variables which are constants in reality and therefore there is less variation in the pressure drops.
The meter with the lowest change in head loss (the most consistent losses) is the Variable Area
Meter, followed by Venturi Meter and then the Orifice Plate. This is most likely because the
Variable Area Meter is dynamic (in that it changes form as the flow rate increases), while the
Venturi Meter and Orifice Plate are static and do not adapt to higher flow rates.
REFERENCES:

1. Flowmeters:Introduction,efunda(engineeringfundamentals),
http://www.efunda.com/DesignStandards/sensors/flowmeters/flowmeter_intro.cfm

2. Simon & Schuster New Millennium Encyc. & Reference Library, 2000

3. Prandtl, L., and Tietjens, O.G., Applied Hydro- and Aeromechanics, Dover Pubs., 1957.
[Based on Prandtl’s Lectures. Composed by Prandtl’s student, Tietjens, who turned the lecture
notes into a text. Translated by J.P. Den Hartog. First published by United Engineering Trustees,
Inc., 1934]

4. Bird, R.B., Stewart, W.E., & Lightfoot, E.N., Transport Phenomena, John-Wiley & Sons,
1960.

5. Ross, S.M. (1998), A First Course in Probability, 5th ed., Prentice-Hall