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Ingeniería en Mecatrónica
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DOCUMENTO FINAL
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o twc.lul:lat d911tm1co
Utilización de Etanol
en un Motor a Gasolina
l. Introducción .................................................................................. J
l. 1. Antecedentes ............................................................................... 1
1.2. Definición del Problema .................................................................. 2
1.3. Objetivos .................................................................................... 4
1.3. 1. General. ............................................................................. 4
1.3.2. Específicos .......................................................................... 4
1.4. Justificación ................................................................................ 5
1.4. 1. Estado del Arte ..................................................................... 6
1.4.1. Brasil. ............................................................................. 6
1.4.2. Estados Unidos .................................................................. 7
1.4.3. México ........................................................................... 8
1.5. Metodología .............................................................................. 10
1.5. 1. Alternativas ........................................................................ 1O
1.5.2. Solución ............................................................................ 12
l. INTRODUCCIÓN
1.1 Antecedentes
En un principio, el equipo estuvo formado por cuatro integrantes, uno de los
cuales participó únicamente en el desarrollo de la primera fase del proyecto
debido a que fue un estudiante de intercambio, Jerome Charmetant,
proveniente del Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Aplicadas (lnstitut National des
sciences appliquées INSA) en Toulouse, Francia. Los actuales integrantes
Carlos Sáenz, José Roberto Álvarez y Lilián Andrea Torres, somos estudiantes
de Ingeniería Mecatrónica de la generación de Agosto 2002 del Tecnológico de
Monterrey.
- 1-
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
" ... México debe establecer sustanciales y permanentes apoyos a la producción de maíz,
caña de azúcar y oleaginosas, para garantizar el abasto nacional e impulsar la utilización
de esos cultivos en la producción de gasolina alternativa... "
-2-
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
1
Párrafo tomado de el artículo "PRODUCCIÓN DE ETANOL ANHIDRO EN INGENIOS
AZUCAREROS" P.P 1 escrito por el lng. Manuel Enríquez Poy.
www .conae. gob. mx/work/ sites/CONAE/ resources/ LocalContent/ 3714/2/ artmanuelenriquez.
pdf
-3-
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
1.3 Objetivos
1.3.1 General
Monitorear el desempeño de un motor a combustión interna utilizando
diferentes mezclas de gasolina-etanol, y compararlas contra el desempeño del
mismo únicamente con gasolina.
1.3.2 Específicos
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Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
1.4 Justificación
El etanol genera menos agentes contaminantes, produce menos daños a la
salud que los combustibles fósiles y es una fuente renovable de energía. Esto
se traduce en uso energético de reservas ilimitadas y más limpias.
"La Agro Industria de la Caña de Azúcar en nuestro país, está consciente del rol que
la gramínea jugará en el futuro, dada su mayor fortaleza, a saber pronta renovabilidad
y secuestradora potencial de C02 . Es aquí donde surge el alcohol etílico, en sus
2
Párrafo tomado de el artículo "PRODUCCIÓN DE ETANOL ANHIDRO EN INGENIOS
AZUCAREROS" P.P 1 escrito por el lng. Manuel Enríquez Poy.
www .conae. gob. mx/work/ si tes/ CONA E/ resources/ LocalContent/ 3714/2/ artmanuelenriquez.
pdf
-5-
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
1.4.1.1 Brasil
Según un artículo del New York Times, publicado en castellano en el
periódico "El País" el 20 de Abril del 2006. El 70% de los vehículos vendidos
actualmente en Brasil, disponen de un motor preparado para funcionar
indistintamente con etanol o con gasolina.
Actualmente el consumo de etanol, que en Brasil se extrae de la caña de
azúcar, está muy extendido a tal punto que ya algunas gasolineras poseen dos
tipos de surtidores, uno de gasolina y uno de alcohol. Este proceso en Brasil ha
conllevado 30 años pero según la nota sacada por el periódico "New York
Times" Roberto Rodríguez, ministro de agricultura en Brasil para el 2006,
afirma que ha valido la pena: "El combustible renovable ha sido una solución
fantástica para nosotros ... y también ofrece a otros una salida de la trampa de
los combustibles fósiles".
"El Programa Nacional de alcohol en Brasil (Proalcool) fue creado en 1975, con miras
a la emancipación energética del país, principalmente a la sustitución del petróleo;
además otros factores intervinieron en esta creación, como por ejemplo la coyuntura
azucarera internacional y sus posibles reflejos sobre el parque agroindustrial cañero
nacional ... El alcohol producido antes del programa, resultaba en un subproducto de
la actividad azucarera .. .En el transcurso de la creación del Proa/coa/ la situación se
alteró profundamente; en el año en que el programa fue creado, la producción del
-6-
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
alcohol era de 555 mil metros cúbicos, casi todo obtenido mediante el
aprovechamiento de la miel residual. Solamente dos años después, en la zafra
1977178, aparece el alcohol directo, apartir de la caña de azúcar, y hoy
aproximadamente 65% de la caña de azúcar molida es para la producción del alcohol
directo que equivale aproximadamente a 11 millones de metros cúbicos. ,,3
A mediados de los años 80 más de las tres cuartas partes de los vehículos
producidos en Brasil, que eran aproximadamente 800 000 anuales, podían
funcionar con etanol. Pero para 1989 los precios del azúcar se dispararon y
sólo hasta el 2003 empezó de nuevo el auge de Brasil, cuando los fabricantes
de coches, empezando por VolksWagen, presentaron el motor flexible en
Brasil, en la actualidad y a más de tres años de que se introdujera esta
tecnología más del 70% de los coches que se venden en Brasil poseen
motores de este tipo.
3
"ASPECTOS GENERALES DE LA UTILIZACIÓN DEL ETANOL COMO COMBUSTIBLE PARA MOTORES DE
COMBUSTIÓN INTERNA" P.P 80 Victor Manuel García de la Hoz. México D.F 1989. TRABAJO
MONOGRÁFICO DE ACTUALUZACIÓN.
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Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
alcanzaban los 53 000 millones de kilos, podrían producir unos 21 500 millones
de litros de etanol. Por otro lado, el Departamento de Agricultura añade que el
maíz será uno de los muchos cultivos que se utilizarán como materia prima
para la producción de biomasa como una alternativa al etanol. 4
1.4.1.3 México
El principal atractivo de un programa para la utilización de etanol
consistiría en la reducción de las emisiones de C0 2 , esto en comparación con
los combustibles fósiles; contribuyendo así al cumplimiento de los acuerdos de
la Conferencia Internacional sobre Cambio Climático, celebrada en Kioto.
Cualquier iniciativa que pretenda seguirse en nuestro país al respecto, deberá
necesariamente quedar enmarcada dentro del Balance de Energía Nacional
según un artículo publicado por la SAGARPA5 ,
El balance energético nacional, por razones históricas ha favorecido la
explotación de hidrocarburos y la energía hidráulica; rezagando así el
aprovechamiento de la biomasa vegetal, con sus amplias perspectivas a futuro.
4
http: / /news.soliclima.com/ con fuente: La región ecoagro, 3 de Junio de 2006
5
¿REPRESENTA EL ETANOL UNA ALTERNATIVA VIABLE PARA LA AGROINDUSTRIA DE LA CAÑA DE
AZÚCAR, /NG. MANUEL ENR/QUEZ POY, P.P 2.
www.sagarpa.gob.mx/forma/documentos/ingenio03.htm
-8-
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
con cifras que alcanzan poco más de 50 millones de litros @ 96º GL, con
rendimiento de 250 1de alcohol / ton. De melaza.
-9-
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
1.5 Metodología
r Sistema de
Inyección
.. Gasolina + Etanol
...
Mediciones
L Dinamómetro
Figura l. Metodología
- Torque
- Potencia
1.5.1 Alternativas
• Una importante alternativa que tomamos en cuenta para la medición de
los gases propuestos, fueron las mediciones realizadas en los centros de
verificación automotriz, ya que estos tienen estudios previos al respecto y
creemos pertinente tomarlo en cuenta.
• Otra importante alternativa para la medición de gases es la cromatografía
de gases, la cual ha sido usada durante muchos años para analizar las
emisiones de escape. Cuando se habla de "especificación de
hidrocarburos", generalmente se refiere a que es posible identificar y
cuantificar individualmente los hidrocarburos de la mezcla. Cada pico en
el cromatograma es un compuesto. La Especiación de hidrocarburos es
una poderosa herramienta para la evaluación de reactividades en la
formación de ozono y para la toxicidad de las emisiones provenientes de
los vehículos, al utilizar una gasolina determinada.
• Para el estudio de las emisiones de hidrocarburos individuales tanto en
escape como evaporativas, se puede emplear la técnica de Especiación
de hidrocarburos utilizando cromatografía de gases. El análisis consiste
- 1O -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
- 11 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
Después tenemos que medir esta fuerza y de determinar la longitud del brazo
de palanca para poder obtener el torque, el cual corresponde a la relación: T =
F*L con F la fuerza sobre el resorte (Ley de Hooke) y L la dimensión del brazo
de palanca.
,vétoéittaa Rpm ,
, (Motor)
1.5.2 Solución
Utilizaremos un disco del sistema de freno de coche usado en buen estado
para detener la marcha del motor, y un brazo de palanca para el resorte con el
cual mediremos la fuerza de acuerdo a lo que este se comprima mediante la
ley de Hooke. Nuestra dificultad residió en la fijación del eje del freno al motor,
para que el mismo no vaya a tender a oscilar demasiado durante el
experimento, la solución encontrada se explicará más adelante en este mismo
documento.
El motor que utilizaremos para realizar las pruebas es un Motor VolksWagen,
ubicado en el laboratorio de mecánica, tiene originalmente una cilindrada de
1997 cm cúbicos, inyección electrónica y una potencia de 115 HP con un
torque de 170 N-M (originales). Las acciones tomadas para el funcionamiento
normal de este motor para su posterior estudio fueron las siguientes:
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Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
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Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
11 MARCO TEÓRICO
7
"PRODUCCIÓN DE ETANOL ANHIDRO EN INGENIOS AZUCAREROS" P.P 1 escrito por el lng. Manuel
Enríquez Poy.
www .conae. gob. mx/work/sites/ CONAE/ resources / LocalContent/ 3714/2 / artmanuelenriquez. pdf
- 14 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
- 15 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
8
"ASPECTOS GENERALES DE LA UTILIZACIÓN DEL ETANOL COMO COMBUSTIBLE PARA MOTORES DE
COMBUSTIÓN INTERNA" P.P 56-68 Víctor Manuel García de la Hoz. México D.F 1989. TRABAJO
MONOGRÁFICO DE ACTUALUZACIÓN.
- 16 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
9
Tabla 11. Propiedades del alcohol, gasolina y diesel.
9
"FICHA TÉCNICA VEHÍCULOS CON ETANOL", Comisión Nacional para ahorro de energía.
www.conae.gob.mx
1
°
Capacidad calorífica: Medida del contenido de energía en La mezcla
- 17 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
- 18 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
11
En la mezcla ideal de aire combustible, una parte de combustible debe entrar en forma de pequeñas
gotas y otra en forma de vapor. Si esto no ocurre en la proporción adecuada ocurre una mala
combustión y el consumo de combustible aumenta.
- 19 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
12
La cantidad de gasolina necesaria podría ser provista por un recipiente de 2 L de capacidad, el cual
suministraría la gasolina necesaria para bastantes arranques en frío.
11
lnternational Energy Agency, Institución autónoma relacionada con la Organización para la
Cooperación Económica y el Desarrollo (OCDE), que reúne a 25 estados miembros con el objetivo de
establecer medidas comunes en caso de escasez petrolífera y de compartir información sobre temas
energéticos, coordinar sus políticas de energía y cooperar en el desarrollo de programas
relacionados con la energía.
- 20 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
Por último, también señala la AIE que ciertas aleaciones que se utilizan
normalmente para los tanques de gasolina también podrían ser incompatibles
con el E-85 (mezclas del 85% de etanol y 15% de gasolina) 14 .
Así pues, la VW de Brasil utilizaba para hace unos años y según las
fuentes encontradas, una protección plástica especial en la parte interna del
tanque de combustible; en cuanto a las líneas y tuberías que conducen el
combustible se protegen con una película anti-corrosiva o se fabrican en
plástico resistente al etanol . En el motor en si no detectaron para ese entonces
problemas de corrosión
14
INFORME SOBRE EL MARCO REGULATORIO DE LOS BIOCARBURANTES, CON IDENTIFICACIÓN DE
BARRERAS PARA SU DESARROLLO EN ESPAÑA Y ESPECIAL CONSIDERACION DE LOS ASPECTOS ASOCIADOS A
LAS ACTIVIDADES DE LOGÍSTICA Y DISTRIBUCIÓN, 2 de septiembre de 2005 , Comisión de energía
(dirección de petróleo), P.58
15
En 1989, Brasil produjo 12 mil millones litros de etanol para combustible a partir de la caña de
azúcar, que fue utilizado para mover 9.2 millones de coches.
- 21 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
16
Dos métodos frecuentemente utilizados para medir el octanaje de los combustibles son el Método de
investigación (R) y el Método de motor (M), en Estados Unidos y países de Europa, es utilizada la media
simple de estos dos métodos.
17
"ASPECTOS GENERALES DE LA UTILIZACIÓN DEL ETANOL COMO COMBUSTIBLE PARA MOTORES DE
COMBUSTIÓN INTERNA" P.P 72 Victor Manuel García de la Hoz. México D.F 1989. TRABAJO
MONOGRÁFICO DE ACTUALUZACIÓN.
- 22 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
- 23 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
Compresi6n/Explosi6n/Expansi6n
- 24 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
Combustión real:
Gasolin Aire
Compresi6n/Explosi6n/Expansi6n
Oxígeno
Hidrocarburos (HC)
Carbón
Sales de Plomo
Oxidantes
- 25 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
Hidrocarburos (HC):
Es fruto de la combustión incompleta, que se produce cuando la mezcla
dentro del cilindro llega a las paredes de este y se apaga dejando combustible
sin quemar. Se mide en partes por millón en volumen.
Hay otros factores que contribuyen a esta emisión, como lo son: aceite
en la cámara de combustión, falla en el encendido, traslape valvular,
sobrecarga del vehículo, temperatura del motor y altura del sitio en donde se da
la combustión. El exceso de HC en vehículos se debe a fallas o defectos
mecánicos, eléctricos o en el carburador.
Oxígeno (02):
Este es uno de los mejores indicadores de la forma en que se realiza la
operación en el motor. Indica la cantidad de oxígeno residual a la salida del
escape, luego de la quema. La lectura se da en porcentaje de volumen.
El 02 residual aumenta directamente proporcional con la relación aire -
combustible hasta un límite en que la mezcla es incombustible.
- 26 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
- 27 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
11.1 O PRUEBAS
Emisiones Propiedades
contaminantes mecánicas
HC Torque
co RPM
C02 Potencia
02
NOx
Tabla 11.2 Emisiones y Propiedades Mecánicas a medir.
18
High Way Fuel Economy Test
19
_http: / /www.lubrimax.com. mx/ boletin10. ihtml
- 28 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
torque y la potencia son dos indicadores del funcionamiento del motor, nos
dicen qué tanta fuerza puede producir y con qué rapidez puede trabajar.
- 29 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
- 30 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
torque del motor por la velocidad de giro en que lo genera. Potencia = Torque
x velocidad angular
- 31 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
20
http://www.ine.gob.mx/ueajei/publicaciones/libros/374/cap8.html
- 32 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
kW
120
05
90
1s
- :Rtndimiento
dcfmotor-
17.D-J;!;P@ 6000 rpq¡
- 33 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
11.12 DINAMÓMETRO
- 34 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
se aplicaban dos zapatas, unidas entre si por muelles que se comprimían con
un husillo, aplicaban un esfuerzo frenante sobre la periferia del tambor. Este
sistema, se montaba flotante y concéntrico al eje del motor y de el se sacaba
una barra lateral, sobre la que se colgaban pesos de valor progresivo en su
extremo libre. Por un lado el par motor tendía a hacer girar el sistema en su
sentido de giro , gracias a la fricción entre el tambor y las zapatas , pero por
otro lado, el par que introducían los pesos aplicados por la palanca tendían a
hacer girar el sistema en sentido contrario. Cuando el sistema se equilibraba,
era evidencia de que el par motor era igual al par resistente. Como el par
resistente se conocía porque era el producto de un peso conocido aplicado a
una distancia conocida, se deducía el par motor de la maquina que
evidentemente era el mismo. En definitiva un freno De Prony es una máquina
que opone una resistencia al giro por fricción. Este freno entro en desuso al
aparecer los frenos hidráulicos.
Dinamómetro de rodillos:
- 35 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
Dinamómetro eléctrico:
- 36 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
AE
k=-
F = -kD.r siendo L
1 ')
uk· = -kx-
2
Para los resortes reales, esta ley anterior y la ecuación de la energía sólo son
válidas por debajo de un cierto valor del cociente de la tensión FIA < aE, tras
superar ese límite el material sufre internamente transformaciones
termodinámicas irreversibles y pierde la capacidad de recuperar su longitud
original al retirar la fuerza aplicada, persistiendo un remanente de deformación
denominado deformación plástica. Originalmente la ley se utilizaba solo para
resortes sometidos a tracción pero también es válida en resortes o materiales
sometidos a compresión.
- 37 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
111.1 Diseño
- 38 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
Obtención de Piezas.
A) Una maza de camioneta con su respectivo disco y cáliper, esta debía ser de
camioneta 4x4 ya que solo de este modo tenía el estriado necesario para
realizar un acoplamiento de la flecha en el mismo. Éste detalle hacia que se
elevara demasiado el precio, ya que el sistema fue cotizado desde $3500,
encontrando precios mayores. Con este conjunto faltaba además
complementar con un eje sobre el que se montara el sistema el cual
involucraba otro gasto extra de material y maquinado de aproximadamente
$1500.
B) Un doble disco de Chevy, que también venía ya con sus mazas y cálipers,
su precio era accesible ya que por el par pedían $1500, sin embargo, a esto
habría de sumarse el eje con doble maquinado lo que serian $2000 más, pero
el motivo mas fuerte para descartarlo fue el hecho de que involucraba
demasiado trabajo extra y acoplar correctamente ambos discos seria una labor
muy delicada.
- 39 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
que todo el sistema acopla a la perfección sin tenerle que hacer modificaciones
importantes.
Desmonte de Carcasa
Comenzamos a desarmar la parte del motor a la cual uniríamos el eje
junto con la junta homocinética, y notamos que no habíamos previsto que el
sistema del embrague se acopla directamente a la marcha con ello decidimos
hacerle una modificación más a nuestro diseño, la cual incluyó no utilizar la
copa de la junta homocinética, ésta copa además tenía un costo demasiado
elevado, por lo que tomamos la decisión de acoplar la junta homocinética a una
placa central en lugar del plato del embrague como se esquematizó en la
sección de avances, dejando las partes del sistema de arranque y la marcha
sin modificaciones.
- 40 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
Planos en Pro-e
En la parte del diseño del dinamómetro se realizaron planos de Pro-e
con mayor precisión y más apegado al sistema real, esto en inicio fue para
poder realizar el análisis que nos indicaran el comportamiento de las balatas y
el freno, sin embargo, después de investigar más acera del programa Pro-e,
con asesoría del profesor Alejandro Mejía, vimos que la paquetería requerida
para hacer dichos estudios no están contratadas en las licencias de la escuela.
Aun así decidimos modificar el diseño previo, aumentando las partes del
soporte de la masa y del motor.
- 41 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
111.2 Construcción
- 42 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
~
~
- 43 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
IV Pruebas y Resultados
- 44 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
- 45 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
YIN
vss
RES
.--..
1 voo E
P15 E
......
-
pq
~
P12:
~
,_
S:f P11 ,.....
P10
F'9
, PI\
BS2-IC
- 46 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
MAIN:
lnitialize:
SEROUT sPin,Baud,[CR] 'prep StampDAQ buffer
SER OUT sPin, Baud, [CR, "LABEL, TIME.X", CR]
SEROUT sPin,Baud,["CLEARDATA",CR] 'Clear all data
LECTURA:
FOR X=O TO 50
HIGHW R
PAUSE 10
LOWW R
CICL01: IF INT R = O THEN CICL01
HIGHW R
1
CICL02: IF INT R = 1 THEN CICL02
AN DIG=INL
SEROUT sPin,Baud,["DATA,TIME,", DEC AN_DIG,CR] 'Send data to
StampDAQ i
NEXT
END
- 47 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
A B e D E F 1
1 TIME X
-2 07:48:00 ¡>.m. o
3 07:48:00 p.m. o -
4 07:48:00 p.m. o BASIC Stamp Data Acquisition for ... ~
5 07:48:00 p.m. o - Settings
6
7
07:48:00
07:48:00
p.m.
p.m.
o
o
Port: [i'EJ
~
~ l --
-
-
9 07:48:00 p.m. Reset Stamp on
10 07:48:00 p.m. o
1
Connect rJ Download Data -
-
11 07:48:00 p.m. o Q c lear SIDred Data
-
12 07:48:00 p.m. o -
13 07:48:00 p.m. o 11 Connect
1 I[ Clear Columns 1 -
14 07:48:00 p.m. o BASI C Stamp Messages 1 -
15 07:48:00 p.m. o 1
StampDAQ Status -
16 07:48:00 p.m. o 1 1
17 07:48:00 p.m. o
Figura IV.S. Registro de Datos
DGND
AGND
DBO
DB1
DD2
DB3
1JH4
DR5
H
•I I ¡
C3
- - - - ,.....e,¡
¡ ......e..
DB6
DD7
15~F IOK
vcc
t\DCOS(M
- 48 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
WR
R.___
INT...... __,
LJ /
7 Dato 8 bits
DATO 1
Grados-x Ohms-y
0.1 3.15
13 266
42 1650
59 2391
74 3150
90 4150
118 5550
128 6470
153 7260
175 8260
196 8640
234 8840
266 9120
297 9150
Tabla IV.7 Grados vs Ohms
- 49 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
POTENCIÓMETRO
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9000
8000 -
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o
o 100 200 300 400
Grados
4000
ni
"ü 3000
e • Series1
.een
·¡¡; --Linear (Series1)
GI 1000
a::
o
-1000
Grados
- 50 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
Resistencia Voltaje
3.15 o
2500 70
4576.575 128
4577.575 128
8200 229
9000 251
9150 255
Figura IV.ll. Resistencia Vs Voltaje
250
200
=
e,
'6
a, 150
• Series 1
"ii' -Linear (Series 1)
::
o
>
100
50
o
o 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Resistencia
- 51 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
y= 1 E-19e 04 998x
DINAMÓMETRO
R2 = 0.9923
35
30
-
¡; 25
:,,21 20 • Series1
-
CII
"ñi' 15 - - Expon. (Series 1)
o 10
>
5
o
82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96
Grados
\- - - - - - -I
Palanca
X
. 0 (2)
sm(-)=-
2 40
- 52 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
~ Rad
o o
3.5 0.06
5.5 0.1
8 0.14
10 0.17
11 0.19
Tabla IV.17. Ángulo Vs Radianes
.!!
4
3 -
• Series1
Lag. (Series 1)
e
2
1
o
-1
Voltaje digital
- 53 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
- 54 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
2500 RPM
45
40
35
c.:
-s
::I:
o
30
25
z 20
UJ
1-
o
Q.
15
5
o +-- - ~ - - ~ - _ _ _ ; _ ~ _ _ _ ; _ - - - ~ ----+, 95
-POTENCIA (HP)
o 5 10 15 20 25
- TORQUE (Nm )
%Etanol
Por otro lado la curva de torque indica que las pruebas hechas con
gasolina pura resultaron con poca variación respecto a las pruebas con 15% y
20% de etanol en la mezcla, esto debido a su adecuado balance octanaje-
capacidad calorífica mencionado anteriormente (Ver Anexos 2).
- 55 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
3500 RPM
60 --~ - - - - - - - - - - - ~ 125
_ 59 - - 120
~ 5s
._ 115
e
z
<r: 57 ._
O 56 +------ ---..:.....------'1~-=----a..-~- 11 O ~
z o
~ 55 105 ~
O 54 --1 -------------'----~----'-'--.........--l 0
a. 10 1-
53 -1-- ----- ~- - - - - - - - - - '
- FDTB\JCIA _(HP)
52 1 1 95
o 5 10 15 20 25 - TORQUE (Nm)
%Etanol
- 56 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
En las pruebas realizadas obtuvimos que la gasolina genera las mas alta
medición de CO, la notable disminución de dichos gases con E1 O es debido a
que la combustión dentro del cilindro se llevó a cabo de manera mas eficiente
al oxigenar la mezcla con tal porcentaje de etanol; a 3500 RPM el porcentaje
de C0 2 emitido por el motor resultó menor en gasolina pura que en las otras
pruebas realizadas. Estas emisiones se van incrementando en las mezclas que
incluyen etanol debido a la mayor oxigenación de las mismas. Al quemarse
todas las partículas de gasolina- etanol en el cilindro, obtenemos menor CO en
el tubo de escape.
- 57 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
· E5 2500 RPM
HC 1 02 1 C02 1 co
573 ppm 1 0% 1 18.5% 1 8.8%
E5 3500 RPM
"
HC 102 1 C02 1 co
569 ppm 1 0% 1 18,3% 1 8.9%
.,, /•
iú E10 2500 RPM
HC 1 02 1 C02 1 co
517 1 0% 1 25.3% 1 6.5%
HC 1 02 1 C02 1 co
568 1 0% 1 23.2% 1 7.4%
- 58 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasol ina
Hidrocarburos
620
600
580
C,)
J: 560 --+- HC [ppm]
Q) 2500 [rpm 's]
"O 540
:¡; - HC[ppm ]
c. 520 -
c. 3500 (rpm's]
500
480
460
EO ES E10 E1 5 E20
Porcentaje de Etanol
Bióxido de Carbono
30 -
25
"'
o
C,)
Q) 20 - --+- C0 2 [%]
"O
Q)
2500 (rpm 's]
·se: 15
- co2 [%J
Q)
(J
10 3500 (rpm 's]
o
c. 5
o
EO ES E10 E1 5 E20
Porcentaje de Etanol
14
12 -
o
u 10 --+- co [% ] 2500
~ [rpm 's]
8
f 4>
u
6 -
- co [% J3so
[rpm 's]
!5 4
c. 2 -
o
EO ES E10 E1 5 E20
Por c entaje d e Eta nol
- 59 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
V CONCLUSIONES
- 60 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
- 61 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
REFERENCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS
- 62 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
- 63 -
Utilización de Etanol en un Motor a Gasolina
ANEXOS
- 64 -
Anexo 1
Evaluación de mezclas gasolina-etanol en vehículos
automotores con diferentes tecnologías 1
Pruebas de laboratorio
Prueba FTP-75
La prueba FTP-75 (Federal Test Procedure) es la establecida por el
código federal de regulaciones de Estados Unidos de Norteamérica y por la
normatividad mexicana para determinar las emisiones de escape de los
vehículos simulando un recorrido urbano de 16.2 Km en un dinamómetro de
chasis, con duración de 41.3 min. Mediante el uso de volantes de inercia y un
freno de agua, se producen las cargas que el vehículo experimentaría en el
camino. Los gases de escape del vehículo se recolectan y se mezclan
completamente con el aire filtrado circundante, a un flujo de volumen constante
conocido. El sistema de muestreo de emisiones y el vehículo de prueba
arrancan simultáneamente de modo que las emisiones se recolectan durante el
arranque del motor, el conductor sigue un programa de manejo controlado en
un monitor.
Interpretación de resultados
Para llevar a cabo el estudio, los combustibles de prueba se elaboraron
a partir de corrientes naftas provenientes de la refinería de lula- Hidalgo, sus
características se muestran a continuación en la Tabla 4.
COMBUSTIBLE CATALITICA REFORMADO ALQUILADO METBE C5-C6 ETANOL
5% MTBE 26 28 33 5 8 o
5% ETANOL 24 29 34 o 8 5
10% ETANOL 25 25 32 o 8 10
Combustibles de prueba
Emisiones de escape
A continuación se puede apreciar el porcentaje de variación en las
emisiones reguladas de CO, HC y NOx al emplear los tres combustibles en
función del tipo de vehículo empleado.
INYECCION ---·--·
CON CARBURADOR Y CON CARBURADOR
1
El.F.CTRONICA CONVERTIDOR SIN CONVERTIDOR
TSURU97 TSURU9l TSURU 90
1 !
co o -36.4 -40 5
!
HC -8.i -14 -!8.8
;'
Nüx 16 4 '
;
17 6 ¡ 17 9
Rendimiento de combustible
En la Tabla a continuación se puede observar lo que respecta al
rendimiento de combustible. Se observa que al adicionar etanol se tiene mayor
rendimiento de combustible y que con la mezcla de 10% nos presenta el mayor
rendimiento del mismo.
- -- -- -
( 9'km)
5%Mll3E 248 0.23 O.ll 13.7'6 - ............. ·-.... - 2387 091 1.3¡ 11.54 - - - .....- :J),6 1,38 1.68 11,48
5"/cETN-0.. 2.'!1 024 000 13.7 ..\.43 434 2.63 o 2\.8 0.9'2 1.4 1100 -%7 -2.1 o 1 18.ll 1.1S 2.1 11.65 .Ja.6 -1,& 7 25 u
10'/cET/IJ\U 2.49 0.?1 045 14.t6 o -8.7 184 2.9 1519 ()81 1.6 118 -364 ·14 17.6 2.25 182 1.12 1.!Xl 11.1 -40.S -18.8 179 1.9
%VARJACIÓN
-25 +27 . 7 + 135
(5 % ETA NOL)
%VARIACIÓN
( LO% ETANOL)
¡
'
- 6 .25 + 66.6 + 140
_,
-
Las emisiones evaporativas aumentan considerablemente en el vehículo de carburador.
Reactividad específica
Es la capacidad que tienen las emisiones de escape a reaccionar en la
atmósfera para la formación de ozono, en este punto la gasolina tiene mejores
cualidades como se muestra en la Tabla a continuación.
'
1
Variación en Reactividad
.
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- -- - -- --
Tabla l. Pruebas de Torque y Potencia realizadas a 2500 RPM y 3500 RPM, en mezclas con 5, 10, 15, y 20% de etanol. Mediciones tomadas directamente del
dinamómetro construido previamente, al cual fue adaptado un sistema para medir la fuerza generada por el motor
Anexo 3
Available online al www.sciencedirect.com
-~··cr
m,.} ScienceDirect APPLIED THERMAL
ENGINEERING
ª G<i=i Unirersiry, Faculry of Teclmirnl Ed11cario11, Depar1111rn1 ol Mec/11111irnl ]á/1110/ogy. Tek11ikok11/lar. 06500 Ankara, Turkl')'
b Kmkkale Unirersiry. E11gi11eeri11g FaC11ify, Meclwnical Engineering Deparrmenr. 71450 Kmkkale. Turkey
Abstract
This study consists of two cases: (i) The experimenl//l 111wlysis: Ethanol obtained from biomass can be used as a fuel in spark ignition
engines. As renewable energy source ethanol. due to the high octane number. low emissions and high engine performance is preferred
alterna ti ve fuel. First stage of this study, ethanol-unleaded gasoline blends ( E 10. E20. E40 and E60) were tested in a single eylinder, four-
stroke spark ignition and fue) injeetion engine. The tests were performed by varying the ignition tirning, relative air-fuel ratio (RAFR)
and compression ratio al a constan! speed of 2000 rpm and al wide open throttle (WOT). Effect of ethanol-unleaded gasoline blends and
tests variables on engine torque and specific fuel consumption were examined experimentally. (ii) The mathematical modeling analysis:
The use of ANN has been proposed to determine the engine torque and specific fue) consumption based on the ignition tirning, RAFR
and compression ratio ata constan! speed of 2000 rpm and al WOT for dilTcrenl fucl densitics using rcsults of experimental analysis. The
back-propagation learning algorithm with two different variants and logistic sigmoid transfer function were used in the network. In order
to train the neural network, limited experimental measurements were used as training and test data. The best fitting training data set was
obtained Levenberg-Marquardt (LM) algorithm with five neurons in the hidden )ayer. which made it possible to the engine torque and
specific fuel consumption with accuracy at leas! as good as that of the experimental error. over the whole experimental range. After train-
ing, it was found the R 2 values are 0.999996 and 0.999991 for. the engine torque and specific fue! consumption, respectively. Sirnilarly,
these values for testing data are 0.999977 and 0.999915. respectively. As seen from the results of mathematical modeling, the calculated
engine torque and specific fue! consumption are obviously within acceptable uncertainties.
© 2006 Elsevier Ltd. Ali rights reserved.
Key,rnrds: Alternative fue!; Gasoline-ethanol blends: Artificial Neural Network: Compression ratio: Brake specitic fue! consumption
1359-4311/$ - see fronl maller © 2006 Elsevier Lid. Ali righls reserved.
doi: 1O.1016/j.appllhermaleng.2006.07.027
11.S. Yüce.1·11 el al./ Applied T/Jermal E11gi1weri11g 27 !2007} 358-368 359
Nomcnclature
spark ignition engine. The ethanol compared to gasoline, Alasfour [10] conducted performance tests using 30%
the cngine power increased 6%, the engine thermal effi- iso-butanol and gasoline blend as fue) in a single-cylinder,
ciency increased 4'1/.,, and the specific fuel consumption spark-ignition engine. Altered the ignition timing: NO,
increased 57% al the same engine conditions. emission and knocking phenomena were studied at differ-
Ajav et al. [7] investigated the thermal balance of a ent fuel-air equivalence ratio. While advancing the ignition
single cylinder compression ignition engine operating on timing caused to increase in amount of NO, emission.
diesel. ethanol-diesel blends and fumigated ethanol. Partic- Retarding the ignition timing caused engine thermal effi-
ularly the thermal balance was significantly different ciency to decrease.
compared to diesel with 15% and 20% ethanol-diesel Cowart et al. [11] tested M85, E85 and gasoline as fuels
blends. When the percentage of ethanol in the ethanol- on spark ignition engine. The engine torque increased with
diesel blends increased. the quantity of useful work done both M85 and E85. The maximum increment ratio was
by cngine was increascd. Because of the cooling effect of about 7% for M85 and 4% for E85 compared with gasoline.
ethanol. more useful work was obtained. In case of etha- In the experimental study of AI-Hasan [12], the effects of
nol-diesel blend operations. both exhaust gas temperature usage of unleaded gasoline--ethanol blends on spark igni-
and lubricating oil temperature were lower than that of tion engine performance and exhausl emission were inves-
diesel. tigated. The results showed that ethanol addition leads to
Hsieh et al. [3] investigated experimentally the engine an increase in brake power, brake thermal efficiency, volu-
performance and emission of a spark ignition engine, using metric efficiency and fue) consumption by about 8.3%, 9%,
ethanol-gasoline blend fuels in ratios of 5%, 10%, 20% and 7% and 5.7% mean average values, respectively. The best
30º/,,. The results showed that with increasing the ethanol result al the engine performance and exhaust emissions
rate. the heating value of the blended fue) decreased, while was obtained by usage of 20% ethanol fuel blend.
the octane number of the blended fuels increased. By using The progress of neurobiology has allowed researchers to
the ethanol-gasoline blended fuels the engine torque and build mathematical models of neurons to simulate neural
specific fuel consumption slightly increased. behaviour. Artificial Neural Network (ANN) approach is
Guerrieri et al. [8] tested gasoline and gasoline-ethanol well known types of evolutionary computation methods
blends on six in-use vehicle to determine effect of ethanol in last decades. Also ANN technique has been adapted
content on emissions and fuel economy. HC and CO emis- for a large number of applications in different scientific
sions as well as fuel economy decreased of most vehicles, as a reas [ 13-19]. In the field of automotive engineering,
the ethanol content increased in the fuel. At the highest eth- ANNs are a good alternative to conventional empirical
anol concentration. 40%, HC emission, CO emission and modelling based on polynomial and linear regressions.
fuel economy decreased by about 30%, 50% and 15%, The aim of present study proposes a new approach
respectively. based on ANNs to determine the engine torque and brake
Abdel-Rahman and Osman [9] conducted performance specific fuel consumption. This study consists of t wo cases:
tests on a variable compression ratio engine using different (i) The experimental analysis: Ethanol obtained from bio-
percentages of ethanol in gasoline fue) up to 40%. With mass can be used as fue) in spark ignition engines. Etha-
increasing of ethanol amount in the blend, the octane num- nol-unleaded gasoline blends (EIO, E20, E40 and E60)
ber also rise up. but decrease the heating value. The power were tested in a Hydra single cylinder, four-stroke spark
increment was observed with the addition of the ethanol up ignition and fue) injection engine. The tests were performed
to 10º/,, at compression ratio of 10:1. The best compression by different working conditions. Effect of ethanol-unleaded
ratios were found to be 10. 11 and 12 for 20%, 30% and gasoline blends and tests variables on engine torque and
40% ethanol to give maximum indicated power, respec- specific fue) consumption were examined experimentally.
tively. (ii) The mathematical modeling analysis: The use of ANN
AI-Baghdadi [5] investigated performance of a spark has been proposed to determine the engine torque and
ignition engine using hydrogen and ethanol as a supple- specific fucl consumption based on different working condi-
mentary fuel. In the experiments addition 8 mass% of tions using results of experimental analysis. The back-
hydrogen to 30 vol% of ethanol into the gasoline proved propagation leaming algorithm with two different variants
a 58.5% reduction in specific fue) consumption. In addition, and logistic sigmoid transfer function were used in the net-
the output power and engine thermal efficiency increased work. In order to train the neural network. Iimited experi-
by 4. 72% and IO. l %, respectively. mental measurements were used as training and test data.
360 11.S. Yüce.rn e/ al. I Applied Thermal E11gi11eeri11g 27 (2007) 358-368
Table 2
Properties of ethanol-unleaded gasoline blended fuels (EO. EIO, E20. E40 and E60)
Property itcms Method Test fuels
----------------------------
EO EIO E20 E40 E60
Distillation (vol'%)
70 ºC ASTM D 86 24 40.2 39.3 37.7 18.2
IOOºC 46.8 53.9 66 84.2 92.5
180ºC 97.6 97.3 98 98.2 98.7
Dcnsity (kg/mJ at 15 ºC) ASTM D 1298 764.9 768 771.5 780.6 789.5
RVP (kPa) ASTM D 323 57.6 66.7 66.2 63 57.4
Lead contcnt (g/L) ASTM D 3237 0.004 0.003 0.002 o o
Sulfur (wt'1/.,) ASTM D 5453 0.012 0.017 0.022 0.026 0.032
Stoichiomctric air-fucl ratio (weigbtt 14.7 14.13 13.56 12.42 11.28
Lower beating valuc ( kJ/kg)ª 43.932 42,185 40.430 36.870 33.400
RON ASTM D 2699 86.4 87.4 89.8 90.9 92.7
MON ASTM D 2700 98.8 99.9 101.6 101.7 102.8
ª Typical or calculated values.
DDD
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DDD
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Exhaust Gas
Analyzer Dynamometer Control Panel
3. Theoretical analysis ANNs have been widely used for many areas, such as
control, data compression, forecasting. optimization, pat-
3.1. Artificial neural network tern recognition, classification. speech, vision, etc. Nowa-
days, ANNs have been trained to overcome the
Artificial intelligence (Al) systems are widely accepted as limitations of the conventional approaches to solve com-
a technology offering an alternative way to tackle complex plex problems. ANNs can be trained to solve problems that
and ill-defined problems [20]. They can learn from exam- are difficult for conventional computers or human beings.
ples, are fault tolerant in the sense that they are able to ANNs, on the other hand, succeed the limitations of the
handle noisy and incomplete data, are able to deal with conventional approach by extracting the desired informa-
nonlinear problems, and once trained can perform predic- tion directly from the data. The fundamental processing
tion and generalization al high speed [20]. They have been element of a neural network is a neuron. Basically, a bio-
used in diverse applications in control, robotics, pattern logical neuron receives inputs from other sources, com-
recognition. forecasting, medicine, power systems, manu- bines them in sorne way, performs generally a nonlinear
facturing, optimization, signa! processing, and social/psy- operation on the result, and then outputs the final result.
chological sciences Al systems comprise areas like, expert The network usually consists of an input !ayer, sorne hid-
systems. artificial neural networks, genetic algorithms, den layers, and an output !ayer (23]. Each input is multi-
fuzzy logic and various hybrid systems, which combine plied by a connection weight. In the simplest case,
two or more techniques [20]. products and biases are simply summed, then transformed
Artificial Neural Network is a system loosely modeled through a transfer function to generate a result, and finally
on the human brain. A biological neuron is shown in obtained output. Networks with biases can represent rela-
Fig. 2. In brain, there is a flow of coded information from tionships between inputs and outputs more easily than net-
the synapses towards the axon. The axon of each neuron works without biases. A transfer function consisted
transmits information to a number of other neurons. generally of algebraic equations is linear or nonlinear
The neuron receives information at the synapses from a [23]. An important subject of a neural network is the train-
large number of other neurons. According to Haykin ing step. There are essentially two types of ANN learning
[21 J a neural nel work is a massively parallel distributed models- supervised learning and unsupervised learning.
processor that has a natural propensity for storing experi- With supervised one. input is presented to the network
ential knowledge and making it useful. It resembles the along with the desired output and the weights are adjusted
human brain in two respects: the knowledge is acquired so that the network attempts to produce the desired output.
by the network through a learning process, and inter-neu- The weights, after training, contain meaningful infonna-
ron connection strengths known as synaptic weights are tion whereas befare training they are random and have
used to store the knowledge [20]. ANN is an intercon- no meaning. Neural networks that do not rely on the
nected assembly of simple processing elements, units or use of target data are trained using unsupervised learn-
nodes. whose functionality is loosely based on the animal ing. lnstead of trying to map the data input-output rela-
neuron. The processing ability of the network is stored in tionship, the goal is to find an underlying structure of the
the inter-unit connection strengths, or weights, obtained data.
by a process of adapting to, or learning from, a set of There are different learning algorithms. A popular algo-
training patterns [20-22]. rithm is the back-propagation algorithm, which have differ-
A learning algorithm is defined as a procedure that con- ent variants. Back-propagation trammg algorithms
sists of adjusting the weights and biases of a network, to gradient descent and gradient descent with momentum
minimize an error function between the network outputs. are often too slow for practica! problems because they
for a given set of inputs, and the correct outputs. require small learning rates for stable learning. In addition,
success in the algorithms depends on the user dependent
parameters learning rate and momentum constant. Faster
algorithms such as conjugate gradient, quasi-Newton,
and Levenberg-Marquardt (LM) use standard numerical
\,,¿ 4 Parts cfa
Í( ~ypical Netve Cell optimization techniques. These algorithms eliminate sorne
of the disadvantages above mentioned. ANN with back-
Dentntes: Accept inputs propagation algorithm learns by changing the weights,
@ --- Soma: Process the inputs these changes are stored as knowledge.
Axon: Tum the processsed LM method is in fact an approximation of the Newton's
inputs ,nto outputs method [24]. The algorithm uses the second-order deriva-
/;ynapscs: The electrochemical tives of the cost function so that a better convergence
comact between neurons
behavior can be obtained. In the ordinary gradient deseen!
search, only the first-order derivatives are evaluated and
the parameter change information contains solely the
Fig. 2. A simplified model of a biological neuron ¡nJ. direction along which the cost is minimized, whereas the
362 11. S. Yücesu et al. I Applied Tl,ernwl E11gi11eeri11g 27 / 2007 J 358-368
Levenberg-Marquardt technique extracts a biter parame- variation with unleaded gasoline and unleaded gasoline-
ter change vector. Suppose that we have a function E(X) ethanol blends. However, experimental results showed that
which needs to be minimized with respect to the parameter usage of ethanol blends yield higher brake torque of the
vector x [25-27]. engine than unleaded gasoline at retarded the ignition tim-
The error during the learning is called as root-mean- ing. The increment of the brake torque depends on the eth-
squared (RMS) and defined as follows: anol ratio in the blend. The results showed that the
addition of 60"/,, ethanol to the unleaded gasoline yield a
4.26'1/c, increase in the brake torque compared with
( 1)
unleaded gasoline when the ignition timing was advanced
to 10º CA. On the other hand, advancing the ignition tim-
In addition, absolute fraction of variance ( R2 ) and mean ing to 36º CA leads to a 1.82% increase in the brake torque
absolute percentage error (MAPE) are defined as follows with EO fuel when compared to E60.
respectively: Fig. 4 shows the effects of ignition timing on brake tor-
que and BSFC at the compression ratio of IO: 1. Maximum
R2 = 1 - (L¡(t¡ - º;)2) (2)
brake torque was obtained at 22º CA (crank angle)
L¡(a¡) advanced ignition timing with ali fuels. Blending unleaded
gasoline with ethanol increased the brake torque and BSFC
MAPE=º-txlOO (3) at ali ignition timings. When the ignition timing was
o
advanced to 24º CA, knock occurrence was observed with
where t is target value, o is output value, and p is pattern. EO fuel. On the other hand, knock occurrence was not
Input and output )ayer are normalized in the ( - 1, 1) or observed up to 36º CA advanced ignition timing with
(O, 1) range. unleaded gasoline-ethanol blends (E40 and E60). Ethanol
has been considered as blending agents to raise up the
4. Results and discussion octane number of gasoline and has been used as anti-knock
additives to unleaded gasoline. Blending with ethanol
4.1. Results of experimental analysis allows increasing the compression ratio without knock
occurrence in spark ignition engines for better thermal
The ignition timing has a significant effect on the perfor- efficiency.
mance of spark ignition engines. The variation of brake Another parameter which affected the engine parameter
torque and brake specific fue] consumption BSFC with is relative air-fuel ratio (RAFR = i.). The relative air-fuel
ignition timing at the compression ratio of 8: 1 is shown ratio (i.) is defined as; i. =\:~~t'.' (AFRLc, is actual air-
in Fig. 3. Maximum brake torque was obtained at 26º fuel ratio and (AFR),1. is stoichiometric air-fuel ratio of
CA (crank angle) advanced ignition timing with EO fue), test fuels.
however it was obtained at 24º CA advanced ignition tim- Effects of RAFR on BSFC and engine torque are shown
ing with E60 fue] at the compression ration of 8: 1. As seen in Figs. 5 and 6. The maximum torque was obtained at 0.9
in Fig. 3, MBT timing of the engine showed no significant RAFR for ali test fuels for both compression ratios 8: 1 and
31 ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ 500
CA: 8:1
A:1
30 ·1
··~~ 450
E
z
:
.
y
. /
, /-:
-; 29
:::, ··r···>/... • EO • E10
E40 X ESO
E20
400 Í
~
·'/--'- --..... ~
~ . ---~
o .
1- , ü
~ 28
·a, ;: j'·-:-------~~~~ ~+~~72t·c--~~~-:~~~--t·······1··· 350 ~
ID
e:
UJ . .. ... ..
. . ..
27 ' ,
.
..............
-
. 300
26 +--+---1-+--+--+-+---+--+--lf--+--+--+-+--+--+--lf--+--+ 250
10 15 20 22 24 26 28 30 36
lgnition Timing (ºCA, BTDC)
33 - . ..- - - ..- -
.. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ 450
~:
~:
• EO
E40 ,- ESO
• E10 E20
32 .
- - ...... - - ............... ·-. ... .
..
~
. ..
..
. . .
... ...
. .. ~
.
400
E .. ..
.
... .
...
~ . . . .
.
?
Q)
:::, :::::::::~
s:
.><
O"
l: lhlUJB'\
o 31 350 ~
1-
Q)
u
LL
e: (/)
·5,
e: 1 CD
•
·T ··:··:···r·r··r-···:· ····:· ·· ·:\r·
w
: : :: : : : . : : : : : '\
30 300
····· ,:- ---i- ·· ·:" · -1- ··) ·· ·
. . . . .. ..
... ...
. ..
10 15 20 22 24 26 29 32 36
lgnilion Timing (ºCA, BTDC)
32 - . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . - 550
CR:8:1
30 .... ·········.--·······.· MBT Timing 500
E 20 450
~ 2
Q)
:::, :s:
~
~ 26 400 ~
l- ü
a, LL
e C/l
g' 24 350 CD
w
22 300
20 +--+----l-+--+---+-+--+---+-+---+--+---11---+--+---I-+--+---+ 250
0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2
Relative Air/Fuel Ratio (i,)
1O: 1. The engine torque of ethanol blended fuels was higher EO. The highest increment ratio of engine torque was
than that of EO obtained at purer and richer working obtained at 13: 1 compression ratio with E40 and E60 fuels,
region than stoichiomelric air-fuel ratio. The minimum the increment is about 14°/., compared with 8:1 compression
BSFC was obtained al 1.05 RAFR for ali test fuels and ratio. Beca use of sufficient octane number the E40 and E60
rose up depending on ethanol content. The average incre- fuels have advantage point of view engine performance.
ment in BSFC compared with EO was about 6.16% and Minimum BSFC was obtained al 11: 1 compression ratio
31.62% with E I O and E60 respectively at 8: 1 compression with EO fuel. Comparison with 8:1 compression ratio, the
ratio. The average increment in BSFC compared with EO BSFC decreased 10% and after the 11: 1 compression ratio
was about 4.4'1/i, and 28.82% with EIO and E60, respectively the BSFC increased again. The maximum decreasing of
at 10:1 compression ratio. BSFC obtained with E40 as 15%.
Engine torque and BSFC's variations are seen in Fig. 7.
Using EO, the engine torque increased with increasing com- 4.2. Application of ANN and results
pression ratio to 11: 1, the increment ratio is about 8% when
compared with 8: 1 compression ratio. However, from 11: 1 ANNs have been used in a broad range of applications
to 13: 1 compression ratio, increments are about 0.95% with including; pattern classification, function approximation,
364 H.S. Yücesu el al. I App/ied T/1er111al Engineering 27 (2007) 358-368
34.-----------------------------.-500
•Eo .E,o E20
E40 XE60
32 ... ... ... .. . .. ..
• • , • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • J • • • • 1 • • • • , • • •
' ' 450
CA: 10:1
E MBTTiming
z
-Q) 30
~"'j . . ·:··
----:··-·:·;~···:·· ·:· ..... ,......... . 400 :2
~.E!?
::,
e-o ·:N:
----·-.--:· ------,:_ ---:-.......-.T''~~<-¡:::.:;~;--~-~~~4~~:~~.
1- ü
: ,:' : . . . lL
~ 28
·e, 350 (1)
CD
e:
w
.. . .. . ... .
..'
. .. . .. ..
26 .... .·····-····················
. . . . .- .. . 300
35 - . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - , - 450
• E10 E20
34 , E60 420
MBTTiming
~ 33 390
E 1'.:1
~ .. .. :2
:l:
~ 32 -··--·-···-·--···-··---··---·-- 360
e-
{:.
*---
: ---.. ~...
:
·
~
El
a,
e:
·e,
31 -:- -~~-:-:-:--C'c-.-~é~~--·-4-.·
--.~:_-~· x. . --.----------.----- 330
ü
lL
(/)
---y CD
e:
w 30 ............., ..................................
.
.
. . 300
28 +--+--+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+---+---+---+ 240
8 9 10 11 12 13
Compression Ratio
optimization, prediction, and automatic control [13. 15,28]. Input layer Hidden layer Output layer
Here ANN is used for modeling of the engine torque and
Denslty
specific fue] consumption based on the ignition timing
(IT), RAFR and compression ratio (CR), fue] type (differ- lgnltion
Engine
timing -torque
ent fue] density) al a constant speed of 2000 rpm and at Relativa
_ Specific fue!
WOT using results of experimental analysis. The selected alr-luel
consumpllon
ratio
ANN structure is shown in Fig. 8; fully connected hierar- Compres1lo~
ratio
chical network consisting of an input ]ayer, a hidden ]ayer
and an output ]ayer.
The back-propagation learning algorithm has been used
in feed forward single hidden layers. Variants of the algo- Bia&
rithm used in the study are scaled conjugate gradient Fig. 8. ANN structure used for.
(SCG) and Levenberg-Marquardt (LM). Inputs and out-
puts are normalized in the (O, 1) range. Neurons in input
!ayer have no transfer function. Logistic sigmoid (logsig) Computer program has been perfonned under MA T-
transfer function has been used. LAB. In the training, we used an increased numbers of
H.S. Yüce.rn el al. I Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 358-368 365
Table 3
The statistical error values for Eqs. (4) and (5)
Algorithm neurons Properties Training data Testing data
RMS ¡f MAPE RMS R2 MAPE
SCG 3 The engine torque 0.01812 0.999976 1.84145 0.025151 0.999664 2.611712
Specific fuel consumption 0.01541 0.999971 1.897351 0.015391 0.999798 2.03766
SCG 4 The engine torque 0.008461 0.999995 0.879956 0.008042 0.99997 0.837632
Specific fuel consumption 0.012107 0.999958 1.446041 0.014998 0.999712 1.811496
SCG 5 The engine torque 0.009951 0.999991 1.048816 0.010754 0.999943 1.12919
Specific fuel consumption 0.012084 0.999963 1.430776 0.015473 0.999817 2.054813
LM 3 The engine torq ue 0.007929 0.999993 0.813259 0.007453 0.999972 0.769766
Specific fuel consumption 0.009757 0.999987 1.22083 0.01033 0.999876 1.249889
LM 4 The engine torque 0.006755 0.999993 0.68837 0.007823 0.999971 0.869897
Specific fuel consumption 0.009736 0.999978 1.224002 0.012463 0.999838 1.651638
LM 5 The engine torque 0.005915 0.999996 0.574388 0.006347 0.999977 0.692064
Specific fuel consumption 0.007395 0.999991 0.924855 0.009692 0.999915 1.304625
neurons in single hidden !ayer. For the engine torque and Table 5
specific fue! consumption, the best approach which has The values for normalization
-+- CR=B,measured
--O-- CR=B,ANN
__._ CR=9,measured
~ CR=9,ANN
---+-- CR=10,measured
--tr---- CR=10,ANN
--o-- Test values
35 ··.;_
·:·- ...
e
2:. T~rque
G>
::,
IJ"
o 25
.,e
1-
·¡;,
e
w
:e
.,.3: 20
so
s
u.
1/l : BSFC
m
15
.·--
40
..·-·.
10
E60
Fue/type
EO 10
Fig. 9. Simulated results in versus ignition timing for the lesting dalabase.
5. Conclusions lhe lorque oulput did not vary noliceably. The maximum
lorque incremenl was obtained with increasing compres-
MBT timing of the engine showed no significanl varia- sion ratio wilh E60 fuels. In the experiment related lo com-
tion with unleaded gasoline and unleaded gasoline-ethanol pression ratio, knock occurrence of elhanol contained fuels
blends. However, when the ignilion timing retarded. elha- compared wilh EO either was nol seen or was seen in higher
nol blends yielded higher brake torque of the engine than ignition timing. The higher rate of ethanol contained fuels
unleaded gasoline. has an advantage to reach advanced timing for the best
The maximum lorque was obtained at 0.9 RAFR for ali lorque.
test fuels for both compression ratios 8: 1 and I O: l. The The most importanl advantage of the mathematical
engine torque of ethanol blended fuels was higher lhan lhal approach is that; it can be used ANN for the design and
of EO obtained at richer working region than stoichiome- oplimization of new, novel or more complicated systems,
tric air-fuel ratio especially at I O: I compression ratio. which are lhis experimental analysis. The advantages of
Above the stoichiometric ratio, in rich operation region. the ANN compared to classical melhods are speed, simplic-
the engine lorque increased depending on the ethanol ily, and capacity to learn from examples and also do nol
con ten t. require more experimental study. So, engineering effort
The BSFC varied depending on both engine torque and can be reduced in the areas. Especially lhis study is consid-
especially the healing value of the used fue!. The BSFC ered to be helpful in predicting lhe residual stress. Results
increased in depending on lhe elhanol percentage. from neuronal model will allow lo improve determination
The engine torque rose up increasing compression ratio of the engine torque and specific fue! consumption and to
up to 11: I with EO fue!. At the higher compression ralios understand in a short time lhe behavior ofthe experimental
11.S. Yücesu eral. / App/ii•d Themw/ Engineering 27 (2007) 358-368 367
35
30
E
~
...
:,
1T
o
1-
25
...e
·¡;,
e
w
'.2
i==
o
20
~
u
LL
(/)
ID
15
.·..
..:.: ·
E60
1.4
EO
Fig. JO. Simulated results in versus relative air-fuel ratio for the testing database.
results. The neural network model does not need any [3] W.D. Hsieh, R.H. Chen, T.L. Wu. T.H. Lin. Engine performance and
preliminary assumptions on the underling mechanisms in pollutant emission of an SI engine using ethanol-gasoline blended
fuels, Atmospheric Environment 36 (3) (2002) 403-410.
the modeled process. [4] L.M. Das, Y.V.R. Reddy. Evaluation of alternative fuels for interna!
combustion engine. in: First Trabzon lnternational Energy and
Acknowlcdgements Environment Symposium. Trabzon. 1996, pp. 951-958.
[5] M.A.S. AI-Baghdadi, Performance study of a four-stroke spark
This work was funded by Gazi University, Scientific ignition engine working with both of hydrogen and ethyl alcohol as
supplementary fuel. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 25
Research Project Foundation in frame project of TEF (10) (2000) 1005-1009.
07/2002-27. Fue) tests were performed by Petroleum Re- [6] M.A.S. AI-Baghdadi, A study on the hydrogen-ethyl alcohol dual
search Center of METU. The authors greatly appreciate fue! spark ignition engine. Energy Conversion and Management 43
contributions made by Gazi University and Petroleum Re- (2) (2002) 199-204.
search Center of METU. [7] E.A. Ajav, B. Singh, T.K. Bhattacharya. Thermal balance of a single
cylinder diese! engine operating on alternative fuels. Energy Conver-
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Anexo 4
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
Abstract
Renewablc energy sourccs for thc gasoline cngines alcohols gain importance recently. These renewable energy sources have attracted
the attention of researchers as alternative fue! due to their high octane number. In addition, these are also clean energy sources and can
be obtained from the biomass alcohols with low carbon like ethanol. In this study, the effect of compression ratio on engine performance
and exhaust emissions was examined at stoichiometric air/fuel ratio, ful! load and minimum advanced timing for the best torque MBT in
a single cylinder, four stroke. with variable compression ratio and spark ignition engine.
© 2006 Elsevier Ltd. Ali rights reserved.
Key1rnrds: Spark ignition engine: Compression ratio: Exhaust emissions: Ahernalive fuel: Elhanol
1359-4311/$ - see fronl rnaller © 2006 Elsevier Lid. Ali righls reserved.
doi: 10.1016/j.apphhermaleng.2006.03.006
11.S. Yücesu el al. I Applied 71iemwl Engineering 26 (2006) 2272-2278 2273
Table 3
Properties of elhanol-unleadcd gasoline blended fuels ( EO, E 10, E20, E40 and E60)
Propcrly ilem Method Test fuels
EO EIO E20 E40 E60
Distillalion (vol%)
70 ºC ASTM D 86 24 40.2 39.3 37.7 18.2
IOOºC 46.8 53.9 66 84.2 92.5
180 ºC 97.6 97.3 98 98.2 98.7
Dcnsity ( kg/m' al 15 ºC) ASTM D 1298 764.9 768 771.5 780.6 789.5
RVP (kPa) ASTM D 323 57.6 66.7 66.2 63 57.4
Lead conlenl (g/L) ASTM D 3237 0.004 0.003 0.002 o o
Sulfur (wt%) ASTM D 5453 0.012 0.017 0.022 0.026 0.032
Stoichiomctric air-fuel ralio (weight)ª 14.7 14.13 13.56 12.42 11.28
Lower healing value (kJ/kg)" 43,932 42.185 40,430 36,870 33.400
RON ASTM D 2699 86.4 87.4 89.8 90.9 92.7
MON ASTM D 2700 98.8 99.9 101.6 101.7 102.8
ª Typical or calculated values.
H.S. Y1kes11 el al. I Applied 11icnnal Enginccring 26 (2006) 2272-2278 2275
Aír
flowrneter DDD
c::::::::11 c:::::::I Q D
EHH3 0 0 0
Hydra
Dynamometer
o=
o•ºo
DDD
DD
CJ CJ
CJ c:::::J
Engine
CJ CJ
Control Sun
Console MOA 1200
35 . - - ~ - - ~ - - ~ ~ - - ~ - - ~ - - ~ - - , - 450
• 1 1 I
take over. In our study, to obtain i. = I the opening dura-
~--------+--·--·--tA--- tion of the injector increases depend on lhe elhanol per-
.-'----~-~· 1 1 1
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
These elTects have opposite results in terms of engine Compression Ratio
performance. The first effect dominates up to an ethanol Fig. 4. Yariation of detonated ignilion timing versus compression ratio
percentage of I 0'1/.,. after which the second effect starts to (engine speed: 2000 rpm).
2276 H.S. Ytice.rn el al. I Applied T/1er111al Engineeri11g 26 (2006) 2272-2278
---j---- 2000 rpm engine speed. It can be seen from lhe graphics
~ :
:, lhat MBT is nol only related lo compression ratio and type
O"
O 30 -----
1-
'
~- - 340 e;u of fue] bul also related to lhe engine speed. Increasing com-
o:,
pression ratio increases the temperalure of end gas area
28 -- - 290 which caused detonation. The resislance of the mixture to
the detonation is important in this area. One of the most
26+,-~--'-~-'---·~-~-·-·--'-~·-----..;•~_,.. 240
8 9 10 11 12 13 important parameters affecting the engine performance is
Comprcssion Ralio
: : . ._
: a
• 1 1 1 1 1
í= :::;: 24
~
~ 26 : ,¡;,.
20+,---i----i-----;-----i----...;..-----ié----!
e- 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
~ 24 Comp ress ion Ratio
22 __~~J-=-,..:..:;.:.:.:jt.::_:.__;·;,:c---- -280
----:--------,--------"!'-:c:-_,-,, Fig. 8. Variation of MBT ignition timing with compression ratio (engine
speed: 5000 rpm).
' '
20+,-~'--'--..;~---!---.;.._-~-_:_----...;...--''--....;....----!,-240
9 10 11 12 13
Comprcssion Ralio
820 - , - - - ~ - - ~ - - ~ - ~ - - ~ - - ~ - - ,
Fig. 6. Variation of engine torquc and BSFC versus compression ratio
•Eo EJOj.E2
(engine speed: 5000 rpm). 800
: o E40 X E60
tively. The improvement of BSFC with E60 fuel was about " 700
~"-
14.7% and 17% at 3500 rpm and 5000 rpm engine speeds, :=
respectively. ~ 680
~
><
LJ.J 660
'
' '
.
_______ l _______ l _______ .J _______ J _ _ _ _ _ _ _
'
'
1
---
I 1 1 I
.-~--,-,---:--:::::====::::;-, '
'
'
' ''
__¡_ __ l~
36
640
32 ------~ ______ ; _______ )__ ____ :~O X:~~ j. E20~--
U * : : : , ,
~ 28 - -------~-------fil-------:--------~-------~-------~--------
"'
.¡_ 24
' ' ' ...
' '
-------i-------1---- -- -!1------1- ______ ;_ ------1----- ---
620
t:!;; 20 : • i
_______ :: _______ :: ________ :: -------:-------:-------:.-------- 600
12--~.---'----'-----'-----'---'-------'---~
'
'' '
. '
''
'
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
560 +----+--....;....---1----+---+-----~
Compression Ratio 10 11 12 13 14
Comprcssion Ratio
Fig. 7. Variation of MBT ignition timing with compression ratio (engine
speed: 3500 rpm). Fig. 9. Varialion of exhaust gas lemperature versus to compression ratio.
11.S. Yücesu el al. I Applied Tlrermal E11gi11eeri11g 26 (2006) 2272-2278 2277
the compression ratios are shown in Fig. 9 for 2000, 3500 160
and 5000 rpm engine speeds. In general, the exhaust gas
temperatures decrease with increasing compression ratio.
Increasing compression ratio increases the pressure and
temperature of the mixture at the end of Lhe compression
E
e_
.s-
'-.)
:I:
140
120
100
: : •:•: 1::::1::::1.:::~····
80
stroke and decreases the advanced timing requirement for
60
the MBT. The amount of energy converted to the useful
40
work increases. However, use of fuels with lower octane 7 9 JO 11 12 13 14
number like EO, affected the combustion process badly Compression Ra1io
1ÜÜ - - - - - } - - - - - ~ - - - - - ~ - - - - - -:- - - - - - L
' ' '
0.9 ~ - ~ - - - - - r - - - - - r - - - - - - - , - - ~
E Ho
' Q.
40
~ 0.7
o
2:. 20 + - - - - - - - - - - - , - - - i - - - - i - - - - - f
8 0.6 7 9 JO 11 12 13 14
Compression Ratio
0.5 --.._¡_2ooor-rp-m-· ¡----T---- ~ -----r----¡------ Fig. 11. Variation of HC emission versus compression ratio.
0.4 1 1 1
.~:: :
0.9 ~ - - - - ~ - ~ - - - - ~ - - - - ~ Variations of the CO and HC emissions depending on
the compression ratio are shown in Figs. 10 and I I at
0.8 - - - - - :- - - - - - : - - - - - -:- - - - - - : - - - - - - : - - - - - .t, ----- 2000, 3500 and 5000 rpm engine speeds. Especially, consid-
' : : :
:::::
&: 0.7 erable decrease was observed when the fuels contained
higher amount of ethanol like E40 and E60. The most sig-
O 0.6 nificant decrease in CO emission was observed with the use
u
0.5 -- -¡ '
3500 rpm
' '
1- ---¡- -----t----
(" ;t.
"r-----'
------ ~
of E40 and E60 fuels at 2000 rpm engine speed. Average
decreasing ratios of CO emission were 11º/c, and 10.8%
0.4 +----+--+----+---+---------! for E40 and E60, respectively. In respect of HC emissions,
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Comprcssion Ralio the highest decreases were observed at 5000 rpm engine
speed as 9.9'½, and 16.45% for E40 and E60, respectively.
1.1 -r-----~-~----~------, Decreasing ratio of HC emission was found to be higher
: A : : :
1 - - - - - ~-- - - ---Q-- - - --:-- - -- -{- - - - - -:-- - - - - ~- --- - - than that of CO emissions.
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
0.9
¡,'i
e 0.8
2:.
o
u 0.7
:::::~E-f 4. Conclusions
the torque outpul did not change noticeably. At 13:1 leum Research Center of METU. As researchers, we thank
compression ratio compared with 8: I compression ratio, Scientific Research Foundation of Gazi University and
the highest increment was obtained for both fuels E40 Petroleum Research Center of METU.
and E60 as nearly 14'1/.,.
• Al 11: 1 compression ratio compared with 8: 1, the BSFC
References
of EO fue] reached mínimum value and decreased about
10%, after this compression ratio the BSFC increased.
[1] R.L. Bcchtold. Alternative Fuels Guidebook. Society of Automotive
The considerable decrease of BSFC was about 15% with Engineers lnc .. 1997.
E40 fue] at 2000 rpm engine speed. The highest improve- [2] L.M. Das. Y.V.R. Reddy, Evaluation of alternative fuels for intemal
ments of BSFC were obtained with E60 fue] as 14.5°/r, combustion engine. in: First Trabzon lnternational Energy and
and 17% at 3500 and 5000 rpm engine speeds, Environment Symposium, July 29-31. 1996, pp. 951-958.
[3] F. Schiifer. R.v. Basshuysen, Reduced Emissions and Fuel Consump-
respectively.
tion in Automobile Engines. Springer-Verlag Wien and Society of
• In the experiment related to compression ratio, detona- Automotive Engineers. lnc., Altenburg, 1995.
tion of the ethanol-containing fuels compared with EO [4] W. Hsieh. R. Che11. T. Wu, T. Lin, Engine performance and pollutant
sometimes happened in higher ignition timing. The emission of an si engine using ethanol-gasoline blended fuels,
higher rate of the ethanol-containing fuels had an Atmospheric Environment 36 (3) (2002) 403-410.
[5] D.A. Guerrieri. P.J. Calfrey, V. Rao. l11vestigatio11 into the Vehicle
advantage to reach MBT.
Exhaust Emissions of High Percentage Ethanol Blends. SAE Paper,
• Exhaust gas temperature tended to decrease depending No. 950777. 1995. pp. 85-95.
on compression ratio generally. However from 10:1 [6] S.M. Kisenyi, C.A. Savage, A.C. Simmonds, The lmpact of Oxygen-
compression ratio for fuels with low octane number like ates 011 Exhaust Emissio11s of Six European Cars, SAE Paper, No.
EO, the detonation increases. Due to the poor combus- 940929. 1994. pp. 241-254.
[7] A.B. Taylor. O.P. Moran, A.J. Bell, N.G. Hodgson, I.S. Myburgh,
tion, the exhaust gas temperature increases. This situa- J.J. Botha. Gasoline/Alcohol Blends: Exhaust Emissions, Perfor-
tion is prevented using fue) with high octane and mance and Burn-Rate in a Multi-Valve Production Engine, SAE
increasing engine speed. Paper. No. 961988, 1996, pp. 143-160.
• The fuels containing high ratios of ethanol; E40 and E60 [8] J.S. Cowart, W.E. Borula, J.D. Dalton, R.F. Dona, F.L. Rivard JI,
had important elfects on the reduction exhaust emis- R.S. Furby, J.A. Piontkowski, R.E. Seiter, R.M. Takai. Powertrain
Development ofthe 1996 Ford Flexible Fue) Taurus. SAE Paper, No.
sions. The maximum decrease was obtained with E40 952751. 1995, pp. 115-128.
and E60 fuels at 2000 rpm engine speed. The average [9] M.A.S. AI-Baghdadi, Performance study of a four-stroke spark
decreases were found to be 11% and 10.8% with E40 ignition engine working with both of hydrogen and ethyl alcohol as
and E60, respectively. The better decrease was obtained supplementary fuel, lnlernational Journal of Hydrogen Energy 25
with HC compared with CO. The maximum decrease in ( 10) (2000) 1005-1009.
[10] M. AI-Hasan, Elfect of ethanol-unleaded gasoline blends 011 engine
HC emission was obtained using E60 as average of performance and exhaust emission, Energy Conversion and Manage-
16.45% at 5000 rpm engine speeds. ment 44 (2003) 1547-1561.
[11] A.A. Abdel-Rahman, M.M. Osman, Experimental investigation on
varying the compression ratio of SI engine working under different
Acknowledgements elhanol-gasoline fuel blends, lnternational Joumal of Energy
Research 21 ( 1) ( 1997) 31-40.
[12] C.W. Wu, R.H. Chen, J.Y. Pu, T.H. Lin, The inlluence of air-fuel
This study was supported by Gazi University Scientific ratio on engi11e performance and pollutant emission of an SI engine
Research Foundation in frame of the project code of using etha11ol-gasoline blended fuels, Atmospheric Environment 38
TEF.07./2002-27. The fue) tests were performed by Petro- (40) (2004) 7093-7100.
Anexo 5
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
Abstract
One important design goal for spark-ignitcd cngines is to minimize cyclic variability. A small amount of
cyclic variability (slow burns) can produce undesirablc engine vibrations. On the other hand, a larger
amount of cyclic variability (incomplete burns) leads toan incrcase in hydrocarbon consumption and emis-
sions. This paper investiga les the elTecls of using ethanol-unleaded gasoline blends on cyclic variability and
emissions in a spark-ignited engine. Results of this study showed that using ethanol-unlcaded gasoline
blends as a fucl decreased thc coefficicnt of variation in indicatcd mean elTcclive prcssurc, and CO and
HC emission concentrations, whilc incrcased C0 2 concentration up to !O vol.'½, ethanol in fucl blend. On
the other hand, after lhis leve! of blend a reverse effecl was observed on the paramelers aforementioned.
The !Ovol. 0/., ethanol in fue! blcnd gavc thc bes\ results.
© 2004 Elsevicr Lid. Ali rights reserved.
1. lntroduction
From the measurements of the pressurc-time history of consecutive cycles in the combustion
chamber in an SI engine, it can be easily seen that variations from one cycle to another exist.
1359-4311/$ - see fronl matter © 2004 Elscvier Ltd. i\11 rights rcservcd.
doi: 10.1Ol6/j.applthermalcng.2004.07.019
918 M. A. Cevi:., F Yüksel I Applied Thermal Engineering 25 ( 2005) 917-925
One of the many factors that must be considered in the design and control of spark-ignited en-
gines is the minimization of cyclic variability. Since the pressure rate is uniquely related to the
combustion, the pressure variations are caused by variations in the combustion process. In thc
fast combustion cycles there will be an increased tendency of knocking, which means that it is
the fastest combustion that determines the upper compression ratio for chosen fuel. On the other
hand in the slow combustion cycles, there is a risk of uncompleted combustion when the exhaust
valve opens, which will result in higher unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) emissions and lower effi-
ciency. The cyclic variation is specially a problem for lean bum operating engines.
The cyclic variations are caused by both chemical and physical phenomena. Of these phenom-
ena, the variations in the residual gas fraction, the fuel-air ratio, the fuel composition and the mo-
tion of unburned gas in the combustion chamber can be taken into consideration [l]. The cyclic
variations for five consecutive cycles in cylinder pressure can be seen in Fig. l.
Cyclic variability is recognized as a limit for operating conditions with lean and highly diluted
mixtures. Previous studies showed that if cyclic variability could have been eliminated, there
would be a 10% increase in the power output for the same fuel consumption and power pollution
of emissions from the engine [2].
One important measure of cyclic variability, derived form pressure data, is the coefficient of
variation in indicated mean effective pressure (imep). lt is the standard deviation in imep divided
by the mean imep, and is usually expressed in percent as defined
2000
e:: 1.500
o..
.:.t
~
::l
V:
:r.
'-'
O: 1000
500
o'-----'------'------'-----'---~--~--~'---~
-400 -300 -200 -100 o 100 200 300 400
Fig. 1. An cxample or thc cyclic variations íor five consecutiw cyclcs in cylinder pressurc.
M.A. Cevi::., F Yükse/ / Applied Thermal Engineering 25 (2005) 917-925 919
CQVimcp = -_O"imcp
- X i 00
1mep
This percentage defines the variability in indicated work per cycle, and it has been found that
vehicle driveability problcms usually result when COVimep exceeds about l 0% [3]. The indicated
mean effective pressure is easy to calcula te and it provides a measure of the work produced for an
engine cycle. imep is defined as:
.
1mep
wc
=-
Vc1
where Vd is the engine displacement volume and W e is the work per cycle, which is defined as
Wc = f PdV
The anti-knock quality of the fue! can be enhanced by the addition of lead alkyls. The lead
additives enhance the antiknock quality of gasoline, but on the other hand, result in the formation
and emission of toxic lead compounds. Another disadvantage of using lead additives is their dam-
aging effect on the active materials of the catalytic devices used to control emissions [3]. For these
reasons, unleaded or reduced-lead fuels are currently required in many countries around the
world.
A more recent practice is to enhance the anti-knock property of the fue! by using certain high-
octane oxygen-containing compounds called oxygenates. One of the commonly used oxygenates is
ethyl alcohol or ethanol (C 2H 5-0H) [4].
Ethanol was the first fuel among the alcohols used to power vehicles in the 1880s and 1890s.
Presently, ethanol is prospective material for use in automobiles as an alternative to petroleum
based fuels. The main reason for advocating ethanol is that it can be produced from natural prod-
ucts or waste materials, compared with gasoline which is produced from non-renewable natural
sources. In addition, ethanol shows good anti-knock characteristics. However, economic reasons
still limit its usage on a large scale. At the present time, instead of pure ethanol, a blend of ethanol
and gasoline is a more attractive fue! with good anti-knock characteristics [5]. The ethanol has
different chemical and physical properties when compared to gasoline. These dilTerences are ex-
pected to influence the performance and combustion of gasoline-ethanol blends.
AI-Hassan [5] studied the effect of ethanol-unleaded gasoline blends on spark ignition engine
performance, and CO, C0 2 and HC emissions at three-fourth throttle opening position and var-
iable engine speed operating conditions. The results showed that blending unleaded gasoline wilh
ethanol increased the brake power, torque, volumetric and brake thermal efficiencies and fue! con-
sumption, whilc it decreased the brake specific f uel consumption and equivalcnce air-fuel ratio.
The CO and HC emission concentrations in the engine exhaust decreased, while the C0 2 concen-
tration increased. The 20vol.% ethanol in fue! blend gave the best results for ali measured param-
eters at ali engine speeds. Bata and Roan [6] experimentally investigated the cffects or using
cthanol with unleaded gasoline on CO, C0 2 and HC exhaust emissions. The concentrntion of
CO was reduced by about 40-50% at an equivalence ratio on the lean side near stoichiometry.
Also, the concentration of CO decreased as the percenlage of ethanol increased in the fuel hlcnd.
El-Kassaby [7] studicd the effect of ethanol-gasolinc blends on SI cngine performance. Thc per-
formance tests were conductcd using difTerent percentages of ethanol-gasolinc up to 40'% undcr
920 M.A. Ceviz, F Yüksel / Applied Thermal Engineering 25 (2005) 917-925
variable compression ratio conditions. The results showed that engine indicated power improved
with the ethanol addition, the maximum improvement occurring at the I 0% ethanol and 90%
gasoline fue) blend. Palmer [8] used various blend rates of ethanol-gasoline fuels in engine per-
formance tests. The results showed that 10% ethanol blend in the fuel increased the engine power
output by 5%, and octane number could be increased by 5% for each 10% ethanol added. Hsiech
et al. [9] investigated the effects of various blends rates of ethanol-gasoline fuels on engine per-
formance and pollution emission. The results showed that blending unleaded gasoline with etha-
nol slightly increased the torque output and fuel consumption; CO and HC emissions decreased
dramatically as a result of leaning effect caused by ethanol addition; and C0 2 emission increased
because of the improved combustion. Finally, it was noted that NOx emission depends on the
engine operating condition rather than ethanol content.
This paper aims to help in understanding the effects of blending ethanol with unleaded gasoline
on cyclic variations and the emissions of typical automotive engines.
The engine used in the present study is the FIAT, 1.801 dm 3, carburetted and four-stroke spark
ignition engine. The specifications of the engine are listed in Table 1.
The engine is fully equipped for measurements of ali operating parameters. Pressure time his-
tory was measured by a piezo-electric pressure transducer (KISTLER, 61 l 7BFD 17 type), and
crankshaft degree angle sensor was connected to the relevant amplifiers.
A data acquisition system was used to collect the relevant data and store the data in a personal
computer for offline analysis for which a computer program in Q-BASIC language was written to
collect the data.
The pressure signal fed into a charge amplifier and the crank angle signal collected by a degrec
maker shape channel were fed into a acquisition card attached to the personal computer. The
acquisition card could collect data at the rate of IOOkHz.
The experiments have been carried out after running the engine until it reached steady state,
where the oil temperature was at 50ºC ± 5, and cooling water temperature was at 70ºC ± 5.
The engine was operated al 2000 rpm and loaded by hydraulic dynamometer. Water inlet pressure
of hydraulic dynamometer was held constant at 0.5 bar. The variations in the engine speed caused
Table 1
Technical specifications of the engine
Engine FIAT
Number of cylinders 4
Bore (mm) x Stroke (mm) 86.4 X 67.4
Cycle 4-stroke
Compression ratio 9.2:1
Displacemcnt volume (dm') 1.581
Maximum powcr 62 kW at 5800 rpm
Maximum torquc 13daNm at 2900rpm
Cooling system Water-cooled
M.A. Ceviz, F Yiiksel / Applied Thermal Engineering 25 (2005) 917-925 921
by dilferent ethanol-unleaded gasoline blends were regulated by changing the throttle valve open-
ing position. The spark timing was adjusted to yield mínimum spark advance for best torque tim-
ing (MBT) at each ratio of ethanol to unleaded gasoline.
The unleaded gasoline was blended with ethanol to get five test blends ranging from 0% to 20%
ethanol with an increment of 5%. The fuel blends were prepared just before starting the experi-
ment to ensure that the fuel mixture was homogeneous and to prevent the reaction of ethanol with
water vapor. Before running the engine with a new fuel blend, it was allowed to run for a sufficient
time to consume the remaining fuel from the previous experiment.
Figs. 2-6 show the indicated mean effective pressure normalized with the average of the actual
pressure for 50 consecutive cycles from 0% to 20% ethanol-unleaded gasoline ratios with a 5%
step increment, and Fig. 7 shows the coefficient of variation of indicated mean effective pressure
at the same ratios. COVimep was observed as 3.077, 2.970, 2.352, 3.085 and 3.317 for pure gasoline
and 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% ethanol in fue] blend experiments, respectively.
The percentage of ethanol in fue] blend affects the volatility and the latent heat of fuel blend.
The latent heat of ethanol (840 kJ kg- 1) is higher than that of gasoline (305 kJ kg- 1) which makes
the temperature of intake manifold lower, and increases the volumctric efficiency. Moreover, eth-
anol decreases the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio of the fuel blends, because the stoichiometric rel-
ative air-fuel ratio of ethanol fue) (8.96) is lower than that of the unleaded gasoline fue) (15.13),
11
o..
u.:
2
z
o
nf~~J\
5 10 15 20 25 30
Cycle numbcr
35 40 45 50
1.1
c...
w
¿
z
l
e 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Cyde numbcr
o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Cycle number
1.1
Q.
~!~
o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Cyclc numbcr
o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
C:yck number
and increases the actual air-fuel ratio of the blends as a result of the oxygen content in ethanol.
However, these effects continued until the percentage of ethanol reaches I Ovol.%. The attitude of
relative air-fuel ratio agreed well with thc early studies [8.9], which were about the effects of alcoh-
ols on enginc performance and emissions. It can be seen from Figs. 7,8 that the rclativc air-fuel
ratio was the highest at the lüvol.% ethanol ratio and COVimcp was the lowest. After the IOvol.%
ethanol in blend, the relative air-fuel ratio started to decrease and COVimep started to increase in
the experiments due to the increase in the temperature of the intake manifold and dccrease in the
volumetric efficiency.
Figs. 9-11 show the effect of the ethanol ratio in fue! blend on the HC, CO and C0 2 emissions,
respectively. It can be seen from these figures that as the ratio of the ethanol to ethanol-unleaded
gasoline blend increased up to 10%, thc HC and CO emissions dccrcased and C0 2 emissions in-
creased. When the ethanol ratio exceeded by about I0'1/i1 level, HC and CO emissions increased
M.A. Cei-iz. F Yükse/ I Applied Thermal Engineering 25 (2005) 9/7-925 923
3.6 r-----~----..----------,.-----r--------r-----,
3.4
3.2
.
B- 3
E
>"
8 2.8
2.6
2.4
0.92 . - - - - - - - - - - - . . - - - , - - - - - - - . - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - . - - - - - - ,
0.9
,-< 0.88
0.86
0.84 L-----~----~---~----~---~---~
'º''i <;,{'!
~f)''(
"
Ethanol. %·
500 - - - - - - - - - . . - - - - - - - - - - . - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - . - - - - -
:= 450
a.
c..
u
:r: 400
350 L-----~----~---~----~---~---~
¡)'_,: .t;;(','
• ¡/ lil'i 15'á 20•;
Ethanol. %
and C0 2 emissions decreased. COVimer was higher, however, CO and HC emissions were lower at
pure gasoline experiments than those of 15'1/ii and 20% ethanol-unleaded gasoline blends and this
behavior agrees with the relative air-fuel ratio and COVimer shown in Figs. 7 and 8.
924 M.A. Cei;iz, F Yüksel I Applied Thermal Engineering 25 (2005) 917-925
0.8
0.7
~
ó 0.6
u
1)5
0.4
lO'k 15% 20'J
Ethanol, %
17 . - - - - - - , - - - - - - - - - . - - - - - - - - - - r - - - - - - , - - - - - - - , - - - - - - - ,
t.,, 16
ó'
u 15
/
14 ~ - - - ~ - - - ~ - - - ~ - - - ~ - - - ~ - - - - - '
IOC;;,
Ethanol. '7,
4. Conclusions
l. The lOvol.% ethanol-unleaded gasoline blend presented the best results for the COV;mep and
exhaust emissions.
2. COV;mep was observed as 3.077 and 2.352 for pure gasoline and IOvol. 0/41 ethanol blend exper-
iments, respectively.
3. Although the COV;mep was especially a problem for lean bum condition and the relative air-
fuel ratio reached the highest value at the lüvol.% ethanol ratio, COV;mep reached to the mín-
imum value.
4. Use of ethanol--unleaded gasoline blend as a fue) leads to a significant reduction in exhaust
emissions by about 20.2r1/., and 30.01% for HC and CO emissions, respectively, at lüvol.%
ethanol ratio compared to pure gasoline experiments.
5. After the ratio of ethanol to unleaded gasoline--ethanol blend exceeded the lOvol.%,
COV;mep,HC and CO emissions showed an increasing tendency due to the increase in the
tcmperature of the intake manifold and the decrease in the volumetric efficiency. However.
no problem existed when the engine was operated at the 20vol.% ethanol ratio.
M.A. Ceúz, F Yüksel I Applied Thermal Engineering 25 (2005) 917-925 925
References
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Automotive Engineers, lnt. Fall Fuels and Lubricants Meeting and Exposition, Baltimore, Maryland, October 16-
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[8] F.H. Palmer, Vehicle performance of gasoline containing oxygenates. lnternational Conference on Petroleum Based
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gasoline blended fuels. Atmos. Environ. 36 (2002) 403-410.
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
-,,
·:;- ScienceDirect APPLIED THERMAL
ENGINEERING
Abstract
Experimental test for premixed laminar combustion oí ethanol-air mixtures has been conducted in a constan! volume combustion
bomb. The laminar burning velocities oí ethanol-air mixtures are determined overa wide range oí equivalence ratio at elevated temper-
alures. by means oí the measurements oí spherically expanding llames using schlieren pholography technique. The effect oí llame stretch
imposed al Lhe llame íront has been discussed and the Markstein lengths are deduced to characlerize the strelch effecl on llame prop-
agation. Following a linear relation between llame speed and llame stretch, the unslretched laminar burning velocities oí ethanol- air
llames have been derived. Over the ranges studied, a power law correlation has been suggested for the unstretched laminar burning veloc-
ities as a íunction oí initial temperature and equivalence ratio. The empirical correlation is also compared with those data available in the
literature, and it is found that the discrepancies are acceptable.
© 2006 Elsevier Lld. Ali rights reserved.
1359-4.ll l/S - scc fronl mallcr D 2006 Elsevier Lt<l. Ali righls resenc<l.
<loi 10.1 Ol 6/j.appllhermakng.2006.07 .026
S. Y. Liao et al. I Applied Thermal Engineering 27 ( 2007) 374-380 375
Thennocouplc
-t-+---i Pcrforatcd platc
(at cnd position) Xcnon lamp volumc camera
l
combustion [;;;J
bomb
Elcctrodc _Blade
~
/L.
Paraholic mirror
Fig. l. Schemalic diagram of experimental syslem: (a) constan! volume combustion bomb, (b) schlieren syslern.
1-ig. 1 Typical growmg schlicren llame kerncls for s1oichiomc1ric mixtures of elhanol in air Thc lime inlerval is 4 ms 1,/, 1.0. r., ,,8 K.
P., 0.1 Ml'a).
S. Y. liao ,•1 al. I Applied Tlrermal Engineering 27 ( 2007) 374-380 377
10 , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
-ip=l.O
--,p=0.8 2.3
is~---------------
--- ---
~ 2.1
::,
~ 6 ~
~ é
a.
/
e: /
o /
1.9 f.-~
-~ 4
::, /
..o /
E /
/
o
u 2 1.7
---------- ---
0 o'-----'---4L-----'---s-'---'---,-'-2---''----'-,6-L..--'20--'--_.24-_,__....J2'--s__.__3u2 '- 5
Fig. 3. The variations of combustion pressure and llame temperature with time.
/···-····
burned and unburned mixtures with the slretch. Obviously,
~- these parameters commonly increase with the decrease of
E 2.0
;;;e flame stretch. Moreover. over the approximately linear
range of lhe flame speed against stretch, only about 10%
1.0
increase showing in lhe temperature of unbumed mixture
is obtained. while the pressure increase by about 50"/.,. Gen-
O.O'-----'------'------'------'----_,___ __, erally, the averaged temperature of bumed gas has little
o 10 15 20 .10 change, which nearly equals the adiabatic flame lempera-
r 11 Jmm
lure of combustible mixture.
Fig. 6 exhibits the influences of fuel/air equivalence ratio
b 4.0
and initial temperalure on the flame/slrelch interaction,
• ••• • •
OT.,=.158K
tp = 1.0 and the burned gas Markstein lengths Lb are proposed
3.0
• T.,=400K
•••••••••••• to quantify the effect. With regard lo the values of Lb for
• T.,=480K • • • • • • o• 00 o 00 o oººº
• • •oo o o ethanol-air llames, few experimental resulls have been
•• ·~ o o
{
v.
.,,-
2.0
~8
··~
• •oº
reported. Our measuremenls reporl thal Lb of ethanol-
air mixture decreases slighlly with the increasing equiva-
lence ratio. While it varies litlle for different temperature
1.0 conditions. And generally. ali of the Markstein lengths
are posilive. This can be demonstrated by the facl that
the measured flames are smooth. where no inslability
O.O ' - - - - . . . . J L - - - - - - ' - - - - ' - - - - - ' - - - - - ' - - - - - ' occurs during the almospheric pressure experiments, for
o 10 15 20 25 JO
the present range of fuel/air equivalence ratio.
The fundamental burning velocity. unstretched laminar
íig. 4. Variations of S,, with llame radius. '" for ethanol-air mixtures burning velocity can be derived from the value of the
(0.1 MPa). an<l a: equivalence ratio. ef,. b: initial temperature. T.,.
unslretched spatial flame speed via Eq. (7). Plotted in
Fig. 7 are the measured laminar burning velocities for
Shown in Fig. 5 is a seleclion of experimental data show- ethanol-air flame al 358 K and the atmospheric pressure,
ing lhe variations of flame speed, S,, wilh total slrelch rale. overa wide equivalence ratio range. In this figure are also
rJ.. We can see lhal. at high rale of slrelch (small flame plotted the resulls oblained previously for comparison.
radius). the flame speed is low. However. as the flame Generally speaking. an acceptable agreement of our mea-
expands. the flame speed slowly increases due to the suremenls with litcrature values has been found, allhough
reduced llame stretch. The Markstein theory suggests a lin- we slightly undereslimale the laminar llame velocitics over
ear relation between the !lame strelch and the flame speed. the range of equivalence ratio considered. This is likely to
namely. the unstretched llame speed can be obtained by be due to the errors associated with the slretch compensa-
means of a zero stretch exlrapolalion for the fil line of tion and lo experimental errors such as the measuremcnl of
the stretched llame speed againsl slrelch rate. which is the flamea rea and the heal loss lo thc burner wall ( thereby
378 S. Y. Liao et al. I Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 374-380
6.0 ~ - - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - - - ~
• s•. mis • T 0 , xlOOK
~ = 1.0, T,, = 358K, P.,= O.IMPa
5.0
1O'k lncrcascd
-~ 4.0
... ···1:....·.... ......... ··....· .. --· ...·..... ·................. _. ~-·---······--·--·-- .............. -·:--·1--·----·-
11)
o.
o Adiabalic ílamc lcmpcraturc
l5,_3.0
11)
E ;s,.,,--···tti~·················Í ·-·-·····,r·-······-···
¡¡ 2.0
"-.....s.&.64 ·······--·-···----·····-:----....................... ..
666
1.0
"64 6 6 ~ -
---, e:• .
lncrcasing ru
O.O.___ _ _...__ _ _...__ _ _...__ _ _...__ _ _...__ _ ' ~
60 60 ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
120 ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
• Experimenls
--Presenl work (Eq. 9)
20
100 O Gülder
t:,. Egolfopoulos. [)u and Law - Prcscnl work • Güldcr
t:,. 10
"' o Egolfopoulos. Du and Law 6 Hollcy et al
E 80 - - - Marinov
~
,,- 0'-----~----~---~----........-~
O.<, 0.8 1.0 1.2 l.'1
ip
60
Fig. 9. Exlrapolalion of lhe empirical formula of presenl sJU<ly 10 300 K.
and comparison wilh earlier reported data.
40 .___ _.__ _..___ _.__ _..___ _ . _ _ ~ ~ -........- ~
350 400 450 500 550
T,.IK
100~---------------------,
Fig. 8. Laminar burning velocily of elhanol air llames on lempcralurcs P.. = O IMPa T.. = 4S3K
at difTerent equivalence ralios. 90
80
0:T = J.783 - 0.375(</J- )) ( 10)
z 70
The increasing pressure has a negative iníluence on the
laminar flame velocity, Gülder reported thal the pressure 60
dependence is a weak function of fue) stoichiometric, and
can be fil as 50
40
-Eq.9
Acknowledgements
• • • Gülder
• Egolfopoulos. Du and Law This work is supported by the state key project of funda-
20...__ _ ___.__ _ _ _.....__ _ ____._ _ _ _.....__ __, mental research plan of PR China (No. 2001CB209206,
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 2001CB209208), the key project of NSFC (No.
t/> 50156040), and the NSFC Awarding Fund for Excellent
Fig. 11. Effect of pressurc on burning velocities for ethanol-air llames. Sta te Key Laboratory (No. 50323001 ).
References
those of Egolfopoulos et al. And generally better agree-
ments are obtained for leaner mixture, while the big deriva- [I] J.R. Moreira, J. Goldemberg, Energy Policy 27 (1999) 229-245.
tion is achieved al stoichiometric condition. This maybe (2] V. Thomas, A. Kwong, Energy Policy 29 (2001) 1133-1143.
[3] D. Bradley, R.A. Hicks, M. Lawes. C.G.W. Sheppard. R. Woolley.
only is allributed to the errors associated with the fitting
Combust. Flame 115 ( 1998) 126--144.
function. The effect of initial pressure on the laminar burn- (4] X.J. Gu, M.Z. Haq, M. Lawes, R. Woolley. Combusl. Flame 121
ing velocities is presented in Fig. 11. The general trend is (2000) 41-58.
that, the increase of pressure results in the decrease of the [5] N. Lamoureux, N. Djebaili-Chaumeix. C.E. Paillard, Exp. Therm.
laminar burning velocities. As there is lack of experimental Fluid. Sci. 27 (2003) 385-393.
[6] S.Y. Liao, D.M. Jiang, J. Gao, Z.H. Huang. Q. Cheng. Fuel 83 ( JO)
data at this conditions, only the available predicted results
(2004) 1281-1288.
of Gülder are presented for comparison. Similarly, the [7] S.G. Davis, C.K. Law, Combusl. Sci. Technol. 140 ( 1998) 427--449.
agreemenl can be found over the whole range of equiva- [8] M. Metghalchi, J.C. Keck. Combusl. Flame 48 ( 1982) 191-210.
lence ratios. [9] O.L. Gülder, in: 19th Symposium (lnternational) on Combustion,
The Combustion lnstitute Pittsburgh. PA. 1982. pp. 275-281.
(10] S.Y. Liao, D.M. Jiang, J. Gao, Z.H. Huang. Energy Fuels 18 (2004)
4. Conclusions 316-326.
(11 J l. Yamaoka, H. Tsuji, in: 22ml Symposium ( lnternalional) 011
This study focuses on the effects of initial temperature Combustion, The Combustion lnstitute Pittsburgh PA, 1988, p. 1883.
(12] J.K. Bechtold, M. Matalon, Combusl. Flame 127 (2001) 1906--1913.
and fuel/air equivalence ratio on the laminar burning
(13] G. Markstein, Nonsteady Flame Propagation, McMillan Publication,
velocities of ethanol-air flames. Spherically expanding lam- New York, 1964.
inar premixed flames, freely propagating from spark igni- (14] F.N. Egolfopoulos, D.X. Du. C.K. Law. in: 24th Symposium
tion sources in initially quiescent ethanol-air mixtures, (lntemational) on Combustion. The Combustion lnstilule Pittsburgh
are continuously recorded by a high-speed CCD at various PA. 1992, pp. 833-841.
(15] N.M. Marinov, lnt. J. Chem. Kinct. 31 (3) (1999) 183-220.
equivalence ratio and temperature. The flames are ana-
(16] A.T. Holley, Y. Dong, M.G. Andac. F.N. Egolfopoulos. Combusl.
lyzed, and in turn. the laminar burning velocities and the Flame 144 (3) (2006) 448--460.
Markstein lengths of mixtures of ethanol and airare deter- [ 17] S.Y. Liao, D.M. Jiang. Q. Cheng. Z.11. lluang. Q Wei. Energy Fuels
mined. The results show that he Markstein lengths decrease 19 (3) (2006) 813-819.
Anexo 6
PRODUCCIÓN DE ETANOL ANHIDRO EN INGENIOS
AZUCAREROS
lng. Manuel Enríquez Poy
1
1
!
ll
l ., l·1
n '
sector agropecuario, privilegiando opciones de
competencia entre desiguales jarabes de maíz ricos en
fructosa , provenientes del país que otorga fuertes
f
¡ subsidios tanto a la agricultura, como a la
!
¡ 1j t 1 transformación industrial.
i
1
ll
1; Como mera referencia, durante la última zafra, la
1 .
1 1 producción de sacarosa alcanzó un registro histórico
i 11
5.8 millones de TM, éxito que se revierte, con el arribo
de grandes cantidades de edulcorantes y jarabes del
exterior. Se impone entonces la exportación del dulce
a otros mercados, distintos al TLCAN, con pérdidas
cercanas a los 300 U$ / TM; al no poder acceder al
Resulta evidente que, no obstante tratarse de una mercado de los E.U., gracias a la flagrante violación del
muestra reducida, las conclusiones preliminares acuerdo comercial por los vecinos del norte.
infieren que los mejores resultados se obtuvieron con la
mezcla: 6% etanol anhidro e/gasolina; con emisiones Siguiendo en la línea de la diversificación, las
equiparables a las gasolinas actualmente en uso, con experiencias de otros países, asocian la producción de
reducciones significativas en algunos parámetros tales etanol a la cogeneración de energía eléctrica, siempre
como ÜJ entre otros. con base en el bagazo como combustible propio de la
caña. De esta manera, el costo energético se ve
No debe descuidarse de modo alguno el impacto del reducido significativamente; de igual forma, el empleo
etanol sobre algunos elastómeros y juntas del motor; de materiales más ricos en azúcares: mieles
situación ya superada por la industria de automotores intermedias, o el propio guarapo , contribuyen
Brasileña. favorablemente al balance económico final del
proyecto.
Aspectos Económicos Asociados a
la Producción de Etanol.
Surge entonces el concepto de INGENIO-
Los detractores de las energías renovables, anteponen DESTILERIA-TERMOELECTRICA, con
siempre, no sin algo de razón .la inviabilidad económica amplias expectativas en el tema del mencionado déficit
de los proyectos; el etanol, no es la excepción, aunque energético nacional.
merece hacerse algunas reflexiones sobre el tema .
'
( < 4.5 Ha/ agricultor) ; agro insumos; agua y energía;
así como a las fluctuaciones del precio de las melazas,
que inhiben frecuentemente la producción de alcohol;
sin desmerecer los aspectos de contaminación
ambiental implícitos.
'&d,:,;· 0H :Thl¡.
ill¡m fr.}ll d1e1: ..... '" m,)
JIM!TM; 1
¡;ctQ=· -·yfr.i;).) J: !o\ c,,;:~,k~a~{
O.!liii fM, i7.[!X KJ!Kg ,H '<!Jl%¡
IT»(l)a..;
n~tr.11
En las condiciones promedio actuales. el
aprovechamiento energético de los ingenios. presenta ~ .......... !i;i)
~4c~:1'ti1r.mici11- rn
todavía serios desbalances, mismos que obligan al
consumo de combustóleo a razón de 7.64 litros por
tonelada métrica de caña industrializada.
Algunos ingenios, han dado pasos ya en dirección A continuación se presenta un análisis de coyuntura;
hacia el ahorro y uso eficiente de la energía; corresponde al caso donde habría que exportar azúcar
incrementando la presión del vapor generado, con al mercado mundial, con precios deprimidos y
importantes reducciones y aún, supresión de consumo participación del cañero en el diferencial de ingresos no
de combustibles complementarios . recibido.
_. . +. , .
.,,,. ~--
-
Cal'.l(n,I;
materia prima USITM US/1.alcohol
[OJ) U,l)') 1l4J4 t0.:!
[f --g:~~~~~~~~--
r!42L-. .
·- Q.1~~~'.!§:5_ --
~ : ; " o l ..
~\W>
(<'.:;.J,
0.16363636 --·
_,. ·º ~8181818
-
"!4ü: (QJ:
.,_, pg\_ ...
combustóleo : U$/I US/1.alcohol
l (d
i 0.3
T
'-""-...- ! ·....... ----- ___ 0.5
-- -·-
--
,,.. •!11)11
¡ 0.75
¡__________.__ 1----·-· .....
--=
+·~m"
-
CaN,¡ni,¡ mano de obra: US/1.al.cohol
(GJ/
C-.'il'•!tl/tP• 'C •'• iGJI
OCJ25
~
¡
·- productos qulmicos: 1USrtalcoi:,01
-· Agua y e. eléctrica:
___ Cl.Cl1 875_ ...1
!us11.atcoho~ 1
1 0.005 j
Depreciación • lus11.a.lc:oh~l1
Una opción para controlar inventarios de azúcar. sin . O 01666667)
afectar el cultivo de la caña (aspecto riesgoso. dado el
predominio de los terrenos de temporal en un 80% de COSTO ANUAL: !U$/l.alcohJ
0.231007576 ' • U$ít.miel ·e· 30.00;consumo petróleo 0.3~1.alcoho!. Conclusiones
0.249189394 ' ' U~tmiel "B' 35.00:cOflSumo pel!óleo 0.31n.alcoho!.
La viabilidad económica de la producción de etanol
0.2673712i2 ' • US/t.m!el 'Bº 40.00:consumo petróleo 0.21/1.aJcohol
anhidro en nuestro país, depende de varios aspectos a
0.28555303 •• US!tmie! '8" 45.l)O;cor,sumopeiró!eo 0.3li1.atoohol.
considerar.
0.303734848 '* U$1l.miel '8" 50.00;coriSumo pelró!eo 0.3lí1.alcohol.
• Costo de la materia prima a emplear
0.321916667 •• U$it.miel 'B" 55 O:J;consumo petróleo 0.3!fl.alcohoL
• Autosuficiencia energética, a partir del
0.340098485 " U$íi.míel '8" 60.00;consumo petróleo 0.3!1!.alcohol. bagazo de la caña. Cero petróleo.
0.358280303 .. US/lmíel 'B'' 65.00:consumo petróleo 0-31!1.alcohol, • Economía de escala (mayor tamaño de las
0.376452121 " U$i!.míel 'B' 70,00:consumo petróleo 0.31/lalcohol destilerías).
• Incorporación de la Cogeneración, con
entrega de electricidad a la red pública en el
ingenio.
• Introducción de la biotecnología para mejorar
los procesos de fermentación.
• Subsidios a la agricultura (producción de
caña destinada para etanol y/o exportación
de azúcar al mercado mundial).
poymanuel@prodigy.net.mx
,
Utilización de Etanol
TECNOLOGICO
DE MONTERREY~ en un Motor a Gasolina
Autores:
Campus Ciudad de México Asesor: Dr. Ricardo Gánem C.
Carlos E. Sáenz C. 995484 Co-Asesor: Dra. lrma Salgado E.
Proyectos de Ingeniería Mecatrónica J. Roberto Álvarez C. 994136 Profesor: Dr. Raúl Crespo S.
México, D. F., Noviembre 2007 L. Andrea Torres C. 993796
PROBLEMÁTICA
Predicción de la
' " t--+--+---+-t--+--+-
Los temas de corte energético hoy en día son de mucha importancia, Í•t-+-+--+--+M. explotación del
ya que las reservas de hidrocarburos son limitadas y no es lejano su fin . L t-+-+--+--.1 petróleo en
Esto nos ha obligado a buscar alternativas de combustibles viables. i.t-+-+-~ P'
diversos países.
OBJETIVOS
* GENERAL
- Monitorear el desempeño de un motor de combustión interna con
una mezcla gasolina-etanol. Comparar su desempeño con gasolina. Predicción de la
producción de
* ESPECÍFICOS
- Diseñar y construir un dinamómetro para medir el torque del motor. etanol en
- Realizar pruebas con dichas mezclas y registrar los resultados. diversos países .
- Medir las emisiones contaminantes del motor.
- Determinar las ventajas y desventajas con base en los resultados
obtenidos.
Distancia DESARROLLO
comprimida
Fuerza de * Recopilación de información relevante sobre el tema en sus
k = cte. del resorte compresión diversas áreas de aplicación.
F[N] * Diseño del dinamómetro en base a los estudios previos.
F = fuerza =k * x * Búsqueda de piezas requeridas para el armado del dinamó-
metro (Sistemas de frenado y transmisión de fuerza).
T • torque • F * d * Rediseño del sistema en función de las piezas compradas.
* Acoplamiento al motor del sistema de medición .
P = potencia = T * w * Adaptación del dispositivo sensor del desplazamiento del resorte .
* Mediciones de Torque , Potencia y Emisiones.
* Análisis de los resultados .
1. ::~
ll) - , - - - - - - - - - , 125
58 IW
PROYECCIONES 58 +-- -l-- ~ ----1
51 115
:: 110 i 56 110
* Implementar un tablero electrónico para manipular la señales de en- " "' ~ 55 105
trada al módulo de contról del motor. " "º
• Complementar la investigación en los aspectos politico, económico Y 1 : " 1
social del país, para determinar que factores detienen el avance del
O
' " "
~l1.u11>1
" " =:~,:~:;' 10 15
~ Etano l
sector energético. ._
: ;-- -- - - - - - ;;;;;;;;~--;;;:;;;;;;;::;:;;::. '--- - - - - ' - - - - - - - -- - - - - '
* Realizar las modificaciones necesarias a un banco de pruebas para que
funcione con etanol al 100% (E100). 2500 RPM's 3500 RPM's