CHAPTER-II

PROFILE OF RICE MILL INDUSTRY

2.1 CRUCIAL R O L E OF AGRICULTURE EV INDIA

Kuznets identifies four possible types of contribution that the

agricultural sector is capable of making to overall economic development. These are:
I) product contribution, i.e., making available food and raw materials, li) market
contribution, i.e., providing the market for producer goods and consumer goods
produced in the non-agricultural sector, and iii) factor contribution, i.e., main available
labour and capital to the non-agricultural sector, and iv) foreign exchange
contribution'.

Indian agriculture plays an important role in the countries internal as well as

international trade. The main agricultural commodities, which are exported, are tea,
oilcakes, fruits, and vegetables, spices, tobacco, cotton, coffee, cocoa, sugar and sugar
products, hides and skins, raw wool and other varieties of animal hair and vegetable
oils, cotton, jute, and textiles. As a result of these developments the agricultural sector
has emerged as a net earner of foreign exchange which is needed for capital and
maintenance imports required in the non-agricultural sector.

' S.Kuznets: " Economic Growth and the Contribution of Agriculture", cf. Subtai'ada Ghata and ken
Ingersent, Agriculture and Economic Development (Select, New Delhi, 1984), pp.26-27.
 52

Fluctuations in agricultural output levels play a key role in the state of the
national economy. There is a direct relationship between agriculture and production,
income and demand for industrial goods. Similarly, performance in agriculture also
influences total demand via Government savings and Public investment.

Agricultural income is the largest source of national income; this sector also is
the primary source of saving, and hence capital formation for the economy. Since
Independence, large investment both Public and private has been made in agriculture.
Substantial amounts of capital are required for the various infrastructures and inputs to
stimulate growth. During the process of development, interdependence between
agriculture and industry has become stronger. Isheer Ahluwalia and Rangarajan in a
recent study^ have drawn attention towards, the three important linkages namely
production linkages, demand linkages, and savings and investment linkages. Linkages
arise from the interdependence of agriculture and industries for productive inputs.

The impact of urban income and industrialisation on the demand for food and
agricultural raw materials is generally recognised. Saving and investment linkages that
have developed between the two sectors not only influence the level of private saving
and investment, these also manifest themselves into government saving and
expenditure.

^ Isher Judge Ahluwalia and C. Rangarajan; Interdependence of Agricult\ire of Industiy, A Study of

Indian Experience, in R.K. Sinha (ed): Economic Development since Independence (Deep, New Delhi,
1988).
 53

2.1.1 FAST INCREASE IN DEMAND

A fast increase in demand for food grains is indicated by the fact that over a
period of about 40 years, India's annual requirements of food grains are estimated to
have increased from 61.9minion tonnes in 1951-56 to 145 milhon tonnes in 1980-85
and ISOmillion tonnes in 1992-93 ^

•^ Increase in Population

To appreciate the rate at which population is exerting pressure on food

supplies, one has to note the trends in population. Since Independence, India's
population has increased from 362.1 million in 1951 to 891 milhon in 1993. It would
be seen that over a period of less than four decades, India's population has more than
270 percentage of increase "*.

"f Increase in per capita income

The G.N.P at factor cost in India has increased from Rs.39, 424 in 1970-71 to
Rs. 11,35,370 inl996-97 ^ In a developing economy where a large mass of
population lives at the subsistence level, marginal propensity of consume tends to be
very high. Food being the most important immediate necessity of population an
increase in the income of the rural population as well as of the additional labour
employed in industry increases the demand for food grains.

• FAO: Agricultural Commodities Projections for 1970s.

" Ibid.
'Ibid.
 54

-f Urbanisation

Along with a high rate of population growth, there is a rapid urbanisation. The
urban population in India has been increased at a rate never witnessed before. The
size of urban population in 1991 is more than double than that in 1951. The
implications of this large increase in urban population are clear enough ^.

2.1.2 SLOW EVCREASE IN DOMESTIC PRODUCTION

The overall rate of increase in the production of food grains has been very low.
The annual rate of increase between 1951-52 and 1964-65 was only 2.52 percent and
2.57 percent between 1996-67 and 1992-93 . It is significant to note further that
during this period the annual rate of increase in productivity in food grains was
greater than the corresponding rate of increase in productivity in non-food grains,
production of food grains and non food grains increased at almost the same rate.

•^ Slow rise in productivity

In an economy where the supply of land cannot be changed except marginally

an increase in production can be secured only by raising the yield per hectare of land.
The index number of productivity in food grains increased slowly from 72.4 in 1950-
51 to 93.1 in 1960-61 and 102.2 in 1974-75; it however jumped to 129.3 in 1978-79
further to 154.4 in 1985-86, and 180 in 1992-931

* Iswar C.Dhingi'a, The Indian Economy Resources, Planning, Development and Problems, Sultan
chand & sons, New Delhi, 1994, pp315-328.
'ibid.
' Ibid.
 55

•^ Inadequate Market surplus in relation to demand

The marketed surplus of food grains is the result of a complex of factors like
the rate of production and self-consumption, incentives in the form of share of
producers in market, prices, quality and varieties of the products, production
marketing conditions, etc.

-f Wastage in Storage

Because of lack of proper storage and warehousing facilities, a significant

share-estimated at about 6 percent by Baljit Sing - gets lost. To that extent the total
available supplies get reduced.

•^ Hoarding and speculation in food gains

Traders and middlemen are in the habit of creating artificial scarcities and
shortage of food grains by indulging in speculative practice during rainy season and in
seasons with low harvest due to national calamities. These people tend to aggravate
the problem of food scarcity specially when a situation of shortage already persists and
thus adds to the magnitude of the problem. To sum up, the supply of food grains in
India has been inadequate in relation to demand. National commission on
Agriculture: These projections have been made at the all-India level and relate to
2,000 A.D.
 56

2.2 RICE AS A MAJOR ITEM OF FOOD

Since time immemorial rice has been one of the major items of food. Even now
rice is a staple food for people living in Asia, which constitutes nearly half the worlds'
population. However, " ... fixing the period of its origin or introduction in different
countries of Asia presents difficulties" ^.

The foremost important instinct of man is self-preservation and food

requirement is the prime means of carrying this instinct. Food is a human right for the
present and future generations for every one at all times and in all places. Hence one
should have both physical and economic access to sufficient food '".

Self-sufficiency, food nutritional security and balanced diet have been claimed
as three evolutionary steps identified for the global systems ' \

Cooked rice is taken as lunch and supper. This is usually taken along with
sauce / pepper water / curry / curd. Only the people in the low income group take rice
without any condiment.

Rice is used for the breakfast also but in varied forms. Some of the most
commonly used products of rice for the breakfast are: Idly (fermented pudding) and
Dosa (pan cakes). Besides these popular items, there are many other products of rice,
which are taken as breakfast. They are appam, idiappam, puttu, kolakkattai, vivikkam,
kazhi and a host of such other preparations.

' R.L.M Ghose et.al. (eds.), Rice India, Indian Council for Agriculture Reseaich New Delhi, 1960,p. 3.
'°Edourd Saoma, FoodfoiiheMwe, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. XLV, No.6, Sep.l990.p 149
" A. Shankran, Food: Strategies for the Nineties, The Hindu, 16.10.1999,and p.8.
 57

Some other products from rice are flaked or beaten rice (popularly called avul
in Tamil), parched or expanded rice (murmura), parched paddy (kheel), ground
parched rice (sattu), and crispies (deep fried rice) '•^.

Global rice production has constantly increased from 399.80 million tonnes in
1980 to 476.80 million tonnes in 1986. With a sharp decline in 1987, once again the
production started rising from 1988 onwards. The index number of global rice
production has increased to 126.64 from the base year 1980. During the period 1980-
1989, global rice production has registered on an average, 2.96 per cent of growth.
However, the growth rates worked out for the different years clearly indicate that the
highest growth was in the year 1983 and the lowest growth was in the year 1986. In
the year 1987, the global production recorded a negative growth rate of 2.47 pier cent.

The demand for rice at the global level is consistently increasing due to the
growth of population. According to Klaus Lampe, Director General of IRRI," by the
year 2025 the Earth will have 8 billion people and 4.3 billion persons will be rice
consumers. Therefore, rice production must rise from today's 430 million tonnes to
760 million tonnes - sixty per cent increase, just to maintain current nutritional levels
which even now are inadequate for hundreds of millions. The additional rice must be
grown on less land as urban centres sprawl on to prime rice fields '^.

'^ The Wealth of India, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research New Delhi, 1971,pp226-235
" Klaus Lampe, Haifa Million People Fed by New Rice Technology, Agiicultural Situation in India,
Vol. XLV, No.l, Apnl 1990,p33.
 58

"India is one of the biggest producers of rice in the world, next only to China.
It accounts for 31 per cent of the area and 41 per cent of the total production in the
country '"*."

The total rice production in India has risen up to 74 million tonnes in 1989-90
from 54 million tonnes in 1980-81. During this period, rice production has registered
an average annual growth of 4.23 per cent. In absolute terms, the production has
increased by 4.23 times in this period.

2.3 TREND OF RICE CULTIVATION IN INDIA AND TAMIL NADU

In India, cultivation of rice is mostly concentrated in the States of Andhra

Pradesh, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh,
Punjab, Karnataka and Assam. In 1980-81, West Bengal stood first in rice production
in the country. Andhra Pradesh occupied the second place. Third, fourth and fifth
places were occupied by Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Orissa respectively. Tamil Nadu
came in the sixth place the rice production has increased steadily as indicated in the
table 2.1. In 1985-86 it has increased to 63.83 million tonne and 74.29 million tonne at
90-91. During 1995 - 96 it has steadily increased to 76.98 million tonne. The recent
data relating to the production is 84.74 million tonne.

''' Rice Milling: Project Profile, Thii-d Edition, Ministry of Industry, Government of India, Ninnan
Bhavan, New Delhi, Vol. ll,1988,p.305
 59

Table 2.1

POPULATION / AREA / RICE PRODUCTION IN INDIA AND TAMIL NADU.

India
Area Tamil Nadu
Year Population Cultivated Rice Rice
(in Million Production Production
(in Crores) Hectares) (OOOtonnes) (000 tonnes)
1980-81 — 40.15 53.63 4160.00
1985-86 63.83 41.14 63.83 5370.00
1990-91 74.29 42.69 74.29 5782.4
1991-92 74.68 42.65 74.68 6596.3
1992-93 72.86 41.78 72.86 6805.7
1993-94 80.30 42.54 80.30 6749.8
1994-95 81.81 42.81 81.81 7562.8
1995-96 76.98 42.84 76.98 5290.0
1996-97 81.73 43.43 81.73 5805.3
1997-98 82.30 43.42 82.30 7052,0
1998-99 — 44.48 84.74 -
Source: RBI - 1999, (Ministiy of Agriculture, Government of India).

In 1989-90 also, West Bengal occupies the first position in rice production.
Andhra Pradesh maintains its second position. Uttar Pradesh now comes in the third
place. Fourth, fifth and sixth places are taken by Punjab, Bihar, and Orissa
respectively. Tamil Nadu is in the seventh rank. These seven states account for 76 per
cent of the total paddy produced in the country.

2.3.1 RICE PRODUCTION IN TAMIL NADU

In 1980-81, it was 4.16 million tonnes and in the next year, production
increased to 5.61 milUon tonnes. However in 1982-83, it has come down to 3.50
million tonnes. Afterwards, production starts rising and goes to a maximum of 5.37
 60

million tonnes. Once again with a marginal decline in 1986-87,it increased to 5.60
million tonnes. Next year also is marked by a marginal decline and in 1989-90; the
production is 6.28 million tonnes.

The share of Tamil Nadu in rice production in India varies from 7 to 10

percent. The lowest share, 7.43 per cent was in the year 1982-83, and the highest share
is 10.53 per cent was in the year 1998-99.

2.4 IMPORTANCE OF AGRO-PROCESSEVG INDUSTRIES

Agro- processing industries are resource based. The growth of the agro-
processing industries is directly and positively influenced by the agricultural
prosperity of a region'^ For instance, rice milling industry in Punjab expanded in size
and emerged as a major processing industry due to increase in the production paddy
from 3 lakh tonnes in 1965 to 65 lakh tonnes in 1991, in the state ^*'.

Agro-processing industries play a crucial role in accelerating the process of

agricultural development by creating backward linkages and forward linkages
generating employment and increasing farmer's mcome . Agro-processmg industries,
like ricing milling and turmeric milling industries, playing a crucial role.

" Amitha Shaw, Undei-standing the Growth of Agro Processing industries: An Inter State analysis.
Paper submitted at the 49* Annual conference of the ISAE, December 4-7, 1989
'* Khan Singh Gill, Post- Modernisation Problems in Rice MiUing and Export of Rice, Workshop on
Rice milling and Export, held in Punjab Agiicultural Univei-sity, Sep.2, 1991.
" S.P.Seethai-aman, Agi'o Processing hidustiies, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.44.
No.4, October-December, 1989,p.315
 61

Agricultural products form important resources for the development of small

scale industries. The agro-processing industries have been assigned an important place
in India's international trade also'^. These industries earn a large amount of foreign
exchange through the export of agro-processed industries which provide large
productive employment of an enduring type to the illiterate and unskilled labourers*^.

2.5 FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRIES

Food processing industry is a sub-sector of the agro-processmg industry. The

products of the traditional food producing units like grain mill, sugar mill, units
producmg dairy products and edible oil extracting units, occupy a pivotal position in
the Indian economy accounting for more than two-thirds of the output of the food
processing industries in the organised sector^".

The development of food processing industries is closely Imked with the

development of the Indian economy. " Generally speaking, a growing processing
industry is a concomitant of a growing economy with rising personal incomes . As
the supply from the food-processing industries increases, the wage-goods constraint
also would get relaxed. Besides, these industries being labour-intensive, has the inbuilt
capacity to generate employment opportunities also.

'^ Lalit Mohan saliu, Export Perfonnance and Constraints of Some Leading Agi-o-Processing Industries,
Indian Journal of Agricultui-al Economics, Vol.44. No.4, October-December, 1989,p.345

' ' Adwait K. Mohanty, Poverty Alleviation and Agro-Based Industries, Indian Journal ofAgricultural
Economics, Vol.44. No.4, October-December, 1989,p.333

^° Bhupal M. Desai aiid N. V.Namboodiri, Development of Food-Processing Industries, Economic and

Political weekly, Vol.27, No.I3, March 28, 1992, P.A42.
^' Ray, debidas, Hand-Pounding in East- India, Khadi-Gramodyog, Vol. VI, No.4, Januaiy 1966,p59.
 62

Especially, if these industries are established in the rural areas, the problem of
disguised unemployment could be tackled effectively. Moreover, these industries
being working-capital intensive will require working capital on a continuous basis and
hence will give a fillip to the existing financial institutions.

According to Desai and Namboodiri, the food-processing industries have

registered a higher growth rate in the industrial sector. They have estimated the growth
rate of the value added to the food-processing industries as 11 per cent in the fifth plan
and 16 per cent in the sixth plan ^^.

According to Confederation of Indian food Trade and Industry, the food-

Processing industry is the largest determinant of GNP accounting for 19 per cent of
the total industrial units producing 16.3 per cent of the total output and employing
around 18 per cent of the national labour force. Food-processing industry ranks fifth in
the total industrial production^^.

2.6 RICE MILLING INDUSTRY

According to Rice MiUing Industry (Regulation) Act of 1958, rice mill means
the plant and machinery with which and premises including precincts there of, in
which or any part of which rice milling operation is carried on.

^^ R.M.Desai and NV.Nambodiri, o;7.a7., pA37.

^' Food Processing, Drammetic change in Outlook, The Hindu Survey of Indian Industry, 1988, p.257
 63

Milling is a general term used for processing of food grains into consumable
form keeping in mind the nutritive quality of the product as well as consumer's
preference. It facilitates storage of food grains and reduces wastage'^''.

Rice milling industry is a raw material- intensive it has direct dependence on

agricultural production. It is true that the increase in production of paddy gears the
milling activity, the growth and expansion of the paddy processing units also
encourages production of paddy and thereby raises rural-led employment and income.
Thus, the growth of the rice milling industry has spread effects-25

It is a labour-intensive industry. Except in the case of rice mills, which use

mechanical dryers and modem parboiling units, there is heavy labour absorption in all
the rice mills and it seems that the rice milling industry participates in the national
fight against unemployment.

This industry produces basic mass consumption good, for which demand from
low and middle income groups both in rural and urban areas have emerged.

The rice milling industry is as old as the cultivation of paddy and hence it is
regarded as one of the oldest food processing industries in India.

^•* B.M. Desai et.. Food Processing Industiies- Management Performance and Development Strategy,
Agricultural Situation in India, Vol.XC VI, No.8, November 1991, p. 605
" S.P. Viramani, Processing and Milling of Food giains. Productivity, Vol.XIV, No.4, January-March
1974,p.451.
 64

Processing of paddy, by the addition of further stages of processing and

adoption of more and more advanced technology, requires large capital outlay and this
would imply marked change in the organisational pattern of the rice milling industry.

In terms of employment, rice milling industry has special significance for it

employs more women than men. This is invariably true of the mills, which depend
solely on the sun drying method for drying paddy. In the case of modern rice mills
they give wide employment opportunity to men.

Rice milling industry, being an agro-based industry, plays a crucial role in

accelerating the agricultural development by creating backward linkages (supply of
credit, inputs etc.) and forward linkages (processing, marketing), adding value to the
farmer's produce and opening up the possibility for exports .

This industry, through its processing operation gives more nutritive food and
conserves rice by way of recoveries. It also increases the shelf life of rice.

Rice milling industry also helps in saving foreign exchange through the supply
of rice bran oil, in the absence of which, edible oil will have to be imported.

Recognising the importance of rice processing, Indian Planning Commission

27
has given due attention to it during the Third Five Year Plan

^* S.P. Viramani, Processing and Milling of Food grains. Productivity, Vol.XIV, No.4, Januaiy-March
1974,p.451.

^' Rajagopal, Food grain Processing technology in changing perspective, Agricultural Situaion in India,
October 1988, p.587.
 65

According to Lewis "The government issued orders as early as 1958 to

modernise the existing 80,000 huller mills". Hence it is clear that there were more than
80,000 Rice mils in India in 1988. In 1994, " There were rice milling units in India.
Out of them were small single huller units. The rest were automatic mills"^^.

One of the significant factors of the paddy milling industry in India is that it
consists of large number of units having obsolete technology, which gives low out-
turn of rice and by-products having low economic value. There is no ISI specification
of rice milling as such ^.

Several processing methods are used at the same time in India because of
varying firm sizes, varying customer needs, low salvage value for old technology, the
high cost of new technology and imperfect knowledge of the economics of the new
technology, reluctance on the part of millers to adopt new technology and compulsory
levy policy of the govemment.

^* Y.S. Lewis (Ed), Rice milling Industry in India, Indian Food Industry, VoIIV, No.3, July-September
1985, p.91
^' Rice Milling: Project Profile, op. cit., p.505
 66

2.6.1 CONVENTIONAL, MODERN RICE MILLS & THEIR PROCESSING

METHODS

Commercial rice mills are classified as conventional and modern mills. The
differences between modem and commercial mills are:

Modern cleaning machines have provision to remove immature paddy. Modern

shelling machmes - rubber roll shellers, are used for dehusking of paddy resulting in
higher yield of brown rice whereas the conventional mills use abrasive disc shellers.

Modem paddy separators have controls on all operational parameters such as

speed, angle and oscillation of deck as well as feed control for efficient separation. In
modern rice mills for polishing raw rice, first and second polishers are of horizontal
abrasive type and the third being of a friction type to get milled rice with smoother
surface. Modern grading machines are of plan sifter or truer cylinder type for efficient
and total broken separation as compared to vibratory graders used in the conventional
mills.

2.6.2 CLEANING

Cleaning is the first step in modern rice milling. It not only enables the
production of clean rice but also protects the other milling machinery and increases
milling capacity.

Impurities that are lighter than paddy are removed by an aspirator. Impurities
larger or smaller in size but heavier than paddy are removed by sieves.
 67

Cleaner : The paddy is fed into this machine through a cleaner opening in the
top. The suction fan draws air through the film of grain and separates all dust
and light impurities, which drop to the cone-shaned bottom of the aspiration
housing for automatic discharge. The paddy falls to a vibrating sieve to
remove impurities such as straw, big stones, etc. The paddy and remaining
small impurities fall to the bottom vibrating sieve with small perforations
which removes small impurities. The overflow from this sieve is again
subjected to strong aspiration to remove the last traces of light impurities.

Destonner: The destonner consists of a perforated deck mounted at an angle

and operated by a reciprocating motion. A large amount of air is blown from
below through the sieve. When a mixture of paddy and stonne is fed at the top
of the sieve, the air coming through the sieve stratifies the materials according
to their density (or heaviness). The heavier stonnes remain on the deck and are
carried backward to the top end by the reciprocating motion of the deck and
discharged. The lighter paddy remains floating and slides down and is
discharged from the lower end. The separation can be controlled by adjusting
the rate of feed, air flow and sieve tilt.

Magnetic separator: Type A is a permanent magnet located in such a way

when unclean paddy moves across it; the iron particles are collected by it. The
particles are later cleared by hand. Type B is cleaned automatically. The
rotating cylinder, there is turned by the free-flowing paddy. Under the
cylinder, there is a half-round magnet As the paddy passes over the cylinder,
iron particles are held by the cylinder's magnetic attraction. As the cylinder
 68

continues to rotate, the cylinder is not moving over the magnet and the iron is
automatically released and discharged separately.

••• Dehusking (Shelling) The object of dehusking is to remove the husk from the
paddy with a minimum of damage to the bran layer and without breaking the
brown rice grain.

<• Husk separation: A mixture of dehusked rice (brown rice), remaining

unshelled paddy, some broken rice and husk that have been split off the paddy
comes out of the Sheller. This mixture is subjected to sieving - cum -
aspiration to separate broken and husk. Sieving prior to aspiration helps in
separating and recovering the small broken formed during shelling, particularly
from the disc shellers which would be otherwise carried away along with the
husk. Lightweight paddy husk is separated from the heavier paddy and rice by
aspiration.

•> Husk separator : The mixture of paddy, brown rice, broken and husk are fed
at the top of a vibrating sieve. The broken pass through the perforations of the
sieve. As the mixture of husk, paddy and brown rice overflows from the sieve,
air is blown or sucked through the mixture. Husk is carried away by the air.
The paddy and brown rice are collected separately.

• Paddy separation: The separated paddy is retumed to the dehusker for

dehusking while the brown rice is carried forward to the polisher.
 69

Shelling of return paddy: Paddy collected from the separator is called return
paddy, for it has to be returned to the Sheller. The return paddy grains are
shorter (if in disc Sheller) or thinner (if in rubber -roll Sheller) than normal
paddy. Hence, it is preferable to collect the returns paddy in a top bin and shell
it at the end with closer clearance between the discs or rolls. Alternately, the
return paddy can be shelled in a separate, small Sheller. This will increase the
capacity of the dehusker.

Grading : After polishing operation, the milled rice contains, in addition to

whole grains, broken grains of different sizes as some bran and dust.
Separation of these materials, termed 'grading' must now be done. Bran and
dust particulars are removed by aspiration. Broken may be separated either by
a 'plan sifter' or by a 'truer'.

Plansifter : It is a single or double-decked sieve which is given a swinging

motion produced by an eccentric drive. It consists of two sheets of
different perforations (first small and then large) to separate two grades of
broken from the polished rice. The grain moves across the swinging sieve in a
continuous, spiral path. A plan sifter, being of sieve type, cannot separate all
broken grains from head rice. Big brokens remain along with head rise, while
small brokens (less than half size) are removed. Sieves of the grader should be
kept free clogging for maximum removal of brokens.

Weighing and bagging: Automatic intake weigher: Its function is to receive

paddy in a continuous flow and release it in quantities of predetermined and
exact weight. At the same time, an automatic counter records the number of
 70

weighments made, thus giving an accurate record of the total weight of

material processed in the mill. Automatic bagging scale: It ensures dust-free
bagging of the finished products and records the number of weighments made
by an automatic counter.

2.7 PADDY PRODUCTION

Paddy is the most widely cultivated food crop of the world after wheat, hi
Production it is third in rank, wheat being the first and maize second. With regard to
Productivity maize comes first, next is paddy followed by wheat.

In India rice occupies the first place both in area and production. It is grown in
an area of about 41.2 miUion hectares producing about 111.01 million tonnes of Paddy
(about 72.0 million tonnes of milled rice) with an average yield of 2.7 tonnes of paddy
per hectare. In Srilanka paddy is grown in area of 7.9-lakh hectare. Production is 2.45
million tons and productivity being 3.1 tons/ha. In the year 1993.

2.7.1 VARIETIES

The estimated number of varieties in the world are about 1,20,000. The
Intemational Rice Research Institute gene bank has a collection of about 80,000, in
which about 2000 important varieties are regularly maintained for commercial
cultivations. There are Wide variations among varieties with regard to their physical
make up and developmental Characteristics and in the practices required for their
 71

cultivations. The duration of growth Varies from 80 to 200 days. But a majority of
the commercial varieties require an average Of 120 to 150 days of growing period.

2.7.2 NEW CONCEPTS IN RICE BREEDEVG

With the introduction of the dwarfing gene Dee Geo gen. From Taiwan it was
possible to control the height of the plant. Short or medium tall plants were non
lodging and gave good response to high dose of fertilizer. The development of dwarf
indica type plants with erect and broad leaves, and with photo insensitive Characters
made the beginning of the green revolution. Several other desirable characters Such
as resistance to diseases and insects, adaptability to various environmental conditions
an Desired cooking qualities were included later in the breeding objectives. Thus was
bom the High yielding technology in rice cultivation, which has greatly increased the
rice yield. In India too, hybrids are bemg released for cultivation. By such approach,
we can increase the Production by 30%.

2.7.3 GRAIN CHARACTERS

A paddy panicle can bear 65 to 150 grains. In a paddy grain there are two
glumes, the bigger one is called lemma and the smaller, palea. These glumes are
removed during shelling. The unpolished rice grain within the glumes is called brown
rice Because of its brownish colour. In the brown rice the pericarp (fruit wall) and
seed coat are fused together to form the outer layer. A single seeded fruit in which the
pericarp and seed coat Coat are fused is called a 'caryopsis'.
 72

The pericarp and seed coat do not add to any food values and have to be
removed by milling for improving taste and digestibility of the cooked rice. Next
combes the aleurone Layer. It contains high amounts of protein, fat, vitamins and
minerals. The germ lies on the side of the grains next to the bigger glume called the
lemma. Germ is also rich in fat, protein, vitamins and minerals. The lower portion of
the germ known as scuteilum can be retained in milled rice which adds to the
nutritional quality of rice,

Eice endosperm contains about 70% starch and 6-7% protein. But the protein
distribution is uneven in the endosperm, being more on the outer region than in the
centre. By judicious milling (4-5) the nutritionally rich aleurone and subaleurone
layers as well as the scuteilum can be retained.

2.8 IMPROVED METHODS IN PADDY PROCESSING IN MODERN RICE

MILLS

The most common drying method is sun drying. Paddy is spread over paved
yard in 3-5 cm thick layers with occasional turning cover to prevent the top layers
from over drying and to permit the bottom layers to receive heat and air movement
necessary for drying. Sun drying can be completed only in dry weather with low
humidity. Tempering of drying and frequent turning over during drying period would
make sun drying more effective. Two stages of drying with one tempering in between
is generally satisfactory. In hot summer, the complete drying including resting can be
completed on the same day. On cooler days, the drying should be so adjusted that
resting is done in night and drying completed next day moming, so that sunshine time
is not wasted.
 73

Determining the correct stage of resting/tempering in two-stage sun drying is

important. About 4/5th of the drying should be at the first stage and only l/5th at the
second stage.

2.8.1 Mechanical Diying

The alternative to sun drying is mechanical drying which is suggested for

drying large quantities of paddy under adverse climatic conditions. Paddy is held in a
container and hot air is blown through the paddy mass. The dryer may be either batch
type or continuous type.

2.8.2 Batch Dryers

One method is in-bin drying with ambient air, which is a diying-cum-storage

technique. The bins hold a large quantity (upto 100 tonnes) of paddy. Unheated air is
drawn uniformly through the thick bed of paddy held in the bin. Grain dries in
several days or weeks. Cooling caused by aeration prevents spoilage during this
period. When the humidity is too high, these systems may use heat to raise the air
temperature by few degrees to enable the drying to be completed in a reasonable time.

The other type of batch dryer consists of a bin which holds 1 -2 tonnes of
paddy. The floor of the bin is perforated. Paddy is spread 0.6 to 1.2 meters deep over
the perforated floor and heated air is blown through the paddy fi-om below. After the
drying is complete, paddy is discharged and the dryer is ready for the next batch.
 74

2.8.3 Continuous flow driers

When large volume of paddy is to be dried quickly, continuous flow dryers are
used. These dryers are of two kinds: Non-mixing and mixing types.

2.9 FACTORS AFFECTING YIELD OF RICE DURING MILLING

There are hundreds of varieties of paddy that are grown, milled and traded.
The yield of rice is not same in all the varieties. The factors responsible for these
differences are discussed here.

I.Foreign matter

a. Inorganic matter, viz., sand, stonne, clay particles, mud etc., present in
paddy not only Reduce the efficiency of the milling machineries but also reduce the
yield of rice.
b. Organic matter, viz., grains other than paddy, chaff, thread, hay present in
paddy Reduce yield of rice.

2. Immature Grains

The Immature rice grains are usually either opaque or greenish and thin. These
Grains are fragile and cannot withstand pressure of milling. As a result they break
into very small Pieces and are blown along with husk or get powdered and. go into
bran fraction, thus reducing the yield of rice during milling.
 75

3. Infested grains

Infested grains (arising due to improper storage) generally contain black spots,
opaque Spots and sometimes entire grain is blackish/yellow/reddish. These grains
break, into very Small pieces and are carried away along with husk.

4. Size and shape of Grains

Generally long grains break more than the short grains. Higher the breakage in
rice the smaller gragments of rice are blown out along with husk and their separation
is very difficult As a result the yield of rice goes down.

5. Moisture content

Higher the moisture contents of paddy, lesser the mechanical strength of the
grain and Vice versa. Upto 15% moisture content in paddy, there is not much
difference in breakage during milling. As the moisture content increases beyond this
level, breakage also increases and if moisture is very high, powdering of rice also
takes place due to lower mechanical Strength of grain thus lowering the yield of rice.
In tropical and sub-tropical regions the Optimum moisture of paddy at the time of
milling is 12-13%. Lesser the moisture content at the time of milling (i.e. 12to 13%»)
higher will be the yield of rice and lesser the storage Changes in the milled rice.
 76

6. Cracked grains

After dehusking, if brown rice in examined under transmitted light, the

following types of grains could be seen. (SeeFig.2)
a) Sound grains (having no cracks),
b) Grains with single transverse cracks (STC),
c) Grains with multiple transverse cracks (MTC),
d) Grains with Irregular cracks (IC).

7. Degree of polish (D.P)

The outer layers of brown rice contain fiber which hinders the permeability of
water during cooking and also contain undesirable phytin phosphorous. Hence certain
amount of bran is to be removed for easy cooking and consumer acceptability. At 3 to
4% degree of polish rice cooks easily and nutritionally also good as majority of
vitamins are retained. But the storage quality of rice is poor. Hence in hidia rice is
milled to 6-8% d.p. for trade and commerce. In western countries however, rice is
milled even upto 12 to 15% d.p. It is evident that as more and rice is polished the
yield of rice keeps on decreasing. Further more vitamins, minerals and protein are
lost.

When dehusking and polishing are done in a single operation (HuUer), yield of
rice is less and bran is impure. On the other hand if dehusking and polishing are
carried out separately (modem mills), yield of rice is more and bran is pure.
 77

2.10 COMPOSITION OF BY-PRODUCTS

2.10.1 BY PRODUCTS FROM RICE MILLS

With 120 million tonnes of paddy (94), at the rate of 5% bran, total bran
availability In India is about 6.0 million tonnes per year. Oil content of bran is 15-
20% oil in raw and 20-25% in parboiled. At an average of 20% oil in bran, potential
production is 1.2 million tonnes RBO annually. Current production is around 0.4
million tonnes.

2.10.2 RICE BRAN

From 111. 01 million tons paddy produced in India, at the rate of 5% bran,
total bran availability is 5.5 ml in tons annually. From raw bran, we can get 15-20%
and from parboiled bran, 20-25% of oil, potential production is more than 10 lakh
tons of rice bran oil (RBO). Bran from other cereals have low oil content (Table 1)
and hence not suitable for oil extraction/ Current production of RBO is only about
4.3 lakh tonnes out of which edible grade is 2.25 lakh tons. Since parboillled paddy is
still being widely milled in hullers (in West Bengal, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Kerala) this
bran is mostly unavailable for oil extraction.

Bran from paddy milled in small quantity in huller for custom milling is also
unavailable. Out of 395 solvent plants in India 35 are in Karnataka. Defatted bran
export projection from India is 4.0 lakh tonnes i.e. about Rs. 85.0 Crores for 1993-94.
Bran should be stabilized immediately after milling or oil should be extracted sooner.
 78

Table 2.2
COMPOSITION OF WHOLE RIGE BRA]V.

Constituents Range% Constituents/ Range%

Vitamins (ug/g)
Moisture 11.5-16.1 Thiamine 24
Crude fat 12.8-22.6 Riboflavin 1.8-4.3
Crude protein 11,5-17.2 Pyridoxine 25
Fiber , 6,2 - 14.4 Pantothenic acid 27,7
Ash 8.4-11.2 Niacin 267.99
Carbohydrates 35-50.2 Tocopherols 149.2
Wax 0.6-0,8
Dietary fiber 25.6-48.6
Source: B.V. Sathyendra Rao and H.V. Narasimha paper presented in centi-al Food Technological
Research Institute Mysore in 1998

The above table shows the composition of whole rice bran which posses the
essential components of Fiber, Fat, Protein, wax, Ash and important vitamins. More
over it is already stated that this possess 20 percent of its weight as oil content which
is of greater value in Industrial and as well as for human consumption.
 79

2.10.3 COMPOSITION OF RICE HUSK

Utilization of Husk

Fuel value of husk is about 1/2 of coal and 1/3 that of petrol. Current Grate
furnaces are inefficient. For best recovery of fuel value, cyclone furnaces have been
introduced. Also husk gasification.

Husk can also be compacted for domestic use. White ash obtained after
complete Burning can be used for various industrial purposes. There are many other
potential Industrial uses of husk.

Table 2.3
COMPOSITION OF RICE HULL (HUSK)

Protein % 1.9-3.3.0

Fat% 0.3-0.8

Fiber % 34.5-45.9

Carbohydrates % 26.5-29.8

Ash% 13.2-21.0

Silica % 18-22.3
Source: B. V. Sathyendra Rao and H. V. Narasimha paper presented in cental Food Technological
Research Institute Mysore in 1998

It is observed from the above table that the rice husk are hull posses the
essential Proteins, Fat, Fibre, Carbohydrates, Silica and Ash content. So without any
 80

greater capital expenditure such methods materials may be used for manufacturing
essentials of life.

Table 2.4
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RICE GERM

CONSTITUENTS
Content Percentage Vitamins Percentage Minerals Percentage
(Ug/g) (Ug/g)
Fat 25-32 — ~ ~ ~

Protein 26 105.0 Cu 8

Chemical 82 Riboflavin 5-8 Mg 7160

1

Score
In Vitro 84 Niacin 79.0 Zn 164
Digestibility
Starch 5 „..
K 18000
Crude fiber 3 Na 1070

Sugars 12 Fe 141

Dietary fiber 17.7 Mn 94

.- Ca 790
Source: B.V. Sathyendra Rao and H.V. Nai-asimha paper presented in central Food Technological
Research Institute Mysore in 1998
 The above table 2.4 indicates the chemieai composition of the rice Germs. It
possesses enriched Fat, Protien, Stouch Fiber, Sugar and other essential vitamins. Ita
can be used in Industries to manufacture such machines which possesses the above
composition.

2.10.4 FUEL VALUE OF HUSK

Table 2.5
PROPERTIES OF TYPICAL FUELS

Fuel Heating value Air regd m3/kg Flue gas m3/kg

kCal/Kg
Husk 3200-3900 4.6 5.1
Wood 4000 - 4600 6.0 7.0
Coal 8400-8800 10.6 11.5
Kerosene 10290 13.0 13.7
Petrol 10820 13.6 11.5
Source: B.V. Sathyendra Rao and H.V. Narasinilia paper presented in central Food Technological
Reseai-ch Institute Mysore in 1998

It is observed that from the above table the husk is possessing extradinory
heating value. So it is commonly used boilers and dryers as a fuel. It has the heating
value to generate the heat up to 3900 kilocalories.

Husk is tough because of its silica-cellulose structural arrangement. This offers

inherent resistance to burning. At present husk is largely burnt in grate furnaces.
 82

Cyclone furnaces are much efficient and combustion efficiency there in will be about
75-90 percentage. Efficiency of fluidized bed furnaces could be as high as 90-95
percentage. They result in white ash and are pollution free.

In some of the South East Asian countries, rice mills are working based on
power generated by gasification method. Pilot scale studies are being conducted in
India for the practical feasibility of gasifying systerns.

If the entire husk available in India is used for power generation, 50 percent of
the energy generated itself is sufficient to meet all the electrical energy required by the
industry. So cogeneration in rice mills, using husk holds lot of promise. Husk is also
briquetted for cheaper and efficient transportation. Such briquettes are used
domestically and industrially as fuel. Special stoves which use husk as fuel have also
been designed for use in kitchens.

Furfural, chloroform, carbon black, activated carbon. Silica gel. Sodium

silicate are some of the other derivatives useful of paddy husk. If husk is incompletely
burnt the ash can be used as a diluent for manure. The ash is also used to increase the
bulk of industrial cleaning compositions. Other applications of husk are as base
material for husk boards, loose insulating material in buildings and cold storages, in
shipping as packaging material etc.
 83

Table 2.6
STORING LOSSES IN PADDY STORAGES

Structure Percentage loss in weight Average Loss

Insects Rodents Moulds Loss % viability %
Bamboo 2-8 0.51.0 0.5-1.0 3-15 10-24
Masonary 1-3 0.5-6.0 0.5-2.0 2-11 20-63
Straw 1-3 0.5-6.0 0.4-0.5 2-6 30-65

Gunny baga 0.5-1 0.2-6.0 0.0-0.5 2-6 2-14

Underground 0-0 0.0-1.4 0.0-2.6 0-4 95-100
Source; S. Rajendran and Muralidharari (FPIC) paper presented in Central Food Technological
Research Institute, Mysore 1998.

The above table indicates that the average loss is very minimal when paddy is
stored in underground storages. It increased to 2 to 6 percent when it is kept in gunny
bags. When it is stored in straw the loss is the same. Incase it is stored in bamboo,
masonary the loss is greater.
 84

2.11 GROWTH OF RICE MILLS IN INDIA

Table 2.7
RICE MILLS m INDIA
HuIIer- Modern/
Year Hullers Shellers cum- ModeiTiis Total
Shellers ed mills
1968 42,620 2,084 3,710 6 48,420
1970 51,888 2,302 4,832 6 59,028
1975 80,007 3,676 7,210 346 91,239
1980 73,306 4,283 8,065 5,071 90,725

1985 79,197 4,484 6,654 17,826 1,08,161

1990 86,007 4,447 7,859 29,614 1,27,927

1991 86,284 4,111 8,299 30,889 1,29,583

1992 86,315 4,098 8,300 32,969 1,31,682

1993 86,315 4,098 8,300 32,969 1,31,682

1994 90,091 4,237 8,362 33,557 1,36,247
Source: Rice Milling Cell Ministry of Food Processing Industries, Government of India.

The above table 2.7 reveals the growth of Rice mills in different types in India

during 1968 to 1994. The growth of Hullers up to 1994 is 111.3% while taking 1968

as a Base year. In Sheller category the growth recorded is 103.31%. In Huller cum

Shelter category it is 125.39%. Regarding modem / modernized category it is

 85

5,59,183.33 % which indicates the tremendous growth in this industry. The total Rice

mills growth recorded over the period is 181.38%.

2.11.1 DISTRIBUTION OF RICE MILLS

The above table2.7 shows clearly the distribution of Rice mills in India. In the

HuUer segment first place is occupied by Kerala and successive position are occupied

by Tamilnadu, Karnataka, West Bengal and Maharastra.

Regarding shellers installation Andra stood in first place, then U.P, Kamakata,

Punjab, Maharastra and Madya Predesh.

Regarding HuUer and Sheller Installation in Rice mills Andra Stood first

followed by Assam, Tamilnadu and Karnataka.

2.12 RICE MILLING AND RICE TECHNOLOGY

2.12.1 Harvesting, Threshing and Drying

• Optimum stage of harvesting is around 20 % moisture. Too early

harvesting leaves too many immature grains. Too late harvesting causes

crated grains. Both lead to heavy breakages of rice during milling.

 86

• Continuous or rapid drying (sun or hot air) causes heav)' cracking and

broken.

2.12.2 Par Boiling

• In traditional single and double boiling process involve soaking in cold

water imparts bad smell due to fermentation. Hot soaking process

developed by CFTRI eliminates the bad smell.

• Recent advances are pressure parboiling where soaking is eliminated or

minimal, dry heat parboiling where soaked paddy is roasted with sand

instead of steamed.

• Parboiling has some outstanding advantages it reduces rice breakages

improve milling yield increases stable oil in bran and retention of vitamins

in milled rice.

• Cooking and eating properties of new rice are very different since new rice

swells less is stieky and gives a thick gruel. This can be changed after

storage such new rice properties can be cured by steaming. It can be also

cured by closed heating and slow cooling.

 87

• With 120 million tonnes of paddy (94), at the rate of 5% bran, total bran

availability in India is above 6 million tonnes per year. Oil content of bran

is 15 to 20% in raw and 20-25% in parboiled. At an average it is 20% and

it is works out to 1.2 million tonnes but current production is only 0.4

million tonnes.

2.12.3 Milling

• HuUer dehusk and debrans simultaneously causes heavy grain breakages

while in MRM dehusking, aspiration paddy separation stage wise polishing

and grading of mill rice are done successive stages so hence it give high

yield and pure bran.

• Use of rubber role Shelter for dehusking is the best which is adopted in

Modem Rice Mill.

• Rice outturn depends on husk content of paddy, the degree of milling and

extend of grai n breakages.

• Low degree milling leads to storages deterioration even though the

nutritive value is high it can be determined by

 88

a) Percent loss in grain weight.

b) Extraction of bran pigments.

C) Staining with a dry.

2.12.4 Rice Bran Oil

• At present above 60 % of RBO being produced in edible grade, as oil is

being extracted with in 24 hours after rice is milled if more delay is caused

the lipase enzyme lead to FFA in oil even industrial grade oil can also yield

by products such as wax and certain pharmaceuticals.

2.12.5 Husk

Fuel value of husk is Vi of coal and 1/3 that of petrol current grate furnaces are

inefficient for best recovery of fuel value. The cyclone furnaces and husk gasification

modds will be of useful one moreover the by product of ash used for various industrial

purposes.

2.12.6 Rice Products

Three rice products are popular, flaked rice, expand and puffed rice. Falked

rice is nothing but dry - heat parboiled paddy either by pounding or pressing. The

expanded rice is made by dry heat parboiling of paddy then milling and expanding it

by sand - roasting. The puffed rice is made by puffmg paddy by roasting it in sand.
 89

2.12.7 Important factors in Rice Quality

<• Degree of milling of rice affects its colour appearance storage behavior

cooking behavior and nutritive value.

*t* Moisture, the most important factor in storage property.

<• Percentage of broken grains.

<• The age of the rice.

*l* Chalky, red, damaged grain.

<• Physical properties such as size shape, bulk density and flow property

must be taken in to account.

2.12.8 By- products of rice milling and their utilization

• The economic utilisation of these by products which constitutes nearly 30

% by weight of the paddy processed is essential to improve the economy of

the Industry.

• During 1998 from 111.01 miUion tonnes paddy @5% bran 5.5million

tonne is available. We can get 15.20 % from raw bran and 20.25% from par

boiling. Current production is 4.3 lakh tonnes out of which 2.25 lakh tonne

is edible grade remaining is Industrial grage.

 90

• Out of 395 solvent plants in India 35 are in Karnataka. Defatted bran

export projection from India is 4.0 lakh tonnes i.e. 85 cr in 93-94.

• To prevent FFA formulation bran should be stabilized immediately after

milling or oil should be extracted sooner.

2.12.9 Remedies

1. Modemisation of rice mills

2. Appropriate sieving of hull bran mixture from the double huller to get

solvent extractable bran.

3. Immediate oil extraction.

4. Installation of bran stablizers. li can be done in the following ways.

a) Wet heat b) dry heat c) mineral and acid treatment d) curing or

parboiling of paddy in improved methods

The table 2.8 explores that the distribution of rice mills in India. In the huller

segment first place is occupied by Kerala, and successive positions are occupied by

Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, West Bengal and Mahastra. Regarding shellers installation

Andhra stood in first place, then Uttar Pradesh and Kamataka, Punjab, Maharastra and

Madya Pradesh. Regarding huller cum sheller installation in rice mills Andhra stood

first followed by Assam, Tamil Nadu and Kamataka.

 ^

•f* •• F T
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