Alwan TBT

Ž Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 2000 .
167–180
www.elsevier.nlrlocaterjappgeo
Investigations of geoelectrical signatures at a hydrocarbon

contaminated site
Estella A. Atekwana, William A. Sauck, Douglas D. Werkema Jr. )
Department of Geosciences, Western Michigan UniÕersity, Kalamazoo, MI 49008, USA
Received 24 March 1998; accepted 5 November 1998
Abstract
This study provides an evaluation of the utility and resolution of different geoelectrical methods in mapping
contaminant distribution in the subsurface, and provides a window into the processes that may control their response at a site in
Central Michigan. In situ and 2D surface resistivity, ground penetrating radar Ž GPR . , and electromagnetic methods Ž EM .
constrained by soil boring data were used to investigate the electrical properties of a light nonaqueous phase liquid Ž LNAPL .
contaminant plume that resulted from 50 years of leakage into a glacio-fluvial geologic setting. Overall, the electrical signature
from the in situ resistivity measurements were best able to image the subsurface stratigraphy and the associated contamination
zone. GPR also mapped the subsurface stratigraphy. In particular, the GPR recorded a reflector that is subparallel to the water
table, and occurs a few meters above the current free product level, which is coincident with the top of an oil-stained, light-gray
sand layer. Further, regions of attenuated GPR reflections Ž shadow zones . due to enhanced conductivities were found to be
coincident with low apparent resistivities. 2D geoelectrical measurements successfully imaged the top of the saturated zone and
the underlying clay layer, but was unable to resolve any anomalous region that could be attributed to the hydrocarbon
contamination. Likewise, the EM results provided no evidence of the presence of the free product plume at depth. Throughout this
investigation, geoelectric measurements consistently recorded low resistivities Ž high apparent conductivities . associated with
zones containing the freerresidual product plume instead of high resistivities as has been suggested by the simple intuitive model.
From this, it is inferred that substantial modification of the geochemical characteristics of the plume, surrounding media, and
associated groundwater has occurred as a result of biogeochemical reactions. It is evident from this study that in situ resistivity
measurements combined with surface geoelectrical measurements can characterize the distribution of conductive zones that may
be associated with the biodegradation of LNAPL in the subsurface. Thus, the application of these techniques to hydrogeologic,
contaminant monitoring, and remediation studies are far reaching. q2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Biogeochemical; Degradation; Conductivity; Contamination; LNAPL; Geoelectrical
)
Corresponding author. E-mail: d.werkema@wmich.edu
1. Introduction
electromagnetic methods Ž EM .. are increas-
Geophysical surveys Ž particularly, ground y being used at sites contaminated by non-
eous phase liquids Ž NAPL . , as an aid in the
penetrating radar Ž GPR . , electrical resistivity, acterization and monitoring of these sites.
n, geophysicists have based the interpretation
of the results from these surveys on the
0926-9851r00r$ - see front matter q 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII:
S0926-9851 Ž 98 . 00033-0
( 168 E.A. Atekwana et al.r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 2000 ) 167–180 r esults from simple intuitive models Ž
e.g., Mazac ́ et al., 1990 . . This insulating layer model as- sumes
that the presence of NAPLs in the sub-
surface can be inferred because the contaminated groundwater and soils would have a lower electrical
conductivity and lower relative permittivity than the surrounding uncontaminated media. Such a model
has received wide support from controlled spill and laboratory experiments using mostly fresh
hydrocarbon products Ž King and Olhoeft, 1989; Schneider and Greenhouse, 1992; Daniels et al., 1992;
Endres and Redman, 1993; de Ryck et al., 1993; Redman et al., 1994; Monier-Williams, 1995;; Grumman
and Daniels, 1995; Endres and Greenhouse, 1996; Campbell et al., 1996 . . However,
none of these
geophysical experiments replicates the dynamic field conditions usually present at contaminated sites.
Thus, it is not surprising that the geophysical investigations at hydrocarbon spill sites have yielded
remarkably variable results. Benson Ž 1995 . and Benson and Mutsoe Ž 1996 . show enhanced GPR
reflections at hydrocarbon-contaminated sites. Other investigators report attenuation of GPR signal
amplitude resulting in a ‘shadowing’, ‘fuzzy’, or ‘muted’ appearance in the vicinity of gasoline
contamination in the capillary fringe ŽDaniels et al., 1992; Grumman and Daniels, 1995; Maxwell and
Schmok, 1995 . . Further- more, high apparent conductivities Ž Monier- Williams, 1995 . or low apparent
resistivities ŽBenson and Stubben, 1995; Gajdos and Kral, 1995; Benson and Mutsoe, 1996; Sauck et al.,
1998 . and high interpreted resistivities Ž Benson et al., 1997 . associated with areas of known
hydrocarbon plumes have been reported. In some cases, no noticeable change in the geoelectric signature
was observed at a site even though hydrocarbon contaminants were detected in groundwater monitoring
wells Ž Grumman and Daniels, 1995 . . The

above investigations illustrate that the geoelectrical
properties of hydrocarbon contaminant plumes and their host media vary and suggest that the
widely-acceptable insulating
layer model does not adequately describe the geoelectrical signatures observed at many NAPL
contaminated sites. Recently, Sauck et al. Ž 1998 . have proposed that the volume impacted by
hydrocarbon spills Ž in this case LNAPLs . in the natural environment changes from electrically resistive
to a more conductive behavior with time due to a variety of biogeochemical processes. This temporal
change in the resistive behavior of hydrocarbon contaminated zones has not been adequately exploited in
geophysical interpretations and models at contaminated sites, although it has been suggested that many
hydrocarbons and organic chemical contaminant plumes change with time due to a variety of active
processes Ž Olhoeft, 1992; Benson and Stubben, 1995; Benson et al., 1997 . . Support for
this hypothesis
comes from geochemical studies at hydrocarbon contaminated sites which indicate the presence of highly
conductive groundwater below some LNAPL plumes ŽBaedecker et al., 1987; Cozzarelli et al., 1990;
Baedecker et al., 1993; Bennett et al., 1993; Eganhouse et al., 1993 . . Apparently, hydrocarbon

degradation by bacterial activity in the vadose zone and groundwater produces carbonic and organic
acids which contribute to enhanced mineral dissolution of the aquifer materials Ž McMahon et al., 1995 .
. This leads to the pro- duction of a high total dissolved solids Ž TDS . leachate
plume that is reflected in
the increased groundwater conductance observed in and around the zones of active biodegradation Ž
Be-nson and Stubben, 1995; Benson et al., 1997 . . Consequently,
at a given location the composition
and physical properties of the freerresidual product plume and surrounding media will change or evolve
with time.
The apparent ambiguity in the spatial and temporal geoelectrical properties at hydrocarbon spill sites can
be explained by changes in the vadose zone, aquifer, and their associated pore fluids. Changes that can
influence the measured geoelectrical signature include, but are not limited to: Ž 1 . porosity changes in
the vadose zone as

the hydrocarbon displaces and occupies pre-
( E.A. Atekwana et al.r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 2000 ) 167–180 169
history, using multiple geoelectrical methods. In
viously air filled pores, Ž 2 . displacement of water addition, the distribution of the hydrocarbon
in the capillary fringe by hydrocarbons, Ž .3 the contaminants in the subsurface and their
elationship to the observed geoelectrical
thickness, saturation, and distribution of the
measurements are evaluated. It is assumed, based on
he spill history, that sufficient time has elapsed to
residualrfree product above the water table, Ž .4 the modify the hydrochemical environment within and
around the existing plume, and presumably the
thickness and distribution of the leachate plume in geoelectrical signature.
the upper part of the aquifer, Ž 5 . changes
in
aqueous pore fluid chemistry due to microbial 2. Background
degradation, and Ž 6 . reaction between the

aquifer
The Crystal Refinery located in Carson City, MI Ž
solids and microbial degradational products.
Clearly, the observed geophysical signatures are in
Fig. 1 . is bounded on the south by a City Park

response to complex physical and biogeochemical
which is mostly wooded, to the west by a stream Ž
changes occurring within a dynamic system. In
Fish Creek and its associated wetlands . , and
to the
light of the above hypothesis Ž that hydrocarbon

north by a cemetery. The refinery was constructed
impacted media will change from electrically
n the 1930s and refined crude oil from 1935 to the
resistive to conductive behavior with time . , this early 1990s. Historical releases from tanks and
pipelines resulted in the seepage of hydrocarbons
study investigates the geoelectrical signature
of a nto the subsurface, impacting soils and
hydrocarbon-impacted site with a 50-year spillage groundwater beneath the site, cemetery and park.
The Department of Conservation, now the Michigan
e varies from 0.6 to 0.9 m Ž 2–3 ft . west of the
Department of Environmental Quality Ž MDEQ .
next to Fish Creek to 4.6 to 5.8 m Ž 15–19 ft . ,
first observed evidence
of hydrocarbon
contamination in Fish Creek in 1945. Two plumes the east. Groundwater
flows west–southwest
have been identi- ard Fish Creek with a hydraulic gradient of

fied at the site, a northern Ž extending WNW 5 and a flow velocity of 1.7 mrday Ž 5.5 ftrday
towards Fish Creek . and southern plume con-
sisting of crude oil and gasoline, respectively Ž Fig. Snell Environmental Group, 1994 . .
1 . . The southern plume which extends
southwesterly into the City Park is the focus of this
study. This plume is approximately 228.7 m Ž 750 ield studies
ft . long and 82.3 m Ž 270 ft . wide with a free
Soil borings
product thickness between 0.3 to 0.6 m Ž 1–2 ft .
Investigations of the subsurface
and an estimated volume of 166,540 l Ž 44,000 gal . igraphy, contaminant distribution and
rogeology were accomplished by hand-augered
Ž Snell Environmental Group, 1994 . . Dissolved

ngs along a line 15 m south Ž GPR line 15 . of
phase hydrocarbons are found at the fringes of the
refinery boundary. This was accomplished to
free product plume with high concentrations of
vide controls for interpreting the geophysical
benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene and xylene Ž lts.
BTEX . Ž Dell Engineering, 1992 . . Geologically,

Electrical resistiÕity
the site is characterized by approximately 4.6 to Vertical resistivity probes Ž VRP . with
cm Ž 1 in. . electrode spacing were installed at
6.1 m Ž 15–20 ft . of fine to medium
sands,
e locations along a line 20 m south of the
coarsening below the water table to gravel, and is nery boundary for in situ resistivity
underlain by a 0.6 to 3.1 m Ž 2–10 ft . clay aquitard surements. These probes are similar in concept
hose
unit Ž Dell Engineering, 1992 . . Depth to the water
( ) E.A. Atekwana et al.r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 2000 167–180 1 70
Fig. 1. Location map of the study site. The enclosed box shows the area covered by the electromagnetic survey. Plume boundaries
are as defined in 1994 Ž Snell Environmental Group, 1994 . .
electrodes from inside
PVC pipe. A drill rig was used to hammer a hole
described by Schneider et al. Ž 1993 . . The probes m in diameter for the resistivity probe with AW
tipped with a 5 cm preprobe point by Geoprobe.
consist of a close-spaced permanent vertical array of
arent resistivity measurements were obtained
mini-electrodes Ž stainless steel screws . mounted
g a 5 cm Ž 2 in. . Wen- ner array. The
inside a 3.8 cm Ž inside diameter . PVC pipe
or dry stivity profile was calibrated against lithologic
well with the heads of the screws on the outside in ervations in hand-augered soil borings conducted
contact with the formation. A four-contact slider is to the probes.
used to make contact with successive sets of four
obliterated with the use of an AGC filter.
Additionally, 2D electrical resistivity mea- Electromagnetic induction
surements using the axial dipole–dipole array Ž DD
A reconnaissance electromagnetic
. were conducted using an a spacing of 5 m, and n ey was conducted within the boxed area shown
increasing to 5, along a line 20 m south of the Fig. 1. Using a Geonics EM-31 unit in the
refinery boundary. The data were then inverted ical dipole mode, continuous measurements of
using a commercially available software package the in-phase and quadrature components were
RES2DINV, which uses a nonlinear rded along lines 10 m apart.
smoothness-constrained least-squares optimization

esults and interpretation
technique Ž Loke and Barker, 1996 . . A
finite-difference forward modeling subroutine was 4.1. Soil borings
then used to calculate the modeled resistivities.
The borings, their positions, and
3.3. Ground penetrating radar riptions are shown in Fig. 2. Generally, three
or layers can be observed beneath an
anic-rich, black soil layer: an upper orange-tan,
GPR surveys using the Geophysical Survey ium grained sand with variable thickness; an
stained, gray sand layer grading downwards to a
Systems, Ž GSSI . SIR-10A equipment with a 300
ker gray to black coarse sand and gravel layer
MHz bistatic antennae recording for 160 ns were
strong gasoline odor; and a black gravel layer
conducted along lines 15 and 35 m south of the
rated with free product.
refinery boundary Ž Fig. 1 . . A three-scan moving
average filter was applied to the data and resulted in
Electrical resistiÕity
slight horizontal smoothing. It is important to note
that this survey used constant gain setting, and not
AGC or other gain changes along the profile line. A ity measurements
1. In situ resistiÕ
constant gain setting allows for the discernment of We present below the results of a typical
small changes in signal amplitude which may be P measurement. The resistivity data shown
Ž . Fig. 2. Soil profile along the GPR profile line 15 S . The numbers at the top are the coordinates of the borings.
Fig. 3 Ž located at 0 mE, 20 mS . is
( 1 72 E.A. Atekwana et al.r Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 2000 ) 167–180 in
located directly within an area with at least 30.5 cm of known free product thickness. Although there is
variability in the data Ž partly due to the very dry sands,

and partly due to the nature of the Wen- ner
array across contacts where resistivity changes occur . the results show higher apparent resistivities

associated with the vadose zone. The most interesting feature in the data occurs at a depth of
approximately 400 cm Ž 4 m . where a sudden decrease in apparent resistivity to approximately 15 Ω m

is observed. Soil boring data indicates that this interface is coincident with a marked change in both color
and lithology of the formation from the light-gray, medium grained sand Ž zone C . to the darker gray,

coarse sand and gravel with a strong gasoline odor Ž zone D . . The lowest measured resistivities Ž
resistivity minima . occur within zone

E, characterized by a black, coarse grained sand and gravel layer
that is moist and glistening. Below this zone, and superimposed on the resistivity low is a zone of
slightly higher appar-
ent resistivities corresponding to a mostly gravel layer with saturated free product Ž zone F . . Per- haps
the slightly higher resistivity of this zone may be related to the relatively unaltered hydrocarbon free
product. Below zone F, another slight decrease in resistivity is observed at approximately 600 cm Ž 6 m
. depth. Below this zone,

the resistivities gradually increase to values of approximately 30–40 Ω m,
probably reflecting background saturated zone values.
The zone of anomalous conductivity depicted in Fig. 3 occupies the lower part of the residualrfree
product hydrocarbon and upper part of the saturated zone consisting mostly of coarse sand and gravel. It
is important to note that there is no significant change in the lithology from the surface to the bottom of
this probe Žexcept for a coarsening of the sand grains below
the water table to account for the resistivity
changes that are observed in Fig. 3. Hence, the observation of the anomalous conductivity zone is
significant because it suggests that the contaminated media is conductive and not resis-
Fig. 3. Vertical resistivity probe with associated soil boring located at 0.0 mE, 20 S, 5 cm Wenner array, semi-log scale. Ž . Ž . Ž
. Layer descriptions are as follows: A organic-black top soil; B tan-medium grained sand; C oil-stained, light gray, Ž . Ž .
medium grained sand; D dark gray, coarse grained sand with strong gasoline odor; E black, coarse grained sand and Ž . gravel,
moist and glistening; F black, gravel saturated with free product.
measurements.
2. 2D resistiÕ ity
tive, especially where significant alteration of the
he pseudosection Ž Fig. 4 . shows a vadose zone
hydrocarbon product has occurred Ž e.g., zone .E . th high apparent resistivities greater than 25,000
m, reducing to lower resistivities of less than 100
This contradicts results predicted by the insulating
m which presumably represent the saturated zone
layer model and documented by controlled spill and the clay layer beneath it. The very high
experiments which typically show an increase in resistivities characterizing the vadose zone may
resistivities in the region above the water table result from a depletion of moisture and ions by
following the injection of kerosene Ž e.g., Schneider apotranspiration. The depth of occurrence of the
steep gradients seen in the actual 2D
and Greenhouse, 1992;de Ryck et al., 1993;
resistivity-vs.-depth model Ž Fig. 4c . correlates
Schneider et al., 1993 . . These
results may also
ith the known water table depth. To the west and
suggest that the physical properties of the zone
to the east, a zone of lower resistivity rises to the
containing the free product hydrocarbons and
urface and is coincident with the regions of GPR
associated residual products have been
shadow zones. This observation suggests either a
significantly altered. Further- more, this zone is
shallowing water
probably a critical interface controlling the electrical
signatures observed from surface geophysical
Ž . Ž . Ž . Fig. 4. Dipole–dipole axial resistivity, as 5 m, along line 20 S. a Measured apparent resistivity pseudosection, b Ž .
calculated apparent resistivity pseudosection, c inverse model resistivity pseudosections, five iterations, 6.3% rms. The shallow
dark tones represent the high end of the resistivity scale and the deep dark tones are the low end of the resistivity scale. Note:
vertical resistivity probe located at 0.0 mE.
Fig. 5. Ground penetrating radar profiles along lines 15 and 35 m south of the refinery boundary. Location of profiles is shown in
Fig. 1.
table or the presence of more conductive ground esidualr free

product plume are observed along this
waters. Other regions of relatively lower resis- pro- file. This may likely be due to the problems of
tivities Ž -2000 Ω m . occurring at shallower depths

uppression Ž which often plagues resistivity in-
are encountered at 60 and 120 mE. An examination erpretations of layers that are thin relative to their
of the soil boring data Ž Fig. 2 . reveals

that these depths of burial . . Alternatively, a smaller dipole
lateral variations in the resistivities may be related
pacing Ž e.g., as 1 or 2 m . may be required
to
to variations in the depth to the top of the oil-stained
mage this anomalous conductive zone.
sand layer. Finally, no anomalous regions Ž at the
4.3. Ground penetrating radar
depth interval containing
the volume impacted by
Two-dimensional Ž x, z . profile sections
the hydrocarbons . that can be attributed to the
were produced for interpretation Ž Fig. 5 . . The
field data show excellent record quality; therefore, 5 m Ž 11.5 ft . at approximately 80 mE,
where a
no post-acquisition filtering was necessary. A strong dden change in depth occurs to about 5.1 m Ž 17
reflector is recognized in the records which is fairly
continuous and occurs at approximately 50 ns in ft . a t 120 mE. From 140 mE, the
depth again
the west and 80 ns to the east Ž line 15 . . This same
nges, decreasing to 3.4 m Ž 11.1 ft . towards the
reflector is also seen on line 35 but at approximately
80 ns. We interpret this as the water table reflector.
nd of the profile at approximately
160 mE. The
Using a dielectric permittivity of 6.9, a depth of
excellent correlation between the GPR and soil
3.1–5.5 m Ž 10–18 ft . is computed for this
boring data suggests that the upper reflector is a
reflector. This value was calculated by using a radar
ection event from the top of the oil-stained, gray
wave velocity of 1.2=108 mrs obtained from a plot
sand layer. The reflector is probably due to the
of GPR travel time vs. depth to top of the
esidual oil within the vadose zone, which causes
oil-stained, gray sand layer Ž zone C, Fig. 3 . . The
slight changes in the permeability. A possible
calculated water table depths are in agree- ment mecha- nism for this is the partial blocking of the
iment pore space by the residual oil. This retards
with known depths at this site. At about 40 ns Ž line infiltrating waters and results in a tem- porary
increase in saturation just above this perched
15 . and 60 ns Ž line 35 . , a second reflector
is
meability boundary. Alternatively, the oil coating
observed tens of nanoseconds above the water table sand grains Ž in the oil-stained gray sand layer .
reflector. This reflector parallels the water table may have effectively displaced the water from the
reflector from the west end of the profile to about 80 pores such that a dielectric permittivity contrast
mE. At 80 mE, the reflector dips to the east, exists between oil-coated sand grains and
becoming subparallel water-coated sand grains within the vadose zone.
to the water table reflector, and finally merging with also note, from the vertical resistivity probe data
it at approximately 120 mE. Beyond 150 mE, the located at 0 mE . Ž see Fig. .3 , a slight decrease
reflector appears as a separate event, rising to about in resistivity occurring at the depth interval Ž
50 ns. Again, using a calculated value of 6.9 for the approximately 300 cm . containing this upper
dielectric permittivity, the depth to this reflector reflector. This interface is also coincident with a
varies from 2.7 m Ž ;9 ft . in the west to 5.5 m Ž 18 or change in the lithology from orange-tan to a
ft . at 120 mE. An examination of the soil boring light gray color.
data reveals that from the west end of the profile,
At the west end of the profiles Ž line 15
from 20 mW, the depth to the top of the oil-stained,
line 35 . , GPR reflections are attenuated below
gray sand layer is approximately 1.2 m Ž 4 ft . water table, resulting in a GPR shadow Ž Sauck
changing to 2.7 m Ž ;9 ft . between 0 and 30 mE.

., 1998 . . A similar phenomenon is
This depth increases gradually reaching a depth of
Ž . Fig. 6. Reconnaissance electromagnetic survey of the study site quadrature component .
noticeable at the east end of the profile from 150 to Other sub-horizontal Ž west dipping . re- flectors

200 mE, while relatively strong signal amplitudes are observed in the GPR records and may be related
below the water table characterize the central o depositional structures.
portion of the record. Attenuation of GPR
reflections may be related to enhanced 4.4. Electromagnetic induction
conductivities, which limit the effective depth of The quadrature component of the EM data
s presented in Fig. 6. Conductivity values are quite
penetration of the radio waves Ž Sauck et al., 1998 .
ow ranging from near 0 to about 7 mSrm. A central
. This explanation is corroborated by the 2D
egion of lower conductivities is apparent on the
resistivity imaging results that show lower map, occupying the northern portion of the
urveyed area, while to the east and to the south, the
resistivities coincident with the GPR shadow zones. area is characterized by higher conductivities. We
elate these higher conductivities to increasing
moisture content. Since the topography within the
site slopes to the south, these higher conductivities rlaboratory experiments Ž e.g., Schneider
and
are largely due to the shallower water table Ž water enhouse, 1992; de Ryck et al., 1993; Schneider
table depths are less than 2 m, compared to depths
of 5 m in the north of the surveyed area . . The l., 1993 . . However, the electrical
signatures
erved in this study con- tradict what would be
highest conductivities
occur at approximately 85 S dicted by the above model. The results from this
and can be correlated with a drainage ditch that y show the following: Ž 1 . regions of low
trends east–west, becoming north–south at 50 mE Ž
arent resistivities
coincident with attenuated
see Fig. 1 . . This ditch occasionally contains runoff R reflections Ž shadow zones . , but limited to
water during rainfall events. The low anomalous
values observed at 80 mE results from a culvert edges of the surveyed areas; Ž 2 . a central
under a foot bridge that crosses the drainage ditch.
Although the maximum depth of penetration for on of high apparent
resistivitiesrlow
ductivities with bright GPR reflections below
the EM-31 is of the order of 6 m in the vertical water table; Ž .3 an upper GPR reflector
parallel to the water table, approximately a few
dipole mode Ž McNeill, 1980 . , and ex- ceeds
the
ers above the current free product level and
known depth of the impacted zone, we observe no
cident with the top of an oil-stained, light-gray
anomalous region indicative of the presence of
d layer; and Ž 4 . the existence of a conductive
hydrocarbon contamination at depth. This is not
r Ž ;1.8 m thick . coincident with a dark gray to
surprising as experience from other studies Ž e.g., k layer with significant residualrfree product
APL occupying a zone immediately above, as
Bermejo et al., 1997; Sauck et al., 1998 . suggests as below the water table.
The zone of resistivity minimum Ž high
that the EM-31 has opti-
ductivity . imaged by the vertical resistivity
mal use in areas Ž such as landfill leachate plumes .
bes provides direct evidence corroborating the
where ground conductivities are several orders of
ly proposed hypothesis by Sauck et al. Ž 1998 .
magnitude greater than the low conductivities
rthermore, it demonstrates that where significant
measured at this site.
ration of the hydrocarbon contaminants and
media has occurred, there is an associated
5. Discussion and conclusion nge in their geoelectrical signature from
Common practice for geophysical stive to conductive Ž e.g., zone E, in Fig. 3 . . It

investigations of subsurface hydrocarbon-impacted
sites is to seek evidence for a high resistivity free ossible that the existence of the conductive layer
product zone just above the water table. This sistivity minimum . m
ay
manner of investigation was dictated by the simple
intuitive model and corroborated by controlled
( 1 78 E.A. Atekwana et al.rJournal of Applied Geophysics 44 2000 ) 167–180 be due in part to biodegradation of the
contaminant mass. Sauck Ž 1998 . suggests that the source of
the conductive water imaged as a
resistivity minimum is leachate from the acid environment caused by intense bacterial action on the
hydrocarbons. This is validated by reconnaissance groundwater chemistry data from monitoring wells at
the site that show elevated conductivity Ž 100–150 mSrm . values at least three times greater than
nell Environmental Group, 1994 . . Hydrocar- bon

background values Ž 30 mSrm . Ž S degradation
through microbial reactions that consume organic carbon to produce ing Ž e.g., O 2 Borden , Fe, Mn, et
al., NOy 3 1995 are . . well We documented CO 2 utiliz-

believe that organic
and carbonic acids produced
by these reactions occurring within the freerresidual product plume and host media contributes to
enhanced mineral dissolution leading to an increase in the amount of total dissolved solids Ž TDS . .
The leachate produced can account for the elevated conductivities that are observed in monitoring wells at
the site, imaged by the resistivity probes, and may also be responsible for the attenuation of GPR signal
amplitudes leading to the shadow zone observed on these records Ž e.g., Bermejo et al., 1997; Sauck et
al., 1998. . Sauck Ž 1998 . has suggested that this critical zone of resistivity minimum is also dynamic
due to water table fluctuations. He further suggests that periodic flushing of this layer may occur from
infiltration or recharge events that may carry the accumulated pore waters into the aquifer below.
Nevertheless, the existence of this conductive zone is not always a guarantee that it can be easily
monitored or imaged by surface geoelectrical techniques, because it is thin Ž less than 2 m thick .
relative to its depth of burial. This fact may

be demonstrated by our 2D resistivity and EM data that show
no evidence of this zone, and to a lesser extent the GPR data. We believe that factors such as the surface
conditions, resistivities and thickness of the vadose zone, sam- pling frequency of the geoelectrical
measurements, and more importantly the thickness of
this conductive zone relative to its depth may control its detection from the surface. Coupled with the
dynamic field conditions dominated by changing water levels which affect the vertical position of this
conductive zone, it is therefore not surprising that geophysical surveys at hydrocarbon contaminated
sites have yielded remarkably variable results.
We suggest that surface geoelectrical measurements combined with downhole resistivity probes can
readily characterize the distribution of conductive zones associated with the biodegradation of LNAPL in
the subsurface and provide a window into the biogeochemical processes ongoing at such sites. Thus, the
application of these techniques to hydrogeologic and remediation studies are far reaching because they
can aid in the implementation of better site characterization and remediation plans by hy- drogeologists
and engineers employing geophysics as part of their detection and monitoring programs.
In short, the light hydrocarbon free product and associated dissolved plumes are dynamic systems, with
their character changing or evolv- ing in time and position within the plume. As a result, this influences
the variability in the geoelectrical signature. Therefore, the application of geophysical techniques to such
site investigations should be conducted with an understanding of how the processes that influence
contaminant behavior impact the signature of the site for the various geoelectrical methods used. If the
geophysical interpretations can be calibrated in the light of a coherent model based upon combined
geological, geochemical, and biologi- cal understanding of the system, then the geophysical results will
be much more valuable than at present.
Acknowledgements
This work was funded in part by the Ameri- can Chemical Society-Petroleum Research Fund Grant Ž
PRF a 31594-AC2 . . Equipment used for
Borden, R.C., Gomen, C.A., Becker, T.M., 1995. Geo-
this study was acquired through a NSF ILI Grant hemical indicators of intrinsic bioremediation. Ground Water
DUE-9550974. Constructive comments of reviews 3, 180–189.
pbell, D.L., Lucius, J.E., Ellefsen, K.J., Deszcz-Pan, M.,
from M. Meju, P. Haeni, D. Nobes, F.D. Legall, N.
. Monitoring of a controlled LNAPL spill using ground
Christensen, and an anonymous reviewer are greatly trating radar. Proceedings of the Symposium on the
appreciated. Eliot Atek- wana’s help with the ication of Geophysics to Engi- neering and Environmental
figures is acknowledged. Thanks to our field ems Ž SAGEEP ’96 . , Keystone, CO, pp. 511–517.
assistants M. Dalman, T. Knoll, J. Groncki, and J. arelli, I.M., Eganhouse, R.P., Baedecker, M.J., 1990.
sformation of monoaromatic hydrocarbons to organic
Bailey. A. Endres helped shape some of the ideas
in anoxic groundwater environment. Envi- ron. Geol.
discussed in this paper. r Sci. 16, 135–141. Daniels, J.J., Roberts, R., Vendl, M.,
. Site studies of ground penetrating radar for monitoring
leum product contaminants. Proceedings of the
References posium on the Application of Geophysics to Engineering
Environmental Problems Ž SAGEEP ’92 . , Oakbrook, IL,
97–609. Dell Engineering, 1992. Remedial action plan for
Baedecker, M.J., Cozzarelli, I.M., Hopple, J.A., 1987. The
al refining, 801 North Williams Street, Carson City, MI.
composition and fate of hydrocarbons in a shallow
rt DEI No. 921660, Holland, MI. de Ryck, S.M., Redman,
glacial-outwash aquifer. U.S. Geol. Survey Open-File Report,
Annan, A.P., 1993. Geo- physical monitoring of a
pp. 87–109. Baedecker, M.J., Cozzarelli, I.M., Eganhouse, R.P.,
olled kerosene spill. Pro- ceedings of the Symposium on
Siegel, D.I., Bennett, P.C., 1993. Crude oil in a shallow sand
Application of Geophysics to Engineering and
and gravel aquifer: III. Biogeochemical reactions and mass
ronmental Prob- lems Ž SAGEEP ’93 . , San Diego, CA,
balance modeling in anoxic groundwater. Applied
–20. Eganhouse, R.P., Baedecker, M.J., Cozzarelli, I.M.,
Geochemistry 8, 569–586. Bennett, P.C., Siegel, D.E.,
n, G.R., Thorn, K.A., Dorsey, T.F., 1993. Crude oil in a
Baedecker, M.J., Hult, M.F., 1993. Crude oil in a shallow sand
ow sand and gravel aquifer: II. Organic geochemistry.
and gravel aquifer: I. Hydrogeology and inorganic
ied Geochemistry 8, 551–567. Endres, A.L., Redman, J.D.,
geochemistry. Applied Geochemistry 8, 529–549. Benson,
. Modeling the electrical properties of porous rocks and
A.K., 1995. Applications of ground penetrating radar in
containing immis- cible contaminants. Proceedings of the
assessing some geological hazards: examples of groundwater
posium on the Application of Geophysics to Engineering
contamination, faults, and cavities. Journal of Applied
En- vironmental Problems Ž SAGEEP ’93 . , San Diego,
Geophysics 33, 177–193. Benson, A.K., Stubben, M.A., 1995.
pp. 21–38. Endres, A.L., Greenhouse, J.P., 1996. Detection
Interval resistivities and very low frequency electromagnetic
monitoring of chlorinated solvent contamination by
induction—an aid to detecting groundwater contamination in
mal neutron logging. Ground Water 34, 283–292. Gajdos,
space and time: a case study. Environmental Geosciences 2,
Kral, V., 1995. Influence of hydrocarbon pollution to soil
74–84. Benson, A.K., Mutsoe, N.B., 1996. DC resistivity,
uctivity. Proceedings of the Sym- posium on the
ground penetrating radar, and soil and water quality data com-
ication of Geophysics to Engineer- ing and Environmental
bined to assess hydrocarbon contamination: a case study.
ems Ž SAGEEP ’95 . , Or- lando, FL, pp. 785–789.
Environmental Geosciences 3, 165–175. Benson, A.K., Payne,
mman, D.L., Daniels, J.J., 1995. Experiments on the
K.L., Stubben, M.A., 1997. Map- ping groundwater
tion of organic contaminants in the vadose zone. Journal
contamination using DC resistivity and VLF geophysical
nvironmental and Engineering Geophysics, 31–38. King,
methods—a case study. Geo- physics 62, 80–86. Bermejo, J.L.,
V., Olhoeft, G.R., 1989. Mapping organic contamination
Sauck, W.A., Atekwana, E.A., 1997. Geo- physical discovery
tection of clay-organic processes. Pro- ceedings
of a new LNAPL plume at the former Wurtsmith AFB Oscoda,
WSErNWWArAPI Conf. on Petroleum Hydrocarbons and
MI. Ground Water Monitoring and Remediation 17, 131–137.
nic Chemicals in Ground Water —Prevention, Detection,
and Restoration, pp. 627–640. Loke, M.H., Barker, R.D., 1996. dosections by a quasi- Newton method. Geophysical
Rapid least-squares inver- sion of apparent resistivity pecting 44, 131–152.
( 1 80E.A. Atekwana et al.rJournal of Applied Geophysics 44 2000 ) 167–180 Maxwell, M., Schmok, J., 1995. Detection and
mapping of
an LNAPL plume using GPR: a case study. Proceed- ings of the Symposium on the Application of Geo- physics to Engineering
and Environmental Problems Ž SAGEEP ’95 . , Orlando, FL, pp. 15–23. Mazac, ́O., Benes, L., Landa, I., Maskova, A., 1990.
Determination of the extent of oil contamination in groundwater

by geoelectrical methods. In: Ward, S.H. Ž Ed. . , Geotechnical
and Environmental Geophysics, Vol. II. pp. 107–112. McMahon, P.B., Vroblesky, D.A., Bradley, P.M., Chapelle, F.H., Guller,
C.D., 1995. Evidence of enhanced mineral dissolution in organic acid-rich shallow ground water. Ground Water 33, 207–216.
McNeill, J.D., 1980. Electromagnetic terrain conductivity measurements at low induction numbers. Geonics, Technical Note
TN-6, 15 pp. Monier-Williams, M., 1995. Properties of light non-aqueous phase liquids and detection using commonly applied
shallow sensing geophysical techniques. Proceed- ings of the Symposium on the Application of Geo- physics to Engineering and
Environmental Problems Ž SAGEEP ’95 . , Orlando, FL, pp. 1–13. Olhoeft, G.R., 1992. Geophysical detection of hydrocarbon
and organic chemical contamination. Proceedings of the Symposium on the Application of Geophysics to Engi- neering and
Environmental Problems Ž SAGEEP ’92 . , Oakbrook, IL, pp. 587–595. Redman, J.D., de Ryck, S.M., Annan, A.P., 1994.
Detec- tion of LNAPL pools with GPR: theoretical modeling
and surveys of a controlled spill. Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Ground Penetrating Radar Ž GPR’94 . ,
Kitchener, Ontario, pp. 1283–1294. Sauck, W.A., 1998. A conceptual model for the geoelectrical response of LNAPL plumes in
granular sediments. Proceedings of the Symposium on the Application of Geophysics to Engineering and Environmental Prob-
lems Ž SAGEEP ’98 . , Chicago, IL, 805–817. Sauck, W.A., Atekwana, E.A., Nash, M.S., 1998. Elevated conductivities
associated with an LNAPL plume imaged by integrated geophysical techniques. Journal of Environmental and Engineering
Geophysics 2, 203– 212. Schneider, G.W., Greenhouse, J.P., 1992. Geophysical detection of perchloroethylene in a sandy
aquifer using resistivity and nuclear logging techniques. Proceedings of the Symposium on the Application of Geophysics to
Engineering and Environmental Problems Ž SAGEEP ’92 . , Oakbrook, IL, pp. 619–628. Schneider, G.W., de Ryck, S.M., Ferre,
P.A., 1993. The application of automated high resolution d.c. resistivity in monitoring hydrogeological field experiments. Pro-
ceedings of the Symposium on the Application of Geophysics to Engineering and Environmental Prob- lems Ž SAGEEP ’93 . ,
San Diego, CA, pp. 145–162. Snell Environmental Group, 1994. Technical Memoran- dum Task 1B-IRAP Evaluation, Crystal
Refinery, 801 N. Williams Street, Carson City, MI, MERA ID a59003.

Alwan TBT

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originalbeschreibung:

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Alwan TBT

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Ž ​Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 2000 ​.

Investigations of geoelectrical signatures at a hydrocarbon

Received 24 March 1998; accepted 5 November 1998

Keywords: ​Biogeochemical; Degradation; Conductivity; Contamination; LNAPL; Geoelectrical

wells ​Ž ​Grumman and Daniels, 1995 ​. ​. The

the vadose zone as

aqueous pore fluid chemistry due to ​microbial 2. Background

degradation, and ​Ž ​6 ​. ​reaction between the

have been identi- ard Fish Creek with a hydraulic gradient of

BTEX ​. Ž ​Dell Engineering, 1992 ​. ​. Geologically,

smoothness-constrained least-squares ​optimization

variability in the data ​Ž ​partly due to the very dry sands,

approximately 400 cm ​Ž ​4 m ​. ​where a​ sudden decrease in apparent resistivity to ap- proximately 15 Ω m

resistivity minima ​. ​occur within zone

. ​depth. Below this zone,

table or the presence of more conductive ground esidualr free

tivities ​Ž ​-2000 Ω m ​. ​occurring at shallower depths

of the soil boring data ​Ž ​Fig. 2 ​. reveals

changing to 2.7 m ​Ž ​;9 ft ​. ​between 0 and 30 ​mE.

Common practice for geophysical stive to conductive ​Ž ​e.g., zone E, in Fig. 3 ​. ​. It

​ nell Environmental Group, 1994 ​. ​. Hydrocar- bon

al., NO​y ​3 ​1995 are ​. ​. well We documented CO​ ​2 utiliz-

relative to its depth of burial. This fact may

Determination of the extent of oil contamination in groundwater

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen

Ž Journal of Applied Geophysics 44 2000 .

Keywords: Biogeochemical; Degradation; Conductivity; Contamination; LNAPL; Geoelectrical

wells Ž Grumman and Daniels, 1995 . . The

aqueous pore fluid chemistry due to microbial 2. Background

degradation, and Ž 6 . reaction between the

BTEX . Ž Dell Engineering, 1992 . . Geologically,

smoothness-constrained least-squares optimization

variability in the data Ž partly due to the very dry sands,

approximately 400 cm Ž 4 m . where a sudden decrease in apparent resistivity to ap- proximately 15 Ω m

resistivity minima . occur within zone

. depth. Below this zone,

tivities Ž -2000 Ω m . occurring at shallower depths

of the soil boring data Ž Fig. 2 . reveals

changing to 2.7 m Ž ;9 ft . between 0 and 30 mE.

Common practice for geophysical stive to conductive Ž e.g., zone E, in Fig. 3 . . It

nell Environmental Group, 1994 . . Hydrocar- bon

al., NOy 3 1995 are . . well We documented CO 2 utiliz-