Chapter 1 Complex Numbers

Contents
References
Introduction

1. Objectives

2. Forms of Complex Numbers

2.1 Rectangular Coordinates of a Complex Number

2.2 Imaginary Number

2.3 Rectangular Forms of a Complex Number: Cartesian and Goniometric Form

2.4 Polar Forms of a Complex Number: Exponential and Engineering Form

2.4.1 Polar Coordinates of a Complex Number : Modulus and Agument

Arctangent Function's Principle Value
Correctly using
Table 2.1 Wrong Argument's Principle Value using
+Table 2.2 Correct Argument's Principle Value using
-Important Remarks
-Pitfalls
Example 2.1 Modulus and Principle Argument of a Complex Number

2.4.2 Exponential Polar Form of a Complex Number

Complex Numbers on the Unit Circle

Correctness of Euler's Formula

and cos
Example 2.2 Product of three Equal Complex Numbers
Unit Circle in the Complex Plane
-Important Comment

2.4.3 Engineering Polar Form of a Complex Number

 2.4.4 Taylor-McLaurin Power Series Expansion
Power series
Taylor and McLaurin series
McLaurin series for
McLaurin series for
McLaurin series for and
Proof of Euler's Formula

2.5 Conversion between Complex Number Forms

2.5.1 Rectangular to Polar Conversion

+Example 2.3 Rectangular to Polar Conversion I
+Example 2.4 Rectangular to Polar Conversion II
Rectangular to Polar Conversions

2.5.2 Polar to Rectangular Conversion

+Example 2.5 Polar to Rectangular Conversion

3. Addition and Subtraction of Complex Numbers

3.1 Addition

3.2 Geometric Interpretation of Addition

3.3 Subtraction

3.4 Geometric Interpretation of Subtraction

3.5 Distance between Complex Numbers

+Example 3.1 Sum, Difference and Distance of two Complex Numbers

3.6 Angle between Complex Numbers

+Example 3.2 Distance of and Angle between Sum and Difference Vectors Example 3.1

4. Multiplication and Division of Complex Numbers

4.1 Multiplication in Polar Form

4.2 Division in Polar Form

4.3 Multiplication in Rectangular Form

4.4 Complex Conjugate and Reciprocal

4.5 Division in Rectangular Form

Example 4.1 Rectangular and Polar Quotient of two Complex Numbers
Example 4.2 Polar Product of two Complex Numbers
Example 4.3 Rectangular Product of two Complex Numbers
Example 4.4 Polar Quotient of two Complex Numbers
+Example 4.5 Rectangular Quotient of two Complex Numbers
5. Powers and Roots of Complex Numbers
5.1 Powers of Complex Numbers

5.2 Roots of Complex Numbers

+Example 5.1 Power of a Complex Number
Example 5.2 Roots of a Complex Numbers
Wolfram Alpha

5.3 Roots of Polynomials

5.4 Newton-Raphson's Algorithm to Find Roots of Polynomials

Newton-Rhapson's Method

+Example 5.4
+Wolfram Alpha for Finding Roots of Polynomials

6. Problems

7. Solutions

References
[1]. Advanced Engineering Mathematics, T. Harman e.a., Brooks/Cole 2000, Chapter 2, Section 2.3.
[2]. http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Extras/ComplexPrimer/ComplexNumbers.aspx
Introduction
The problem of solving all quadratic equations and equations of higher degree, has led to the
introduction of complex numbers. The general quadratic equation

has no real solutions when . If we solve such an equation, for example

we are led to the formal result and , which is meaningless unless we

define complex numbers. If however we assume that there exists a number which we shall
denote by i manipulated like an ordinary number except that it has the property , we can write the
above solution in the form and . Any number which can be represented as ,
where x and y are real numbers, is called a complex number, x being called the real part and y the
imaginary part of the number. Mathematicians customarily use i to represent , but i represents
current in (electrical) engineering so we will use the symbol j instead.

1. Objectives
After studying this chapter, the student should be able to
1. State the rectangular form and goniometric form of a complex number and draw its vector
diagram in the complex plane.
2. Compute the polar coordinates of a complex number from its rectangular form.
3. Compute the principle value of the argument of a complex number using the single argument
arctangens function.
2. State the exponential polar form and the engineering polar form of a complex number using
Eulers'formula.
3. Understand the proof of Euler's formula using Taylor-McLaurin Power Series Expansion.
3. Reproduce special points on the unit circle in the complex plane.
4. Convert a complex number from rectangular form to either polar form, and vice versa.
5. Perform addition / subtraction of complex numbers and show the geometrical interpretations in
the complex plane.
6. Compute the distance and angle between two complex numbers and show the result in the
complex plane.
5. Calculate multiplication / division of complex numbers using either rectangular or polar forms
and show geometrical interpretations in the complex plane.
6. Calculate the complex conjugate of a complex number, and the reciprocal of a complex number
and show the result in the complex plane.
7. Calculate powers and roots of complex numbers, and show show the result in the complex plane.
2. Forms of Complex Numbers
In a sense, complex numbers are two-dimensional vectors. In fact, some basic arithmetic operations
such as addition and subtraction are the same for complex numbers and two dimensional vectors.
However the multiplication of complex numbers is significantly different from that of two-dimensional
vectors. Therefore, there are similarities, but be aware of major differences in the meaning of
operations associated with complex numbers compared to those with two-dimensional vectors.

2.1 Rectangular Coordinates of a Complex Number

The two-dimensional rectangular coordinate system used for complex numbers is shown in Fig 2.1. The
two axes have the traditional labels of x and y, respectively. However, using complex numbers, the
horizontal axis (x-axis) is called the real axis and the vertical axis (y-axis) the imaginary axis. The
plane spanned by these two axis is called the complex plane.

imaginary
y
axes
complex plane

x
0

real axes

Fig. 2.1 Rectangular coordinate system for complex numbers

2.2 Imaginary Number

The concept of an imaginary number arises from the square root of a negative number, see also the
Introduction section. We denote the square root of as with the property

(1)

The y coordinate of any point will be accompanied by the imaginary number j when expressed in
complex form. For example, a point 4 units above the origin on the vertical axis could be denoted as
or as the form we will mostly use.

2.3 Rectangular Forms of a Complex Number : Cartesian & Goniometric Form

We will use a boldface notation for complex numbers. Let z represent an arbitrary complex number. It
can be interpreted as a vector extending from the origin to a point with coordinates as shown in
Fig. 2.2, called a vector diagram of .

In (electrical) engineering, vector diagrams to visualize complex numbers are often called phasor-
diagrams, since complex numbers differ from two-dimensional vectors. However in this chapter, we
will stick to the more common term vector-diagram.
 Im z complex plane

3 y z = xCj$y

r= z

y
q = arctan x
x
0 4 Re z

Fig. 2.2 Vector diagram of 4 Cj 3

Cartesian or Rectangular Form : Real and Imaginary Part

The cartesian or rectangular form of complex number z is

(2)

As mentioned before, the value x is called the real part of z , and the value y is called the imaginary
part of z. We don't include the j with y when we refer to the imaginary part, that is, the imaginary part is
actually the real number y. Moreover, we will not use boldface for x and y since they are real numbers,
but italic letters.

When it is necessary to identify the real part of complex number z, the notation Re is used.
Similarly Im is used for the imaginary part of complex number z.

When a complex number z is represented by a vector, we call r the length of the vector pointing from
angle with respect to the positve x-axis, see Fig. 2.2. Using simple
trigonometry associated with r and we know

(3)

(4)

The basic unit for the angle is radian (rad), which is used mostly in calculations and is measured
positive in counterclockwise direction with respect to the positve x-axis.

Length r and angle of a vector have different names in different diciplines :length r is also called
modulus, notation absolute value or magnitude, while angle is also named argument, notation
arg (z), or phase.
 Goniometric Form

Taking the formulas for x and y from Eqs. (3) and (4) and substituting in Eq. (2) we have the so-called
goniometric form of a complex number

(5)

It is just another way of writing down a rectangular complex number using its modulus and argument.
We come back to this important gomiometric form in section 2.4.2.

When working with complex numbers we assume that modulus r=| z | is positive and that argument
can be any of the possible (both positive and negative) angles, which are determined up to an
integer value of hence where k is an integer and is a particlar angle,

To have an unique representation for , we introduce the notion principle value of arg z ,
which always must lie between and in the complex plane, so for the principle value of the
argument of a complex number, the following must hold:

(6) arg z

2.4 Polar Forms of a Complex Number Exponential and Engineering Form

2.4.1 Polar Coordinates of a Complex Number Modulus and Argment

Using the inverse relationships to the equations Eqs. (3)-(4) we obtain the so-called polar coordinates
of a complex number

(7) , (Pythagoras)

Remember, represents the modulus ( length or absolute value) of the complex number and
represents the argument (angle or phase) expressed in radians, which is calculated by the single
argument arctan function as shown in Eq.(7b). Remember, the angle is measured as positive from the
positive real axis in a counter clockwise direction. The arctan function is the inverse function of the
tangent, sometimes denoted as
The principle value of the single argument function ranges from /2 to /2, as can be seen
in Fig. 2.3.

The single argument function, present on most calculators, always returns this principle
value. We thus must take care when the single argument is a division of two variables x and y, to be sure
that the angle arrives in the correctly quadrant.

Most computer tools like Matlab and Maple do have double argument arctangens functions, used as
which automatically do land argument in the right quadrant depending on the signs
of x and y. In the following, we will use the notation for if we need to emphasize
on having the angle in the right quadrant.

Correctly using
Blindly using to compute the argument of a complex number does not
automatically produce its principle value, which is a value between and lying in the correct
quadrant. Consider for instance the vectors in Fig. 2.4.

Im z
y complex plane

z = K3 C j$2 , q2 = 146 + r= z z = 3 C j$2 , q1 = 34 +

2 1
2

x
q
-3 0 3 Re z

-2

z = K3 K j$2 , q3 = K146 + z = 3 K j$2 , q4 = K34 +

3 4

Fig. 2.4 Vector diagram of G3 Gj$2

Their correct principle value arguments are shown next to the vectors. However, using
, we would have wrong values for the second and third quadrant, see Table 2.1.
 Table 2.1 Wrong Argument's Principle Value Computation using

Principle Quadrant Argument Remark Correction

Value

I Ok

II Must be

III Must be

IV Ok

To find the correct argument, simply add radians for complex numbers lying in the third-
quadrant and subtract radians for complex numbers lying in the fourth- quadrant. Hence, we can
use the rules given in Table 2.2.to find the principle value of the argument of a complex number.

Table 2.2 Correct Argument's Principle Value Computation using

Principle value of Quadrant

don't care I , IV

II

III

Important Remarks
In engineering the argument always must be in the principle value range to find
out if we have phase lead or phase lag, see the Introduction Control Systems Course.
Always draw vector diagrams of complex numbers to check argument computations using the single
argument function.
Pitfalls
The function cannot handle the following values for x and y:
(1). undefined, set to zero by most computer tools
(2).
(3).
Again, to avoid problems, always draw vector diagrams to obtain correct arguments.
 Example 2.1 Modulus and Principle Argument of a Complex Number
A complex number is given by Determine the modulus and the principle argument of the
complex number. Draw the vector diagram in the complex plane to check.

Solution
Complex number

Modulus

Argument since

So

And

Vector diagram

complex plane Im z
K 3
0
,
x 4 = 30 + Re z
q =K150 +

r=2
y K1
Fig. 2.5 Vector diagram of K 3 Kj

2.4.2 Exponential Polar Form of a Complex Number

The exponential polar form of a complex number is in fact Euler's formula. As an introduction to this
famous formula, found out by the great mathematician Leonhard Euler, we first consider the behaviour
of complex numbers lying on the unit circle in the complex plane.

Complex Numbers on the Unit Circle

A unit circle is a circle with radius about the origin 0 in the complex plane, see Fig. 2.6. Each point
z on the unit circle can be expressed in rectangular coordinates as

(8)

where is the angle of the radius with respect to the positive x-axis.
 Im z j
complex plane
,
j sin q
r=1
, z = cos qCj$sin q
q 1
0 , Re z
cos q

Fig. 2.6 Unit circle in the complex plane

The angle is known up to integer multiples of since it takes just radians to make one complete
revolution to come back at the initial starting point. Remember, in engineering the argument must be
converted to the principle value range of

Observe, that the length of the complex number, called modulus is indeed one, since

(9) =

Multiplying two such complex numbers and we have

(10)
=

And using the wellknown goniometric rules

(11a)

(11b)

we find

(12)

This is again a complex number on the unit circle with argument , thus the sum of the arguments
of and

For the quotient of two complex numbers on the unit circle we find similarly

(13)

Hence, holds for he argument of the product of two

 complex numbers on the unit circle and is again a complex number on the unit circle

In the same way holds for the argument of the quotient /

of two complex numbers on the unit circle and is again a complex number on the unit circle .

Euler's Formula

A very important mathematical identity is that of Euler's formula, which reads

(14)

This formula indicates that is equivalent to a complex number having both real and imaginary parts,
each of which is a sinusoidal function. Google euler's formula wikipedia to get more information. For
the moment take simply as a short hand notation for . The actual proof of Euler's
formula, using Taylor-MacLaurin power series expansion, is given in next subsection. Please note, we
do not have the well known real exponential here, but a complex exponential since the exponent is not
real but imaginary!

When is replaced by in Eq. (14) we obtain

(15)

since the cosine is an even function and the sine is an odd function.

Exponential Polar Form of a Complex Number using Euler's Formula

By using Euler's formula, the complex number can thus be expressed as

(16)

Equation (16) is called the exponential polar form of a complex number. It can be expressed in
goniometric form as

(17)

so, it is clear that the modulus of a complex exponential must be one, because

(18)

Also, we observe that the polar coordinates expressed in cartesian coordinates must be

(19) and

where the double argument arctan function is used to indicate the necessary correct landing quadrant of
the argument. Notice that in this way rectangular form complex numbers easily can be converted to
exponential polar form. We come back to the conversion of complex numbers between various forms
in section 2.5.
 Product and Quotient of Complex Numbers using Exponential Polar Form
The exponential form of a complex number is an important step in the development of the theory of
complex numbers. It permits a rigirous approach to the operations of multiplication, division and
exponentiation with complex numbers.

In the previous section, we showed that

(20) =

Using Euler's formula, we have

(21)

which shows much clearer the addition of arguments. Note complex exponentials follow the same
algebraic rules as real exponentials: when we multiply two exponentials the exponents are added.
Likewise when we divide two exponentials the exponents must to be subtracted:

(22)

This is also better visible when using Euler's formula. Strictly speaking, the addition/subtraction of
arguments must be understood modulo 2 since the principle value of the resulting argument must fall
in the range from to .

When we consider the multiplication of N equal complex numbers , then their

multiplication takes the form

(23)

Proof of Correctness of Euler's Formula with Maple

The correctness of Euler's formula can easily be shown by using the Taylor-MacLaurin power series
expansion of and about For more information about the power series expansion,
refer to hidden section 2.4.4. Four terms of the series expansion about of the cosine and sine are

(24) =

(25) =

while the eight terms of the series expansion of the exponential about are

(26) =
Now it follows that the sum of Eq. (24) plus times Eq. (25) must be Eq. (26), so

(27)

which is the formula of Euler. Notice also the following extended formula of Euler

(28)

Euler Forms for and

Adding and subtracting and give us the famous
Euler forms for and expressed in exponentials:

(29)

(30)

Example 2.2 Product of Three Equal Complex Numbers

Given

Calculate using Eq. (23).

Solution =

Convert to polar

Hence

So

which is much easier then calculating the cartesian product

see also section 4.3.

Special Points on the Unit Circle in the Complex Plane

Now, we can understand that the unit circle in the complex plane is a set of points with the following
property
(31) ,

In other words the equation for the unit circle is simply

(32)

Fig. 2.7 shows again the unit circle in the complex plane.

Im z j
,
, z = cos qCj$sin q
complex plane
j sin q
r=1
-1 q 1
0 ,cos q ,
Re z

Kj
,
Fig. 2.7 Unit circle in the complex plane

Important Comment
Notice that when we multiply the real unit "1" with the imaginary unit "j " , the "vector" 1 is rotated
to the left by an angle of it coincidences with the "vector" j. Multiplying this j-vector again with
j, we arrive at the " vector" , since and so on.

Clearly multiplying a complex number by " j " is equivalent to rotating its vector to the left by /2
radians in the complex plane. Likewise multiplying a complex number with or, equivalently
dividing it by is equivalent to rotating its vector to the rihgt by /2 radians.
On the other hand, when we are sitting on the unit circle in the point where the argument /2, we
must be at the tip of the j-vector, since Similarly, on the unit circle in the point with
argument (or if you want), we are at since Table 2.3 on next page,
summarizes a number of special points on the unit circle.
Multiplying or dividing two complex numbers on the unit circle is done by adding or subtracting the
angles, since

then and /
Table 2.3 : Special Points on the Unit Circle to Remember

# Argument Complex Number

1 0 = 1

2
= j

3
=

6
= 1/ + j/

7
= 1/ - j/

2.4.3 Engineering Polar Form of a Complex Number

It is common in many engineering applications to express the exponential polar form of a complex
number in the following special form:

(33)

where better can be expressed in degrees, because the idea is to use it convenienetly for hand
calculation.This notation, called engineering polar form, is especially popular in electric ac circuit
theory, but one should remember what it really means so that some of the operations are better justified.
We will use the exponential form more frequently and then we must use radians for the angle.

A complex number can thus be written in one of the following forms:

(1). Rectangular

(2). Goniometric in radians or degrees

(3). Exponential polar in radians

(4). Engineering polar in degrees

Remarks
The rectangular or cartesian form (1) is the standard form of a complex number. Many computer
programs that can handle complex numbers, like Matlab and Maple use internally this cartesian
standard form.
The goniometric form uses polar coordinates to give a result in a rectangular form. We therefore
 could call it cartesian goniometric form. You could as well name it goniometric polar form as some
authors do.
The two polar forms use the polar coordinates That's why they are indicated as
such. They are in fact the same, only the notation is different.

You may want to open the following section 2.4.4 because it is possibly be a long time ago since you
have heard about power series expansion and want to learn more. You can only open the secction by
clicking on the button in the Maple version of the document. Read the accompaning instructions first.

2.4.4 Taylor-McLaurin Power Series Expansion

2.5 Conversion between Complex Number Forms

Each form can be converted to one of the others using using Table 2.2 to
arrive in the correct quadrant When using software, preferably use the two argument arctan function
to obtain the correct argument. When in doubt just draw a vector diagram.

2.5.1 Rectangular to Polar Conversion

In this case, the complex number is given in rectangular form

(34)

and must be converted to one of the two possible appearances of the polar forms:

(35)

Having one of these polar forms, the other two can be written down readily. The transformation
equations to be used here are

(36)

To determine the argument , special care must be taken to arrive in the right quadrant, see Table 2.2.
To be sure, always sketch the complex number in the complex plane, or use a two argument version of
the arctan function.

Example 2.3 Rectangular to Polar Conversion I

A complex number is given by its rectangular form as

Determine the exponential polar form and the engineering polar form. Check the result by using
the goniometric form.

Solution
We first sketch the complex number in the complex plain. Remeber, this is already done in Fig. 2.2, repeated
here for your convenience and named Fig. 2.8.
The modulus is given by angle by rad = which is
definitly lying in the first quadrant.

complex plane
z = xCj$y
3 y

r=5
Im z

q = 36.87+
x
0 4 Re z
Fig. 2.8 Vector diagram of 4 Cj 3

The exponential polar form with the angle expressed in radians is

The engineering polar form with the angle expressed in degrees is

Notice that the engineering polar form has a direct realtion with the sketch in Fig. 2.2 : the length and the angle
of the vector are immediately apparent.

We can check the conversion by substitution of and 0.6435 into the goniometric form

Notice that we did hand calculation with 4 decimals accurary. This number of digits is default in several
computer algebra packages.

Wolfram Alpha is a free computational knowledge engine or answer engine developed by Wolfram

calculator and most other calculator websites will choke on. It even provides graphs. The next section
can be opened in the Maple version of the document only. However you can skip it without loss of
continuity.

Wolfram Alpha for Computing Modulus and Argument

Example 2.4 Rectangular to Polar Conversion II

The rectangular form of a complex number is given by Determine the exponential polar
form and the engineering polar form and check the result.

Solution
First, draw the vector diagram of the complex number, see Fig.2.4. Notice, the complex number is situated in the
second quadrant where so for the computation of the right argument with the arctan function we
must add , hence

rad =

The magnitude is the same as before namely .

complex plane Im z y

z =K4 Cj 3
3
r=5 2

x
q = 143 +

K4 K2
, Re z

Fig. 2.4 Vector diagram of z = K4 Cj 3

The exponential polar form of the complex number then is

and the engineering polar form

Check:

Observe that we don't have loss of accuracy when converting back the result using only 2 decimals for the angle
in degrees!

Warning
Always be careful, when the real and/or imaginary part signs are negative. If you are using a
calculator with rectangular-to-polar conversion, it may take care of the sign differences, but for
manual computations, the signs of both terms must be carefully noted.
Simple calculators always return the angle in the first or fourth quadrant, that is the principle value
of the arctan function. In any case first draw a vector diagram of the complex number and determine
the quadrant in which it is lying. Next determine the correct angle to be completely sure, see Fig.
2.8.
Some computer programs have goniometric functions availabe which accept arguments in degrees,
for instance in Matlab has a sind and cosd function that work this way. In Maple we can simply
write one line functions to do the same.
2.5.2 Polar to Rectangular Conversion
In this case, the complex number is given in one of the polar forms

(37) or

and must be converted to the rectangular form

(38)

The transformation equations to be used here are

(39)

Example 2.5 Polar to Rectangular Conversion

The exponential polar form of a complex number is given by

Determine the rectangular form and check the result.

Solution
The magnitude 4 and the angle rad so the number must lie in the second quadrant.

The rectangular form follows immediately from the goniometric polar form

as follows:

The rectangular form is then

so the complex number indeed lies in the second quadrant.

Now check the result by converting it back to the exponential polar form

Observe that we have some loss of accuracy in the radius when converting back the result using only 4 decimals
for hand calculation!
3. Addition and Subtraction of Complex Numbers
The addition and subtraction of complex numbers in rectangular form is very much like that of two
dimensional vectors; that is, the real parts are added or subtracted and the imaginary parts are added or
subtracted. Complex numbers should always first be converted to their rectangular form if we want to
add or subtract them this way.

To illustrate, assume two complex numbers in rectangular form:

(40)

3.1 Addition
The sum of the two complex numbers then is given by

(41)

3.2 Geometric Interpretation of Addition

The geometric interpretation for addition is shown in the Fig. 3.1 for two arbitrary complex numbers
and Imagine that z is translated to the end of while retaining its direction and magnitude. A
vector drawn from the origin to the tip of the tranlated z then represents the sum

z2 complex plane
Im z
zS

z1

Re z
z2

Fig. 3.1 Geometric interpretation of addition

3.3. Subtraction

The difference of the two complex numbers of Eq. (40) is given by

(42)

3.4 Geometric Interpretation of Subtraction

The geometric interpretation for subtraction is shown in Fig. 3.2 for the same arbitrary complex
numbers used for addition. First, observe that is formed. This is done by rotating by or
rad. The subtraction then can then be visualized as forming the sum of and where the same
principle employed in the geometric addition is used.
 z1 complex plane
Im z
Kz2
zD
z2

Re z
Kz2

Fig. 3.2 Geometric interpretation of subtraction

To remind you:
Geometiric representations of complex numbers in the complex plane are called vector diagrams.
Complex numbers are like vectors with respect to addition and subtraction.

3.5 Distance between Complex Numbers

In Fig. 3.3, the distance between the complex numbers and ( same as used before) is indicated with
d. Looking at Fig. 3.2, we can see that this distance is equal to the length of the vector thus

complex plane
Im z
z1
d
zD = z1 K z2
z
2 q2
q1
,
Kz2 Re z

Fig. 3.3 Distance between Complex Numbers

3.6 Angle between Complex Numbers

The angle between two complex numbers and can be found by just subtracting the arguments of
the two, hence if and then

(43)

where we must take care when using the arctan function for finding the individual arguments (arg) in
the second and third quadrant, when Like the distance between two complex numbers, the
angle between two complex numbers is also a positive quantity.

Example 3.1 Sum, Difference and Distance of two Complex Numbers

Consider the following two complex numbers in rectangular form

Determine the rectangular form of the sum and the difference of the two complex numbers and convert
both to either polar form. Determine also the distance between the two complex numbers.

Solution
The rectangular sum is

The rectangular difference is

Exponential polar form of the sum is

where

Since the real part is positive and the imaginary part is negative, the complex number must be in the fourth
quadrant. Hence, we can keep the argument as it is. Check it with Table 2.2!

The two polar forms of the sum are thus

Exponential polar form of the difference is

where

Since the real part and the imaginary part are both positive, the complex number z must be in the first quadrant.

The two polar form of the difference are thus

The distance between the two complex numbers is

Notice that the distance is (of course) equal to and is always positive.

Example 3.2 Distance and Angle of Sum and Difference Vectors Example 3.1
Find the distance and the angle between the sum vector and the difference vector in the previous
examples.

Solution
The sum vector was

and the difference vector

z = 3 C j 10
Im z D complex plane

d = z Kz = 14.5602
z S D
D
4 = arg z K arg z = 103.04 +
S D

arg z = 73 + Re z
D
5
++ | |10
arg z = K30 +
S

z z = 7K j 4
S S

Fig. 3.4 Distance and Angle between Complex Numbers

The distance d and angle between and are

Notice that for complex numbers the modulus/argument of a difference is not equal to the difference of the
moduli/arguments, see Fig. 3.4. The same holds of course for the sum!

4. Multiplication and Division of Complex Numbers

Remember from section 2.4.2 that multiplication and division of two complex numbers can easily be
performed when both are expressed in either polar form: exponential and engineering.

Given the following two complex numbers in these two polar forms:

(44)

(45)

we will (again) show how polar multiplication and division is done and give a geometric interpretation
of each.

4.1 Multiplication in Polar Form

As we have see in section 2.4.2, the product of the two complex numbers in exponential polar form
is easily found by using the law of exponentials

(46)

or, using the engineering polar notation

(47)

Remember that in Eq. (46) the angles must be expressed in radians, while in Eq. (47) better degreescan
be used for hand calculation.

Geometric Interpretation
Multiplying complex number with complex number means a rotation of about
radians in positive direction and an extension of by a factor , resulting in a complex number

j$ q C 4
Im z z = r$r e 1
2 1
r$r
1

j$q
complex plane z =r e 1
4 r
1 1
1
q1

Re z
Fig. 4.1 Geometric interpretation of multiplication in polar form

See Fig. 4.1, obviously, if the modulus the extension of vector is in fact a shortening;
otherwise if the modulus the extension is a lengthening of vector
4.2 Division in Polar Form
As we also have seen in section 2.4.2, the quotient of the two complex numbers in exponential polar
form is also easily found by using the law of exponentials

(48)

or, using the engineering polar notation

(49)

Recall that in Eq. (48) the angles must be expressed in radians, while in Eq. (49) better degrees can be
used for hand calculation.

Geometric Interpretation
Dividing complex number by complex number means a rotation of about
radians in negative direction and an extension of by a factor , resulting in a complex number

.
j$q
z =r e 1
1 1
Im z r
1
r j$ q K 4
1 1
z = e
complex plane 4 2 r
r
1
q1
r
Re z
Fig. 4.2 Geometrical interpretation of division in polar form

See Fig.4.2, obviously, if the modulus the extension of vector is in fact a lengthening;
otherwise if the modulus the extension is a shortening of vector

Multiplication or Division of a complex number by j

Consider multiplying an arbitrary complex number by the imaginary unit j

Now, let us interpret this result geometrically as shown in Fig. 4.3

 Im z complex plane
B
j$z = Ky C j$x
R 5

z = x C j$y

R 2
A

K5 K2 2 5
| | 0 | | Re z

C
j2 z =Kx K j$y

j3$z = y K j$x
R K5
Fig. 4.3 Geometric interpretation of multiplying by j

What has happened is that multiplying by has rotated the tip of vector z from point A precisely 90°
counterclockwise around the origin to point B . Multiplying again by j rotates the vector further to point
C and so on. Stated more briefly, multiplication by j gives a 90° counterclockwise rotation about the
origin. This makes sense, since the imaginary unit j can be witten in polar form as

Now, according to the geometric interpretation of multiplying two complex number in polar form, we
see that multiplication by must result in a counterclockwise rotation by ( because ), but
no extension is needed ( because You can analyze what multiplication by does in the same
way. You will find that multiplication by gives a 90° clockwise rotation about the origin. Now, since
dividing a complex number by j gives also a 90° clockwise rotation about the origin. See also
subsection "Important Comment "and Table 2.3 : "Special Points on the Unit Circle to Remember" in
section 2.4.2.

When we don't specify counterclockwise or clockwise when referring to rotations or angles, we'll
follow the standard convention that counterclockwise is intended. Then we can say that multiplication
by

4.3 Multiplication in Rectangular Form

It is also posible to perform the product of two complex numbers in rectangular form. Consider two
complex numbers defined as

(50)

The product can be expressed as

(51)

Rearranging and recognizing the fact that we have

(52)

Do not try to memorize the result. Instead, work it out as you need it.

4.4 Complex Conjugate and Reciprocal

Before showing division in rectangular form, it is necessary to introduce the complex conjugate. Let z
represent an arbitrary complex number, and denote the corresponding conjugate as Assume that the
form of z can be represented in both rectangular and polar form as

(53)

The complex conjugate of z is then expressed as

(54)

Thus, the complex conjugate of a complex number is formed by reversing the sign of the
imaginary part in the rectangular form or by reversing the sign of the angle in the polar form. The real
part and the modulus of the complex conjugate are thus the same as those of the original. This means
that the length of the original vector and its conjugate are the same, so = while the sum of the
arguments is zero, so see Fig. 4.4.

Im z carrier of vector z
y z = x Cj y
r
complex plane
q
x
0
,Kq Re z

Ky z = xK j y
carrier of vector z
Fig. 4.4 Complex conjugate vectors

An important result is obtained by forming the product of a complex number and its conjugate. It can
be shown using either form that this product equals the vector length squared:

(55) =

Many books denote as Complex conjugates give us another way to interpret reciprocals.
Since it follows that the reciprocal of z is

(56)
Hence the reciprocal of z is the conjugate of z divided by the square of its absolute value .
Geometrically, this means the the reciprocal lies on the same carrier as originating in the origin,
with only of the length of z, see Fig. 4.4.

4.5 Division in Rectangular Form

Based on the rectangular form of the two complex numbers, consider the division

(57)

The trick in this case is to multiply both numerator and denominator by the complex conjugate of the
denominator, hence rationalizing the denominator:

(58)

The denominator is now a positive real number, = = , and can be divided into each of
the numerator terms to simplify the result, so

(59) z

What we are doing here is just rationalizing the denominator to a real posive number and divide
the numerator by it, hence

(60) z

Again, do not bother memorizing the result; simply work it out when needed!

Example 4.1 Rectangular and Polar Quotient of two Complex Numbers

Two rectangular complex numbers are given by

(a). Determine the quotient in rectangular form of the two complex numbers ( with max 4 decimals)
using their given rectanglar form.
(b). Convert the quotient to exponential polar form and engineering polar form.
(c). Check the result of (a) by first converting the two cartesian numbers to engineering polar form
and then perform the polar division.

Solution
(a). Given : Find :

(a1) Use z

First

Then

Result z

(a2) Use

(b). Convert to exponential polar form and engineering polar form.

Use

Result

(c). Check the result of (a) by first converting the two cartesian numbers to engineering polar form and then
perform the division polar.
 =

Clearly, in this case it was much simpler to use the rectangular forms. However, suppose that the two complex
numbers were given in polar form. In that case, we first must convert them both to rectangular forms before we
can proceed with the rectangular multiplication process. This means that it might have been just as easy to carry
out the multiplication with the polar forms then and convert back to rectangular form. The choice depends on the
form in which the final answer is desired.

Example 4.2 Product of two Complex Numbers in Polar Form

Two complex numbers are given by

Determine the polar product of the two complex numbers, convert it to rectangular form and denote it
as

Solution
Since both numbers are given in exponential polar form, the product is easily formed as

Conversion to rectangular form using the goniometric form gives:

Example 4.3 Rectangular Product of two Complex Numbers

Repeat the multiplication of Example 4.2 by first converting the two complex numbers to their
rectangular form and then using the rectangular multiplication process.

Solution
The first step is to convert the two values to rectangular forms using the goniometric form

= =
The product can now be expressed as

Clearly, in this case it was much simpler to use the polar forms. However, suppose that the two complex numbers
were given in rectangular forms. In that case, we first must convert them both to polar forms before we can
proceed with the polar multiplication. This means that it might have been just as easy to carry out the
multiplication with the rectangular forms then.The choice depends on the form in which the final answer is
desired.

Example 4.4 Polar Quotient of two Complex Numbers

For the two complex numbers of Example 4.2, determine the polar quotient / , convert it to
rectangular form and denote it as
Solution
The quotient is readily determined in polar form as

The rectangular form is =

Example 4.5 Rectangular Quotient of two Complex Numbers

Repeat the division of Example 4.3 using rectangular forms:

Solution
The rectangular forms were determined in Example 4.3, so we can begin with those values and rationalize the
denominator

=
Here we clearly see that the polar form has much advantage when dividing complex numbers.
5. Powers and Roots of Complex Numbers
Exponential forms of complex numbers can be computed with exponents both greater and less than one,
resulting in powers and roots of complex numbers respectively. Some of the more interesting cases will
be considered here.

5.1 Powers of Complex Numbers

Let N represent a positive integer and let's define the N-th power of the complex number by
We than have

(61)

From these results, it can be stated that

(62)

This is the famous formula of de Moivre.

Example 5.1 Power of a Complex Number

Consider the complex number

Determine the value of

Solution
Well, we could multiply the given number in rectangular form by six times multiplying the complex number by
itself. The result is

But a much easier way is to first convert it to exponential polar form. Doing so we find using 4 decimals

The desired result in exponental polar form can be determined in one step as

Converting the result back to rectangular form gives us

when rounded to four decimals.

5.2 Roots of Complex Numbers

Consider now the situation where it is desired to determine the N-th root of a complex number, which
means that the exponent is 1/N, where N is a positive integer. Examples are the 1/2 power (or square
root), the 1/3 power and so on. This leads to a basic property of complex numbers.

A complex number raised to the power 1/N , has exactly N distinct complex roots

An algorithm for determining the N roots will now be presented. Let N represent a positive integer and
lets define the n-th root of the complex number by We then have, see also Eq. (61)

(63)

Considering the exponential polar form of a general complex number z, it is clear that we may always
write it as

(64)

because we may add to the angle without changing the value of . Equation (63) can now be
written as

( 65)

Let us see if we can interpret this result. To take the N-the root of a complex number, its magnitude is
raised to the power 1/N, which seems logical. The first angle, corresponding to has a value /N.
This is called the principle value. However, there are additional angles of /N + / It turns out
that there will be exactly additional distinct angles. This results in a total of N distinct roots.

Example 5.2 Roots of a Complex Number

Determine the four complex values of z that satisfy the equation Draw the vector diagram of
the solution in the complex plane.

Solution
We rearranging the equation and write

Now, we take the fourth root of both sides. Of course the fourth root of 1 is 1, and we have

If we denote the principle value as then

The other roots are

All of these roots lie on a circle with unit radius in the complex plane and are displaced from each other by an
angle of see Fig.5.1.

Im z j complex plane
z1 z0

p
1
, p4
K Re z
4

z2 z3

Fig. 5.1 Vector diagram solution of z4 =K1

5.3 Roots of Polynomials

In Example 5.2, we have seen that the fourth degree equation precisely had four different
complex roots. To state it differently, these four roots are the zeros of the fourth degree polynomial

(66)

A polynomial of the n-th degree has the form

(67)

where n is a positive integer number,and are (complex) constants and z is a complex

variable. The constants are the coefficients of the polynomial. The zeros of a polynomial are
those values of z which satisfy So if is a root then

If polynomial has n different zeros , the polynomial can be written as

(68)

In the previous section, the polynomials all had the form , with indeed n zeros. In the
following we will show how roots can be found of a general n-the degree polynomial. To do so we need
two important theorems of algebra namely the factor theorem and the fundamental theorem.

Factor Theorem
Given an n-the degree polynomial with If has a zero at then a quotient
polynomial exists with the property It is then possible to split of a factor
from polynomial in other words to divide by to get

The polynomial can be obtaines by performing a long division. We will show how it works with
an example. Take for example

Simple substitution explains that is a zero, meaning that The following long division
gives us the quotient polynomial

Check that indeed The other roots are readily found with available
free software from the internet, for instance from Wolfram Alpha.

The next section can be opened in the Maple version of the document only. Read the instructions first.

Wolfram Alpha for Finding Roots of Polynomials

Using it, another real zero at and a complex conjugater zero pair at
is found. The results are reliable since Maple reports the same aswer.

For n-th degrees polynomials the following theorem, known as the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra,
can be stated
 Fundamental Theorem

With every n-degree polynomial

we can associate n complex numbers such that

These complex numbers are the zeros of

Important Remarks

(1). In literature, zeros of a polynomila are often called roots.

(2). Every n-degree polynomial with has at most n zero's.

(3). Every n-degree polynomial with n odd has at least one zero's.

There is a lot of free software available on internet to find zeros of polynomials. In the following we
will show how the working horse in this software works.

You may want to open the following section 5.4 because it is may be a long time ago since you have
heard about Newton-Rhapson's Algorithm and want to learn more. his is only possible in the Maple
version of the document that is also made available for you. Read the accompaning instructions first.

5.4 Newton-Rhapson's Algorithm to Find Roots of Polynomials

6. Problems
1. The rectangular forms of four complex numbers are given by

Determine the polar forms in exponential form and in common engineering form. Round to four decimals and
state the quadrant.

2. The polar form of six complex numbers are given by

Determine the rectangular forms.

3. Assume the following two complex numbers in rectangular form:

Determine the sum and the difference of these two complex numbers and draw the vector diagrams of the sum
and the difference.

4. Two complex numbers are given in their polar forms by

Determine the product of these complex numbers using their polar forms. Give the result in rectangular form.
Determine the product also by first converting to rectangular form and then using the rectangular multiplication
process.

5. Two complex numbers are given in their rectangular forms by

Determine the product of these complex numbers using their rectangular forms and also by first converting to
polar form and then using polar multiplication; convert the result back to rectangular form.

6. For the two complex numbers of Problem 4 determine their quotient using the polar forms and also using the
rectangular forms.

7. For the two complex numbers of Problem 5 determine their quotient using the rectangular forms and also
using the polar forms.

8. Consider the complex numbers

and

Determine the values of

and

9. Determine the roots of the equation Draw the vector diagram of the roots.

10. Determine the roots of the equation Draw the vector diagram of the roots.

7. Solutions
Problem 1. The rectangular forms of four complex numbers is given by

Determine the two polar forms with 4 decimals display precision.

Solution 1

Complex number Polar form Engineering form Quadrant

Q1

Q1

Q3

Q4

Problem 2. The polar form of six complex numbers are given by

Determine the rectangular forms with 4 decimals display precision.

 Solution 2

Polar form Rectangular form

Problem 3. Assume the following two complex numbers in rectangular form:

Determine the sum and the difference of these two complex numbers and draw their vector diagrams on graph
paper.

Solution 3
Complex numbers ,
Sum
Vector diagram

z = 8 Cj 5
Im z 1
R4
complex plane
R2
K4 K2 2 4 6 8
| | | | | |
R K2 Re z
R K4 z = 5 Kj 4
S
R K6
R K8
Complex number ,

Difference

Vector diagram

R14 z = 11 Cj$14
D

R 12
complex plane
Im z R10
Kz = 3 C j$9
R8 2

R6
z = 8 Cj$5
1
R4
R2
K4 K2 2 4 6 8 11
| | | | | | |
RK2 Re z
Problem 4. Two complex numbers are given in their polar forms by

(a). Determine the product of these complex numbers using their polar forms. Give the result in rectangular
form.

(b). Determine the product also by first converting to rectangular form and then using the rectangular
multiplication process.

Solution 4
Polar multiplication + conversion of result to rectangular form

(a).

Conversion to rectangular form + rectangular multiplication

Notice minor loss of accuracy in last decimal by conversion to rectangular format.

Problem 5. Two complex numbers are given in their rectangular forms by

(a). Determine the product of these complex numbers using their rectangular forms. Give the result also in
polar form.

(b). Determine the product of these complex numbers by first converting to polar form and then using polar
multiplication. Convert the result back to rectangular form.

Solution 5
Rectangular product using rectangular forms

Just perform the rectangular product

Rectangular product using polar forms

=
Problem 6. For the two complex numbers of Problem 4 determine their quotient using the polar forms and also
using the rectangular forms.

Solution 6
Polar division + conversion to cartesian result

Conversion to rectangular operands, rectangular division

No loss of accuracy in the last decimal this time!

Problem 7. For the two complex numbers of Problem 5 determine their quotient using the rectangular forms
and also using the polar forms.

Solution 7
Rectangular division

Conversion of operands to polar, polar division, rectangular result

=
Problem 8. Consider the complex numbers

and

Determine the values of

and

Solution 8

Convert to polar :

Compute power :

Convert to polar :

Compute power :

=
Problem 9. Determine the roots of the equation Draw the vector diagram of the roots.

Solution 9

Vector Diagram

Im z j complex plane

z 0.5 z
1 0

p/6 1

Re z

z Vector Diagram Solution of z3 =Kj

2
Problem 10. Determine the roots of the equation Draw the vector diagram of the roots.

Solution 10
Vector Diagram

1.1225$j complex plane

z
0
Im z
z
1 p
4 1.1225

Re z

z
2
Vector Diagram Solution of z3 =K1 Cj

End of Chapter 1 Complex Numbers