A Comparative Study of Effectiveness of Models of Teaching On The Achievement PDF

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF EFFECTIVENESS OF
MODELS OF TEACHING ON THE ACHIEVEMENT OF

X STD. STUDENTS IN ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
A Thesis submitted to the University of Mysore

for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Education
by
H.N.Vishwanath
Lecturer in Education
Sharada Vilas Teachers College
Mysore
l:
Under the guidance of :-:() .. ~.J 0 p 2.
,db ,. I _c... l'.:;
Dr. A.S. Seetharamu
Professor & Head
Education Unit
Institute for Social and Economic Change (ISEC)
Bangalore 560 072
Department of Studies in Education

University of Mysore
Manasagangotri
Mysore 570 006
India
MC!y 2002
CERTIFICATE
I certify that I have guided and supervised the conduct of the study and
writing of the present thesis entitled "A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF
EFFECTIVENESS OF MODELS OF TEACHING ON THE
ACHIEVEMENT OF X STANDARD STUDENTS IN ENVIRONMENTAL
STUDIES" completed by Mr. H. N. Vishwanath, who worked as an
external candidate on this topic in the Education Unit, Institute for Social
and Economic Change, Bangalore.
I also certify that it has not previously formed the basis for the award of
any degree, diploma or associate fellowship of the University of Mysore or
of the Institute for Social and Economic Change, or any other university or
institution.
Date: Si nature of the Supervisor

Place: Bangalore tlr. A.~. SEETHARAMU
ProlEssrH lit H.jld, Etluc~'ion Unit
I SEC Narl1 ~bh~·!i.
IA~~G.:'~I.c)~E . ~·r ~ (;"7:-.
Ph: 3:::S:;<1[,3 (0) ~;3['1~,2 (~)
DECLARATION
I do hereby declare that the thesis entitled "A Comparative Study of

Effectiveness of Models of Teaching on the Achievement of X Standard
Students in Environmental Studies" is the result of my own work carried out in
the Education Unit, Institute for Social and Economic Change (ISEC), Bangalore,
as an external candidate, under the guidance and supervision of Dr. A. S.
Seetharamu, Professor & Head, Education Unit, ISEC, Bangalore.
I further declare that this research report has not, either wholly or in part, been
submitted to this or any other university for any degree or diploma. Due
acknowledgements have been made wherever any information has been used
as reference from various sources.
~:;;\5'~?
Date: (H.N'vISHWANATH)
Place: Bangalore
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
With all sincerity and regard, I record my deep indebtedness to Dr. A. S.

Seetharamu, Professor and Head, Education Unit, Institute for Social and Economic
Change, Bangalore, for having kindly guided and supervised my research work. He
took immense pains in reading several drafts of my thesis and therein improving the
quality of the thesis. But for his continuous guidance, supervision, expertise, concern
and persistent inspiration and encouragement, this thesis would not have been
completed successfully.
I place on record my sincere gratitude and indebtedness to the Director of the

Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore, for providing me the opportunity
to complete this study.
I thank the principals and managements of Dr. T M A Pai College of Education,

Udupi where I worked earlier and Sharada Vilas Teachers College, Mysore where I am
now working for giving me leave and other facilities for completing this research work.
I am also thankful to the Dept. of Studies in Education, University of Mysore,

Mysore for their encouragement to me.
I am grateful to all the heads of schools, teachers and students of three

experimental high schools selected for the study viz., Government P.U. College,
Kemmannu, Government P.U. College, Hiriyadka and Government High School, Uppur,
Udupi Taluk for their cooperation during the conduct of the study.
I am grateful to Mr. Jayasimha for his statistical assistance, Smt. Radha

Ramanujam, T. Srinivasa Murthy and T. Amarnath for their help in computerising the
report neatly.
My heartfelt thanks are also due to all my colleagues at Dr. T M A Pai College of
Education, Udupi and Sharada Vilas Teachers College, Mysore, parents, wife, relatives
and friends, for their continuous encouragement and cooperation in completing this
research work.
l/~~~;\<l'V
Date: (H.N.vISHWANATH)
Place:Bangalore
CONTENTS
Page
No.
Certificate
Declaration
Acknowledgements
List of Tables
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1 -28
Prelude 1
Science in the Modern World 3
Science as a Component of Education 3
Science in Environmental Management 7
Science Education for the 21 st Century 12
Teaching of Science 15
Teaching of Science & Teacher Education & Models of Teaching 22
Need for the Study 23
Organization of the Thesis 26
CHAPTER 1/: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 29 - 63
Theory 29
Need for Restoring Ecological Balance 31
Why is Ecological Balance Disturbed 32
Strategies for Restoring Ecological Balance 35
i) Legislative Strategies 35
ii) Administrative and Managerial Strategies 38
iii) Education as a Strategy 42
Socio- Economic Factors 57
Gender Issues 59
Theoretical Understandings Underlying the Study 60
CHAPTER 1/1 : REVIEW OF RESEARCH LITERATURE 64 -111
Introduction 64
Review of Studies in the Area of Environmental Education (EE) 65
Review of Studies in the Area of Models of Teaching 81
Summary of the Findings 102
Insights from the Review 106
General Understandings and Distinctiveness of the Study 109
CHAPTER IV: ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION (EE) AND 112 -161
MODELS OF TEACHING
Concept of Environmental Education (EE) 112

Nature and Scope of EE 115
Aims and Objectives of EE 117
Need and Importance of EE 120
Need for Practical Activities in EE 123
Principles Related to EE and Teaching Environmental Studies 126
Curriculum of EE 127
Environmental Ethics 135
Models of Teaching 139
Advance Organizer Model of Teaching (AOM) 143
Inquiry Training Model of Teaching (ITM) 154
CHAPTER V: METHODOLOGY 162 - 200
Introd u ction 162

Statement of the Problem 163
Objectives of the Study 163
Variables in the Study and Their Operational Definitions 167
Statement of Hypotheses 170
Design of the Study 174
Population, Sample and Sampling Procedure 175
Construction of Tools and Measurement of Variables 177
Collection of Data 192
Plan of Analysis and Statistical Techniques Used 195
Scope of the Study 197
Limitations of the Study 199
CHAPTER VI : ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA 201-323
I. Comparative Analysis of Attainments of Students in 201

Environmental Studies (ES) Exposed to Different Models of
Teaching on Each of the Units and in Total ES Using Unit Test
Scores and Summated Test Scores
II. Comparative Analysis of the Attainments of Students in Total 256
ES to Study the Feasibility of Models of Teaching to Teach
Various Environmental Concepts to Various Groups of Students
Using Summated Test Scores
III. Comparative Analysis of the Attainments of Students on 280
Unit I and V and in Total ES Exposed to Different Models of
Teaching Using 1st and Vth Unit Test Scores
List of Tables
Table Descriptions Page
No. No.
1 Number of government high schools in north and south sub- divisions of 175
Udupi taluk (1998)
2 Number of government high schools in rural and urban areas of Udupi taluk 176
( 1998)
3 The distribution of 3 rural government high schools on the basis of sub- 176
divisions and directions
4 The lessons. number of instructional periods allotted to them in IX Std. 178
Biology textbook and the number of multiple choice items selected from
each lesson
5 Percentage weightage for instructional objectives as prescribed by KSEEB 179
for revised syllabu ( from 1994-95)
6 Number of M.C. items constructed to evaluate different Objectives 179
7 Blue print of the distribution of M. C items based on the % weightage of 180

objectives and number of items to each chapter.
8 Various specifications of different objectives tested in the achievement test. 180
9 The weightage given to types of questions and objectives. 186
10 Three dimensional blueprint of the five unit tests. 187

11 Summary of one-way AN OVA of achievement scores (I unit test) obtained 202
by students, taught through AOM, ITM and NPM.
12 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 203
achievement scores (I unit test) obtained by students taught through AOM
and ITM.
13 Number of students. mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 203
achievement scores (I unit test) obtained by students, taught through ITM
and NPM.
14 Number of students, mean scores. standard deviation and t-value of 204
achievement scores (I unit test) obtained by students, taught through AOM
and NPM.
15 Summary of one way ANOVA of achievement scores (I unit test) of 205
students belonging to low, average and high SES groups.
16 Summary of one-way ANOVA of achievement scores (I unit test) obtained 205
by students studying in schools having low, average and high total school
facilities.
achievement scores (I unit test) of students studying in schools with low
and average total school facilities.
achievement scores (I unit test) of students studying in schools with
average and hJ.9h total school facilities.
achievement scores (I unit test) of students studying in schools with low
.~~h total school facilities
20 Summary of one-way ANOVA of achievement scores (I unit test) obtained 208
by students, low, average and high total home facilities
No. No.
achievement scores (I unit test) obtained by boys and girls.
22 Summary of one-way ANOVA of achievement scores (II unit test) obtained 210
achievement scores (II unit test) obtained by students, taught through AOM
and ITM.
achievement scores (II unit test) obtained by students, taught through ITM
and NPM.
achievement scores (II unit test) obtained by students, taught through AOM
and NPM.
26 Summary of one-way ANOVA of achievement scores (II unit test) of 212
facilities.
achievement scores (II unit test) of students studying in schools with low
and averaae total school facilities.
achievement scores (II unit test) of students studying in schools with
averaqe and hioh total school facilities.
achievement scores (II unit test) of students studying in schools with low
and hiqh total school facilities.
by students with low, average and high total home facilities.
achievement scores (II unit test) obtained by boys and girls.
33 Summary of one-way ANOVA of achievement scores (III unit test) obtained 217
achievement scores (III unit test) obtained by students, taught through AOM
and ITM.
achievement scores (III unit test) obtained by students, taught through ITM
and NPM.
achievement scores (III unit test) obtained by students, taught through AOM
and NPM.
37 Summary of one-way ANOVA of achievement scores (III unit test) of 219
facilities.
achievement scores (III unit test) of students studying in schools with low
and averaae school facilities.
II
No. No.
achievement scores (III unit test) of students studying in schools with
average and high total school facilities.
achievement scores (III unit test) of students studying in schools with low
and high total school facilities.
achievement scores (III unit test) obtained by boys and girls.
44 Summary of one-way ANOVA of achievement scores (IV unit test) obtained 224
by_ students, taught through AOM, ITM and NPM.
achievement scores (IV unit test) obtained by students, taught through
AOM and ITM.
achievement scores (IV unit test) obtained by students, taught through ITM
and NPM.
achievement scores (IV unit test) obtained by students, taught through
AOM and NPM.
48 Summary of one-way ANOVA of achievement scores (Iv unit test) of 227
facilities.
achievement scores (IV unit test) of students studying in schools with low
achievement scores (IV unit test) of students studying in schools with
achievement scores (IV unit test) of students studying in schools with low
achievement scores (IV unit test) obtained by boys and girls,
55 Summary of one-way ANOVA of achievement scores (V unit test) obtained 231
achievement scores (V unit test) obtained by students, taught through AOM
and ITM.
achievement scores (V unit test) obtained by students, taught through ITM
and NPM.
achievement scores (V unit test) obtained by students, taught through AOM
and NPM.
59 Summary of one-way ANOVA of achievement scores (V unit test) of 234
iii
No. No.
by students studying in schools having low. average and high total school
facilities.
achievement scores (V unit test) of students studying in schools with low
achievement scores (V unit test) of students studying in schools with

achievement scores (V unit test) of students studying in schools with low
achievement scores (V unit test) of students with low and average total
home facilities.
achievement scores (V unit test) of students with average and high total
home facilities.
achievement scores (V unit test) of students with low and high total home
facilities
achievement scores (V unit test) obtained by boys and girls.
69 Summary of one-way ANOVA of summation achievement scores (Total ES) 241
obtained by students taught through AOM, ITM and NPM.
summation achievement scores obtained by students, taught through AOM
and ITM.
summation achievement scores obtained by students, taught through ITM
and NPM
summation achievement scores obtained by students, taught through AOM
and NPM
73 Summary of one-way ANOVA of summation achievement scores obtained 244
by students belonging to low, average and high SES groups.
facilities.
summation achievement scores of students studying in schools with low
ansJ average school facilities. ..
summation achievement scores of students studying in schools with
summation achievement scores of students studying in schools with low
IV
No. No.
summation achievement scores obtained by boys and girls.
80 Summary of one-way ANOVA and t-test of achievement scores of various 249
groups in the I unit test in ES.
groups in the II unit test in ES.
grou[ls in the III unit test in ES.
groups in the IV unit test in ES.
groups in the V unit test in ES.
groups of students in ES in total.
86 Summary of one-way ANOVA of total achievement scores obtained by low 256
SES students in ES, taught through AOM, ITM and NPM.
87 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of total 257
achievement scores of low SES students, in ES taught through AOM and
ITM.
achievement scores of low SES students, in ES taught through ITM and
NPM.
achievement scores of low SES students, in ES taught through AOM and
NPM.
90 Summary of one-way ANOVA of total achievement scores obtained by 259
average SES students in ES, taught through AOM, ITM and NPM.
achievement scores of average SES students, in ES taught through AOM
and ITM.
achievement scores of average SES students, in ES taught through ITM
and NPM.
achievement scores of average SES students, in ES taught through AOM
and NPM.
94 Summary of one-way ANOVA of total achievement scores obtained by high 262
SES students in ES, taught through AOM, ITM and NPM.
achievement scores of high SES students, in ES taught through AOM and
ITM.
achievement scores of high SES students, in ES taught through ITM and
NPM.
achievement scores of high SES students, in ES taught through AOM and
NPM.
students with low total home facilities in ES, taught through AOM, ITM and
NPM.
v
No. No.
achievement scores of students, with low total home facilities in ES taught
through AOM and ITM.
achievement scores of students with low total home facilities, in ES taught
through ITM and NPM.
achievement scores of students, with low total home facilities in, ES taught
through AOM and NPM.
students with average total home facilities in ES, taught through AOM, ITM
and NPM.
achievement scores of students, with average total home facilities in ES
taught through AOM and ITM.
achievement scores of students with average total home facilities, in ES
taught through ITM and NPM.
105 Number of students. mean scores. standard deviation and t-value of total 270
achievement scores of students, with average total home facilities in, ES
1--.....,.-::-=-_t_.'=ta_l1lht through AOM and NPM.
students with high total home facilities in ES, taught through AOM, ITM and
NPM.
achievement scores of students, with high total home facilities in ES taught
through AOM and ITM.
achievement scores of students with high total home facilities, in ES taught
throu~h ITM and NPM.
achievement scores of students, with high total home facilities in, ES
taught through AOM and NPM.
110 Summary of one-way ANOVA of total achievement scores obtained by boys 273
in ES, taught through AOM, ITM and NPM.
achievement scores obtained by boys in ES taught through AOM and ITM.
achievement scores obtained by boys in ES taught throu~h ITM and NPM.
achievement scores obtained by boys in, ES taught through AOM and
NPM.
1----:-:--:----1- CC' - C . - - - --. .. - . ----------,---,---:----:--:---:--:--+---=:-=:--1
114 Summary of one-way ANOVA of total achievement scores obtained by girls 276
I---:-:-=--+~in:--.E=-S,,":",_tea=.~ t!!J h ro u g.b.. A 0 ~m\11 cc.a'-Cn=-dccN,-'-P.. .:M.:. :.:. . .---:--:---:----:---_---:--:-----:--_--;-:-:--:-+--"""""~=-_
achievement scores obtained by girls in ES taught through AOM and ITM.
t----:--:-::-_r.a,c,:-h___ievement scores obtained by girls in ES taught through ITM and NPM.
achievement scores obtained by girls in, ES taught through AOM and
NPM.
VI
No. No.
118 Summary of one-way ANOVA and t-test on achievement scores of various 278
groups of students in ES taught through AOM, ITM and NPM
achievement scores obtained by total sample of students, in the I and V unit
tests in ES.
120 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation.· and I-value of 282
achievement scores obtained by students, taught through AOM in the I and
V unit tests in ES.
achievement scores obtained by students, taught through ITM in the I and
V unit tests in ES.
achievement scores obtained by students, taught through NPM in the I and
V unit tests in ES.
123 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and I-value of 284
achievement scores obtained by low SES students, in the I and V unit tests
in ES.
achievement scores obtained by average SES students, in the I and V unit
tests in ES.
achievement scores obtained by high SES students, in the I and V unit
tests in ES.
achievement scores obtained by the students with low home facilities in the
I and V unit tests in ES.
achievement scores obtained by the students with average home facililies
in the I and V unit tests in ES.
achievement scores obtained by students with high home facilities in the I
and V unit tests in ES.
achievement scores obtained by students studying in schools with low total
school facilities in the I and V unit tests in ES.
------
achievement scores obtained by students studying in schools with
average total school facilities in the I and V unit tests in ES.
achievement scores obtained by students studying in schools with high
total school facilities in the I and V unit tests in ES.
achievement scores obtained by boys in the I and V unit tests in ES.
achievement scores obtained b)l girls in the I and V unit tests in ES.
achievement scores obtained by low SES students, taught through AOM in
the I and V unit tests in ES. ---
achievement scores obtained by average SES students, taught through
AOM in the I and V unit tests in ES.
vii
No. No.
136 Number of students. mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 293
achievement scores obtained by high SES students, taught through AOM
achievement scores obtained by students with low home facilities, taught
through AOM in the I and V unit tests in ES.
achievement scores obtained by students with average home facilities,
taught through AOM in the I and V unit tests in ES.
139 Number of students, mean scores. standard deviation and t-value of 295
achievement scores obtained by students with high home facilities, taught
through AOM in the I and V unit tests in ES.
140 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and I-value of 296
achievement scores obtained by boys. taught through AOM in the I and V
unit tests in ES.
achievement scores obtained by girls, taught through AOM in the I and V
unit tests in ES.
achievement scores obtained by low SES students, taught through ITM in
the I and V unit tests in ES.
ITM in the I and V unit tests in ES.
achievement scores obtained by high SES students, taught through ITM in
through ITM in the I and V unit tests in ES.
achievement scores obtained by students with average home facilities,
taught through ITM in the I and V unit tests in ES.
through ITM in the I and V unit tests in ES.
achievement scores obtained by boys, taught through ITM in the I and V
unit
.
--~~.
tests in ES .
achievement scores obtained by girls, taught through ITM in the I and V
unit tests in ES.
achievement scores obtained by low SES students, taught through NPM in
NPM in the I and V unit tests in ES.
achievement scores obtained by high SES students, taught through NPM
viii
No. No.
through NPM in the I and V unit tests in ES.
achievement scores obtained by students with average. home facilities,
taught through NPM in the I and V unit tests in ES.
throuqh NPM in the I and V unit tests in ES.
achievement scores obtained by boys, taught through NPM in the I and V
unit tests in ES.
achievement scores obtained by girls, taught through NPM in the I and V
unit tests in ES.
158a,b Summary of t-tests on achievement scores of various groups (total sample, 308 &
&c primary sub sample, secondary sub sample) in the I and V unit test in ES. 309
159 Coefficient of correlation between achievement of students in ES and other 313
variables.
160 Cases of high achievement when moderator variable SES is considered 315
161 Cases of low achievement when moderator variable SES is considered 316
162 Cases of high achievement when moderator variable TSF is considered 316
163 Cases of low achievement when moderator variable TSF is considered 317
164 Cases of high achievement when moderator variable THF is considered 317
165 Cases of low achievement when moderator variable THF is considered 318
IX
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Prelude
Knowledge in the school curriculum is comprised of Languages, Mathematics,
Physical and Natural Sciences as well as Social Studies apart from several co-
curricular subjects and activities. The perspective of looking at this classification
changed in the last two decades with the physical, natural and social sciences
being treated as a whole and referred to as Environmental Studies. The physical,
natural and social universe constitute the environment within which the human
life has been set. The individual needs to look at the universe in an integral I
holistic framework of life. Taking note of this, the Government of Karnataka
reclassified the knowledge in the curriculum into Languages, Mathematics,
Environmental Studies I and" since 1991. Hence, it is to be noted that physical
and biological sciences that were transacted in the school curriculum for a long
time have been now referred to as Environmental Studies- I.
It is recognized that there is an interface, a strong intertwining and subtle

relationship between science and society. Science is considered not only as a
systematized body of knowledge but also as a way of life; a way of examining,
thinking, acting, reflecting and evaluating life. If science has to be accepted as a
way of life, then there is need for its complete spread in civil society. Basic
knowledge and understandings of phenomenon in the physical and natural
universe, skills of adjustment into the environment around us, scientific temper,
appreciation of the values of science for human society and the need for
peaceful and constructive uses of science in everyday life and for purposes of
nation-building should become integral to the personality development of
individuals. These accomplished individuals should function as members of
society and citizens of the nation. A love and espousal of facts along with
eschewal of prejudices, openness to new ideas and fresh thinking, balance and
circumspection in arriving at judgments on controversial issues, readiness for
accepting change should be constituents of an accomplished personality.
Development of such qualities is a product of the rigours and discipline of
science education. A meaningfully organized science education in schools will
facilitate the accomplishment of these qualities in its products, the outgoing
students. This process will act as catalysis in the process of modernization in
society.
Indian society today is in the thick of a dynamic web of modernization. A

meaningful science education programme can catalyze this process. Person of
the teacher, referring to his/her knowledge and skills in transacting a science
curriculum, facilities for teaching science in schools, overall school environment,
techniques and tools employed to transact the curriculum/models of teaching,
balance in emphasis on learning, testing and opportunities for relearning, would
together contribute to 'meaning' in science education. There are several
constraints in the organization of meaningful science education in schools. Poor
quality of entrants to the teaching profession, sub-optimal facilities for science
teaching, grossly inadequate emphasis on remedial teaching are illustrative
constraints. One of the compensatory strategies for these constraints is the
adoption of such models of teaching, which maximize the efficiency and
effectiveness of science teaching in schools. Such models which take into
account all the constraints and still work/function in the school set-up are
required In this context, it is to be noted that there are no standard models
which can be universally applied/used across time and space even while
disregarding all the constraints. Models are context and constraint-specific. The
contenUknowledge to be transacted may also be of equal significance. Models
of teaching need to be tried and tested for their content and context specificities.
Results have to be documented along with the identified caveats for their
replication. This is also a scientific and systematic way of building locally
relevant, knowledge-friendly, student-friendly, school facilities/environment
friendly and teacher-friendly models of teaching. Scientifically designed
research studies are required in this direction. There is also a need to establish
the contours of validity of standard models of teaching in educational literature in
regard to the content and context of school education. The present research
study is an exercise in this direction.
Efficient and effective, content and context-specific, scientifically validated

models of teaching step up school efficiency and facilitate the production of
personalities among students who would develop skills and faith in science as a
way of life. Science as a way of life would facilitate and catalyze the process of
modernization of Indian society. This way, a meaningful science education
2
programme in schools would contribute to nation-building in India. This research
study is designed with this macro-perspective of life and society.
Science in the Modern World

Great achievements in science and technology and the use of scientific
inventions and discoveries have been promoting well-being of the mankind
through their application in the fields of industry, communication, transport,
education, engineering, agriculture, medicine, etc. This has made science
indispensable now. Science has, in fact, radically transformed the material
environment of the modern world. It is liberating and enriching the mind and
enlarging the human spirit. Nothing comparable to the scientific revolution in its
impact on man's development and outlook has happened since the beginning of
the 20 th century. There is no aspect of human life today which has not been
influenced by science in one way or the other. Science has shrunk the world
and totally changed the human outlook.
With the great advancement in both science and technology, the threat to the
very sustenance of environment is also increasing at an alarming rate. This is
mainly due to improper and illegal applications of scientific knowledge motivated
by selfish needs, greed and lack of foresight. Basic understandings of the
nature, personal health and public hygiene, peaceful and dangerous uses of
science, basic skills of civic life and an enquiring,· questioning and exploring
attitude are very much essential for the progress and development of a society
as well as for the healthy growth of science and technology. Science education
has the potential to create the required awareness, understanding and attitude
which are all the more important in a developing country, like India.
Science as a Component of Education

Science is not only a systematized body of knowledge about physical and
natural phenomena but also a way of life, a way of thinking and a way of doing
things. It is to be integrated into the process of development and improved
quality of life. This is possible only through a properly planned science
education.
In the past, science had to struggle hard and long for its rightful place in the
school curriculum. Science education, in one or the other form, has a
recognized place in school education now. The role of science education
3
becomes critical because science and technology have become the growing
edges and these are influencing human life and environment in diversified ways.
Pearson Karl (1924) in his book "Grammar of Science", emphasizes the
importance of 'training the mind to an exact and impartial analysis of facts, with a
view to developing sound citizenship and international relations universally. The
real significance of science had not been realized till the beginning of the 19th
century and that is why science had no place in the school curriculum during the
earlier periods.
Many educators, thinkers, committees and commissions at different points of

time emphasized the importance of science education. The initiative for
emphasizing and popularizing science education began during the 15th century
by Gilbert (1544-1603), Francis Bacon (1561-1626) followed by Sir Isaac Newton
(1687), Michael Faraday (1791-1867), The Charter Act (1813), Herbert Spencer
(1820-1903), Tyndall (1820-1893), T.H.Huxley (1825-1895) and others. They
stressed the need of science education for development of society. The
University Education Commission (1948), The Secondary Education
Commission (1952-53). The Education Commission (1964-66), NPE (1986) and
the Committee set up by MHRD (1991) to set out Minimum Levels of Learning
(MLL) have all highlighted the need and importance of science education and
strongly advocated the teaching of science as a compulsory subject at all levels
of education.
Man is living In a world today, which is guided by science and technology.

Science is no longer confined to a few seriously devoted persons. The present
world requires basic understandings of scientific facts and principles. Science
has now become everyday science for everybody. Teaching of science for
everybody has become an unavoidable part of life. Further, science, as a
subject, has two very important virtues distinctive to it. The study of science
involves training in 'scientific method' and develops 'scientific altitude' in
learners. Along with this, science cultivates disciplinary qualities of mind such
as systematic observation, persistence, patience, concentration of mind, logical
thinking. objective and unbiased judgments, respect for truth, etc., which are
essential for further exploration and scientific advancements. These qualities
can be cultivated only through science subjects, which can qualify the learners to
live as truly efficient citizens in a science-guided society.
4
The learning of science and technology in our schools, colleges and universities
is necessary to develop new skills. It is also essential for fully comprehending
the processes of society so that they can be altered in accordance with the
highest code of morality, and the enrichment of human personality. It is,
therefore, essential that science should be used to promote the spirit of free
inquiry to promote national wealth, to abolish inequality between nations and
classes and to test all assumptions in the crucible of scientific analysis.
A well-planned science education programme can be a fruitful effort in

developing the desired attitudes and shaping the scientific outlook. Recognizing
the importance of science and science education, Nehru (1946) opined that 'it is
science education alone that can solve the problems like hunger and poverly,
insanitation and illiteracy, superstitions, vast resource wastage of a rich country
like India inhabited by starving people. Even more than the present, the future
belongs to science'. The societies of the twenty-first century will, quite clearly
continue to be shaped by science education; also, science education is
indispensable in helping the societies from where they are now to where they
aspire to be in the next century. Therefore, the proper and responsible use of
science education is an urgent need of all societies especially in a developing
country like India, in order to achieve the twin goals of development and
improved quality of life. This is possible only through a properly planned
science education.
Science is now a compulsory subject in every system of school education right

from the elementary stage to various levels of education for its value content,
such as intellectual, practical or utilitarian, cultural, moral, aesthetic and
disciplinary values. The importance and usefulness of science and science
education has been derived on the basis of the contributions of science through
its application to economic growth and development and its role in the creation of
a democratic culture through education. The values of science education are
realized by formulating and executing appropriate science curriculum at different
levels of education.
Since the middle of the 19th century, there has been a realization of the
importance of learning the processes of science. In England, Thomas
H.Huxley, Hooker and John Henslow (1973) held a view that "the unique
characteristic of science as a branch of learning, was the method by which
5
knowledge was acquired. These methods were of utmost significance from an
educational point of view than the conclusions reached". The 'process' aspect
of science was considered more significant than its 'product' aspect. Hence,
science has to be studied in schools not only for its informational benefits but
also because it trains the powers of observation and reasoning. Science is no
longer treated merely as a body of knowledge; it is regarded as a systematic and
dynamic process of life.
The rapid advancement of science and technology and increasing need for
scientific application have made it all the more important to provide for science
education in schools. Even the Secondary Education Commission, 1952, had
recommended that every Secondary School pupil should study General Science
as a compulsory subject, so that h/she gains a basic quantum of scientific
knowledge as a part of his/her general education. In addition, provision should
be made for elective subjects in science for those students who want to pursue
higher study.
For the first time, the 42"d amendment to the Indian Constitution adopted in 1976
included several fundamental duties of a citizen. This is in contrast to the
fundamental rights included in the Constitution of 1950. One of the fundamental
duties of a citizen is to develop 'scientific temper', and the schools are expected
to develop scientific temper among the students. This also justifies the inclusion
and need of science as a subject in school education. In view of the manifold
values of science, especially the utilitarian value, which are indispensable for the
efficient discharge of responsibilities of a good citizen in an age of science, it has
been elevated to the status of a compulsory subject at all stages of schooling.
With the introduction of compulsory and free education for all, science has been
assigned an important place in the curriculum and has been made one of the
compulsory subjects till the lower secondary stage to make all students realize
the need of science for society. At secondary stage, science is one of the core
subjects. As a whole, science education in secondary schools has been
fashioned to perform three-dimensional functions, viz. (1) as an integral part of
general education; (2) as a preparatory course to college science; and (3) as
preparation for vocation.
6
Science in Environmental Management
Progress and development have become synonymous with the introduction of
new technologies and products aimed at making life better, safer and more
viable. But, there have been instances where apparently useful products and
technologies have turned out to be capable of inflicting extremely deleterious
impact on environment and development in the long run. Many of the problems
related to environment are largely due to lack of environment-friendly application
of science and technology which are the best tools and instruments that can
either be used for constructive or destructive purposes. The ills of improper use
of technology have now been well understood in the fields of agriculture,
manufacturing, energy, construction, transport, etc. For example, in modern
agriculture, indiscriminate use of pesticides, insecticides and synthetic fertilizers
has led to the bio-magnification of toxic substances in food chains; in
manufacturing sector, industries have been producing bio-undegradable
products in unlimited quantity; radio-active radiations from nuclear reactors and
nuclear wastes bring about a rise in global temperature and genetic hazards;
unplanned and unlimited manmade constructions have altered the natural
ecosystem resulting in natural disasters such as floods, famine, earthquake and
soil erosions; and increased transportation on land, air and water has led to
desertification, ozone depletion and marine pollution respectively. The law of
decreasing returns and diminishing utility operate when the depletion of natural
resources and environmental costs are taken into consideration (Swaminathan
1986).
Environmental costs generally fall into two categories, i.e., (i) public health
impacts caused by pollution, and (ii) productivity changes on account of increase
in water supply costs, soil degradation and deforestation including reduced
density of tree cover. A stock of natural resources per capita depletes in the
form of reduction of rich soil nutrients, fall of water table and the growing scarcity
of clean water and air which will have a bearing on the costs associated with
economic activity which increase sharply. It is in this context that the need for
cultivating a scientific and rational outlook in people is felt which enables the
scientists to enlist their appreciation and confidence.
The constructive and conserving role of science in environmental management

has now been realized through technology based environmental friendly
7
applications encompassing sCience discipline called 'Eco-technology' which
takes into account the concerns of ecology, equity and employment. Besides,
eco-technology guides human society with its emphasis on natural environment
for the benefit of both; helps to combine traditional wisdom and techniques with
modern science and frontier technologies such as Biotechnology, Space
Technology, renewable energy technologies, management and marketing
technologies, etc. Eco-technology is the only. available option that can
guarantee sustainable development (Dash 1999). Sustainable development is a
process in which the exploitation of resources, direction of investments,
orientation of technological development and institutional changes are all made
consistent with future as well as present needs of man and nature. The
constructive application of modern science and technology ensures the
preconditions for sustainable development such as inter-generational equity &
social justice, economic efficiency and ecological harmony.
Most countries including India with higher population growth rates have difficulty
in meeting their needs for food, water, health care, sanitation, shelter,
employment, energy and productive land, and are destroying their environment
in the process. Their economic inefficiency also contributes to ecological un-
sustainability. As a matter of fact, it is all due to the unchecked population
growth. In this context, a need for application of science and technology for
environmental conservation is felt. Eco-technological measures can be
effectively employed to have sustainability. Science has contributed to mankind
towards developing and using many eco-technological tools and methods in
various sectors such as energy, population control, transport, agriculture,
industry, wild life conservation, bio-diversity, food production, renewable and
nonrenewable resources, communication, etc., which might otherwise carry
negative effects on the environment.
Science for Agriculture: The important eco-technological steps in sustainable

agriculture are watershed management through moisture conservation
measures, land use based on land capability, sustainable water management,
wasteland management, afforestation, conservation of genetic resources,
integrated nutrient management, integrated weed management, integrated pest
management, organic farming, etc. Due to this, the agricultural production gets
enhanced and there is greater availability of fodder, fuel wood, small timbers and
raw materials for rural industries. Science finds its effective application in
8
agriculture involving soil management (soil testing, ploughing, seeding,
manuring); irrigation (sprinkler method, drip irrigation, etc.); crop protection
(controlling weeds and crop diseases); and crop improvement (hybridization and
tissue culture).
Science for Wasteland Development: Science also helps in the development

of wastelands by creating suitable vegetable cover, which not only prevents
further degradation but also improves the environment. Forest is the source of
five f's (food, fodder, fibre, fuel and forage). Agro-forestry and social forestry
provide an excellent basis for tree planting to prevent declamation of soil and its
degradation. Agro-forestry integrates agriculture and forestry on the same unit
of land so as to meet the local demands of fodder, fuel-wood, timber and food
grains. Similarly, social forestry aims at growing trees by utilizing unused land
to meet the demands for fuel, food and timber, to check soil erosion and protects
the environment for sustainable development. Other degraded lands having
special disabilities can also be reclaimed through appropriate technologies, so
that these could be used for bio-mass production, for example, aerial seeding
technique could be employed for regenerating / re-vegetating difficult and
inaccessible areas like ravines, hills and mountains, deserts, etc.
Science and Bio-diversity : Another contribution of science towards increasing

bio-diversity is through biotechnology, which is also an essential tool of
sustainable agricultural development. It employs the following techniques:
"Tissue Culture", widely used for multiplying valuable plants, testing various
chemicals for toxicity, for genetic engineering studies and other experimental
investigations.
"Genetic Engineering", widely used to boost growth, alter resistance of both
plants and animals to factors such as drugs, heat, cold, salinity, etc. This
technique has contributed to creating transgenic cows, sheep and goats
producing human proteins in their blood and milk. Transgenic tomatoes, tobacco
and wheat endowed with unique traits such as resistance against pests;
diseases and frost have also been created using this technology.
"Cloning" is now a standard biotechnological tool for growing superior
plants/animal species of uniform quality in large numbers from parental cells
taken from good quality plants/animals.
9
Science and Energy : Science has been playing a major role in exploring
alternative sources of energy. Apart from the conventional and non-renewable
energy sources like coal and petroleum, energy can also be derived from other
sources like sun, wind, ocean, etc. In contrast to fossil fuels, the alternative
sources of energy are inexhaustible, renewable, cheap, eco-friendly and are,
therefore, of vital importance in sustainable development. The various types of
energy that have been explored and used are: (a) Photovoltanic energy -
produced by converting solar light into electric energy through semiconductors;
(b) solar thermal energy - heating capacity of solar radiations that is used in
generating electricity, also used in desalination, space heating, crop drying, etc;
(c) wind energy - mechanical energy of the wind that is used to generate
electricity by aerogenerator; (d) bio-mass energy - energy produced by using
agricultural, forestry and municipal wastes; (e) bio-gas energy - a mixture of
different gases in varied compositions produced by the action of anaerobic
microorganisms on domestic and agricultural wastes; bio-gas saves other types
of fuels and gives required and enriched organic fertilizers; (f) geothermal energy
- energy produced from underground hot water (sulphur springs) and hot dry
rocks; and (g) oceanic energy - produced from ocean tides.
Science-Environment-Industry : Science, by way of ecological modernization,

has helped raising the levels of both ecological and economic efficiency by
increasing the required material and energy effectively in production and
consumption processes in order to minimize the expense on environmental
protection while keeping the cost of natural resource exploitation within
acceptable limits. In effect, ecological modernization helps in restructuring of
economy based on eco-technological principles.
Eg.1. In manufacturing sector - recycling raw materials, substitution of

ecologically harmful products with harmonious products, application of
biotechnology for substitution of non-renewable resource base with
renewable, carrying capacity based planning of industrial estates, etc.
Eg.2. Energy sector - greater use of regenerative energy sources,
decentralization of supply, improvement of combustion process.
Eg.3. Construction sectors - use of renewable and environmentally compatible
building materials, land and energy saving designs, etc.
10
EgA. Transport sector - reduction in the fuel/energy consumption of motor
vehicles, reduction in total number of motored kilometers, provision of
efficient public transport system, etc.
Eg.5. Food sectors - harvesting marine benefits such as sea-foods in an
agrarian country like India.
Science for Bio-remediation and Biodegradation: Scientific efforts are on the

way to develop biodegradable plastics, which will be more environment friendly;
microbial treatments are being experimented to reduce the metal-toxicity;
sewage treatment has been effectively done to conserve water for various
purposes.
Some other scientific measures which can directly or indirectly lead to

sustainable development are:
Remote Sensing : It is an indispensable tool for better monitoring and

management of natural resources. It helps in producing multicolour images and
maps outlining areas of scientific interest such as diseased or pest infected
crops, forest areas, rich fishing areas in oceans, even underground water and
mineral reserves, etc.
Hydroponics: It is the commercial method of growing plants without using soil

by lending them chemical/nutrient solution. The advantages of this method are
it has less impact on environment and unused areas at home can be used.
In addition to these, environmental management through scientific methods can

be seen in
I. animal husbandry (livestock management, animal feeds, shelter/habitat,
animal health, development of new stocks, artificial insemination);
II. post harvest management of food (scientific preservation of food crops
and pest controlling);
III. detection of food adulteration through scientific methods;
IV. pollution control through scientific methods, viz., neutralizing the toxic
effluents! pollutants at their origin, sewage treatment, recycling of waste,
etc.); and
v. population control through improved and reliable methods of family
planning.
II
In this way, scientific and technological methods based on the principles of
ecology, equity and social justice are appreciated in the current scenario of
population explosion, depleting and degrading natural resources, over-
exploitation of natural resources beyond their carrying capacity as well as
increasing environmental protection costs. These technologies provide a
balanced and buoyant environment, which is fundamental for continuous
developmental efforts and quality of life. Thus, there is interdependence
between eco-technology and sustainable development, which should be realized
and practised in such a manner that it can ensure sustainability.
Science Education for the 21 st Century

Since living in the present world invariably warrants, to variable degrees,
knowledge of simple scientific facts and laws, science has become 'everyday
science' for everybody. Teaching of everyday science for everybody has
become an integral part of general education. In this context, one has to think
of the status and nature of science education that has been given from the
recent past to the present day. Can the on-going system of science education
help students of future generations to solve the present and unforeseen
problems that may arise? If not, what changes are required in the present
pattern of science education? These and similar questions need to be
pondered over
The impact of modern science on society is such that it has necessitated a great
spread of awareness of social implications of science. Students of modern
world need to understand and appreciate the dependence of the modern society
on science and the changes in the social structure that have been brought about
by the achievements of science and technology. They should not only be able
to appreciate the modern marvels of science but should also understand the
social use of the scientific achievements. This can be justified from the fact that
modern liberal education has a much wider orientation, and thus, the idea of
developing scientific attitude and appreciation, should be considered as one of
the aims of teaching science in the years to come. The science teacher should
teach science in such a way that the pupils realize varied social functions of
science, think, act and contribute to the welfare of the future world. They should
appreciate science as a part of modern living and that science should always be
used only for the benefits of the society and not for selfish needs. In this
12
context, future education - science education in particular - will undergo
changes that one needs to envIsion. Students of the present and future
generations deal with ideas drawn from all parts of the world. Thus, science
education that is to be provided to him I her should extend beyond the classroom
to encompass community agencies, industrial processes, research centres,
natural habitats, and space beyond the earth. Classrooms of the future schools
may consist of well equipped laboratories, cubicles for using teaching machines,
space for individual work, conference rooms and rooms in which students can
prepare aids and materials with the guidance of technicians and teachers. The
study of science may be pursued in various places, viz., laboratory, natural
milieu, social environment, peer group projects, wherein students seek, discover,
innovate, invent and create ideas, principles and' phenomena through self-
efforts.
Facilities for learning are numerous and varied. The laboratory develops
children's interest in problems of science. It contains well-equipped and child-
centered experimental set up for students' self-investigation. In processing their
information, children use individual learning aids such as computers, tape
recorders, televisions, charts, globe, maps, and other modern gadgets (Caffery
1967)
The increased use of electronic aids on a massive scale makes possible

science instruction that is more individualized. It makes it possible for children
working independently, to practice skills, develop concepts and obtain data for
experimentation and verification. Instruction is made more heuristic, self-
explorative with auto-instructional devices. The role of science teacher in the
present day situation is to facilitate the learners with a balanced mix of
motivation and guidance. The teachers are clinical specialists who guide the
learning of each child individually, basing their guidance on computerized data
that reveal the child's background, needs, interests, and intellectual maturity.
Auxiliary personnel help teachers to prepare materials, keep records, maintain
facilities in the laboratory and supervise tutorial learning (Hendricks 1966).
Self-education needs to be cultured on a large scale so that new generation

pupils may live successfully in a world highly loaded with scientific applications.
Emphasis on the methods and processes of science should desist teachers from
following the path of least resistance, that is, taking short-cuts. There is thus
13
less interference with the vision of a more fundamental objective of teaching
science which is to develop among the vast body of pupils the patient,
systematic observation of facts, the design of experiments to isolate what is to
be studied, the formulation of hypothesis for subsequent verification, the
willingness to abandon any hypothesis not substantiated experimentally, and the
consistent maintenance of an attitude of detached objectivity in their day-to-day
thinking (Charles 1959).
Science education that is offered to the students of the twenty first century
should be properly designed and executed to visualize and achieve the aims and
objectives of teaching science extended to the future context. The aim of the
whole course extending from the elementary level to the post-graduate level
should be to enable the student to acquire scientific knowledge, and in addition,
come to possess some understanding of the methodology of science and further,
in the very process of acquiring this understanding, the student should be
enabled to develop scientific attitude. The terminal goal of the entire science
education programme should be to enable the student to emerge not only as a
science expert but also a young scientist imbibed with scientific spirit and
mentality necessary to solve the problems of the surrounding environment.
(Srinivasan, K 1987). In addition to this, other ultimate aims of teaching science
that are more emphasized in the future context would be: the new science
education programmes should enable the pupils to understand the whole world
better factually - especially the world as it affects them concretely and to help
pupils investigate ways of increasing the range and depth of understanding
natural processes and to relate this understanding to the many puzzling
complexities of industrial society.
Keeping these aims in view, science education should offer varied direct and
purposeful learning experiences through which students can identify the
problems and they also find solutions to them through scientific method.
(Vaidya, 1996).
Science education has become an international activity, growing out of national

frontiers. Incidentally, accidentally and intentionally, the contribution of this type
of constructive science education strengthens the national economy, creates
new resources, accelerates vast employment and attempts to build global
outlook on problems which affect human society.
14
Perhaps this type of futuristic science education eventually changes pupil's
behaviour and his/her idea of his/her role in the world, so that tomorrow's
citizens grow with inquiring minds and creative spirits ready to face the
challenges of the twenty first century.
Teaching of Science
Science Teaching Today: Science is basically concerned with the objective

understanding of natural phenomena and through science education one can
acquire the required knowledge and understanding of these phenomena. The
search for knowledge and understanding about reality can be done through the
process of science teaching which requires certain skills. The knowledge and
understanding of natural phenomena, and the skills developed by studying
science are applied in life situations. This utility aspect of science can be realized
only through effective teaching of science in classrooms.
Teaching of science is not just handing out facts and information about science.
It is much more than that. Besides motivating and presenting things in an
interesting way, the teacher must be able to create suitable learning experiences
which reflect an atmosphere for students' self exploration, problem solving,
inductive reasoning, etc, which are necessary for the development of science
process skills such as observation, identification of problem, collection of data,
experimentation and verification, manipulation, recording, analyzing, etc,. To
achieve this, there are varieties of methods of teaching available and the teacher
has to select such method or methods, which are suitable for the given set of
students in a given context.
Science teaching in Indian classroom contexts is in a very bad shape. Students

are successfully passing their examinations, without absorbing knowledge about
the nature of scientific enterprise. Teachers fail to build quality into their science
teaching. Innovation and research bent of mind are not built into it. In spite of
many efforts which include continued research, experimental trying out of varied
methods of teaching, teacher-training programmes, etc, the broader aspects of
scientific knowledge, namely, the methodology of teaching science and the kind
of learning outcomes which it is expected to generate seem to have had little
impact on the minds of pupils. It was expected that persons who have had the
benefit of science education would imbibe the spirit and mentality of science and
IS
would considerably contribute to the transformation of the tradit40nal outlook in
the direction of a rational attitude towards life and its problems along with the
development of scientific skills. It is indeed disappointing to note that this has
not happened to any significant extent. It is mainly due to the fact that the
methods of teaching employed by the teacher are less effective which
emphasize more on 'product' aspect of science rather than 'process' aspect
(Vaidya 1996).
The present-day state of affairs in science education and science teaching in

India were generalized in the following way (Vaidya 1974). The situation is not
reported to be much better today.
I. Science teaching has been and is still oral in character. Demonstration

lessons are occasionally interspersed. There is very little of practical
work up to the tenth class. At the higher stages, a prescribed list of
experiments is mechanically followed by the teacher in the laboratory,
which is mostly in the nature of verifying knowledge, or working according
to set the rules which are made explicit before introducing the real
experiment to students. The element of investigation, training in the use
and practice of the scientific method and even mastery of the research
operations (the discovery approach to learning) are conspicuous by their
absence, even at those places where laboratory facilities and equipments
are generous.
ii. The aims and objectives of science education at various levels, when
spelt out in detail, look grand on paper and most of them vaporize during
execution.
iii. Science teaching IS based strictly on the prescribed textbooks. Both
students and teachers follow them strictly.
iv. Methods employed for science teaching are dull; teacher-centered and
lack objectivity.
It is for these reasons that science teaching is not considered to be related to the
immediate environment at all. Consequently, training in scientific method,
problem solving, creative thinking, and the development of scientific skills,
interests, attitudes and appreciation remain in an utter state of neglect.
16
Another commonly cited defect of science teaching is that it is almost totally
information-based. This makes science education at the lower levels very drab
and a matter-of-fact business which often bores students. At the higher levels it
runs through the risk of becoming out of date before the student reaches
maturity and takes up any scientific work on his own. Learning becomes highly
limited. Science, which is an admirable synthesis of learning, and production
activity is becoming a stereotype. The characteristic features of science of being
open- ended, of welcoming change, and of being based on reason, are given
scant attention. Due to this, science education, instead of becoming a liberating
and intellectually stimulating experience, becomes another kind of cut--and-dry
dogma. The science classroom appears to be a place where children make little
use of their talents and tools because the methods of teaching in vogue are not
only mechanical in nature but also devoid of constructive imagination. Even
though, science teaching, at all levels has changed radically, in both content and
form in the wake of the recent scientific revolution, science teachers from their
unexamined day-to-day classroom teaching have formed firm opinions about
their wards which is too difficult to change or eradicate. In spite of many major
developments in the pedagogy of science which include multi-media approach,
mass communication instruction, individualized instruction, group-learning, team
teaching many versions of scientific method such as inquiry approach, problem
solving method, brain storming method, heuristic method, inductive method, etc,
teachers all over the world in India, are employing fixed ways of teaching science
in classroom. Even though a number of methods are evolved over a period of
time, only some of them were rarely practised at school and very few of them
have been employed by teachers for science teaching on a large scale. This is
true especially in the Indian context where schools and classrooms lack
infrastructure and physical resources required for modern, technical and
scientific approaches of science teaching, overloaded syllabus with less span of
academic schedule and lack of initiation, motivation, exposure and innovative
attitude among science teachers. The commonly used methods by teachers for
science teaching are lecture method, discussion method, lecturer-cum-
demonstration method, topic method and assignment method. A few additional
methods that have been used are question-answer method, textbook method
and reference method. Methods such as project method, laboratory method,
and heuristic methods are used occasionally in schools with required facilities.
These methods employed by the teachers are associated with teaching aids
17
such as models, charts, specimens, objects and audio-visual aids. Other
methods and approaches such as programmed instruction, heuristic approach,
model approach, Simulated Social Skill Training (SSST) are very rarely used
and, by and large, restricted to experimental tryout or used for demonstration
and research purposes.
Focus on Teacher Education: The educational expansion, universalisation of

elementary education, vocationalisation of secondary education, higher and
professional education and overall quality of education are major challenges
before the country. Evidently, the quality of education is a direct consequence
and outcome of the quality of teachers and teacher education system. The task
of bringing qualitative change in the institutional efficacy of teacher education
system in itself is a huge and challenging one. The last five decades have
witnessed several attempts to change, modify and indigenise the inherited
system of teacher education. The system, however, continues to function more
or less on the same principles, similar content and approaches characterized by
continuity and unwillingness to change. However, efforts are continued to
greatly reduce isolation of the teacher education system in practical terms and
liberate teachers and teacher educators from the prescribed traditional
pedagogical transitional strategies and evaluation principles. A greater
emphasis has been given towards making teachers more innovative,
accountable, self-confident, reflective, reverberative and contemplative
practitioners in classrooms and outside. (Rajput 1998). In spite of many efforts
laid by NCTE and NCERT, teacher education is failing to prepare effective
science teachers. This is mainly due to the inefficient and improper execution of
training programme with respect to the following aspects.
Practice-in-Teaching: The practice-in-teaching schools or model schools

associated with/without teacher education institution playa vital role in making
the pupil-teacher a teacher by providing the needed stage or venue that is model
in all respects and limit to the practising needs of a beginning teacher. The
Secondary Education Commission Report (1952-1953) stressed the importance
that should be attached to teaching practice in schools. The commission
reiterated the utility of having a demonstration school attached to every teacher
training institution with all required material and resources for practising
teaching. Teaching abilities are formed during school practice. Practice-in-
teaching provides for the exposure of the pupil-teacher to teaching with all
18
required communication skills, planning of lessons, varied experiences with
students, classroom climate, associated senior teachers, head teacher,
observation and supervision, guidance, feedback and revision with a continued
scope for improvement. Hence, teaching practice is of great importance as it
forms the practical setup for the skill-oriented course such as teacher education.
The teaching inabilities of a science teacher may be to some extent, due to any
of the following aspect! aspects of teaching practice.
I. Less duration of teaching practice with more number of lessons to be

taught by the pre-service teacher offers less scope for effective feedback,
revision, preparation to give improved lesson, preparation of required
teaching aids and course materials. (Aswathalaxmi 1996).
ii. Teaching practice sometimes is held at a stretch for about one and a half-
month after giving only one or two model lessons! demonstration, which
also contributes for no or less improvement.
III. In most of the cases, the teacher training colleges do not have their own!
attached demonstration! teaching practice schools which are to be model
schools. Hence, the student teachers are sent to any of the nearby
schools which mayor may not have all the required infrastructure,
organizational climate, teaching aids, resource materials and other
equipments.
iv. The pedagogical abilities of the teacher trainee may not be developed due
to less or no influence of his! her teacher educator in teaching science,
improper supervision, diagnosis, recording, feedback and suggestions for
improvement. In most of the cases there are very few supervisions either
by the teacher educator or by the cooperative school teacher! head
teacher. In some cases, the co-operative school teacher lacks interest and
concern in pupil- teachers, as it is not or less remunerative. (Pasha 1988)
and (Ramamurthy 1994). It is also seen that, even though the practice
teaching school has accessories, teaching aids or equipments, teacher
trainees do not have the freedom to access these resources.
v. Evaluation of the performance of science teacher trainee during teaching
practice, is usually subjective which may be due to outdated techniques
and tools, lack of interest on the part of the teacher educator or cooperative
schoolteacher and lack of time.
19
Practice-in-teaching, the current weakest link of teacher education, possesses
the potentiality of converting itself into a strong component, if properly organized.
The process of curriculum transactions needs improvement and enrichment. In
this framework, pedagogic analysis of school teaching subjects has been
thought of as an essential component of practice-in-teaching. Pedagogical
analysis of teaching subjects is sure to refine teaching and learning as it
transforms the teacher's performance and develops competencies not covered
by the method-cum-content approach. With the background of pedagogical
analysis of model demonstration lessons given by the teacher educator, the
classroom performance is sure to improve, and to a great extent when it is
supervised in detail by subject specialist.
Academic Background of Science Teachers: In a developing country like

India, with rapid expansion of science, technology and their application along
with population explosion, there is a great demand for job opportunities. In this
type of competitive context, academic excellence counts to a considerable
extent. Hence, most of the students who are academically sound with a fairly
good socio-economic background successfully complete their +2 stage of
education and professional courses such as medical, engineering or
management. The rest of the students with moderate or less academic
performance from lower-middle or upper-middle socio-economic background will
take up degree courses in science, arts and commerce. Again, among them, the
cream, which performs well, takes up post-graduation in their subjects (science I
arts I commerce) or takes up jobs The left-out residual sector of students then
opt to take up teacher training and become teachers. Secondary school
teachers are twice-filtered persons in the educational ladder, once at the +2
stage and the second time after the +3 stage. Hence" usually the teacher-
trainees have a poor academic background. It cannot be denied that there are
exceptional cases of academically sound students who take to teaching
profession by choice.
Transacting the Curricula: The impact of teacher training programmes has

not been perceptible over the years in terms of transacting the curriculum in
schools through varied and effective methods of teaching science. Teachers, by
and large, use lecture method after training and also during teaching practice,
which is generally not supplemented by using instructional materials. Interactive
teaching, cooperative teaching learning, self-discovery approaches and other
20
scientific methods of teaching science are seldom emphasized and used during
and after the training programme. Teaching by and large is unimaginative and
the usual methods employed by science teachers become just academic
exercises and or not related to the immediate natural environment of the
learners. (Rajput, 1998). The prospective science teachers are to be prepared
so as to enable them to perform successfully in the pre-instructional, instructional
and post-instructional situations of teaching. The curriculum transaction through
effective transactional strategies have to be adjusted with the needs of students
and the locally available resources.
Preparation and Usage of Instructional Aids: Use of teaching aids or

instructional devices such as models, charts, objects, specimens etc., always
enhances the effectiveness of science teaching. Teacher trainees need to be
trained in preparing and using effective teaching aids with the locally available
low cost and no cost, indigenous materials. Teacher training programmes, by
and large, give less importance to this aspect which is usually due to the apathy
of teacher educators, their inability and inadequate preparation, usage, and
improvisation of simple teaching aids by using indigenous materials. Such
competencies are significant especially in teaching science in rural contexts and
government high schools.
Teacher Education Institutions- Organizational Defects: Teacher education

institutions acquire a wider spectrum of functions and responsibilities in
preparing effective science teachers. Even though the country has a large
number of teacher education institutions, most of them lack the minimum
resources. Now, NCTE has laid certain norms that are to be fulfilled in order to
be given recognition and affiliation to training colleges. In spite of that, many
institutions either lack resources or fail to utilize the available resources in the
community. (Shrivastava 1997).
Admission Criteria: It is very disappointing to note that the entry behaviour

expectation or qualifications prescribed or followed for admission to teacher
education courses are not appropriate. Student's teaching aptitude, professional
commitment, vocational ethics and values are not considered, but only student's
academic performance at graduation level has been considered for admission. It
is not correct to assume that good academic achievers also emerge as good
teachers. Hence, teacher education programmes, in order to prepare effective
21
sCience teachers, should have well established and resourceful institutions,
meaningful and purposive curriculum and experiential programmes, most
appropriate practical activities well in balance with the theoretical aspects, and
objective evaluation techniques. This enables the pupil teachers to understand
the nature, purpose and philosophy of secondary education; understand the
psychology of pupils and the process of socialization; equip them to acquire
competencies relevant to stage specific pedagogy, curriculum development, it's
transaction and evaluation; develops skills for guidance and counseling; foster
creative thinking among their students for reconstruction of knowledge; use
community resources as educational inputs effectively; and more than all,
develop communication skills necessary for effective teaching. Training in
models of teaching may, to some extent, compensate for the inefficiency of
teachers who have entered the profession of teaching on defective admission
criteria.
Teaching of Science, Teacher Education and Models of Teaching

The foregoing review of teaching of science in schools and preparation of
science teachers leaves much to be desired. The ground realities in regard to
science teaching needs large-scale improvement. At the same time, research
on learning and teaching of science in schools has been advancing.
Experimentation and field try-outs have established the value of several new
models I methods of teaching which contribute to the efficiency of science
teaching and effectiveness of schooling. There is normally a time-gap between
laboratory I scientific research and its large-scale application and acceptance in
field condition. Even in regard to science teaching, there is reluctance and
suspicion among science teachers and science method masters in teacher
education regarding the efficacy I feasibility I efficiency of some of the new
models of teaching science under the given conditions of science teaching in
schools and teacher education programmes. It is in this context that there is a
need for replication of results of experimental models of teaching under diverse
field conditions of science teaching in schools and teacher education
programmes. It is common knowledge that replication is an important technique
for establishing validity of any new innovation in education including models of
teaching. With this perspective, a transition will be taken to examine the needs
for the study.
22
Need for the Study
Students of modern world need to understand and appreciate the dependence of

a modern society on science and changes in the social structure that have been
brought about by the achievements of science and technology. The teaching of
science for better human relations should become a major objective. Students
may gain scientific knowledge and perhaps desirable scientific attitude, but fail to
transfer their attitudes and behaviour outside the class. So, it has become
necessary to bring about changes in the methods of teaching science with
structural and organizational activities in the actual classroom settings.
Research and experiments are required for innovative practices in classroom
instruction and to develop a science of behaviour applicable for educational
situations. Many past research studies have revealed the avenues of
programmes that reflect much better ways of making teacher-pupil interaction
effective resulting in enhanced achievement on the part of the pupil.
Teachers occupy a key position in the field of education by playing the role of
facilitator for learning by organizing the instructional activities and required
learning situations. They can't play this significant role effectively if they have
problem with methods of teaching especially in science education. Therefore,
for the fruitful improvement of education pattern, innovative and effective
methods of teaching science should be located through research and are to be
tried out in actual classroom settings.
The amount and the direction of research on teaching styles demonstrate

vigorous changes during the past decades resulting in the development of
generic patterns or styles that have broad utility as well as the possibility of
synthesizing specific patterns effective for particular children in specific setting.
In spite of this continuous effort for searching and implementing innovative
methods of teaching, the instructional procedures in science are not giving
maximum expected returns or learning outcomes. This suggests that
effectiveness in educational process depend on the methodologies of teaching
and learning; instructional strategies used; learning situations provided or
learning activities organized. More and more research studies are required to
determine the effective methods of teaching. Therefore, it is high time for
teachers to employ more varied formal or informal but effective methods of
teaching, which are supported by research and which can foster learning and
23
evaluation in the process of teaching. A teacher needs such instructional
strategies which are logical, systematically structured and which provide for their
accomplishment with very few limitations. Models of teaching incorporate such
strategies.
Models are numerous and they adequately cover the wide range of objectives.
Each model has its own goal, theoretical assumption, principle and major
concept underlying it. Some models are designed for very specific purposes
while others have general applicability. As a consequence, the researcher felt
the need for determining the most effective models for teaching environmental
concepts in high school classroom settings. It was clearly noted by the
researcher that even among the few studies done, comparisons had been made
only with one or two models of teaching with each other and with the
conventional method of teaching.
Several teaching methods and strategies are being examined here in terms of
well-known variables. It is, however, observed that there is a great need for more
detailed and in-depth studies in the same area. Research at this stage is still in
its infant condition, because research on classroom teaching over the past three
or four decades has brought people only marginally closer to an understanding
of teaching - learning process. Time is now right to scientifically search for new
and alternative strategies that can be easily and effectively employed.
One of the fundamental facts, which every educator should know, is that
progress in teaching and learning can be achieved by research, guided by
proper philosophy of education. (Best, W John 1978) states that, "research is
one method by which one finds the solution to educational problems". Every
teacher should recognize the important role that research plays in teaching and
learning process. The common assumption that the art of teaching is nothing
better than the process of imparting information is gone.
The main aim of teaching is to help the child to respond to his environment in an
effective way. A sincere analysis of teaching and research or experimentation
in teaching provides for refinement in teaching or transformation process. The
necessity for improving science teaching, for instance, is strongly reflected by
lack of changes in teaching methods over many years. Therefore, it is high time
24
to adopt innovative methods of teaching that foster transformation and
evaluation in the process of education.
Education in schools has become narrowed down in focus, rigid and more
related to textbooks than to the life contexts. Hence, it is time to redefine the
objectives of education according to the present and future needs of the
individual and society. Any improvement in education should essentially reflect
the changes in the process of teaching because the major part of formal
education is carried out in the form of classrooms teaching. An attempt through
research is required to examine the compatibility of educational practices with
procedures and techniques of teaching.
Research on models of teaching has been carried out and validated in western
countries. To what extent do they fit into Indian conditions? There is a need to
explore the feasibility of these models of teaching for Indian conditions.
There is a generally shared feeling that science teaching in schools has become
drab, dry and monotonous. It does not stimulate the thinking and generate the
interests of students towards sCience. Students tend to develop negative
attitudes towards learning of sCience. Such a phenomenon leads to low
enrolment in science at higher levels of education leading to a dearth of
scientists who can engage in research and development. Creativity in science
would be a casualty in future. Hence, interest in science learning should be
developed at school level itself by adopting a variety of strategies I methods I
models. The conditions under which models function effectively needs to be
understood in classroom I school contexts and in real life situations
Education process does not mean passing on information only but is concerned
with developing analytical, critical and problem solving abilities as well as the
creativity of an individual. Many research studies in this regard on pupil's
performance or achievement in learning are available. However, it is very
significant to note that no study has been done to find out the most effective
models of teaching "Environmental Studies" (ES) in relation to given
performance levels. In fact this prompted the researcher to take up the present
study of comparing the effectiveness of various models on learning the
environmental concepts with special reference to environmental curriculum in
schools.
25
Organization of the Thesis
The thesis has been organized under seven chapters.
Chapter I, the introductory chapter, addresses the concerns of science asa

component of education, it's role in environmental management, futuristic
science education, teaching of science and the need for study.
Chapter II deals with the theoretical understandings. Here, the needs for
studying sustainable environment and various strategies towards attaining the
same have been discussed. In addition, issues related to methodology of
science teaching and the dynamics of achievement of students in Environmental
Studies have been discussed. Theoretical understandings underlying this study
have also been stated.
Chapter III presents a review of related literature. It has been divided into two
main sections, viz.,
1) Review of studies in the area of Environmental Education (EE); and

2) Review of studies in the area of models of teaching.
Section I has the following five sub-sections, viz.,
I. Studies examining the design, development and validity of curriculum and

instructional materials in EE;
II. Studies examining the effectiveness of methods and approaches on the
development of environmental knowledge, attitude, behaviour and skills;
iii. Studies examining the levels of environmental awareness, knowledge,
attitude and behaviour of students and teachers;
IV. Studies examining the evaluation of curriculum and instructional materials in
EE; and
v. Studies In the area of EE that cannot be classified under the above four
heads. In addition, insights from review and distinctiveness of this study
have also been discussed here.
Chapter IV deals with issues related to EE such as concept, nature, scope, aims
and objectives, need and importance of EE, principles related to EE and
teaching of Environmental Studies, curriculum for EE, issues related to models
26
of teaching such as concept, description and classification of models with a
detailed description of AOM and ITM.
In Chapter V, the methodology of research carried out has been discussed. The
research problem has been stated along with defining the various variables
considered in the study in terms of operational definitions. In addition to this,
the various objectives and hypotheses of the study have been discussed which
get classified under the following four sections:
I. Comparative analysis of attainments of students in environmental

studies, exposed to different models of teaching on each of the unit test
scores and on the summative test scores;
II. Comparative analysis of summated test scores to study the feasibility of
models of teaching to teach various environmental concepts to various
groups of students;
III. Comparative analysis of attainments of students in ES, exposed to
different models of teaching at the beginning and at the end of the
experiment using I and V unit test scores; and
iv. Correlation analysis of achievement of students in ES with their SES,
home facilities and sex using unit test scores and summative test scores.
This chapter also deals with the universe of the study, sample and sampling
procedure, detailed description on the construction, validation and use of various
tools for the collection of data and measurement of variables, the procedure of
data collection, plan of analysis and statistical techniques employed. At the
end, the scope and limitations of the study have also been discussed.
Chapter VI deals with the 'Analysis and Interpretation of data'. In this chapter,
keeping in view the various objectives and hypotheses of the study, the
quantitative data obtained by the researcher on various variables considered in
the study have been subjected to statistical treatment using statistical techniques
such as t-test, one-way ANOVA and Coefficient of Correlation. Analysis and
interpretation of the results obtained have been described under the following
five sections:
I. Comparative analysis of the utility of models of teaching for teaching ES;

II. Comparative analysis of the feasibility of models of teaching to teach
various environmental concepts, to various groups of students;
27
III. Comparative analysis of achievement of various groups of students in ES
at the beginning and at the end of the experiment;
IV. Correlation analysis of achievement of students with their SES, home
facilities and sex; and
v. Case study analysis.
28
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
CHAPTER -II
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Theory
Meaning of Theory: One of the ultimate goals of Science is to integrate and
systematize facts about the physical I natural universe around us into a
meaningful pattern or theory. The theory is, however, regarded as tentative and
not the ultimate truth. It is subject to revision or modification as new phenomena
are observed
A scientific theory is a set of interrelated constructs or concepts, definitions and

propositions that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying
relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining and predicting the
phenomena (Thurber AWalter and Collette T.Alfred: 1964). A scientific theory
consists of tested propositions, which inter-link, various related concepts in a
systematically organized and logically united base to provide an interpretation of
a particular phenomenon or of life processes. It is an empirical statement which
describes and interprets an association between two or more types of events. A
scientific theory is, by and large, universal in nature because it states the
condition under which one class of phenomena occurs or fails to occur. Hence,
a theory may be defined as a proposed explanation of a set of conditions or
events, unproved, but usually supported by strong evidence. That part of
scientific information, which is made up of theories, is constantly changing as
theories may be modified, discarded, replaced, clarified or accepted as such.
Theories are produced by a judicious use of inductive and deductive reasoning.

Induction is employed to develop a tentative explanation (hypothesis) of a set of
observations. The hypothesis is then assumed to be correct while predictions
are derived form it deductively. Investigations sometimes prove the predictions
to be accurate, thus supporting the hypothesis. When exceptions are discovered
sooner or later; then the hypothesis must be modified inductively to explain the
exceptions, after which new predictions are deduced. This alternation of
induction and deduction continues throughout the life of the theory. During the
modification process, a theory may get broadened in scope as it is observed to
apply to more situations than originally expected.
29
Need for a Theoretical Framework for the Study: Theory serves many
purposes. It serves as guide, tool and sign-post, as means of identifying and
collecting data, and indicator of performance. As a tool, it provides a guiding
framework for observation, analysis and discovery. As sign-post, it provides
directions for interpretations of specific phenomenon with maximal probability
and exactitude. Hence, every scientific study needs a theoretical framework.
Theory is often the fountainhead of ideas for empirical research, and sound
theory is of inestimable value in any field. Theories help researchers in many
ways. They help in:
formulation of concepts I variables;
identification of data I attributes I properties of concepts I variables;
discovery of relationships across variables;
- discovery of convergence I divergence across postulates that
suggest relationships;
integration of insights from relationship; and
coherence in thinking I writing.
Scientific theory serves both as a tool for the development of science and as a
product of such development. As means, it provides a framework, which guides
scientists in making observations and discovery. Theory summarizes and puts
in logical order knowledge within a given field. It also clarifies and provides
meaning to this summarized knowledge comprising of isolated empirical findings.
As end, theory provides scientists explanations for observed events and
relationships for specific phenomena with maximum objectivity by explaining the
nature of relationships among variables on the basis of which scientific
speculations and deductions are made.
In the context of this study, a theoretical framework needs to explain

environmental education both from an existential and normative perspective. It
needs to provide a basis not only to understand how and why environmental
subjects are taught as they are being taught in the classroom but also provide
insights and the logic of how it is to be treated in school education. In doing so,
it has to provide an interface between the demands of the life processes and the
implications for the process of learning, schooling and education.
30
Need for Restoring the Balance
Earth is the only planet known so far to support human life in the solar system.
This is mainly due to its shape, size, distance from the Sun, presence of water in
all the three forms, viz., solid, liquid and gas, presence of atmosphere and
various types of natural resources that are vital to life. Hence, looking at the
way the environment is getting degraded, it becomes urgent that the earth's
capacity to sustain and perpetuate life be protected and conserved for all times -
present as well as future through appropriate and scientifically planned action
programmes and environment friendly policies to maintain the ecological
balance.
Need based civilization which alone can ensure sparing use of natural
resources, and minimum impact on environment has been replaced by greed-
based civilization resulting in unlimited wants and consumerism without least
realizing the duty towards posterity to leave the earth in as safe a position as it
was inherited. It looks as though man thinks that the earth and everything on it
belongs to him though the truth is, man belongs to the earth, so also the fauna
and flora. Ostentatious living coupled with 'use and throw' attitude are causing
a serious drain on natural resources. Before the night falls, before it is too late,
humanity should realize what is happening and retrace its steps and proceed in
the right direction at least from the beginning of the new millenium (Jois 1986 ).
The only way to secure happiness in life is by limiting the wants. It is

incorporated in the first verse of Ishavasyopanishad. It reads: "All we find in this
ephemeral world are created by God. Let us use them only to the minimum
extent and let us not snatch the wealth belonging to others. "By the Lord (Isa)
enveloped must this all be - whatever moving thing there is the moving world.
With this renounced, thou mayest enjoy. Covet not the wealth of anyone at all"
(Radhakrishnan, S. L Moore, Charles A., 1957).
The Supreme Court of India, in its celebrated judgement (1987(2) S.C.C.295)

dealing with the importance of environment, said: "Let us not, however, flatter
ourselves overmuch on account of our human victories over nature. For each
such victory nature takes its revenge on us. Each victory, it is true, first, brings
about the expected results, but later it has quite different, unforeseen effects
which only too often conceal the first." Two out of the ten most important values
31
within the purview of "dharma", according to M.Rama Jois (1986) are "Simple
life" through sparing use of natural resources, and "Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam" -
a feeling of world as one family.
Due to the continuous interaction among various biotic and abiotic components,
the environment remains more or less stable. This ability of nature to stabilize
itself is known as the balance of nature or ecological balance. Ecological
balance is also due to reciprocal interactions and inter-relationships that exist
among four spheres of earth viz.: atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and
biosphere. This ecological balance has been disturbed to a considerable extent
due to human interference through his senseless, selfish and inhuman activities
which include pollution of the natural resources, deforestation, industrialization,
unchecked population growth (population explosion), loss of bio-diversity,
increased urbanization, etc. The impact of science and technology on the
environment in the post-industrial revolution period has been negative. No
longer can the earth's ecological ills be treated as separate. The environmental
damage is now assuming a dangerous proportion throughout the world and a
growing awareness is discernible to maintain ecological balance. Hence
humans have a tremendous responsibility to protect and conserve the
environment, restore the ecological equilibrium and maintain sustainability of the
earth for the future generations.
Why is Ecological Balance Disturbed?
Disturbance of ecosystem means disturbance of ecological balance. Ecological

balance is a state of equilibrium between the populations of various species in
the biosphere and various abiotic components which are interacting constantly in
their natural conditions. This is also called ecological equilibrium or
homeostasis and this should not be disturbed. In this state of balance, the
relative numbers of organisms in a particular environment remain constant. The
ecosystems are capable of self-regulation to an extent. Homeostasis is a natural
tendency of ecosystems to return to a state of equilibrium that leads to the
stability of ecosystems. This ecological balance may be disturbed due to
undesirable changes in the physical environment or changes in the relative
numbers of organisms in the biosphere.
32
The interaction of humanity with its environment has grown over the last few
decades with the exploitation of nature on an increasingly large scale which
necessarily has a detrimental effect on the ecological balance. Man has been
the vital cause for this status of environment. Man being a single unit in the vast
and complex ecosystem is the only organism so totally committed to shaping his
environment according to his selfish needs rather than adapting himself to the
natural setting of the environment. The problem is that man's propensity to
make developmental decisions is far more advanced than his ability to
understand his environment. Environmental problems like pollution, depletion of
natural resources, erosion of top soil, deforestation and loss of bio-diversity are
all the results of selfish attitude of man along with over and misuse of limited
resources by increasing population. Though man is a product of mother-nature,
yet after living in perfect harmony with nature for centuries and centuries, he has
created a situation of persistent conflict with nature which, unfortunately, is now
leading to as grave a situation as self-destruction. As Mahatma Gandhiji opined
'The Earth provides enough to satisfy every man's need, but not for every man's
greed". The shortfall between consumption and production, whether on account
of need or greed of humankind, has resulted in undue stress on ecological
balance. Man depends on all natural resources which are limited in quantity,
and some of them are non-renewable. Due to population explosion, because of
unchecked population growth, the resources are getting depleted at an alarming
rate, affecting the sensitive interaction among biotic and abiotic factors,
threatening the very ecological equilibrium.
The carrying capacity of the earth has also been threatened by the ever-growing
rate of population growth and consumption. The carrying capacity of an
ecosystem is the maximum population of a given species that the ecosystem can
hold without being degraded. There is a carrying capacity for the biosphere, for
each ecosystem and for each habitat at any given time. The ecological balance
on earth depends on the carrying capacity of the earth which has been affected
by many variables. It varies with environmental conditions such as severe and
continuous drought, floods, imbalance in the ratio of prey and predators, forest
fires, improper management of natural resources, etc. If population increases
beyond the carrying capacity of its habitat, the environment deteriorates and the
population may decline sharply until a new equilibrium is reached. Proper
management of natural resources do require a committed political regime and
33
the presence of conscIous civil classes. In the absence of both, the
management of natural resources tends to cause structural imbalance (Nadkarni
1989).
The environmental imbalance is the causal effect of the callous indifference of

governance towards the function of preservation (Cockburn 1989). It is neither
simply a process of unlimited greed of the ambitious man, nor even alone the
need of the social classes, but it is something certainly located in the structural
relations that exist in a given specific social system and its evolving process
either or with the exploitative and egalitarian characters. The evolution of the
third world social system has been locked up in a process of development,
where their permanent resource base is put to a constant pressure. In addition
to this, the ever-increasing demands and aspirations of human society create a
rising demand for goods and services. This imposes undesirable changes on
the natural ecosystems. Increasing control of one's environment often creates
conflicts between one's goals and natural processes. This has resulted in a free
exchange between the natural ecosystem and the socio ecosystem. In order to
achieve greater yields or for selfish purposes, man deflects the natural flow of
energy, bypasses natural processes, simplifies ecosystems and uses large
subsidies to maintain delicate artificial equilibria. This increasing and
unidirectional free exchange has caused the crisis of ecological imbalance. In
other words, the human exploitation of natural resources at a greater rate than it
can be regenerated, and without putting back inputs into the natural ecosystem
is responsible for ecological imbalance and failure in the establishment of geo-
biological balance of the ecosystem. The whole ecological system is in the
danger of being disturbed due to indiscriminate exploitation and misuse of
natural resources which have led to scarcities and repercussions of a serious
nature which include major global environmental problems such as acid rain,
global warming, ozone depletion, loss of bio-diversity, pollution of natural
resources and desertification. All these have a direct orland indirect impact on
human well -being and are certain to affect the ecological balance. This has
threatened both the earth's carrying capacity and people's coping capacity, and
it may have serious consequences for future generations. There are limits to
the changes which can be borne by the biosphere which has enormous but
nevertheless only a finite capacity of endurance. Beyond the tolerance limits,
the balance of nature gets disrupted and can result in such great hazards that
34
unless corrective steps are taken in time, they can spell doom for all living
organisms including man himself. Hence, there is an urgent need to restore the
balance that exists in the environment.
Strategies for Restoring the Ecological Balance
Legislative Strategies
International Summits: Today man is living in a world of crises. The social,

economic, political and value crises are some of the threats which the humanity
faces and added to this in the recent decades, more alarming environmental
CriSIS. This is mainly due to the disturbance of ecological balance by reckless
exploitation of natural resources. Environment is a global concern today. In
this regard, several national and international organizations including some
NGOs have started working on the measures to bring up sustainability with
undisturbed ecological balance. In this direction, a large number of workshops,
seminars, summits and agreements have been held all over the world. In an
effort to evolve an international policy framework for the protection and
preservation of environment, the United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment was held in June 1972 at Stockholm. This conference formulated
not only policy principles, but also suggested action plans and financial
arrangements to fructify the same. It emphasized the need to defend and
improve the human environment for the present and future generations as an
imperative goal for mankind and called upon governments and people to extend
common efforts.
After this declaration, there have been a number of international conferences

with renewed efforts to protect, preserve and improve the environment.
In response to the Stockholm Conference, 1972, UNESCO and UNEP jointly

created the International Programme for Environmental Education (IEEP) which
culminated in the convention of the world's first ministerial level Inter-
Governmental Conference on Environmental Education (EE) at Tibilsi, USSR in
1977 whose declarations and recommendations constitute the framework,
principles and guidelines for EE at all levels, for all groups, both inside and
outside the formal school system. The world community of nations assembled
in Nairobi in May 1982 to commemorate the 10th anniversary of Stockholm
35
L~ 1(o,-5?:-.'7 __ ... __ _
(, It. <'J
Conference, 1972. This Conference reviewed the measures taken to implement
the 1972 declarations, recognized and emphasized the urgent need for
intensifying the efforts at the global, regional and national levels to protect and
improve the environment.
Then, Earth Summit was held at Rio De Janeiro, Brazil in the year 1992, which
is also called Rio Summit, in which 170 countries participated and this summit
proposed major action programmes setting out what nations should do to
achieve sustainable development in the 21 st century. Chapter 36 of the
agreement document is of significance, because it recommends promoting EE
as an essential part of learning within both formal and non formal education
stream.
Although international conferences, programmes, projects and agreements may

not have achieved anything substantial and concrete as resolution of these
programmes are not backed up by financial resources, effective implementation
machinery and above all, lack of faith and cooperation of a few nations, their
educative value cannot be ignored.
Legal Provisions for Environmental Protection: Indian Constitution is

perhaps the first Constitution in the world to have incorporated legal provisions
for environmental protection. The Constitution of India in its original form as
enacted in 1950 had no provisions whatsoever dealing with 'environment', nor
had it envisaged in its scheme of distribution of legislative powers, laws relating
to environmental protection. The Constitution (42"d amendment) Act, 1976,
Article 51A embodying the fundamental duties of the citizen was added to the
Constitution which states that, "It shall be the duty of every citizen to protect and
improve the natural environment including the forest, lakes, rivers and wild life
and to have compassion for living creatures" (Bakshi,P.M. 2000).
Article 48A states that, "the state shall endeavour to protect and improve the
environment and safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country". Apart form
the constitutional safeguards, there is a contingent of about 200 Central and
State legislations which have a direct or indirect bearing on environment. Some
of the important Acts enacted by Indian Government are as follows:
36
The Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, elucidates the protection mechanisms of
wildlife, appends 4 schedules enlisting various wild animals that are fully
protected and not to be killed without the permission of concerned authority.
This Act also empowers the Government to appoint required employees for
wildlife protection.
The Water (prevention and control of pollution) Act 1974 and The Water
(prevention and control of pollution) Cess Act, 1977: These Acts provide for
preventing and controlling water pollution, maintaining the wholesomeness of
water of all sources, establishing pollution control boards and levying and
collecting cess from consumers. Besides these Acts, there are number of Acts
dealing with specific aspects of water pollution, viz., Shipping Act 1958,
Factories Act 1948 (amendment 1986), etc.
Forest Conservation Act, 1980 (amendment 1988) addresses the alarming rate
of deforestation in the country and is enacted to check deforestation and use of
forest land for non forest purposes without prior approval form the central
government.
The Air (prevention and control of pollution) Act 1981 empowers state
governments to declare air pollution control area; give instructions for ensuring
standards of emission from automobiles and put certain restriction on industrial
plants with respect to their emission of gaseous effluents.
The Environment (protection) Act 1986 - an inclusive act, provides for appointing
analysts to certify industries with regard to polluting the environment and deals
with rules and penalties in case of air pollution. One of the most interesting parts
of this Act is section 4. It is very significant to note that, on an advisory opinion,
the Supreme Court of India held that the Central Government must instruct all
schools to teach environment, wildlife, forest and nature conservation.
In addition to this, some more important central and state legislations have been
enlisted below.
- 1905 Bengal Smoke Nuisance Act
- 1912 Bombay Smoke Nuisance Act
- 1917 Mysore Destruction by Insects and Pests Act
- 1919 Andhra Pradesh Agricultural Pest Act
- 1923 The Indian Boilers Act
37
- 1927 The Indian Forest Act
- 1946 Bihar Wasteland Act
- 1947 Mines and Minerals Act
- 1949 Andhra Pradesh Improvement Scheme Act
- 1951 Industries Act
- 1953 Orissa River Pollution and Prevention Act
- 1954 Assam Agricultural Pest And Disease Act
- 1954 Prevention of Food Adulteration Act
- 1956 River Boards Act
- 1962 Atomic Energy Act (Radiation protection rules 1971)
- 1968 The Insecticides Act
- 1969 Maharashtra Prevention of Water Pollution Act
- 1976 Urban Land Act
It is to be noted that a government's role in environmental management includes

laying down policies for the management of public resources, making and
enforcing laws and regulations for the protection of environment through
planning, promoting and coordinating environmental and forestry programmes.
However, the ability of the legal system to uphold and enforce environmental
laws and regulations depends heavily on public support and on whether the
prevailing laws and regulations are practical and enforceable (Menon 1990).
Administrative and Managerial Strategies

Besides legislative measures, many administrative bodies and departments have
been established by the Central and State governments to study and tackle the
environmental problems. In addition to this, many action plans and programmes
have been taken up by both Gov!. and NGOs. Some of the important ones are:
National Committee on Environmental Planning and Coordination (NCEPC) -

promoting and providing necessary facilities for environmental research through
Man and Biosphere Programme (MAB) and Environmental Research Committee
(ERC).
Environmental Information System (ENVIS) - promoting information collection,

storage, retrieval, exchange and dissemination of environmental issues,
amongst the developing countries.
38
Department of Environment (DOE), integrated in the Ministry of Environment,
Forests & Wildlife in 1985 is acting as a nodal agency for environmental
protection and eco-development and also, it has the administrative responsibility
of pollution monitoring, regulation and conservation of the eco-system.
National Afforestation & Ecodevelopment Board (NAEB) - promoting

afforestation, ecological restoration and ecodevelopment activities in the country.
National Wasteland Development Board (NWDB) - launching on large scales,

national wasteland development programmes to deal with the ecological crisis
caused by land degradation. Other institutions involved in environmental
management are:
1. Botanical Survey of India (BSI) - surveying, identifying and conducting

research on the plant resources of the country.
2. Central Zoo Authority (CZA) - supporting, monitoring, coordinating and
managing the zoos in the country.
3. Forest Survey of India (FSI) - periodical survey of forest coverage, data
storing, retrieval and dissemination of information concerning forest areas.
4. G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development - developing
strategies and technologies; taking up action-oriented research projects in
Himalayan region.
5. Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE) - organizing,
directing and managing research and education in the field of forestry;
frames overall forestry research policy.
6. Wildlife Institute of India (WII) - conducting research pertaining wildlife.
7. Centre for Ecological Sciences (CES) - taking research work in Western
Ghats for conservation.
8. Centre for Mining Environment (CME) - imparting training to in-service field
personnel in environmental science and technology for environmental
management in mining areas and conducting research in the field of mining
environment.
9. Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History (SACON) - conducting
research on all aspects of ornithology.
10. Indian Institute of Forest Management (IIFM) - imparting education and
training in forest management.
39
11. Indian Plywood Industries Research & Training Institute (IPIRTI) -
conducting research aimed at prolonging the life of wood and wood products,
reducing wastage to reduce pressure on natural forests.
12. Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) - preventing and controlling air and
water pollution.
13. Centre for Environment Education (CEE) - conducting country-wide EE
activities including exhibitions, seminars, workshops and takes up action-
oriented projects.
14. Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore (Ecology Economics
Unit) - conducting research, training programmes and doctoral programmes
on Environment Economics.
A few other national organizations and material centres working for the
environment protection are:
Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), New Delhi.

Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI), New Delhi.
Industrial Toxicology Research Institute (ITRC), Lucknow
Forest Research Institute (FRI), Dehra Dun.
Environmental Planning and Coordination Organization (EPCO), Bhopal
National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), and
Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), Mumbai.
Some important international organizations working for environment protection

are:
1. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

(lUCAN), Switzerland.
2. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Paris.
3. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO),
Paris.
4. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Kenya.
5. World Watch Institute (WWI), Washington.
6. World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF).
7. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome.
8. International Council for Scientific Unions (ICSU), Paris.
9. World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva, Switzerland.
40
11. Indian Plywood Industries Research & Training Institute (IPIRTI) -
conducting research aimed at prolonging the life of wood and wood products,
reducing wastage to reduce pressure on natural forests.
12. Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) - preventing and controlling air and
water pollution.
13. Centre for Environment Education (CEE) - conducting country-wide EE
activities including exhibitions, seminars, workshops and takes up action-
oriented projects.
14. Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore (Ecology Economics
Unit) - conducting research, training programmes and doctoral programmes
on Environment Economics.
A few other national organizations and material centres working for the
environment protection are:
Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), New Delhi.

Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI), New Delhi.
Industrial Toxicology Research Institute (ITRC), Lucknow
Forest Research Institute (FRI), Dehra Dun.
Environmental Planning and Coordination Organization (EPCO), Bhopal
National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), and
Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), Mumbai.
Some important international organizations working for environment protection

are:
1. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

(lUCAN), Switzerland.
2. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Paris.
3. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO),
Paris.
4. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Kenya.
5. World Watch Institute (WWI), Washington.
6. World Wide Fund for Nature (VVVVF).
7. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome.
8. International Council for Scientific Unions (ICSU), Paris.
9. World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva, Switzerland.
40
10. World Meteorological Organization (WMO), Geneva, Switzerland.
In addition to these administrative organizations working for environment

protection, many environmental action programmes, approaches, initiatives and
environment managerial activities are designed and implemented by Ministry of
Environment & Forests (MOEF) with the coordination of more than 2,500
organizations comprising NGOs, academic institutions, research organizations,
women and youth organizations, etc., throughout the country. These
programmes include seminars, workshops, rallies, training courses, public
meetings, padayathras, exhibitions, essay/ poster/painting competitions, tree
plantation drives, folk dances, street theatres, etc. A few important action
programmes implemented by the MOEF are as follows:
1. Paryavaran Vahini (Environment Brigade) - a people's programme involving

students, youth and general public in environment preservation activities.
2. Eco Task Force - a joint venture of Ministry of Environment & Forests
(MOE F), Ministry of Defence and concerned state governments which
intends to undertake ecological restoration work in selected environmentally
degraded areas.
3. Eco Clubs - school children are actively involved in EE programmes,
activities and projects throughout the country through a wide network of Eco
Clubs established in many schools.
4. Ganga Action Plan (GAP) - with the main objective of reducing the pollution
load on the river and to improve its water quality of the river Ganga and
associated rivers, GAP was initiated in 1985 and it has two phases. Under
GAP - Phase I, pollution abatement works have been taken up in 25 Class I
towns (population above 1 lakh) along the river Ganga in three states, viz.;
U.P., Bihar and West Bengal. Under GAP - Phase II, pollution abatement
works have been extended to other polluted rivers, viz., Yamuna, Gomathi
and Damodar.
5. National River Action Plan (NRAP) - working for the pollution abatement of 8
major national rivers in the identified pollution stretches in 12 states.
6. National Lake Conservation Plan (NLCP) - the main objective of the NLCP is
to check encroachment, siltation, weed infestation, discharge of domestic
sewage, industrial effluents and surface run-off carrying pesticides and
fertilizers from agricultural fields.
41
7. In addition to these, a few other action programmes are Environment Audit,
Environment Impact Assessment, Eco-Mark, Coastal Area Management, etc.
Education as a Strategy
Role of Education and Schooling in Environment Protection: Education is

the only effective short- and long-term instrument to bring about any desired
changes or modification of attitude and behaviour of individuals towards
environment. Education can help in preparing individuals who are more aware
of their environment and its problems and are able to understand man-
environment relationships from a human point of view and act wisely while
making decisions (Jacobson 1985). This requires bringing education closer to
the realities and relevance to life, which further helps, in improving man's contact
with the physical and social environment. Education proceeds both formally and
informally through schools, private organizations, communication media and
continuing experiences. No serious or effective modifications or improvement of
attitudes and behaviour of man towards environment can occur without broad
education efforts at all levels and sectors of human society. Children need to
learn ways to perceive environmental problems and opportunities, acquire the
information for forming and evaluating alternative actions, and develop the
cultural skills for living according to chosen alternatives. All of these demand a
high and continuous educational input. Both formal and non-formal types of
education can prove effective in developing awareness, attitude and knowledge
in students with respect to environment.
Formal Environmental Education: A formal environmental education system is

one which is structured and targeted on specific student-teacher relationships
through specified curricula. Two approaches are being used in providing EE at
schools. One approach is infusing environmental concepts into all existing
studies which lend themselves to changing man's lifestyle and another approach
is developing a special EE curriculum for a separate course called
Environmental Studies (ES).
The spectrum of formal EE falls in four but integrating components such as

awareness, real life situations, conservation and sustainable development, which
are matched with the needs of students at all levels of education. Awareness
includes making the individual conscious about the physical, social and aesthetic
42
aspects of environment. Real life situations link environment to life. These
conditions are location-specific with different environmental aspects being
emphasized in different states, e.g., pollution aspects are emphasized in
predominantly industrial nations. In contrast to the awareness where attitudes
are important, in real life situations, the emphasis shifts to practical aspects as
related to the circumstances around the person concerned; Conservation and
Sustainable Development refer to the wise and proper utilization of natural
resources by present and future generations without harming environment
equilibrium. At the primary stage, the emphasis is mostly on building up
awareness, followed by exposure to real life situations and conservation. This
prepares the child for understanding the subtleties of sustainable development
(Khoshoo, 1991). From the lower secondary stage onwards, the quantum of
awareness decreases in favour of increased knowledge about real life situations,
conservation and sustainable development. At higher education levels, more
weightage can be given to knowledge acquisition. From the lower secondary
stage onwards, the attempt has been to emphasize, in an increasing manner,
the interconnectedness, inter-relatedness and inter-dependence of the life
support system of environment and man.
Schooling with formal education system provides for ample time and
opportunities for the children to participate in various activities conducted in and
out of the school environment. The very organizational climate and school
environment with well established and properly maintained school garden, play
ground, class room, library, aquarium and overall infrastructure with physical
resources can develop gradually an aesthetic sense and positive attitude
towards a clean environment in children. The well-maintained sanitary facilities,
including toilets and latrines, make the children aware of the importance of
maintaining good health and hygiene necessary to become healthy citizens. In
addition to this, the very environmental attitude of head of the school and
teachers as role models has a powerful impact on the minds of pupils. The
plasticity of mind and dependence of students make them gain a positive attitude
towards environment, develop in them environmental awareness and shape their
behaviour which is, environmentally desirable and gradually they develop a
responsible citizenship.
43
A child's perception of the environment develops partly from formal schooling in
nursery schools, other pre-primary institutions and partly from informal education
at home. Active consciousness towards the natural environment seems to
develop in most of the children at the age of 9 to 10 years. The openness of
mind at this age presents a challenge for teachers curriculum designers, activity
planners and teacher trainees. Students at the secondary level are usually
receptive, strongly motivated and are capable of assimilating an EE, that is
value-oriented, community-oriented and concerned with human well- being.
Teachers can employ new methods and approaches which provide for a great
deClI of learning out of doors such as field trips and visits, which provide direct
and purposeful learning experiences through which children can discover,
measure, collect, survey, record and learn in a lively, relevant way, using the
outdoors as a learning resource which is far more potent than the text book.
A few approaches of teaching environmental studies prove to be very effective at

primary and secondary levels of education (Sarabhai 1993) They are:
1. Providing the children with opportunities to observe the local environmental
features, problems, changes, etc.
2. Conducting oral discussions with children about various environmental
problems of local concerns.
3. Organizing out-of-classroom activities for first hand/real/direct purposeful
expenences.
4. Undertaking and guiding simple outdoor projects.
5. Helping the children in adopting the process approach to environmental
problems.
6. Providing children with timely topics and questions for which they can find
the answers by discussing with their parents, elders, friends and by field
observations.
Keeping in view the objectives of EE, the following activities can be undertaken
by students in the school. Many of these have been suggested by Meena
Raghunathan (1997). The nature of activities should be in accordance with the
age, the educational level (primary/secondary/ higher), the facilities available in
the school and community, the capabilities of students, available time, funds and
seasonal changes in the concerned localities.
44
1. Growing plants
2. Observation of plants and trees with a view to recognizing them
3. Observation of flowers, identification of different parts, analyzing their
structure and role in reproduction
4. Observation of birds and animals with a view to recognizing them
5. Observing and analyzing animal behaviour
6. Hearing and imitating the sounds of different animals
7. Observation of changes in growing plants and animals by making
comparisons and measurements.
8. Building huts and houses in soil blocks with a view to understanding the
need of shelters for animals
9. Drawing pictures of trees, animals, hills, ponds, etc.
10. Daily recording of temperature, humidity to compare and analyze the
changes in the climate
11. Reading and writing stories on wildlife, environmental situations and
problems
12. Learning, observing and writing the life history of frog, butterfly, house fly ,
silk worm, etc.
13. Observation of nesting process/parental care in birds
14. Visits to museums of natural history, sanctuaries, national parks, zoos,
botanical gardens, forests, coast lines, river belts, industrial areas, hospitals,
bus stand, railway station, aerodrome, mining areas, ships, temples,
churches, mosques, fire stations, post office, firms, historical monuments,
library, market yards, agricultural land, farms, woodland, sand-dunes, diary,
poultry, piggary, orchards, radiofTV. stations, gram panchayats, power
stations, water supply stations, sewage disposal centres, etc.
15. Preparation of herbarium, aquarium, terrarium, vivarium, etc.
16. Showing educational movies on environmental protection, bio-diversity,
wildlife life protection, detection of food adulteration, soil erosion, nuclear
reactors, pollution and overpopulation hazards, sanitations, sewage
management, woman education, health education, etc.
17. Model making
18. Arts and crafts
19 Organizing competitions such as essay writing, drama, quiz programmes,
debates, slogan writings, painting, drawing and composing poems on
environmental issues.
4S
20. Collection of herbarium, shells, stones, newspaper clippings on
environmental issues, dropped nests, seeds, bones, specimens, etc.
21. Survey of medicinal plants, forests, agricultural land/farms, sources of
pollution, automobile intensity, sanitation at public places, waste disposal,
etc.
22. Demonstrations on water purification methods, stages of growth in plants, life
cycle of animals, etc.
23. Action programmes such as raising school garden, nurseries, fish tanks,
pond eco-system, cleaning school campus, school beautification, fencing the
school campus, growing flowering plants, vegetables, medicinal plants in the
school garden, developing proper drainage system for waste disposal,
organizing exhibitions on environmental aspects, etc.
24. Creative expressions through street plays, puppet shows, staging
environmental drama
25. Observing special environmental programmes such as World Environment
Day, Wildlife week, Vanamahotsav, etc.
26. Formation of Eco clubs such as Nature Club, Environmental Science Club,
Adventure Club, etc.
27. Destroying weeds in association with NSS, NCC, local organizations like
Interact Club, Rotaract, Rotary Club, Lions Club, etc.
Note This list is not exhaustive. It is only indicative
Non Formal Environmental Education (NFEE): The NFEE system is less

definitive and structured, and is directed towards the public at large, or particular
segments of general public, or sometimes the entire population of a locality.
NFEE has a major role and responsibility through local and national media,
voluntary organizations, government agencies, business and industrial
establishments and NGOs in promoting environmental awareness and attitude in
public NFEE provides scope for pupils and public participation in social,
economic and cultural development of the community through village club
activities, exhibitions, public lectures, environmental campaigns, adult education
programmes, tribal awareness programmes, etc. NFEE proves to be very
effective in the development of environmental awareness through programmes
on health and hygiene, conservation, environmental friendly lifestyle, economic
consumption, recycling, etc. Programmes such as Total Literacy Campaigns
(TLCs) and Community Education Programmes (CEPs) through which people
46
are conscientised so that they organize and get themselves liberated from the
clutches of ignorance, poverty, illiteracy, ill-health, superstitions, etc., and also
they can be made aware of: dreaded diseases like AIDS, the need for
environmental sanitation, immunization, population control, women education,
etc. (Pillai 1995). NFEE is extremely important in creating and enhancing
environmental awareness and developing environmental literacy in both children
and adults including illiterates, slum dwellers, industrial workers in both rural and
urban sectors. Environmental literacy programmes help to create a sense of
duty to care for and manage wisely the natural endowment and productive
resources over the long range of time
Role of Methods of Teaching Science

Teaching is one of the oldest activities In the history of human civilization.
Communication about human experience existed in one form or the other, right
from the days man began to share his experiences with his fellow human beings.
But the systematic way of communicating human experiences began with the
establishment of formal institution such as "school". The act of communicating
human experiences in the formal situation is called "teaching", and along with its
Increasing complexity it has become the subject of human inquiry.
Educationists, philosophers, psychologists, sociologists and scientists have, at
different periods of time, tried their best to understand the nature of this human
activity called teaching. Based on their observations and experiences, they
defined teaching In variOUS ways. Following are some of the definitions of
teaching.
"Teaching IS any interpersonal influence aimed at changing the ways in

which other persons can or will behave". (Gage 1964).
"Teaching is an activity, a unique professional, rational and humane activity,
in which one creatively and imaginatively uses himself and his knowledge to
promote the learning and the welfare of others" (Hough and Duncan 1970).
"The act of teaching leads to reciprocal contacts between the teacher and his
pupils and the interchange itself is called teaching" (Flanders 1972).
"Teaching is a process by which teacher and students create a shared
environment including sets of values and beliefs which in turn colour their
view of reality"(Joyce and Weil 1985)
"Teaching is the arrangement of contingencies or reinforcement under which
students learn. They learn even without 'teaching' in their natural
47
environments but teaching involves arranging of special contingencies which
expedite learning, hastening the appearance of behaviour which would
otherwise be acquired slowly or making sure of the appearance of behaviour
which might otherwise never occur' (Skinner 1968)
Teaching is a process which involves the simultaneous performance of the

following three tasks (Smith 1985a).
1. Maintaining the classroom environment
2. Providing learning experiences appropriate to the changing needs of
individual pupils
3. Implementing those experiences in which the teacher is an active participant
In its generic sense, 'teaching' denotes action undertaken with the intention to
bring about 'learning' ; in conventional sense, the descriptive definition of
teaching is, "teaching is imparting knowledge and skills" (Smith 1985b).
An analysis of all these definitions on teaching leads to draw the following

conclusions on the concept and nature of teaching:
Teaching pre-supposes an environment where learning can take place.

Teaching and learning are inter-related processes where teaching involves
various activities, and learning is the benefit derived from them. Teaching is the
process of which learning is the result; the cause which leads to the effect. In
this way teaching is different from mere telling or showing how. Teaching-
learning situations may be classified according to where they fall on a continuum
which ranges from thoughtless to thoughtful modes of operation. Learnin!; can
occur at three levels, viz, memory level; understanding level; and reflection
level.
Teaching IS an intriguing, important and complex process. 'Because it is

intriguing, it attracts scientific attention'. 'Because it is important, it merits careful
research'. 'Because it is complex, research on teaching needs many sided
preparation'. (Gage 1968).
Need for Right Methods of Teaching Science

Anybody can claim to teach. But everyone who claims so cannot be a good
teacher. A teacher is called 'good' for his 'good method' of teaching and a
teacher is called 'bad' for his 'bad method' of teaching. It is rather difficult to
48
draw a line of demarcation between good and bad methods of teaching. In fact,
the best method of teaching is the one which helps the students to learn 'how to
learn' and which enables the teacher to achieve the objectives of his teaching in
a given time. Thus, 'method' plays a vital role in making both the teacher and his
teaching very effective. This word, 'method' has a Latin origin, which means
'mode' or 'way'. It means the way of delivery of knowledge and transmission of
scientific skills by a teacher to his pupils and their comprehension and
application by the pupils in the process of studying and learning science.
The concept and nature of the right method of teaching science is directly related
to the educative process which essentially consists of the 'child' who learns and
the 'subject matter' that is learned. The process works well through the teacher
with his/her right method of teaching whose task is to make the subject matter, a
part and parcel of the child's own experience. A right method would imply an
orderly way of doing something. It is not a casual or chance mode of activity. It
grows out of experience, by trial and error, by process of repetition of activities,
selection of activities and the synthesis of desirable ones. A good method is a
living process of thought in pupil's mind by which he/she advances towards a
purpose along the best and most effective way. The right method does not work
in isolation of the subject matter. It involves the kind of teaching that calls out
the best of child's inner resources and makes finest and best of the aggregate
learning results - knowledge, attitude, habits and skills. The right method does
not involve the technique of the process of instruction alone, much more than
that, it requires upon the part of the teacher, the knowledge of child, his/her
interest, activities, a mastery of the subject matter dealt with and an
understanding of the process through which the child incorporates the new
experiences into his/her own. A 'good' method should have the potential to
stimulate students for self-learning, for being pro-active, for taking initiatives
individually and in groups to discover new knowledge, master skills of
observation, documentation, analysis and understanding. It shall motivate them
to learn and develop in them the love of learning. A good method links up the
teacher and his/her pupils into an organic relationship with constant mutual
interaction; it impinges not only on the minds of the students but on their entire
personality, their standards of work and adjustment, their intellectual and
emotional equipment, their attitudes and values. (Secondary Education
Commission 1953).
49
Good methods of teaching serve the following objectives (Secondary Education
Commission 1953).
1. A good method of teaching aims not only at imparting the knowledge in an
effective manner, but also at inculcating desirable values, attitudes, habits
and skills.
2. A good method of teaching shall in particular, endeavour to crate in students
a genuine attachment to work and a desire to do it as efficiently, honestly
and thoroughly as possible
3. A good method of teaching shall shift the emphasis from verbalism and
memorization to learning towards meaningful learning through purposeful,
concrete and realistic situations.
4. A good method of teaching provides opportunities for students to learn
actively and to apply practically the knowledge that they have acquired in the
class room.
5. A good method of teaching lays special stress on clear thinking and clear
expression both in speech and writing on the part of both teacher and pupils.
6. A good method of teaching aims less at imparting the maximum quantum of
knowledge possible and more on training students in the techniques of study
and methods of acquiring knowledge through personal effort and initiative.
7. Finally, a good method of teaching expands the range of student's interest to
enable him to explore his field of creativity and thus discover for himself his
best field of specialization.
There are varied methods of teaching. Knowledge and skills are considered as
the basis of classification of methods resting on word (narration), object (image)
and action (motion); thus the three corresponding categories of methods are
oral, observational and practical (Zurve 1967). Every method has something to
offer and has its own merits and demerits. A given method, which may prove to
be of great value to one teacher may lose much of its value when it is used by
another teacher (Vaidya 1971). Each method is active, valuable in varied
degree as it makes pupils think and arouse interest in the subject. Methods
develop in students the abilities of comprehension, comparison, generalization
and deduction. Methods, techniques and approaches to teaching, either in
isolation or in combination, provide ample opportunities to the pupils for realizing
the process objectives of science teaching, viz, questioning, hypothesising,
defining tile problem, researching, planning the experimental design,
50
experimenting under controlled conditions, observing, discovering, recording,
organizing, verifying, drawing inference, understanding relationships, interpreting
data, generalizing, applying knowledge, discussing and commenting in precise
terms and making operational definitions.
All methods appear to work equally well when young children are motivated and
exhibit too much eagerness to learn science. The effectiveness of a given
method of teaching depends mainly on four aspects, viz., content, nature of the
learner, facilities for teaching-learning process and nature of the process of
learning. General experience, however, tells that pupils differ from each other;
so they learn differently through different methods. Individual experience is
superior to the demonstration method if one considers long-term consequences
of the lesson. Selected teaching methods such as problem solving, open-ended
laboratory experiments, research projects and stimulating discussions can
promote student creativity in science class. Some methods are more effective
for developing skills than knowledge. Laboratory method of teaching promotes
the development of observation and motor skills.
Those methods and approaches are the best which involve students maximally
in the lesson; which demand reflection on the part of the student; and lastly
methods which are based upon concrete experiences, examples and individual
and group discussions. It is believed that developmental approach of teaching
science dominates over the authoritarian approach because the former tends to
develop in pupils, the ability to inquire and solve problems, think scientifically and
acquire scientific attitude (Washton 1967).
The method selected for a given course is determined by the conditions under
which the course is taught and by the objectives of the course. A science
teacher should use several methods of teaching to realise various objectives:
Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor. The artistry of teaching science depends
on how skillfully the teacher blends several of the methods into a unified
teaching lesson. The nature of the lesson, the personality and goals of the
teacher , classroom climate ' and the interests and the needs of the students
determine the uilimate selection and utilization of appropriate teaching method of
science.
51
The Search for Better Methods of Teaching Science - A Historical
Perspective
The history of education shows a long search for a general method which can
solve the problems of teaching, a single master-key which unlocks all doors.
The scientific approach to teaching methods began with the Natural method of
Comenius, the Psychological synthesis of Pestalozzi, the Intellectual analysis of
Herbart, joyful learning devised by Froebel, play-way proposed by Rousseau, the
Auto-didactic method of Montessori, the Project method of Kilpatrick and
Stevenson, and the Laboratory plan of Dalton which are some examples of
efforts to discover a systematic method of teaching which should be of universal
application. Comenius (1592-1670) stressed five major elements for a scientific
teaching method: (a) it is the world of sense and experience and not the work of
a teacher or a book that should be used as a starting point; (b) 'nature' as a
phenomenon of biological and physical world can contribute significantly to the
educational methods; (c) the content to be taught should be what the pupils are
ready to take according to their mental age and strength; (d) learning should
proceed from activity which should be interesting, pleasant and relevant; and (e)
the teacher should encourage pupils to discover and learn by their own efforts.
A similar approach was also propounded by J H Pestalozzi (1746 - 1827) who
emphasized that teaching methods should be in accordance with the
development pattern of children's growth. Froebel (1782 - 1852) followed the
same line and stressed the self-activity of the child, taking into account the
emotional as well as intellectual development of the child. J.F.Herbart (1776-
1841) propounded five instructional activities associated with teaching methods:
(a) preparation, (b) presentation, (c) association, (d) assimilation and (e)
application.
Methods of teaching were also influenced by behaviouristic, humanistic,

cognitive and psychological orientations. The behaviouristic approach to
instruction believes in the influence of environment on the learning behaviour of
the learner. Among the behaviourists, the most important contribution to
methods of teaching has been made by Skinner, who stresses on stimulus-
response-reinforcement chain as the basis of any kind of learning. This later
gave birth to the famous Programmed Instruction. The humanistic approach to
instruction puts stress on the uniqueness of individual learners and the methods
of teaching depend on the quality of the inter-personal relationship that exists
52
between the learners and the teacher. But, cognitive psychologists differ from
these two stands. According to them, mental processes such as thinking,
reasoning and problem solving form the basis of teaching methods.
With the introduction of the mass media and other technological gadgets into the
teaching-learning processes, methods of teaching have been sanctified by
educational technology. In this context, several major developments in
pedagogy were identified, VIZ., mass communication instruction, individualized
instruction and group learning. Mass communication instruction owes itself to
the introduction of electronics hardware into the teaching-learning process. The
second development is individualized instruction attributed to B.F.Skinner
through Programmed Learning. Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAl), the most
recent form of individualized instruction, is an extension of programmed
instruction and the personalized system of instruction. The third development in
the area of instruction is group-learning methods. These methods became
popular due to the limited success of individualized instruction to develop inter-
personal skills. Group-learning methods are oriented to develop humanistic
skills.
A good deal of attention of many active educators was directed towards the
techniques of revitalizing class room teaching in schools. Considerable efforts
were made over the decades through seminars, workshops, researches and
refresher courses to search and try out new and effective methods of teaching
(Kothari Commission, 1964-66). But have the teachers been blessed with a
method of 'universal application'? Perhaps not. Educational research has
been offering new methods of teaching to meet the problems of children of new
generations who have been unfolding themselves with their individual
differences. There can be no end for the quest to meet the teaching problems
and to search for new methods of teaching
The search for better method is closely related to the need for a continuing
improvement in teaching methods and to meet the growing demands of
continually deepening and diversifying school curricula. This need for improved
methods of teaching has rightly been pointed out in the report of Secondary
Education Commission (1953): "even the best curriculum and the most perfect
syllabus remain dead unless quickened into life by the right methods of teaching
and the right kind of teachers. Sometimes, even an unsatisfactory and
S3
unimaginative syllabus can be made more interesting and significant by a good
teacher who does not focus his mind more on the subject matter to be taught or
the information to be imparted, but on his students - their interest, aptitude and
responses, employing good methods of instruction". Keeping in view, this most
important fact, both the Secondary Education Commission and Education
Commission. 1966 have decided in favour of dynamic methods of teaching. No
single method can be regarded as the panacea for teaching ills and any attempt
to reduce every kind of teaching to a single formula measure is sure to be
defeated at the very threshold. All new methods, in their own different ways,
emphasize the self-activity of the child and the need for basing education on the
learner's experience. Hence, there is a need for designing, trying, evaluating
and diffusing of new and progressive methods of teaching
A Shift from Methods of Teaching to Models of Teaching - Emergence of

Models of Teaching
Although methods of teaching have passed through several developments in the

history of pedagogy, teachers all over the world including India, are seen usually
following fixed ways of teaching in the classroom. Attempts to integrate skills by
Indian researchers into the teaching-learning process, to form effective patterns
for realizing specific instructional objectives, have more or less led to pre-
determined approaches Moreover, following a few fixed ways of teaching failed
to achieve a variety of instructional objectives for which teaching has been
designed and performed Pupils have multi-dimensional personalities having
different learning styles. The common implication of both these facts is that
teachers should use different strategies of teaching to match the objectives of
teaching, the different learning styles and personalities of students. (Passi et al.
1991 )
In the modern era, development of a well-balanced personality depends on how

a child is exposed to a wide variety of experiences. To achieve the objectives of
education, viz., to help the pupils grow socially, intellectually and emotionally,
teachers need a variety of approaches. In this regard Bruce Joyce and Marsha
Weil have searched a variety of strategies practised by different working
.teachers in school contexts all over the world and have discovered a number of
models of teaching which together have been observed to be very effective in
attaining all the objectives of education A leaching model is a pattern or plan
54
whicl/ can be used to shape c!lTriculum or course, to design instructional
materials and to guide a teael/er's actions. Thus, a model of teaching can be
used to design face - to - face teaching in classroom, to shape instructional
materials including books, films, tapes, computer - mediated programmes and
curricula and long term courses of studies. (Joyce et al 1982). Apart from the
above uses, it creates the necessary environment which facilitates the teaching-
learning process. The core of the process of teaching is the arrangement of
environment within which the student can interact (Dewey 1933). Thus, a model
of teaching includes guidelines for designing educational activities and
environments. It specifies ways of teaching and learning that are intended to
achieve certain kinds of goals (Joyce and Weil 1985). It is a step-by-step
procedure that leads to specific learning outcomes. Models are prescriptive
teaching strategies, designed to accomplish particular instructional goals. Thus,
a model of teaching is designed to achieve a particular set of objectives. It is
not a substitute to any teaching skill. Rather, it creates the conducive teaching-
learning environment in which teachers teach more effectively by making the act
of teaching more systematic and efficient.
There are many powerful models of teaching designed to bring about particular
kinds of learning and help students become more effective learners. As a
teacher or teacher educator, one needs to be able to identify various models of
teaching and to select the ones that he/she can master in order to develop and
increase his/her own effectiveness, To become competent to use these
teaching strategies comfortably and effectively requires much further study and
practice.
Models constitute a basic repertoire for schooling, i.e., they help in

accomplishing most of the common goals of schools. They also represent a
broad range of approaches to education. They have major philosophical and
psychological orientations towards teaching and learning. Models have
coherent theoretical bases, i.e., they provide rationale that explain why they are
expected to achieve the goals for which they are designed. They have a long
history of practice behind them, they have been refined through experience so
that they can be used comfortably and efficiently in class room and other
'educational settings. Furthermore, they are adaptable, they can be adjusted to
learning styles of students and to the requirements of subject matter. Finally
there is evidence that they work and all of them are backed by some amount of
55
formal research that tests their theories and their abilities to gain effects. Some
models have broad applications while others are designed for very specific
purposes. They range from simple, direct procedures that get immediate results
to complex strategies that students can acquire only after patient and skillful
instruction (Lima and Sugandi 1986).
The various models collected and collated by Bruce Joyce and Marsha Weil get
classified into four families on the basis of the objectives for which they are
designed for their major functions, viz., (a) Information processing models, which
aim at fostering the information processing ability in learners, i.e., these models
help the learners to seek and master information, organize it and test
hypotheses; (examples; Inductive Thinking Model, Inquiry Training Model,
Advance Organizer Model, etc.), .(b) Personal models, which lay more stress on
personal development of an individual and the development of self-hood; they
emphasize the process by which individuals can establish a productive
relationship with their environment, construct and organize their unique reality;
(examples; Non-Directive Teaching, Awareness Training, Synectics, etc.), (c)
Social interaction models, which emphasize the development of capabilities for
inter-personal relationships and social skills among students; (examples; Group
Investigation, Social Inquiry, Jurisprudential, etc.) and (d) Behaviour
modification models, which emphasize desirable modification in the behaviour of
learners through sequencing meaningful learning tasks and manipulating stimuli,
response and reinforcement (examples; Contingency Management, Self-control,
Stress reduction, etc ).
Need for the Evaluation of Methods and Models of Teaching

There are certain state-of-the-art methods which a teacher can try easily for
achieving varied objectives of instruction, viz., Lecture method; Demonstration
method; Problem solving method; Project method; Historical method;
Programmed Instruction; Computer Assisted Instruction; Team teaching, etc.
Most of them are known to everybody, but it is difficult to teach successfully
simply by knowing the steps or procedures of these methods. The whole
spectrum of methodology of teaching has to be undergone experimentally and
mastered over the years by individual teachers, because the basic function of
. teaching methods is not at all to transmit knowledge passively, but to 'excite a
determination in the child to acquire it for himself' according to his needs. When
seen cumulatively, day-to-day class room teaching must result in the
56
development of sound scientific skills, attitudes, interests and appreciations
(Vaidya and Rajput 1977). Conditions under which methods/models are
efficient and effective need to be established. Hence, there is a need for
evaluating the feasibility, compatibility, applicability and effectiveness of different
strategies, methods and models of teaching.
Evaluation is a systematic process of testing the extent to which the pre-

determined objectives are achieved. In the context of teaching, evaluation is
done to test the attainment of pre-set instructional objectives by pupils and to
test the effectiveness of the teacher and method of teaching employed by
him/her. Evaluation is conducive to good instruction when it reveals major types
of inadequate teacher behaviour, improper and illogical sequence of learning
exppriences involved in the method and the contributory causes. Evaluation
always leads to the improvement of teaching or method of instruction. Learning
situations are selected and presented to children to achieve certain objectives.
After the completion of the teaching task with a given method or combination of
methods if it is found effective, it is accepted and incorporated. Otherwise,
attempts are made to find the causal factors and required modification is done.
A method may be dropped in certain cases when it does not fulfill an objective
and in its place, other methods may be considered while teaching a given topic
of a given subject to a given set of pupils within a given time. This continuous
and critical appraisal of teaching methods or models ensures improvement of
instruction. Hence, this critical evaluative study has been taken up to study the
effectiveness of Information Processing Models on the achievement of
secondary school children in Environmental Studies.
Socio-Economic Factors
It is possible to visualize socio-economic status as an important variable, which

can influence the achievement of a student in environmental studies. An
educational programme committed to all round development of children must
take into account the personal background of children. Children coming to the
school are from diverse cultural, social and economic backgrounds. Each child
comes to the school with varying beliefs, customs, experiences and knowledge.
Lifestyles differ from children to children Thus, the organizational structure of
society, community, family and school are essential ingredients of the
developmental process of a child. The urban and rural background, sex,
57
educational attainments of parents, occupation of parents, economic status of
parents, type of management of schools are some of the factors which merit
consideration.
Children coming from families with high social and economic status will have
wide ranging facilities, motivation, interaction and guidance which are different
from those children coming from low social and economic conditions of families.
Their experiences with people, animate and inanimate objects, organizational
structures, power relationships and actions within the home and outside are
different. They will have better exposure to mass media and communication
facilities. All these have a significant impact on the cognitive and affective
development of children. The family has a very important role in the
development of the mental outlook and desirable attitudes of the younger ones.
The child's personal views and convictions are first formed within the home.
The manner by which family members relate with one another lays the
foundations of self-concept. A child who feels loved, wanted and guided by the
significant persons in his/her life, will have a better perception of himself/herself,
others and the world, than a child who is neglected. Hence, the socio-economic
factors are of crucial importance in fashioning the personalities of children. A
higher Socio Economic Status (SES) provides the high school students access
to a number of facilities, resources and capabilities, some of which are discussed
below.
Access to Mass Media: Much of the influence of SES is through the wider
range of mass media available to students. A high SES child has access to
television, cine films, documentaries, magazines and periodicals. In terms of
quality and quantity, the environmental knowledge acquired through mass media
by high SES children far exceeds that acquired by the children of lower SES
classes through a drab monotonous curriculum. Cine films have a very powerful
influence on attitudes , and on issues related to environmental conservation, and
short audiovisual documentaries have been the most vociferous protagonists of
conservation. Such audio visuals are also used by the forest department to
educate the poorer rural folk living near wildlife sanctuaries and forests about the
value of wildlife conservation.
Interest Range: Since a high SES provides greater access to mass media as
well as superior learning skills in the areas of reading, writing and speaking, the
58
result is superior language ability. With this, the range of interests also
increases. Since higher SES children achieve better scores in academic
subjects, the overall stress felt by the high school adolescent with high SES
would be far less than the stress felt by the high school student belonging to a
low SES class. The wider range of interests naturally lead the high SES student
to question, explore and investigate a wider world which may not be directly
related to his immediate environment. For the high SES student, the
environmental crisis has wider and deeper implications, than for low SES
students. The low SES student who is burdened by the pressure of academics
and a greater need to achieve is unlikely to relate to the environmental crisis in a
meaningful way.
Range of Experience: A wider range of interest is naturally the result of a

wider range of experience It is the high SES child who frequents national
parks, sanctuaries, zoos, museums, planetaria, safari parks, nature centres,
lectures, talks, seminars, airports and space centres. It is the high SES child
who joins conservation organizations and participates in environmental
movements organized by the World Wide Fund (WNF), Interact clubs, Rotaract
Clubs, Rotary clubs, Lions clubs or any other organizations. High SES
students are more likely to meet conservationists, environmentalists and
scientists of repute. The life experience of high SES students is naturally richer,
and more varied than those of low SES students.
Choice of Priorities: A low SES student's list of priorities and commitments is

restricted to his immediate environment, to his own needs and the needs of his
family. Environmental commitments may not be found in their list.
Gender Issues
Gender bias is a curse of any society and the approach and attitude towards the
girl child is always different from that of a boy child. The behaviour expected of
a girl differs from that of a boy. The activities and experience of a girl is tailored
to suit the needs of the home while that of the boy is developed to meet the
needs of the outside world.
Whyte (1986) observes Bias in text books, and the lack of motivating social
context are two criticisms of the way the content of science ignores or bypasses
59
the girl child's interests. Women certainly have a nurturing attitude, which is
partly encouraged by society. Girls express love for animals, birds and plants
and this is certainly reinforced by society. On the other hand, their active
participation in adventurous outdoor activities is discouraged. The tendency is
to develop attitudes, but inhibit interest and participation. But boys' interest in
collecting birds' eggs, insects, trekking, maintaining an aquarium at home and
exploration are actively encouraged. The male child's natural curiosity is never
suppressed, as it is done for girl child. Perhaps the female child's greater
rationality leads her to acquire higher levels of knowledge which develops more
favourable attitudes. The male child's greater curiosity might enable him to
acquire high levels of environmental knowledge, awareness and more
favourable attitudes.
Kahle and Lakers (1983) in US, Smail (1985) in England and Parker and
Rennie (1986) in Australia found that there is a clear documentation that fewer
girls than boys handle science equipment, perform science experiments, or
participate in science related and environment related activities. So, it is
important that teachers give girls the same amount as well as quality of attention
and experiences that they give to boys. Teachers should impress upon girls that
their expectations from girls is similar to those from boys. Kelly (1985) suggests
that "schools could playa transformative, rather than a reproductive role, in the
formation of gender identities". EE therefore, can circumvent the traditional
roles and opportunities which are culturally assigned to boys and girls.
Thus, schools and teachers must study attentively the sentiments, views and
everyday behaviour of their pupils, and provide a well thought-out system of
curricular and co-curricular activities involving the children's individual and
collective efforts. The teacher must be genuinely interested in the fate of every
pupil, in the pupil's harmonious all-round development.
Theoretical Understandings Underlying the Study
After an examination of the theoretical undercurrents and an overview with

respect to the methods of teaching Environmental Studies, the present study has
arrived at a broad theoretical framework, the contents of which have been
presented here.
60
Earth is the only planet in the solar system that has been supporting life because
of its life supporting environment. But, looking at the way environment is getting
degraded, it has become the need of the hour to save the earth's capacity to
sustain and perpetuate life with ecological balance forever through appropriate
and scientifically planned approaches and programmes. Environment is of global
concern today. The natural tendency of earth's environment for self -
stabilization is the ecological balance that has been severely affected due to
many human created problems such as population explosion, poverty, unending
exploitation of natural resources, pollution, deforestation, loss of bio-diversity etc.
The ecological balance on earth depends on 'the carrying capacity' of the earth
which has also been affected by same variables. The human exploitation of
natural resources is at a greater rate than it can be regenerated. The failure to
regenerate the inputs and plough them back into the natural ecosystem is
responsible for ecological imbalance and the concomitant failure in the
establishment of geo-biological balance of the ecosystem. This kind of
undesirable system may have serious consequences for future generations.
Hence, there is an urgent need to restore the ecological equilibrium that is
necessary for sustainability.
Several strategies have been emphasized for restoring the ecological balance,
viz., legislative strategies including international summits and legal provisions for
environmental protection; administrative and managerial strategies; and
educational strategies. The role of the legal system with more than 200 central
and state legislations, various national and international organizations and their
programmes in protecting the environment have been noted. The vital role and
effectiveness of formal and non-formal types of education need attention.
Development of environmental knowledge, understanding, skills, attitudes and

awareness in individuals is very much essential as they have to live successfully
on this planet earth without disturbing the sensitive interactions that exist
between and among biotic and abiotic components of the environment which
would lead towards sustainable development and conservation of natural
resources. Children at primary and secondary levels of education are at an age
when important and desirable attitudes, and awareness can be formed,
encouraged and nurtured very easily and effectively along with environmental
knowledge, understandings and skills. Hence, promotion of environmental
61
knowledge, attitudes and awareness among high school students is worthy of
serious and systematic attention.
Several views have been expressed about providing formal environmental

education at school. Two approaches are proposed and are being used, viz.,
infusing environmental concepts into all existing disciplines and another is
developing a special EE curriculum; three essential components are considered
in an integration of the spectrum of formal environmental education, viz.,
awareness of real life situation, conservation and sustainable development.
A few approaches for teaching Environmental Studies may prove to be very

effective at primary and secondary levels of education. They may be:
providing the children with opportunities to observe the local environmental

contexts, problems, changes, etc;
conducting discussions with children about various environmental problems
of local concerns;
organizing out of classroom activities for first hand/real/direct purposeful
experiences;
undertaking and guiding simple outdoor projects;
helping the children in adopting the process approach to environmental
problems; and
providing children with contextual questions, the answers for which they can
find by discussing with their parents, elders, friends and by field
observations.
Various methods, approaches and instructional strategies of teaching

environmental studies such as project method, problem solving approach,
inquiry approach, discussion method, survey method, action research, brain
storming, field trips, excursions, etc., have evolved over the years. It is
observed that all these methods and approaches have some values for teaching
environmental studies and promotion of environmental knowledge, skill, attitude
and awareness, depending on the content of Environmental Studies. However,
emphasis is given to the need based and activity oriented strategies in EE
irrespective of methods. Some of the well-known models of teaching incorporate
need based and activity oriented strategies. In the present study, the
effectiveness of using models in teaching Environmental Studies is being tested
62
along with studying their feasibility In teaching environment topics at the
secondary level.
Some of the other variables that have entered into the discussion of the
dynamics of development of environmental knowledge, awareness and attitude
among children are socio-economic factors, school and home facilities and sex
of children.
This study takes a holistic view of all the foregoing undercurrents and overviews
in EE. It has tried to accommodate the variables entering the dynamics of
promotion of environmental knowledge, skill, attitude and awareness through a
well organized system of EE. The variables have been accorded varying
degrees of importance. Though the following placement of variables should not
be strictly taken as rankings in order of importance and degree of influence, still
they suggest the direction of thinking in the present research regarding the
relative importance of various variables.
Sequential strategies of classroom transactional processes incorporated in the

models of teaching have been treated as the chief determinants of achievements
of students in Environmental Studies. It is followed by the availability of library
and laboratory facilities for EE, co-curricular activities related to EE and all
physical and human resources that are available both at school and home.
The relationship between these determinant variables in the promotion of

achievement of students in environmental studies is hypothesised to be
moderated by a number of variables which are apparently extraneous to the
teaching-learning of Environmental studies in the school. In random order of
importance they are Socio Economic Status (SES) of the child therein including
education, occupation and income of the father, sex of the student, school and
home facilities for learning science.
The study is set and carried out with the foregoing theoretical framework. The
insights derived from the overview on teaching and learning Environmental
Studies in the chapter on "Theoretical understandings" has served as guidelines
to the researcher in pursuing the present study.
63
CHAPTER III
REVIEW OF RESEARCH
LITERATURE
CHAPTER III
REVIEW OF RESEARCH LITERATURE
Introduction
Research extends the frontiers of knowledge. A researcher has to become

familiar with the existing frontiers before s/he launches on a mission to extend
the same. Review of research literature enables the researcher to get
familiarized with the existing frontiers. A critical. insightful and comprehensive
review of research has many values for the researcher. They are:
a. Understanding research trends over the years in order to identify the
thrust areas;
b. Identifying research issues and concerns that have surfaced time and
again;
c. Identifying gaps in research efforts;
d. Avoiding duplication of efforts while appreciating the need for
replication of studies/results;
e. Identifying converging understandings / insights and diverging /
controversial/unresolved issues and concerns;
f. Understanding methodological issues in addressing the problems
including techniques, tools and analysiS of data; and
g. Guiding the researcher on formulation of hypotheses and focusing
the objectives of the study.
To summarize, the review provides the researchers with an opportunity of

gaining insight into the methods, measures, subjects and approaches employed
by other research workers in the light of which significant improvement in his/her
own research design can be realised.
Keeping these understandings in view, the researcher has made an attempt to

review the related research literature of the problem in a systematic way.
The Studies reviewed are broadly grouped under two sections. They are:
Section I : Review of studies in the area of Environmental Education (EE)

Section II : Review of studies in the area of models of teaching
64
The studies reviewed in the area of EE (Section I) get classified under the
following five Categories:
1. Studies examining the design, development and validation of
curriculum and instructional materials in EE',
2. Studies examining the effectiveness of methods and approaches on
the development of environmental knowledge, attitudes and
behaviour;
3. Studies examining the levels of environmental awareness,
knowledge, attitude and behaviour of students and teachers',
4. Studies examining the Evaluation of curriculum and instructional
materials in EE; and
5. Studies in the area of EE that cannot be classified under the above
four heads.
The studies reviewed in the area of Models of Teaching have been classified
under the following three categories
1. Studies on Advance Organiser Model (AOM) only;

2. Studies on Inquiry Training Model (ITM) only; and
3. Studies examining the comparative efficacy of different models of
teaching and effectiveness of different individual models on
dependent variables considered in this study.
Section I: Review of Studies in the area of Environmental Education (EE)
1. Studies Examining the Design, Development and Validation of

Curriculum and/or Instructional Materials in Environmental
Education.
Barr et al. (1981) developed a need based curriculum plan in EE, based on the
needs established by analyzing the results of testing 1,412 X grade students
from 53 public schools in Lousiana for their knowledge and opinions about the
environment.
Data were collected from 53 public schools. ANOVA was used to determine if
there were any significance in the difference among regions of the state,
between sexes , between urban and rural communities, and among size of
school.
65
The results show that the students had limited knowledge most of the cognitive
variables. The overall attitudes and opinions demonstrated that the students
favoured ideas that did not affect them directly while showing disagreement with
those issues that would affect them directly.
The plan suggests a multidisciplinary approach to teaching EE. The plan

developed from the results of this study shows how various general objectives
can be integrated into many different traditional subjects.
Pai, S.J. (1981) prepared and conducted a tryout of curriculum in environmental

studies for college students to help them acquire an awareness of environment
and the interrelationships, interactions and interdependence existing between
biological and physical aspects of the total environment and its allied problems.
The study also intended to help students acquire strong positive attitudes and
sound ecological values towards the need for better environment and to help
students develop skills necessary for solving environmental problems and taking
preventive measures.
The study employed pre-test - post-test, experimental Control Group design.

The sample consisted of 72 students in the experimental and 80 students in the
Control Group
The data were collected using the environmental achievement test, unit test,
environmental attitude inventory and environmental activities inventory. t-Test
was used to analyse the data.
The study reveals that, there was significant difference in the performance of the
experimental group as compared with control group on knowledge scores and
attitude scores. The experimental group gained more than the control group in
environmental activities inventory, indicating effectiveness of the curriculum.
Stubbs et al. (1982) conducted a study to determine whether educators who

introduced the current environmental issue of acid rain into ongoing curriculum
were more receptive to change as measured by the Welch Curriculum Attitude
Survey (WCAS). Other teacher characteristics were examined by the use of
another developed questionnaire in which demographics, methods of teaching
specific topics and available acid rain materials were included.
66
The data were collected from 593 Science (Biology and Chemistry) teachers
through WCAS and questionnaire and were analyzed by statistical techniques
such as Pearson product-moment correlation tests, t-test and regression
analysis.
The study reveals that, the difference, when comparing WCAS scores for
teachers who introduced acid rain and those who did not, was found to be
significant.
This study also found that the sex of teachers, years of teaching experience,
being a life science teacher and use of the combined classroom techniques of
discussion, student reports, library work and films were not important predictors.
Branch, Clarence (1983) conducted a developmental study of a local river and

science related community problems in "Earth and Environmental Science
Education" with junior high school students.
This study describes how classroom, laboratory and field study activities were
planned and developed for use in an instructional unit on the study of a local
stream and science related community problems. It also describes how these
activities were used in a classroom tryout to determine their relative
effectiveness, compared to conventional method of instruction.
Results indicate that students who received science instruction in the form of a
generalized approach to problem study, using teacher developed materials,
became more positive in their views towards school science and exhibited a
greater tendency to apply knowledge of science to societal issues without
sacrifice in the acquisition of basic knowledge of science.
Lynn, Volk Gertrude (1983) conducted a national survey of curricular needs as

perceived by the professional environmental educators in the United States.
The EE Curriculum Needs Assessment Questionnaire (EECNAQ) was
developed, validated and used to collect data from 99 environmental educators.
The EECNAQ elicited perceptions about the desired status of EE curricula, the
current status of EE curricula, the need for the curriculum development, the
anticipated use of curricula by teachers and the need for in service teacher
67
education related to goal oriented curricula. These five major questions were
posed relative to 15 goals which reflected the Tbilsi objectives and which
addressed environmental knowledge, issue awareness, issue investigation or
evaluation skills and citizenship action.
The findings were: Professional environmental educators believe that there

exists a considerable discrepancy between the desired status and the existing
status of EE. Goal related teacher education appears to be the major need at all
academic levels with the exception of the college levels where in service needs
are exceeded slightly by the need for goal-oriented curricula; Professional
Environmental educators believe that goal-oriented curricula would be used by
classroom teachers, although the extent of its use relative to discrete goals
would be varied.
Pace, Rose Marie (1987) conducted a case study of urban EE in the

Intermediate grade curriculum for investigating the content and course. This
case study was an attempt to divulge the presence of EE in the intermediate
grade curriculum, along with the factors influencing it both positively and
negatively.
The data were collected through observation, in-depth interviews and artifact
reviews. The findings reveal that EE did exist both blatantly and subtly in the
intermediate grade curriculum. In science, exploration of plants, animals,
energy, climate, air and water quality were replete with environmental
ramifications. In social studies, dependence of human cultural development on
natural environment was given key importance. Environmental themes were
employed to teach mathematics, languages, reading and art skill. Much music
was developed around the imitation of sounds of nature.
Woods, Amunda Linnette (1993) developed and validated an interdisciplinary EE

curriculum based on the tropical rain forest. The curriculum also addressed the
complexity of environmental problems by introducing the concept of "sustainable
developments", students investigated a simulated problem where a balance of
alternatives was needed and sustainable development was offered as viable
option for tropical forest conservation.
68
The results indicate that the interdisciplinary curriculum unit based on a relevant
and a popular topic (tropical rain forest) influenced students' attitude towards
science. When compared to control group, the experimental group showed more
positive attitude towards science. No gender or interaction effects were evident
on students' attitude towards science.
2. Studies Examining the Effectiveness of Methods and Approaches

on the Development of Environmental Knowledge, Attitudes and
Behaviour.
Hopper, WAF. (1982) conducted an experimental study in the use of modular

approach for teaching biology for Standard XI to design and develop instructional
modules on selected units in Morphology. Physiology and Ecology for Higher
Secondary classes and to find out the relative effectiveness of 3 modular
approaches involving self learning, peer group learning. and peer group learning
with teacher intervention with reference to the cognitive objective.
The effectiveness of the three modular approaches was evaluated through an

experiment conducted with 156 XI standard students studying in three higher
secondary schools of Madvar. Experimental variables were the three types of
modular approaches and the three modules. Experiment was conducted
adopting the "Rotation group design".
Tools used in the study included Cognitive Entry Behavior Test; Modular reaction
opinlonalre developed by investigator; Frymier's Junior index of motivation and
Test of general intelligence by Cattell and Cattell. Data were analyzed by using
Product-Moment Correlation, t-test, ANOVA and Chi-square.
The study reveals that all the three structured modular approaches of teaching
were effective in terms of mean gain cognitive achievement in Morphology,
Physiology and Ecology. However, the self learning approach was more
effective than the other two modular approaches.
Deopuria R.P. (1984) conducted a comparative study of teaching science

through environmental approach and traditional approach in schools of Madhya
Pradesh, also to compare the environmental awareness and attitudes of
students when taught by the above mentioned methods.
69
The study employed a two-group design having the environmental approach for
the experimental group and the traditional approach for the Control Group. The
study was conducted at three levels: primary, middle and higher secondary.
The standardized tools used in the study were::

1. Achievement tests for classes V, VIII, IX, X standard students
2. Attitude scale for X standard students and attitude scale for teachers
towards environmental approach. Statistical techniques such as
Mean, S.D and t-test were employed for testing the hypotheses.
The study revealed that the students of experimental group of classes V, VIII, IX,
X obtained higher achievement scores due to teaching of science through
environmental approach and showed greater cognitive gain in knowledge,
understanding and application of science concepts related to EE at primary,
middle and secondary school levels.
Lisowski, Marylin (1987) conducted a study to find out the effect of field based
learning experiences on students understanding of selected ecological concepts.
The study was designed to examine the nature of ideas the students had about
specific scientific concepts and to investigate the modes of instruction that would
effectively help them to gain an accurate understanding of their world,
specifically, students' conceptions of selected ecological concepts and the
influence of field instruction strategy on students' understanding and retention of
these concepts were investigated.
The Student Ecology Assessment (SEA) instrument was developed 2nd used to
obtain information on students' understanding of ecological concepts.
The experimental groups of students evidenced significant gains in post-test total

scores on the SEA instrument. Results on the retention test also indicate that
the concepts addressed in the instrument were retained by the students.
Ramsey, John Michael (1987) conducted a study of the effects of Issue

Investigation and Action Training (IIAT) on characteristics associated with
environmental behaviour of 7th grade students.
A pre-test, post-test method was used with four experimental groups receiving
IIAT instruction and four Control Groups.
70
It was found that the IIAT promoted responsible citizenship behaviour. This
inference was supported by the findings that the specific knowledge, skills and
belief critical to responsible citizenship behavior were also significantly
enhanced.
Euler, Aline (1989) conducted a comparative study of the effectiveness of a

formal versus non-formal EE programme for male and female 6th grade
students' environmental knowledge and attitudes.
The sample consisted 267, VI grade male and female students of a large school
of New York city. Three groups were formulated - two experimental groups
were given treatment with formal and informal EE programmes, while the third
(control) involved no treatment. Pre-test and post-test were administered on all
the participating students. The tools used were multiple choice environmental
knowledge kit (EKT) and two attitude scales; the Millward Giuter Outdoor
Attitude Inventory (MGOAI) and the environmental attitude scales.
A two-way-ANOVA was used which revealed that the experimental groups

showed significant gains over the Control Group with respect to knowledge and
environmental attitude. The experimental group with formal EE had
significantly higher scores on the environmental knowledge and attitude over
experimental group with informal EE.
Hewitt, Patricia Anne (1993) conducted a study to know the effects of
institutional games on the development of environmentally responsible behaviour
among 4th, 5th and 6th grade students.
The students were pre - and post-tested; "some ideas", developed by Robert
Horvat and Allen Voelkar to measure environmentally responsible behaviour and
"some students' misconceptions" developed by the researchers to measure
environmental misconception were used. This study shows that playing games
especially designed to teach certain topics might be successful in improving
students' environmentally responsible behavior. It also shows that
misconceptions were not readily dispelled simply by changing the methodology.
Hicks, William Whitefield (1994) conducted a study to know the effects of

environmental action oriented lessons on environmental knowledge, attitude and
behaviour of high school students. This study reveals several educational
71
implications. Action - oriented lessons should be taught for greater period of
time. Education willing to test students' knowledge of subject, as diverse as EE,
should design tests to be specific rather than general in nature. Students taking
action towards solving environmental problem need these behaviours reinforced
continuously. Educators can reinforce students' behavior by teaching
environmental action skills, removing barriers such as negative peer pressure
and inconsistent messages about the state of the environment.
Singh, Ummed (1995) conducted a study to develop and try out a video
instructional package for creating environmental awareness among secondary
school children in Gujarat, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. The study was
developmental-cum-experimental in nature having two stages:
1. Developing video instructional package
2. Try out the developed video instructional package
The sample consisted of 180 students selected from three schools - one each
from GUJarat, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh studying in VII and VIII Standards
with Hindi Medium. Purposive sampling technique was used. In order to
collect data, one video instructional film of 45 minutes on "environmental crisis, a
booklet of 20 pages on "environmental pollution - a danger for man's existence",
four criticism tests, opinionnaire and a rating scale for experts were developed
by the investigator
The study resulted in the development of video instructional package on

"environmental crisis" for creating environmental awareness among school-going
children of Hindi medium schools; The developed video instruction31 package
was found significantly effective for the students of standards VII and VIII.
3. Studies Examining the Levels of Environmental Awareness,

Knowledge, Attitudes and Behaviour of Students and Teachers.
Rajput, J.S, A. B. Saxena and V. G Jadhav (1980) conducted a research study

on environmental approach of teaching at primary level to study the existing
awareness towards the scientific and social environment in children and to
identify the available community resources which can be gainfully utilized for
teaching.
In the first phase, the Madhya Pradesh State curriculum for classes III and IV
were redesigned to inCUlcate scope for environmental approach of teaching. In
72
the second phase, an environmental awareness test was developed. The third
phase was the experimentation phase where the effect of implementing the
redesigned curriculum was assessed on environmental awareness and
achievement in science.
In the second phase, the draft test was administered to 140 students from
grades III and IV, subsequently to 200 children from the same classes but from
two other schools, and third time to 275 children from other two schools. The 57
items had a reliability of 0.80. For each item, the difficulty index ranged between
25 percent and 70 percent and a discrimination index was more than 0.40.
The experiment in third phase was conducted on 197 students from two schools
in Bhopal. 102 students of IV class, 95 students from class III, 57 stUdents from
class IV and 47 students from class III (2 sections each) were in the
experimental group and the rest in control group. Mean, S.D and t-test were
applied for data analysis and hypotheses verification.
The findings of the study were that only one of the 4 groups was significantly
different on environmental awareness at pre-test stage whereas at the post-test
stage, the experimental groups were significantly better than the control groups.
RaJ put and Gupta (1988a) conducted a study of the environmental awareness
among children of rural and urban schools and non-formal education centres to
know the components of environment in which children from rural and urban
areas were lacking and the areas in which the stUdents from both the streams
were well aquatinted and to compare the environmental awareness of school
going children and children studying in non-formal education center. They also
intended to suggest means for developing environment based curriculum for
universalization of elementary education.
The sample of the study consisted of 115 students among whom 20 were from
rural schools , 35 from urban schools and 60 from non-formal centres.
An environmental awareness questionnaire was administered on the sample.

The performance of students of the three groups was compared. Differences
were tested for significance by t-test. First and the last ten ranking questions for
each of the groups were identified and compared.
73
The study reveals that: 1. The difference between Formal Rural (FR) and Formal
Urban (FU) on environmental awareness was significant and in favour of FR 2.
Difference between Non Formal Rural (NFR) and FU was also significant on
environmental awareness and in favour of NFR 3. The difference between NFR
and FR on environmental awareness was not significant.
Neri, Esmondo Molina (1990) conducted a study to investigate the attitude and
teaching perception related to environmental concerns of 347 pre-service middle
and high school teachers of 16 selected colleges and universities of East
Tennessee. The specific objectives of the study were; to investigate similarities
and differences of expressed attitudes towards selected environmental concern;
to determine the degree of awareness (or unawareness) to environmental
issues, problems or solutions; to examine perceived seriousness and readiness
to teach issues and to examine perceived abilities to get involved with EE.
An experimental survey questionnaire was constructed, evaluated by a panel of

educators and practitioners and pilot tested at the university of Tennessee, 270
teachers' responses were analysed.
The data indicates that a majority of the pre-service teachers had strong
opinions; showed concerns and support for environmental quality; attitude and
familiarity with specific environmental concerns were varied among different
groups.
Chin-Chi-Chin (1994) conducted a study to investigate knowledge, attitude,

verbal commitment and actual commitment of secondary school students and
pre and in service teachers in relation to environmental issues in Taiwan. All
groups were assessed for their awareness of current environmental problems in
both Taiwan and the world. The effects of independent variables such as gender,
grade level, geographic region, subject taught, age, teaching experience and
educational background of teachers on their performance regarding
environmental issues were examined.
Students in rural junior high schools appear to have the lowest level of
environmental knowledge, environmental attitudes, awareness of environmental
problems and verbal commitment. Older students out - scored younger students
as expected. Rural teachers possessed less environmental knowledge than
74
urban teachers. Girls tend to be more aware of environmental problems than
boys. Interestingly, pre services and in-service teachers were not aware of
environmental problems than the senior high school students, but in-service
teachers expressed more commitment to the environment than all others.
Fong, Ting-Ya (1994) investigated environmental awareness of and action from

elementary school students and their parents in Taiwan.
Survey research was employed with descriptive and correlational techniques in

the data analysis. A questionnaire containing demographic information,
environmental awareness and environmental actions was also used. The sample
consisted of 521, V grade students and their parents who all agreed strongly that
everyone should protect this planet. They also strongly indicated that second
hand smoking was as harmful as direct smoking of cigarettes.
The study demonstrated that 237 students from Taipei city and their parents
scored higher on many environmental awareness items and also that they took
more action
This study also suggests that parents' 'educational level' made significant
difference on students' and parents' environmental awareness and
environmental action. In general, the higher the educational level, the more
concern they have. This finding is supported by the previous research and
suggests that education is the means to solve many environmental problems.
Pael. 0 G (1995) conducted an investigation into the environmental awareness

and Its enhancement in the secondary school teachers. They also determined
various aspects of EE interwoven in textbooks of social studies and science in
secondary level and implemented an environmental awareness programme
(EAP) to enhance the environmental awareness of secondary school teachers.
2x2 factorial design was used for the study. Environmental awareness was
measured by using environmental awareness questionnaire with 100 secondary
school teachers. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was employed in order to study
the main effects viz. treatment, experience and its interaction effects on
environmental awareness.
75
The study concludes that EAP had its very high effect in raising environmental
awareness of teacher. The experience of teacher did not play an important role
on the environmental awareness.
Patel, D. Nanubhai (1995) conducted a study to investigate the environmental

awareness of secondary students in the context of 10 and Sex, and also to
examine the effect of the environmental study multimedia package on
environmental awareness of secondary school students.
Experimental and control groups were equated on intelligence and

environmental awareness by using Dr. Medhookar Patel's Inteliigence Test
(NVIT). The control group was taught topics on environment by using traditional
approach and the experimental group was taught by using multimedia package
consisting of charts, video and reading materials. Coefficient of correlation was
used to find out the relationship between IQ and Environmental awareness and
t-test was employed for testing the significance of mean difference.
The study reveals that students with high IQ had increased environmental
awareness; the environmental awareness multimedia package was more
effective than the traditional lecture method; Girls students were more sensitive
about the environmental awareness than boys.
4 Studies Examining the Evaluation of Curriculum and Instructional

Materials in Environmental Education.
Weiss, Iris, Roshfleld (1975) developed and evaluated a "self instructional EE

programme" for elementary teachers. A self EE package was developed for
elementary school teachers and reviewed by a panel of experts, field tested and
revised. The final package contained eight modules dealing with basic concepts
and principles of ecology. Each module consisted of a cassette recorded, a
series of pictures and suggested activities for students. Thirty four volunteer
teachers were aggregated by the school stratified by grade. taught and randomly
aSSigned to experimental and control groups. Ali teachers were pre-tested with
the same instrument and with the test of attitude towards the teaching of
science. The environmental knowledge and opinion survey was used as a
student post-test.
Teachers who were taught with EE package were found to be more

knowledgeable about the environment than the control group. The self -
76
instructional package was effective in helping teachers to learn environmental
concepts and principles at their own pace.
S C E R T (Andhra Pradesh) (1980) conducted an evaluation study of text books

in environmental studies of classes III and V based on revised curriculum in
Science. The objectives of the study were: to compare the old and new science
curriculum of classes III and V with respect to the cognitive load on the students;
to assess the revised curriculum with respect to instructional objectives attained;
and to assess each unit of the revised curriculum with respect to its emphasis on
modernity.
The sample of the study consisted of 20 headmasters, 200 teachers and 100
educated parents of students. They were administered a checklist about the
revised curriculum and the old curriculum in science for classes III and V.
The checklist covered five areas:

Relevance to the environment in which the children lived; relevance to the
educational objectives; relevance to the age level of the children; modernity and
enrichment in knowledge of the child; and relevance to the needs of children.
The study reveals that most of the headmasters and teachers felt that the old
curriculum was not relevant to the child's cognitive level as well as needs, but
contrary to this, parents felt that the old curriculum was easily understandable to
the children. The headmasters and teachers felt that the new curriculum was
relevant to the environment in which the children lived, but the parents of the
pupils felt that the new curriculum increased the cognitive load on their child,en.
The teachers, parents and headmasters opined that the new curriculum was
more helpful than> the old one in enriching the knowledge of the children
regarding the environment.
Manuel, NV (1981) analyzed the text books in Environmental Studies of

NCERT and some state systems from the point of view of components which
might facilitate or hinder genuine environmental approach. He also analyzed
some worthwhile EE models in India and abroad and other relevant materials
from the point of view of developing a functional theory of EE. The other
objective of the study was to identify some typical resources other than text
books which can be useful for EE and to develop some models for EE.
77
Relevant text books (class III and V) at the national level, Kerala, Tamil Nadu,
collateral materials from USA, U S S R, U K. France, UNESCO and other
developed systems were also analyzed. In addition to the analysis and critical
appraisal, interviews, observation and focused group discussions with teachers,
non-formal school education workers, administrative officers were conducted.
The study reveals that a very few genuine EE type activities, as understood in
modern developed systems, seemed to be undertaken in the primary schools.
The effective lead books (text books) at the national level seemed to have some
worthy aspects such as process approach in science, activisation, some
directives to observation and visits, stimulating questions with open tables to fill
in the answers, clear verbal processing, etc., the national level textbooks lacked
the higher specifications commonly adopted in modern EE procedures and in
open, multidisciplinary approaches to the environment. The NCERT's curriculum
framework which had obviously guided the text book gave negative guidelines
(what EE is not) but distinct positive guidelines were lacking
Soniat, Lyle Mark (1993) conducted an evaluation study of the effect of

instructional videos and simulation gaming activities in environmental science
curriculum on knowledge and attitudes. This study evaluated a modular
environmental service curriculum entitled "Wild Louisiana" which attempts to
address the shortcomings of the predominant curricula.
Following random selection. teachers were randomly assigned to one of the four
conditions of study. Group A teachers lectured from their assigned textbooks
supplemented with the regionally based background information that was
provided. Group B teachers used the background information and the
simulation-game activities for infusion into their classes; Group C teachers used
the background information together with the instructional videos; and Group D
teachers used the background information, infusing both the activities and videos
into their class.
Six hundred Secondary school science students of eleven schools in Louisiana

took part in the 16 week study. After the treatment, students were evaluated on
their environmental knowledge and attitudes using ANCOVA.
78
The tools used in the study included: Louisiana environmental knowledge test to
measure students' environmental knowledge and the new environmental
paradigm scale to measure students' environmental attitudes.
The results of the study suggest that: "Wild Louisiana" infusion materials can be
more effective in increasing students' environmental knowledge. Students in the
videos only group and students in the activities with video group had significantly
higher knowledge scores than that of lecture group.
Wang, Shun-Mei (1993) conducted an evaluation of a high school EE

programme of the Tansi river in Taiwan. The Tansui River Education
Programme (TREP) was designed for secondary students in the Tansui river
watershed of Taiwan and was modeled after the Roughe River water quality and
community problem solving program in Michigan.
The experimental design included control and experimental groups, pre-test,

post-test and questionnaire. A paired t-test and a one way ANOVA with 0.05
level of significance were used to analyse the data. Student and teacher
evaluations were used to collect information about programme feasibility. The
study reveals that TREP significantly increased participants' knowledge and
awareness of the quality of water in the river; TREP significantly increased their
sense of empowerment for saving the river; and TREP significantly increased
their feelings of responsibility for the school environment in terms of planning
and decision making.
5. Studies in the Area of EE that Cannot be Classified Under the Above

Four Heads
Central Regional Centre, Jabalpur (1981) conducted a study to develop

instructional materials for students and teachers relevant to local environment
and to ascertain the local condition and nutrition, health and sanitation of the
experimental area. The study also intended to train teachers from selected rural
and tribal schools with respect to nutrition, health and environmental sanitation.
The project was carried out in eleven villages with 39 teachers. The teachers
were to carryout a baseline survey of five families, to introduce the message in at
least 40 families, to check the nutrition, health and sanitation habits of each
family, evaluation of the impact of the message with remedial suggestions, to
79
help develop desirable practices in school children, observe behavioral changes
during school hours and evaluate the progress.
The study reveals that the impact was observable In: awareness of the
cleanliness of clothes, hand, feet and cutting of nails; the use of soap kit and
waste water in the kitchen garden; the bathing habits; and preparation of food.
Sandiford, and Sham iii Ajgaonkar (1992) conducted a study to explore the
relationship between environmental attitudes, behaviours and future
perspectives and the influence of locus of control temporality (i.e., how
individuals rank past, present and future in directing their behaviour) and
perceived level and scope of knowledge about environmental affairs on attitude,
behaviour and future perspective.
Statistical methods employed were Pearson's correlation, cross tabulation,

cluster analysis, factor analysis, t-test and ANOVA.
The results suggest that pro-environmental attitudes were linked to pro-

environmental behaviour and to pro-future perspectives; pro-environmental
behaviour are linked to pro-future perspectives. Although the inter-relationships
do not imply casual links, the positive correlation between attitudes, behaviour
and future perspective suggest that an individual who engages in pro-
environmental behaviours likely possesses pro-environmental attitudes and was
future-oriented. The findings also hint at a changing environmental paradigm.
The most visible shift was the 'positive' attitudes to technology. The new
environmentalism may be more about saving the earth for humans rather than
saving the earth from humane.
Note The researcher could not get detailed or descriptive information about the
following studies related to EE, but still felt that it was worth mentioning them.
Ghosh, G.R. and P. K. Khanna (1988) worked with students of classes IX to XII
at Bhopal, collected plants of the city and its environs. The study reveals that the
students learn about the habit, habitat and nomenclature more effectively than
through laboratory study, hence, field trips in Ecology and EE were more
important
80
RaJPut, J.S. (1988b) studied the teaching skills and training strategies for
implementing the environmental approach at the primary level of teaching at
Bhopal.
Rane, A. J (1989) evaluated the Environmental Study Approach of Parisar Asha

in Municipal Schools in Greater Bombay. The study was on Environmental
Study Approach (ESA) in the case of students of classes I and II which revealed
that ESA was very effective at that level.
Shahanwaj (1990) worked on the environmental awareness and attitudes

(towards environmental issues) of secondary and higher secondary school
teachers and students at Udaipur He found a very high level of awareness
among the students and teachers of urban sector than that of rural sector.
Prahraj, B (1991) explored the level of environmental knowledge, attitude and its
perception among 416 pre-service and 302 in-service secondary school teachers
In Puri District. The pre-service teachers distinctly had poor knowledge of the
environment, while the in-service teachers moderately knew about it.
Gopala Krishnan, SaroJini (1992) selected 1,451 students of class V from ten
different primary schools of Nilgiri, Chennai and Coimbatore districts and
exposed them to EE and then put them through an Environmental Education
Test (EET) and found a very good impact of EE.
Section II: Review of Studies in the Area of Models of Teaching
1. Studies on AOM Only
Rodegres, Cathy Allyn (1981) conducted a study to find out the effect of a
Comparative Advance Organizer (AO) that has on student expectancy for
success and achievement.
The research questions were derived from previous research in the areas, viz.,
1. Instructional strategies which enhance learning (particularly
comparative AO);
2. Learner motivation and the effect of expectancy for success; and
3. The influence of academic self-esteem on school programme.
81
Specific predictions were made based on past research conducted in these
areas. This was essentially an exploratory study intended to identify these
effects, beyond enhancement of incorporation of new information into cognitive
structure which may result from exposure to an AO.
While the predictions that the AO group would exhibit greater enhancement of
expectancy for success and achievement than the Control Group were not
supported, the AO did evidence strong effects. In particular, the AO suppressed
the positive relationships between esteem and achievement, expectancy for
success and achievement, and level of prior knowledge and achievement which
were generally found in learning situations.
Borine, Robesta Carol (1982) conducted a study to understand the effects of

advance organizers of varying length on the comprehension and retention of VII
Grade students. The purpose of the study was to investigate three institutional
methods based on Ausubel's concept of meaningful verbal learning.
Specifically, the effectiveness of 200 word AOs, 20 word AOs, and no AOs were
investigated using expository passages
121 VII graders were the subjects of the study. Based on their scores on the
reading comprehension sub-test of the Stanford Achievement Test, the subjects
were identified as "at-level" readers if they scored in the 34th to 66th percentile
range and "above-level" readers if they scored in the 66th to 88th percentile
range. The dependent variables were the subjects' scores on comprehension
and delayed retention tests. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of three
treatment conditions: 200 word AOs, 20 word AOs and no AOs. Depending
upon the treatment, the subjects used an organizer or no organizer followed by
a 1,500 word expository passage. The subjects were administered a
comprehension test consisting of 20 items.
The findings of the study were reported under four categories, VIZ., At-level
readers on immediate comprehension; Above-level readers on immediate
comprehension; At-level readers on delayed retention; and Above-level readers
on delayed retention. In response to the above four categories, it was found that
. on immediate comprehension the 20 word AO and at-level readers were superior
to the 200 word AO readers. For above-level readers, there were no facilitative
effects among the 200 word AO, 20 word AO and no AO readers. Results
82

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A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF EFFECTIVENESS OF

MODELS OF TEACHING ON THE ACHIEVEMENT OF

A Thesis submitted to the University of Mysore

Department of Studies in Education

Date: Si nature of the Supervisor

I do hereby declare that the thesis entitled "A Comparative Study of

With all sincerity and regard, I record my deep indebtedness to Dr. A. S.

I place on record my sincere gratitude and indebtedness to the Director of the

I thank the principals and managements of Dr. T M A Pai College of Education,

I am also thankful to the Dept. of Studies in Education, University of Mysore,

I am grateful to all the heads of schools, teachers and students of three

I am grateful to Mr. Jayasimha for his statistical assistance, Smt. Radha

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1 -28

CHAPTER 1/: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 29 - 63

CHAPTER 1/1 : REVIEW OF RESEARCH LITERATURE 64 -111

Concept of Environmental Education (EE) 112

CHAPTER V: METHODOLOGY 162 - 200

Introd u ction 162

CHAPTER VI : ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA 201-323

I. Comparative Analysis of Attainments of Students in 201

7 Blue print of the distribution of M. C items based on the % weightage of 180

9 The weightage given to types of questions and objectives. 186

10 Three dimensional blueprint of the five unit tests. 187

63 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 237

It is recognized that there is an interface, a strong intertwining and subtle

Indian society today is in the thick of a dynamic web of modernization. A

Efficient and effective, content and context-specific, scientifically validated

Science in the Modern World

Science as a Component of Education

Many educators, thinkers, committees and commissions at different points of

Man is living In a world today, which is guided by science and technology.

A well-planned science education programme can be a fruitful effort in

Science is now a compulsory subject in every system of school education right

The constructive and conserving role of science in environmental management

Science for Agriculture: The important eco-technological steps in sustainable

Science for Wasteland Development: Science also helps in the development

Science and Bio-diversity : Another contribution of science towards increasing

Science-Environment-Industry : Science, by way of ecological modernization,

Eg.1. In manufacturing sector - recycling raw materials, substitution of

Science for Bio-remediation and Biodegradation: Scientific efforts are on the

Some other scientific measures which can directly or indirectly lead to

Remote Sensing : It is an indispensable tool for better monitoring and

Hydroponics: It is the commercial method of growing plants without using soil

In addition to these, environmental management through scientific methods can

Science Education for the 21 st Century

The increased use of electronic aids on a massive scale makes possible

Self-education needs to be cultured on a large scale so that new generation

Science education has become an international activity, growing out of national

Science Teaching Today: Science is basically concerned with the objective

Science teaching in Indian classroom contexts is in a very bad shape. Students

The present-day state of affairs in science education and science teaching in

I. Science teaching has been and is still oral in character. Demonstration

Focus on Teacher Education: The educational expansion, universalisation of

Practice-in-Teaching: The practice-in-teaching schools or model schools

I. Less duration of teaching practice with more number of lessons to be

Academic Background of Science Teachers: In a developing country like

Transacting the Curricula: The impact of teacher training programmes has

Preparation and Usage of Instructional Aids: Use of teaching aids or

Teacher Education Institutions- Organizational Defects: Teacher education

Admission Criteria: It is very disappointing to note that the entry behaviour

Teaching of Science, Teacher Education and Models of Teaching

Students of modern world need to understand and appreciate the dependence of

The amount and the direction of research on teaching styles demonstrate