A~

--
USEFUL INFORMATION

x2 •.,2 . xx1 YY1

-2 + "z = 1 IS - + - = 1.
-
(vii) 1
I

a b a2 b2
(iv) Condition. for the line y =mx +c to touch the ellipse x2 + Y: = 1 is c =✓(a 2 m 2 + ll)
a2 b
6. Hyperbola
yt
(i) Standard equation of the hyperbola is M
M
2 2
£_,L_l (Fig. 0.5)
2 2- ·
a b
Its parametric equations are Z' C z X

X = a sec e, y = b tan e.
Eccentricity e = ✓c1 + b2; a 2),
Latus-rectum LSL' = 2b 2I a. Fig. 0.5
Directrices ZM (x = ale) and Z'M' (x = - ale).
(ii) Equation of the tan.gent at the point (x 1, y 1) to the hyperbola

x2 y 2 . xx1 YY1
- --= 1 Is---= 1
a2 b2 a2 b2 .
(iii) Condition for the line y = mx + c to touch the hyperbola
2 2
-
XV.
- ,L_ = 1 IS c = ✓(a 22 2
m - b )
a2 b2
2 2
(iv) Asymptotes of the hyperbola £ - L = 1 are :£. + .z'.. = 0 and! - .z'.. = 0.
a2 b2 a b a b
(v) Equa.tion of the rectangular hyperbola with asymptotes as axes is xy = c2.
Its parametric equations are x: ct, y = cit.
7. Nature of a conic
The equation ax 2 + 2hxy +bl+ 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 represents
a h g
(i) a pair of lines, if h b f ( =~) =0
g f C
(ii) a circle, if a= b, h = 0, ~ :t 0
(iii) a parabola, if ab - h 2 = 0, ~ -:I:. 0.
(iv) an ellipse, if ab - h 2 > 0, ~ -:1:. 0.
. 2
(v) a hyperbola, if ab - h < 0, ~ -t:. 0,
and a rectangular hyperbola if in addition, a+ b = 0.
 ;;
, II
I

(Viii) HIGHER ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

8. Volumes & Surface areas

Cube (side a)
Cuboid (length l:
Solid Volume
a3
lbh
Curved swface area
4a 2
2(l+b)h
· Total surface area-
6a 2
2 (lb + bh + hl)
-----
breadth b, height h)
- --
Sphere (radius r)
--
.:! 7tr3 4nr2
3

Cylinder rcr2h 2rcrh 2m· (r + h)

(base radius r, height h)
Cone
(base radius r, height h)
.!. rcr 2h
3
rcrl nr (r + l) --
---
, where slant height l is given by l = ✓(r 2 + h2).

IV. TRIGONOMETRY
-
0 30 45 60 - 90 180 270 ---
360
1.
90 =
1/'✓
2 --13/2 1 0 -1 0
-
sine 0 1/2 -
1/'12 1/2 0 -1 0 1
cos e 1 .../3/2 -
{3 0 , I_ 00
0
tan 0 0 11--13 1 00

, 2. Signs & variations oft-ratios

/ l
cos 0 tan 0
Quadrant sin 0 --L----

+ +
I +
(1 to OJ (0 to oo}
(0 to 1)
- -
II +
(0 to - 1) (-oo to OJ
(1 to OJ
- - +
III
( 1 to OJ (0 to oo)
(0 to - lJ
- + -
N
(0 to 1J (-ooto0)
( 1 to OJ
3. Any t-ratio of (n • 90° ± 0) = ± same ratio of e, when n is even.
=.± co-ratio of e, when n is odd.
The sign + or -- is to be decided from the quadrant in which n · 90° ± e lies.
e.g. sin 570° =sin (6 x 90° + 30°) =- sin 30° = - .!.
2 ,·
tan 315° = tan (3 x 90° + 45°) =.- cot 45° =- 1

4. sin (A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B

cos (A± B) = cos A cos B +sin A sin B
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A = 2 tan Al(l + tan 2 A)
2
cos 2A = cos 2 A - sin 2 A= 1 - 2 sin 2 A = 2 cos 2 A - 1 = 1 - tan A
1 + tan 2 A
. B ) _ tan A ± tan B . t 2A _- 2 tan A
,5. t an (A + - _ B , an
- 1 + tan A tan 1 _ tan 2 A

7••. #<]::SQ ,CCA

• ll/\)
fQRMATION~-----------------------------
.,c::fLJL!N~
~ ·A. _ B = .! [sin (A + B) + sin (A - B)]
sin cos 2
6,
COS A SI•n B =.!2 [sin (A + B) - sin (A - B)]

A s B = .! [cos (A + B) + cos (A - B)]

O
COS C 2

sin A sin B =; [cos (A-B) - cos (A+ B)]

. C+D C-D
sin C + sin D = 2 sm 2 cos 2
7.
sin c _ sin D = 2 cos C+D . C-D
2 sm 2
C+D C-D
cos C + cos D = '2 cos 2 cos - 2
. C+D . C-D
cos C - cos D =- 2 sin ---2 sm 2

s. a sin x + b cos x =r sin (x + 0)

a cos x + b sin x =r cos (x - 0)
where a= r cos 8, b = r sin 0 so that r = ~(a 2 + b 2), 0 = tan- 1 (bla)
9. In any LiABC: (i) a/sin A= blsin B = c/sin C (Sine formula)
2 2 2
.. A b +c -a
(u) cos = 2bc (Cosine formula)
(iii) a = b cos C + c cos B (Projection formula)
1
(iu)Area of LiABC =~be sin A= ✓s (s -a) (s - b) (s - c) wheres= -- (a+ h + c).
2 -
10. Series
2 3
(L') E xponentia
. l series
. : ex = l + 11
x + 2!
x + 3!
x + ...... 00

(ii) Sin, cos, sinh, cash series

. x3 x5 2 ,4
X X
Sln X = X - 3! + S ! - ...... 00 , COS X =1- 2! + 4l - 00

. x3 x5 x2 x4
smh x =x + 3 ! + 5! + ...... oo, cosh x = 1 + 2! + 41 + .. ... . 00

(iii) Log series

log (1 _+ x) = x -
x2 x3
2 + 3 - ...... oo , log (1 - x) = -
( 2 3
x + x2 + x3 + ...... oo)I
(iv) Gregory series

tan
- 1
x =x - 3 x3
+5
·x 5
- ...... 00 , tanh
_1
x
1 +x
= -1 log ---- = x + x:i-- + />
- + .... ,,,,
1-x 3 !> 2
11. (i) Complex number z = x + iy = r (cos e + i sin 8) = r eio [see Fig. 0.11
(ii) Euler's theorem : cos O+ i sin e = i fl
(iii) Demoivre's theorem: (cos e + i sin 0)" = cos ne + i sin nO
(X) HIGHER ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

X -x X -X
e +e .
12. (i) Hyperbolic functions. (i) sinh x = c ~e cos h x = -2- - ;

sinh x cosh x 1 h 1
tunh x = - - · coth x = . · scch x = - - ; cosec x = - .- -
cosh x ' smh x' cosh x smh x
(ii) Relations between hyperbolic and circular functions:
sin ix= i sinh x; cosh x = cosh x; tan ix= i tanh x.
(iii) Inverse hyperbolic functions:

sinh- 1x = log [x + ✓x 2 + 1]; cosh- 1x = log [x + ✓(x 2 - I)]; tanh- 1 x = -21 Iog 1 +x_
l-x
V. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
1. Standard limits :
ft n •
(i') Lt X .- a = na n - 1, n any rat10na
. l num ber c·z.z') L t -
sm-
X = l
x➔a x-a x➔O X
(iii) Lt (1 + x) 11x = e (iv) Lt x 11:c = 1
x ➔ O x ➔ ~

ax - 1
(u) Lt - - = loge a
x➔O X

2. Differentiation
. d
(i) -
du du
(uv) = u - + u - 5±_ (UJ= v duldx - u dvldx
dx dx dx dx v u2
du - du 1-x
dx - dy . dx
(Chain Rule) ! (ax+ bt = n (ax+ bt - 1 · a
(ii) ! (ex) = ex
d
dx (ax) = ax loge a
d d 1
dx (loge x) = llx -(log x ) = - -
dx a x log a
(iii) ! (sin x) = cos x ! (cosx)=- sinx

! (tan x) = sec 2 x ! (cot x) == - cosec 2 x

d d
dx (sec x) = sec x tan x dx (cosec x) = - coscc x cot x

. d . -1
(w) 1 d 1 1
d (sm x) = 2 - (cos- x) = - - - -
x ✓(1 _ x ) dx ✓(1 _ x2)
d - 1 1 d 1 - 1
- (tan x) = - - - (coC x) = - -
dx 1 + x2 dx I + x2
-d( sec -1 x ) = - 1-- d 1 ) - 1
dx x ✓(x2 - l) dx (cosec·- . x = -✓-2--
X (x - })

(v) :!x (sinh x) = cash x ! {cosh x) = sinh x

d 2 d
dx (tanh x) = sech x dx (coth x) = - cosech2 x

(vi) D 11 (ax+ b)m = m(m - l)(m - 2) ...... (m - n + l)(ax + b)m -n . a 11

D 11 log (ax+ b) = (-it-I (n - 1)! an /(ax+ bt
USEFUL INFORMATION (XI)

D'l(em.t) = mne,nx Dn(a'nx) = mn(log a}'1 . amx

Dn [sin (ax,; b)] = a" (sin (ax+ b + n1t/2)]
cos cos "
vn eax [sin (bx+ c)] = (a 2 + b2t 12 eax rsin (bx+ c +~tan- l bla)]
cos II lcos " ,,

(vii) Leibnitz theorem: (uv)n =Un+ 11C1un - 1V1 + nc2un -2V2 + ...... + 11 c, Un -r v, + ...... + ncnvn
2 3
3. (i) Maclaurin's series. f(x) = f(O) + ~ f'(O) + £ f "(0) + £ f "'(0) +
1! 2! 3! .. .
2 3
(ii) Taylor's series: f(x +a)= f(a) + x, f '(a)+~ 1 f "(a)+;- f "'(a)+ ...
1. 2. 3.
4. Cu1·vature
(l + 2)3/ 2 (r2 + r21)3/2 d
(i) Radiu~ of curvature p = Yi , p= 2 2 ; p = r_!_.
Y2 r + 2r 1 - rr2 dp

.. - yi(l + Yi) - 1 2
(u) Centre of curvature : x =x - - - - , y = y +- (1 + Y1)-
Y2 Y2
(iii) Evolute is_the locus of the centre of curvature of a curve. The curve is called the involute
of the evolute.
(iv) Envelope of a curve f(x , y , a) = 0 is the 'a' eliminant from

f (x , y , a)= 0 and~ (x , y, a)= 0.

The envelope of the normals to a curve is its evolute.
5. Asymptotes
(i)Asymptotes parallel to x-axis are obtained by equating to zero the coefficient of the highest
power of x in the equation, provided this is not merely a constant.
Asymptotes parallel to y -axis are obtained by equating to zero the coefficient of highest power
of yin the equation, provided this is not merely a constant.
(ii) Oblique asymptotes are obtained as follows:
Put x = 1, y = m in the highest degrees terms getting q>n(m)
Put <l>n(m) = 0 & find the values of m .
Find c from c = - 4>n. _ 1(m)l$n'(m)
If two values of m are equal, ~hen find c from
2 .
~ 4>"n(m)+c4>'n - I(m)+4>n - 2(m) = 0
The asymptotes is y = mx + c. _
(iii) Asymptotes of polar curve 1/r = {(0) is r sin (0 - a) = 1/f(a) where a is a root off (0) =0.
6. {i) A curve is symmetrical about x-axis ; if only even powers of y occur in its equation .
(ii) A curve is symmetrical about y-axis, if only even powers of x occur in its equation.
, (iii) A curve is symmetrical about the line y = x, if on interchanging x and y, its equation
remains unchanged.
(iv) A curve passes through the origin, if there is no constant term in its equation.
(v) Tangents to curve at the origin are found by equating to zero the lowest degree terms.
7. Partial Differentiation ·
(i) Euler's theorem. If u is a homogeneous function in x and y of degree n, then
 (Xii) HIGHER ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

au
a- + y -au. = nu , a2
2_!£ 2x d U
2 2
2 d U
X
X i)y ' X ax2 + :y dx i)y + y i)y2 = n(n - 1) u
i
.f!.
)
(ii) Chain rule: du
dt = au
ax dt + dy ~
dx au
dt' if U. . -_f (x , y), X
,
= <j>(t)J' = \jilt).
'·
... )dx
( Ul ~
=- ~/~
OX i)_y' if cj> (X, y) =C
(iu) Jacobian J ( u, v
X, y
)= aa (u, =IouliJx
dvli)y av1ax
u)
(x, y)
duley I
If J = o (u, v)lo (x, y) & J' = cJ (x, y)lcJ (u, v), then JJ' = 1
a (u, v) - a (u, v) a (r, s) -
c1(x,y)-d(r,s) · d(x,y)

+h, b +k) =f(a ' b) +(h }_+kl__ 2! (h 1-+k

ax ay )r+..!.
2
(v) Taylor's series: f(a ay Jt+ .. ·· .. ·
ax l__
(Vl.) Miaxima
. "A,,.. . • )~ a/!
J.Y.1.lnzma la a = 0 ~ = 0
-
X ' dy

aa r2 -;Pr2 > ax·;Pra ; a r2 < 0 for maximum~>

a2 O for minimum.
2 2
(b)
X oy ~ ax dX
VI. INTEGRAL CALCULUS
1. Integration

(i) f xn dx = n+. 1 xn+ 1

(n -::t= - 1)
J.!_X dx = loge x
f dx = ex ex
Jaxdx =ax/loge a
(ii)
\

Jsin x dx = - cos x Jcos x dx = sin x

Jtan x dx == - log cos x Jcot x dx = log sin x
f sec x dx = log (sec x + tan x)
Jcosec x dx =_log (cosec x - cot x)

J sec 2 x dx = tanx
J x dx = - cot x
cosec 2

··· f a dx+x = -aItan-ix-a

(uz) 2 2
f ✓(a2dx = sin
-x2)
. -1x
a

f ✓(a2dx+ = sin. h- x 1
I a dx- x2 -- _!_ lo ~
2a g a -x
2
xz) a

f dx-a - _!_ logx+aa x. - J✓(x2dx-a2)

----=COS
_
h - 1x
-
a
2 2-2a
X

x ✓(a 2 - x 2l a2 . - 1 x
(iv) J✓(a2 x ... ) dx == 2
-
9
+ 2 sm a

J✓(a2 +x2) dx == x✓(a22+x2l + 2a2 sin. h :_ 1 ax

.. -.- '71,__.-,...- ' ....... I 11'-or"-wP'll!f"'

--·, .:\
USEFUL INFORMATION (Xiii~

I ✓cx2 - a2) di= X ✓(~2 -

2
a2) - a2
2
cosh-1 ~
a

(v) feax sin bx dx = 2eax 2 (a sin bx - b cos bx)

a +b

Jeax cos bx dx = 2eax 2 (a cos bx+ b sin bx)

a +b
(vi) Jsinh x dx = cash x Jcosh x dx = sinh x
f tanh x dx = log cash x fcoth dx = log sinh x
x

Jsech x dx = tanh x
2
f cosech x dx coth x 2 =-

(uii) J: sin" dx =f cos"

12
x 1!1
O
2
x dx =(n - l)(n - S)(n - S) ...... x (~, only if is even)
n(n-2)(n-4) ...... 2
n

JO
n:/2
• m X cosn x d x = (m - l)(m - 3) ...... x (n - l)(n - 3) ......
sm
(m + n)(m + n - 2)(m +n - 4) ......

x ( ~, only if both m and n are even J

(viii) f: f(x) dx = J: {(a -x) dx
f_aa f (x) dx = 2 La f (x) dx , if f (x) is an even function
=0 , if f (x) is an odd function.

J02a f (x) dx = 2 fa.

0 f (x) dx , 1f f (2a - x) = f (x)

=0 , if f (2a - x) =- f (x) .
2. Multiple integrals

(i)Area = [ '
Xi
f'
Yi
dxdy ; Volume = ['
Xi
I'
Yi
z dxdyor ['
Xi
f' r
Yi 2i
dxdydz

..
(u) C.G. of a plane lamina: x
. _=ffffx p dx dy , _ =ffffy p dx dy y
p dx dy p dx dy

. . _ff J Jff y p dx dy dz _ ff Jz~ dx dy dz

xp dx dy dz _
CG. of a solid x = JJ J p dx dy dz' y = ff Jp dx dy dz , z = JJ J p dx ;y-~

ffpx dx dy ffpy dx dy
(iii) Centre ofpressure X= JJ ji = A _
p dx dy ' ff p dx dy
A A
,.
1(XiV)
HIGHER ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS
1
1

lI (iv) Jj J p
M.I. '.lbout x-axis i.e. Ix =
V
(y 2 + 2 2) ~xdydz

M.I. about y-axis i.e. ly = JJj p

I

(z 2 + x2 )dxdydz
V

M.I. a.bout z-axis i.e. [2 = J JJ p (x 2 +y 2) dx dy dz

V

3. Ga.mma function rn = J"° e-x xn- l dx = (n ~ l) ! , f(n + 1) =n f(n) =n!, f(l/2) =✓7t
0

Beta function ~ (m, n) = f

o
xm - 1 (l _ xt - 1 dx = fm fn
f(m+n)
VII. VECTORS
1. (i) If R = xi + yJ + zK then r = IR I = ✓cx 2 + y2 + z2)
(ii) PQ = Position vector of Q-Position vector of P.
2. If A= a1 I+ a 2 J + a 3 K, B = b 1 I+ b2 J + b3 K, then
(i) Scalar product: A · B =ab cos0 =a 1 b 1 + a 2 b2 +a3 b3
A
(ii) Vector product: Ax B =ab sin0 N = Area of the parallelogram having A + B as sides
I J K
= a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
(iii) B A .L if A · B =0 and A is parallel to B if Ax B =0
a1 a2 a3
3. (i) Scalar triple product [ABC]= b1 b2 b~1 = Volume of parallelopiped
Cl C2 C3

(ii) If [ABC]= 0, then A, B, Care coplanar.

(iii) Vector triple product Ax (B x C) = (A · C) B - (A · B) C
(Ax B) x C = (C · A) B - (C · B) A

4. (i) grad f = Vf =ELI+ EL J + ~ K

dX dJ dZ
a1i a12 ara
div F =VF= ax + d.Y + ·'dz
I J K
a a a
curl F = V x F = ax ct)' oz where F = f 1I + f2 J + fa K
f1 f2 (3
(ii) If div F = 0, then Fis called a solenoidal vector
(iii) If curl F = 0 then F is called an irrotational vector
5. Velocity = dRI dt ; Acceleration =d 2R/ dt 2 ; Tangent vector =dRI dt ; Normal vector == V$
c
6. Green's theorem,f (,pd,: + wdy) = ffc{ ~-f )dxdy
 Stoke's theorem: JC F • d R = JS curl F · N ds
Gauss divergence theorem: J F · N ds =J div F du
S V

7. Coordinate systems
Polar coordinates Cylindrical coordinates Spherical polar
(r, 8) (P, <I>, z) coordinates (r,. 0 1~ --
Coordinate X =r COS 9 X = p COS (j> x = r sin 0 cos q>
transformations y = r sin 0 y = p sin <I> y = r sin 9 sin <I>
z=z z = r cos 0 ·- -
Jacobian cJ(x,y) d(x, y, z) d(x,y,z) 2 . 9
d(r, 0)
=r
. a(p, <j>, z)
=p
d(r, 0, <l>)
= r sin
(Arc-length/ (ds) 2 = (dr) 2 + r 2(d0) 2 (ds)2 = (dp)2 + p2 (d<!>)2 (ds) 2 = (dr) 2 + r 2(d0) 2
dxdy =rd0dr +i(dz)2 + (r sin 0) 2 (d<1>)2
Volume-element dV = p dp drp dz dV = r 2 sin 0 dr de drp
VIII. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
1. Equations of first order
(i) Variables separable: f (y) dy = <!>(x) dx, ff(y) dy = f <l>(x)dx + c.
(ii) Homogeneous equation ~~ = f(x, y)l<j>(x, y) where f(x , y) & <!>(x, y) are of the same degree.
Puty = vx so that dyldx = v +xdvldx.
.. ") Equatwns
(iu . re d uci"bl e to h omogeneous 1r.orm : -d· , + b'by + c ,
dy = ax
x ax+ y+c
When ala'"# bib', put x =X + h , y =Y + k
When ala'= bib', put ax+ by= t .

(iv) Leibnitz's linear equation : ~+Py= Q where P, Q are functions of x.

f
· l.F. = e Pdx, then solution is y (l.F) = f Q (l.F.) dx + c.
(v) Bernoulli's equation. dyldx +Py= Qyn , reducible to Leibnitz's equation by writing it as
y-n !~ +Py 1 - n = Q and putting y 1 -n =z.
(vi) Exact equation : M (x, y) dx + N (x, y) dy = 0
Solution is J
(y cons.)
f
M dx + (terms o_f N not containing x) dy = c, provided i)M /,)y = iJN lrlx.
(vii) Claira.ut's equation : y =px + j(P) where p =dyldx.
. Solution is obtained on replacing p by c.
2. Linear equations with constant coefficients .
d 11 d" - l d
~+k1 n-{+ ... .. +kn-l~d +k,,y=X
dx dx x
Symbolic form: (Dn + k 1 Dn - l + .... +kn_ 1D + k 11 )y =X.
 (XVI) HIGHER ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS
l
I
I. To find C.F.
l --
-- ---- --
C.F.
l Roots of A.E.
- - - --
(i) mi, m2, m3, .. .. c1em1x + c2emr + c3emax + ... .
(ii) m 1, m1, m3 , ..... . (c1 + c2x) emix + c3emr + ... .
(iii) a + i~, a - iP, m.3, .••• e<xx (c1 cosPx + c2 sin Px) + c:°:Jem:fc + ....
(iv) a± ip, a± iP, m.5, .... eax [(c1 + c2x) cos Px + (c3 + c4x) sin Px] + c5em 5x + .. ..

II. To find P .I.

. X = eax , p ..
(l}
1 eax , pu t D = a,
I = f(D) f[(a) ':I: 0

=x f, 1(D) eax , put D = a, f[(a) = 0 , f '(a)* 0

2 1 ax D ff '(a)= 0, f "(a)* 0
=x f"(D) e , put =a,
(ii) X = sin (ax+ b) or cos (ax+ b)
P.I. =----¾-
<!>(D )
sin (ax+ b) [or cos (ax+ b)], put D 2 =- a 2, 2
[<!>(- a ) ;t: 0]

=x 1 sin (ax+ b) [or (cos ax+ b)], put D 2 =- a 2,

2
q>'(D )

=x 2 1 ,, sin (ax+ b) [or cos (ax+ b)], put D 2 = - a 2,

q>" (D-)

Uiil X = x 111 , P .I. = +-DI xm = f[(D)r 1 xm . Expend f[(D)r 1 in ascending powers of Das for as
I( ) -
D I/ &• operate on x I ll .
. X axv p I 1 ax V ax 1 · V
(IV) =e ' . . = f(D) e =e f (D + a) .
III. Complet.e solution: C.S. is y = C.F . + P .I.
3 2
3. Homogeneous linear equation : x 3 _d ~ + k 1x 2 d ~ + k 2x ~dd + k3Y = X
dx dx x
reduces to linear equation with constant coefficients by putting
9 3
. _ ,t . ~ _ , .2 d-y 3~
.\ - ( . .\ d . - D.) , x 2 =D (D - 1)y , x =D (D - 1) (D - 2) y
.\ dx dx 3
4. Lagrange's Linear partial differential equation
Pp + Qq = R , P , Q, R being functions of x , y , z .
To solve it (i) form the subsidiary equations ~ = 7S = c;
(ii ! solve these equations giving u = a, v = b.
(;;i) Complete solution is <I> (u , v) = O or u = f(v).
5. Homogeneous linear equations with constant coefficients
iJ11z cl'z an
- ··--;; + fl 1 ,, - 1 + .. .. + !i n ~ = F (x y)
dx iJx uy c)y 11 '

Symbolic form : (D" + h1D 11 - l D' + .. .. .. + k,, n'") Z = F(x , .Y)

 USEFUL ¾NFORMATION cxvit)
I. To find C.F.
Roots ofA.E. C.F.
(i) m 1, m2i m3, ... . /1 (y + m1x) + /2 (y + m2x) + {3 (y + m3x) + ....
(ii) m1, m1, m3, ... . fi (y + m 1x) +x/2 (y + m1x) + /3 (y + m3x) + ····
(iii) m 1, m1, m1, ... .
t1 (y + m 1x) + x/2 (y + m1x) + x 2{3 (y + m3x) + ····
II. To find P.I.
( ')F(
i
)=eax+by, ·Pl=
x,y ..,_
I
. ·. f(D,D')
eax+by,_putD=a ' D'=b .
(ii) F (x, y) = sin (mi-+ny) or cos (mx + ny)
1
f (D 2, DD,-.,.D,2) sin or cos (mx + ny), put D = - m , DD' = - mn, D = - n
-p.1. = 2 2 2 2

(iii) F (x, y) -;'xmyn, P.1. = "flr:p, D')r l xmyn. Expand ff (D, D')r l and operate on xmyn.
(iv) F (x , y) is any function of x &y, P.I. = f (D~ D') ' F (x, y) .

-' Resolve 1/f(D, D') into partial fractions considering f (D, D') as a function of D alone and
/ ~perate each pertial fraction on F (x, y).
III. Com.p lete solution : C.S. is y = C.F. + P.1.
IX. FOURIER SERIES
~ ~ ao + a 1 cos x + a2 cos 2x + ..... + b1 sin x + b2 sin 2x + .... in (0 2rr),
I. ftx)

I f2rc l J2rc l J2n

. where ao =- 0 f(x) dx , an = - 0 f(x) cos nxdx, bn = - f(x) sin nx dx
7t 7t 7t0
00 00
1
2. f(x) = 2 ao + L, an cos nx + L, bn cos nx in any interval (0, 2c),
n=l n =l

where ao = -
I J2c0 f(x) dx , a 11
l
=-
f2c f(x) cos ~ dx b = l.
Jc f(x) sin ~ dx
C CO C ' ncO C

3. For even function f(x), Fourier expansion contains only cosine terms.

i.e. ao = 2
C
J f(x) -dx, an ~ ~
0'
CO
r ftx) cos !'!E". dx b
C • n
~ o·
For odd functi.on f(x), Fourier expansion contains only sine t~rms.
i.e. ao = 0, an~ 0, bn = ¾ f(x) sin n;x dx. J:
X. TRANSFORMS
I. Lapiace Transforms. L (f (t) = o- e- ,, f(t) dt f
(i) L (I)= 1.
s
(iii) L (eat) = -L
(iv) L (sin at)::::~ (v) L (cos at)::::-.!__ s-a
s2+a2 - -
s2+a2 (vi) L (sinh at):::: a
8 2 _ (12
 (xviii) HIGHER ENGINEER/NG MATHEMAT

,.
(vii) L (cosh at)= 5
(viii) L eat f(t) = F (s - a) (ix) L f '(t) = sL f(t) - f(O
s -a 2
2

r
i.
b
dn
(x) L [t 12 f(t)] = (-
.
1/1 - . [F(s)J
dsn
(xi) L[ : f(t)] = F(s) ds__ _

(xu.. ,)· u (t _ a ) = { 0 when t <a - ...___ e-as

1 h w en t > a
(xiii) L [u(t - a)J = - 8- (xiv) L8 (t - a)'= e-as

f~ e- st f(t) dt
(xv) L f(t) = 1 -e -sT where f(t) is ·aperhrdic function of period T.
/
2. Inverse Laplase Transforms
(i) L - 1 ·(-s1 J. =1 (ii) L- 1 1J tn - 1 ,(,~ -)-L -
lll
1( 1
--
J=e at
Sn = (n - 1) ! s-a

(iv) L- 1 1
s2
+a 2
= 1. sin at
a
(u) L - 1
2 s 2
s +a
)= cos at
(ui)L- 1 1 =.!sinhat (vii)L - 1 ( 2 ~ 2 ]=cosbat.
s 2 - a2 a s -a

(viii)L- 1 [ 2
(s + a )
8
22 '= 1
2 tsinat
a
(ix)L - 1 [ ~
2
-~\]=tcosat.
(s + a )

3. Fourier Transforms : F(s) = J_O<,"" f(t) eist . dt.

Fourier sine transform: Fs(s) ={'" f(t) sin st dt

Fourier cosine transform : Fc(s) = 0"" f(t) cos st dt J

F[ :~ )=-s2 F(u).
1,. Z-Transforms: Z (un) = L Un Z
-n
n =O
(i) Z (1) = _z_ . 2
z-1 (ii) Z(n) = z 2 .. ') Z( n 2>
(lll z +z
(z - 1)
= 3
2-_
(z - l)
(iv) Z (an) = -
z-a (u) Z (nan)= az
(z - a) 2
(vi) Z (sin n8) = 2 z sin 8
(vii) Z (cos n8) = z (z - cos 8)
z - 2z cos e+ 1 2z cos 0 + 1 z2 -
(viii) Z (sinh n8) = 2 z sinh 8
(ix) Z (cosh n8) = z (z - cash 8)
. z - 2z cosh e + I
z 2 - 2z cash e + 1

XI. STATISTICS & PROBABILITY

a= ✓ 'f. ft (xi -x)2

I, /,_·x ·
1. A.M. x = _ l _ l 2. S.D.
If;
Ift
USEFUL INFORMA1\0N (XiXJ

2 r, fi (xi - x)'
3. Moments about the mean: µo =1, µl =0, µ2 =cr , µr = r, fi
4. Coeff of skewness = (mean-mode)/cr which lies between - 1 and 1.
5. Kurtosis : ~2 = µ4/µl
. ,, . _-___ .
6. Coeff. of correlation r == ✓l f
. n I. dx dy -
2 2 f
(
"i, dx "i, dy
2 2( j ,. _ l ~ r < l
l n ldx - (ldx) I \ nldy - (uly) l

7. Line of regression of y on x : y - y == r ~ (x - x)
Ox

. of regression
Lme . of x on y : x - x= -rax (y - y)
cry

8 . P ro b ab1'l't 'A) No. of ways favourable

1 Y-P1.: . to A , p + q = 1 .
_- , _-------~otal no. of equally likely ways
(i) p (A or B) = p (A) + p(B), (ii) p(A & B) = p(A). p(B)
9. Binomial distribution : p (r) = ncr l qn - r
Mean = np, Variance (cr2) = npq
r
, 10. Poisson distribution : p(r) = ml e- m
r.
Mean = m , Var,iance (a2) == m .
2
11. N ormal d 1str1 ' fi(x) =-=-:-rn=
. 'bubon l e- i!.::.&
2
S d d
cr~zn
.
2°2 , tan ar variate =~
a
(i) Probable error "A.= 0.67 45 cr.
(ii) 68% of values lie between x =µ - a & x =µ + cr.
95% of values liebetween x = µ - 1.96 cr & x = µ + 1.96 a
99% of values liebetween x = µ - 2.58 cr & x = µ ❖ 2.58 a

XII. NUMERICAL METHODS

1. Solution of equations

(i) Bisection method : Xn = ½(xn _ 1 + Xn _ 2)

- ( '' )M
u et hdfFl ·· : x2 ='xo - ;, xi - xo
o o a se position r,
+i
1 (x 0).
, (x1) - , (xo)
... )N
( iii ewton- Rap hson met hod : Xn + 1 = Xn - --
f<xn)
f ' (xn)
(iv) Iterative formula to find 11 N is Xn + 1 = xn (2 - Nxn)

(v) Iterative formula to find Wis Xn + 1 = ½(xn + N lxn)

2. ~inite differences 6.yr =Yr+ 1 -yr; Vyr = Yr - Yr _ 1 ; oyn _ 112 = Yn -Yn -1

(i) Factorial lxf =x (x -1) (x - 2) .... (x - r + 1)
(ii) 11 = E - 1, V = 1- g- 1, 8 = E 112 _ E- 112 , E = iD
 HIGHER ENGINEERIN~ MA1HEMA11CS

3. Newton's forward interpolation formula:

p (p - 1) 2 p (p - 1) (p - 2) 3
Yp=Yo+P Ayo+ 2! A Yo+ 3! _ Ayo+ ....
Newton's backward interpolation formula :
_ p (p + 1) 2 p (p + 1) (p + 2) v3 +
Yp-Yn+P Vyn+ 2! V Yn+ 3! _ Yn ....

4. f ,(a) = 1( 1 2 1 3 1 4
h \ Af(a) - 2 A f(a) + 3 A f(a) - 4 A f(a) + ...
)

f" (a)= ~i l 1:,.2 f(a)- t,.3 f(a) + ~; t:,_4 f(a) - ... . )

f xo +nh h ~
5. Trapezoidalrule : Jxo f(x) dx = 2 l<Yo + Yn) + 2 <Y1 + Y2 + .. ~_. + Yn - 1)]

Simpson's rule:
rZo + nh h -- -
J f(x) dx = - l<Yo + Yn) + 4 <Y1 + Y3 + ••· + Yn - 1) + 2 <Y2 +_y4 + .. ... + Yn - 2)]
Xo 3

I'
I
,,