Design of Flexible Pavements

16*1. Classification of Methods

Methods available for the design of flexible pavements can be grouped as under :
1. Theoretical methods
2. Empirical methods using no soil strength tests
3. Empirical methods using soil strength tests.
16*2. Theoretical Methods

16"2'1. A pavement structure is not so easily amenable to accurate structure analysis because the materials forming the flexible
pavement layers and the soils supporting the pavement are not materials exhibiting uniform properties. While the performance of
bituminous mixtures is now becoming more and more amenable scientific analysis, the properties of granular bases, stabilised
courses and soil subgrades are still areas of darkness. Thus, a completely satisfactory method of design wholly based on
theoretical consideration has not yet emerged. But modern computers can analyse complicated stress theories quickly and hence
theoretical analysis is likely to be used more commonly in future than hitherto.
The theoretical approach is also known as the "analytical" of "rational" or "structural design" approach.

16'2'2. Stresses in homogeneous mass: Boussinesq's Theory

If the subgrade, sub-base, and surfacing layers in a pavement are assumed to form a homogeneous mass, the analysis of the
stresses can be greatly simplified. In 1885, Boussinesq analysed the distribution of stresses in an ideal elastic, homogeneous and
isotropic solid obeying Hookes' law and presented equations for horizontal and vertical stresses in such a material under a load.
The vertical stress under a load at any horizontal section decreases from the maximum at the point located directly beneath the
load to zero at a very large distance from this point. The pressure distribution is bulb-shaped as in Fig. 16*1.

Fig. 16-1. Pressure distribution bulb. The vertical stresses at any point below the surface due to a uniformly distributed load on
a circular area, the point being located on the vertical axis passing through the centre of the circle, is given by (Fig. 16-2) : 6

The radial (horizontal) stress is given by

Fig. 16-2. Stresses below a circular loaded plate.

In the above formula:
<Tz=vertical stress on a point on the z axis Oa;=a»=radial or horizontal stress p=apphed pressure per unit area o=radius cf circular
loaded plate z=depth
/z=Poisson's ratio.
The Poisson's ratio, p is the ratio of the strain normal [to the applied stress to the strain parallel to the applied stress. For soils it is
generally around 0.5.
The Modulus of Elasticity E, of soil is the ratio of unit stress to the unit strain in the region of elastic behavior.
The vertical displacement at the surface (z=0) under the centre of the applied load is given by:

This equation is applicable for a flexible plate.

For a rigid plate,

Equation 16*4 can be used for design of a *pavement by limiting the value of A, the deformation of the pavement, to a desired
value. "
Problem 161. Calculate the deflection at the surface of a pavement due to a wheel load of 40 kN and a tyre pressure of 0'5
MN/m2. The value of E of the pavement and subgrade may be assumed to be uniformly equal to 20 MN/m2.

Solution. Radius of contact area a, is given by:

The drawbacks in the simple Boussinesq's approach are:

(i) The assumption that soil is perfectly elastic and homogeneous is not true. Soil may be elastic only upto a certain limit.
(ii) The pavement consists of a number of layers, each with its own modulus of elasticity. Hence the assumption of one constant
property for the entire mass is not justified.
( i i i ) The assumption that the load is uniformly distributed may not be correct.
In spite of the drawbacks, application Boussinesq's theory was the first attempt in analytical solution to pavement design.

16 2'3. Stresses in layered systems: Burmister's theory

Further refinements in analysing the stress in pavements took the form of conceiving the pavement as a layered system.
Burmister proposed an analysis of a two-layer system, the top layer of finite thickness and the bottom layer of semi-infinite mass
(Fig. 163). The top layer represents the surfacing, base and sub-base whereas the bottom layer represents the subgrade soil. The
following equation gives the deflection at the surface:

In the above equations,

A = deflection at the surface p=load intensity on the circular plate a=radius of plate E2=Modulus of Elasticity of the lower layer
F„=Displacement factor. The displacement factor, F„, can be obtained from graphs presented by Burmister, Fig. 16'4 (Réf. 1).
Burmister suggested that the displacement under the wheel load can be limited to 5.0 mm for flexible pavements.
Fig. 1 6 3 . Burmister's two-layer system.

Problem 16 2. Design the thickness of a flexible pavement by Burmister's two layer analyses, for a wheel load of 40 JcN and a
tyre pressure of 0.5 MN/m2. The Modulus of Elasticity of the pavement material is 150 MN/m2 and that of the subgrade is 30
MN/m*. I The value of Fv, the displacement factor can be taken from Fig."?16'4.

Solution. Radius of circular area, o, is given by

Allowable settlement is 0'5 cm. Hence design is safe. A slight reduction in thickness can be attempted by performing calculations
on similar lines.

Problem 16*3. Plate bearing tests were conducted with a 75 cm dia plate on soil subgrade and a granular base. The stress
noticed when the deflection was 0'25 cm on thé subgrade soil was 0'07 MN/m2. On the base course, the same plate yielded 0 25
cm deflection under a stress of 0'lé MNjrr?. Design the pavement for a allowable deflection of 0'5 cm, under a wheel load of 40
kN and a tyre pressure of 0.6 MN/m2.

Solution. Since the plate bearing test results are given, the values of the Modulus of Elasticity, E, can be calculated individually
for the subgrade and the base.

For the sub grade,

16'2'4. Three-layered analysis
With quick computational facilities now available, the analysis of three or more layers is no more a difficult task. The three-layer
system can be conceived as follows :
1. Top layer, representing all the bituminous layers taken together.
2. Second layer, representing the unbound road-base and sub-base.
3. Third layer, representing the sub-grade.
The system is shown in Fig. 16'5. Jones (Ref. 2) and Peattie (Ref. 3) have analysed the stresses and strains in the system and have
presented them in the form of Tables. Table 16T will facilitate design for some values which are commonly met with.

Fig. 16"5. Three layered system.

The materials in the three layers arc assumed to be elastic and their mechanical property is characterised by the Modulus of
Elasticity, E. In simpler treatments, the loading is assumed to be : uniformly distributed over a circular contact area. The more
commonly evaluated quantities are: " .*

(i) The vertical compressive strains and stresses reaching the top of the lasers representing the subgrade and unbound layers.
(ii) The horizontal and vertical stresses at the bottom of the unbound granular layer.
(iii) The horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the bituminous bound layer.
(iv) Surface deflection.

The following non-dimensional parameters are used in the analysis of the system:
For design of pavements, values of E are needed. They can be determined from laboratory tests. A rough formula used for
determining E is:
E=\Q CBR (MN/m2).--(16*8)
The pavement analysis procedure consists of the following steps:

1. Determine the wheel load and contact pressure.

2. Select a pavement with a top bituminous layer of thickness Aj and a bottom layer of granular base of thickness
3. Evaluate the Modulus of Elasticity of all the three layers.
4. Calculate the vertical and horizontal stresses and strains at the two interfaces from standard tables.
5. Compare the stress and strains with allowable values for the materials selected.
9. Make adjustments if necessary.
An example of the use of the technique is given in Problem 16-4.

Problem 16'4. A three-layer pavement structure consists of 300 mm of bituminous layer on 150 mm of crushed stone road-base.
The subgrade has a CBR of 5. A single wheel load with a tyre pressure of 0'5 MN/m 2 is applied over a circular contact area of
120 mm radius. Calculate the vertical and horizontal stresses and strains on both sides of each interface.

Solution.
a= 1 2 0 mm A1=300mm A2= 1 5 0 mm a =1^-0-8 H — 2
K _ 2000__ 100
P=Contact stress=0.5 MN/ma.

From Table 16"1, the values of the stress and strain factors can be read off and when multiplied by the actual stress (0'5 MN/ ^
ma), these yield the stress. The strains can be obtained by multiplying the strains factors by ~ for vertical strain and ~ for
horizontal strain.
STRESSES
A. Vertical Stresses
First layer, o21=0 0 3 41 2x 0 5= 0-01706 MN/m8
(Compressive)
Second layer oz2=002023X0-5= 0 0 1 0 1 1 5 MN/ma
(Compressive)
B. Horizontal Stresses
Horizontal stress at top of first interface ffn-CTn=0- 6 8 3 8 2 x O -5
On=<Tfi-0 6 8 3 8 2 x 0 -5 =0 5 (0 03 4 1 2 -0 68382) = - 0 6 4 97 0x 0 -5 =-0-3 2485 MN/ma (Tensile)
Horizontal stress at bottom of first interface «n-Of»=(0 0 3 4 1 9 )X0-5
af8=c2j-0' 0 3 4 1 9x 0 -5
= 0 0 3 4 1 2x O -5- 0 0 3 4 19 X O -5
= -000C07x05
= -0-000035 MN/m* (Tensile)
Horizontal stress at top of second interface °*a-<*r»'=(0 03093) X 0-5
A a'r s=- (0 03093 - 0 02023) X 0'5
= -001u70x0-5 = -0 00535 MN/m1 (Tensile)
Horizontal stress as bottom of second interface alt-ar3=0-0\547X0-5
a„=-(001547-0-02023)XO-5 = +000476x0-5 =0-00238 MN/m2 (Compressive)
C. Strains
First Interface
Vertical strain in first layer
1
(\
" 25ÔÔ X 0-68382X0-5 =0000170955 (Compressive) Vertical strain in second layer
1 t \
=
OT '
x0 03419x0
"5
=0000171 (Compressive) Radial strain in first layer
= —2^-(«u—«fi)x0'5
■

= -ldôôô ( °- 68382)X °' 5 . = -0 0000855 (Tensile) Radial strain in second layer,

= — "^"(a*!—ffrj)
= " 2^100 X0-03419X0-5 =-0*000855 (Tensile).
Û. Strains at Second Interface
^Vertical strain in second layer
1 t > \
=1M x 0 0 3 0 9 3
The pavement design problem
6.3.1 Defining the problem
A road pavement consists of a number of layers, with subgrade at the bottom, and, in the case of a flexible pavement, includes
sub-base, base and surfacing on top (see Fig. 6.24). A concrete or rigid pavement will normally consist of a concrete slab laid on
a sub-base or base which rests on subgrade (see Fig. 6.24 also). Pavement design aims at providing a pavement structure that will
serve traffic safely, conveniently and economically during the design life of that pavement.

When distress features appear on the road surface they lead to discomfort as well as higher vehicle operating costs. Thus, the
objective of the pavement designer should be to reduce the possibility of these distress features appearing. The designer will
therefore need to understand the functions of the various layers of the road pavements so that his completed design will minimise
the likelihood of this happening.

Example of Section through a Flexible Pavement Structure

Example of Section through a Concrete (Rigid) Pavement

Fig. 6.24 Flexible pavement and concrete (rigid) pavement structures

The strength of a flexible pavement is derived from the composite effect of the various layers of the pavement. These layers are
thus arranged in such a way that layer strength increases from the subgrade upwards, with the strongest material being placed on
the surface.

The main function of the surfacing layer is to provide a running surface capable of carrying wheel loads without undue
discomfort to motorists. It also protects the underlying layers from adverse environmental effects and is expected to provide the
necessary skid resistance for ensuring road safety characteristics when braking becomes necessary.

The road-base is the main load-carrying structural component in a flexible pavement. It should be designed to resist and distribute
stresses induced by vehicles to the underlying layers.

The inclusion of the sub-base in a pavement structure normally depends on the bearing strength of the subgrade. Its role is to help
in distributing induced stresses onto the subgrade, in addition to protecting the base layer from adverse soil _ conditions that may
prevail in the subgrade.

The subgrade represents the natural or improved ground on which the pavement structure is constructed. The design of the
pavement structure should minimise the possibility of the sub-grade undergoing excessive deformation.

In the case of concrete roads the concrete slab is the main load-carrying element, acting as a beam. Because concrete slabs have a
relatively high modulus of elasticity, small depressions in the subgrade are easily bridged over but when these depressions are
large the concrete slab may crack.

Various environmental factors must be considered in pavement design. The loading due to traffic is considered in terms of the
magnitude and repetitions of traffic loads. Thus, a pavement with an apparently good surface when the road was first opened to
traffic could deteriorate under ' repeated traffic loadings if the design neglected such repeated wheel loads or if maintenance has
not been properly carried out.

To allow for comparison of the relative damaging effect of various axle loads, a standard axle of 8.2 t was adopted following the
AASHO Road Test conducted between 1959 and 1960 in the USA. Other axle loads can be converted to equivalent standard
axles using the following approximate equation:
Thus, one passage of axle load L is equivalent to (L/8.2)" passages of the standard axle.

Surface drainage is another important environmental feature which the designer must incorporate in the design. Many road
pavements are known to have deteriorated because of flooding which normally results from inadequate drainage. Subsurface
drainage also forms part of design and normally requires that the sub-base layer of the pavement is free-draining to take into
account, for example, the rise in level of the water table.

If the design is to take account of drainage, it is necessary for the designer to understand the rainfall pattern and the catchment
area involved.

Temperature is another environmental factor important in design, especially for road materials whose strength is affected
significantly by changes in temperature. In the case of flexible pavements, the performance of the bituminous layers will be a
function of the pavement temperature, as strength properties such as stiffness will decrease with increase in temperature. In the
case of concrete pavements, a decrease in temperature can lead to tensile stresses developing in the concrete slab. Differential
stresses can also develop as a result of temperature gradients.

Objectives of pavement design

Pavement design is aimed at achieving a pavement structure which is economical and comfortable to the motorist; and which
minimises development of pavement distress features such as rutting, cracking, pot-holes, raveling, fretting, crazing, distortions,
etc, during the design life of the pavement. The design should take account of environmental factors and the possibility of staged
construction. It must also aim at a desirable balance between construction, road-user and maintenance costs.

For completeness, the design should specify the level of maintenance necessary to keep the pavement at the design serviceability
level. The designer should preferably specify the required regularity of monitoring certain pavement characteristics which would
indicate the likelihood of certain distress features occurring.

6.3.2 Analysis of the pavement structure

The behavior of pavements subject to wheel load applications has been studied using full-scale experiments as well as
theoretically. The main advantage of theoretical analysis is the flexibility and convenience of being able to vary different
parameters without having to carry out expensive full-scale experiments. However, full-scale experiments are necessary to ensure
that the selected models are applicable to the problem being considered. It is important that the models selected are tested to
ensure that they are relevant and are capable of predicting the behavior of the pavement structure under the repetitive loading
which simulates the traffic loading.

There have been difficulties in developing models that can accurately predict pavement behavior under different loading and
environmental conditions, and until visco-elastic theories are fully developed to a level at which highway engineers can adopt
them, the use of elastic theories will remain the best alternative theoretical basis for analysing flexible pavements.

A number of models based on elastic theories have been used to define stresses and strains in flexible pavements. The following
include some of the more common mathematical models:

1 Boussinesq elastic theory

For a uniformly-distributed circular load on a homogeneous layer of infinite depth, the Boussinesq theory defines the stress at
given depth as follows:
The Boussinesq theory assumes that pavement material is isotropic and semi-infinite, and that elastic properties are identical in
every direction throughout the material. Full-scale experiments have shown that the actual stresses below a sand/ asphalt base are
similar to or slightly greater than those computed using the Boussinesq theory, while the actual stresses below a soil/cement base
are lower than those predicted using the Boussinesq theory.

2 Burmister's two-layer theory

For this theory, it is assumed that the top layer (consisting of the pavement structure) is an infinite elastic horizontal slab
overlying a semi-infinite solid of lower elastic modulus, with the interface assumed to be either perfectly rough or perfectly
smooth. The surface loading is assumed to be uniformly-distributed over a circular area. In simplified form Burmister's two-layer
system can be used to compute the elastic deflection at the pavement surface using the following expression:

3 Other models

There are a number of other models which have been used to analyse pavement structures for stresses or displacements. Some are
very approximate, such as those based on the assumption that stresses are distributed downwards from the loaded surface in a 45°
cone.

Meyerhof’ s method of analysis is based on the Burmister's two-layer system and the guiding expression gives the transient
deflection, as shown in the following equation:

4 Multi-layer system of analysis

With the development in computer techniques it has become possible to carry out analyses of fairly complicated mathematical
models. This development has made it possible for the pavement structure to be represented as a multi-layered system, but it does
require that strength properties (the elastic or stiffness modulus and Poisson's ratio) for each layer are known. Pavement loading
is then introduced and analysis carried out to determine the stresses and strains at critical points in the structure.
The stresses and strains obtained are compared with allowable values for the various materials used in the pavement structure. If
the calculated stresses or strains are greater than these allowable values, the design is repeated using thicker layers or alternative
materials.

The finite-element technique, for example, can be used to carry out the structural analysis of a multi-layer system. The technique
involves dividing a structure into finite elements, each of which is a simple unit whose structural behavior can be readily
analysed. The solution to the complete system is obtained by assembling the elements.

While mathematical models are desirable in the design of pavement structures, there have been serious limitations in using such
models, mainly for the following reasons:
a) Mathematical models will have been developed on the basis of assumptions that may not apply to the problem being
considered. For example, stress/strain relationships for road pavement materials are generally nonlinear and are
dependent on loading time as well as on temperature,
b) It is also difficult to model the fatigue characteristics of road pavement materials. For example, with increased
repetitions of wheel loads the permissible levels of strains and stresses decrease.

Such relationships may not have been established for the materials of the various layers. Nonetheless, experimental results have
supported the use of elastic theories in pavement design and they have been found useful, especially in carrying out comparative
analysis. With greater availability of powerful computers (including micro-computers) it will, in the foreseeable future, become
more accepted practice to carry out theoretical structural analysis of flexible pavements as a design exercise, the important input
data being the engineering properties for the material under various loading and environmental conditions.

This underlines the need for detailed studies of the behavior of materials commonly used for road construction under various
environmental conditions, so that the necessary input data for such theoretical analyses can be adequately documented.

6.3.3 . Solutions to pavement design problems

Pavement design involves the study of the properties of soils along the selected road alignment, the identification and selection of
construction materials for the various layers, and the determination of the thicknesses of various layers for the traffic-loading and
environmental conditions expected to prevail during the design life of the pavement.

Design should aim at providing adequate cover to the subgrade so that stresses at the subgrade level are low enough to prevent
excessive deformation, in addition to providing pavement materials which are strong enough to resist the stresses and strains
imposed by wheel loads. The complete design should also ensure that the pavement structure is adequately drained.

Design of paved roads

Many design methods have been developed to suit different climatic and traffic-loading conditions. For historical reasons most of
the design methods used in the tropical countries were adapted from those developed for the European temperate climate.

Flexible pavement design methods can be divided broadly into empirical and analytical methods. With the development and
greater availability of computers, analytical methods are gaining in popularity. However, because of the amount of accumulated
experience in the use of empirical and semi-empirical methods, these methods are likely to continue to be used for the
foreseeable future. This section looks at design methods which the reader may wish to compare with those applicable in his
country.

Concrete pavements have yet to prove to be economically attractive in the African continent. This is an area where studies are
necessary to establish whether those countries which produce cement and import bitumen could find concrete pavements
attractive. Concrete pavements have longer design lives but they also have complicated maintenance and rehabilitation problems
when defects such as cracks occur. The design methodology of concrete pavements is briefly covered at the end of this section.

1 Empirical and semi-empirical pavement design methods

Empirical and semi-empirical design methods have been developed on the basis of long-term pavement performance for specific
traffic-loading and environmental conditions. This therefore means that as long as conditions for which these methods were
developed prevail, the performance of the pavement should be satisfactory.

The following is a brief description of a number of design methods developed for use in different countries. Although some of
them may not be in current use the methods have been included because of their peculiar features which the reader is expected to
note.
In any event these design methods should be seen as models which have been used by various authorities to design pavements.
Thus the criteria described in chapter 3 on model selection should apply and a designer may wish to select a particular design
procedure if it is appropriate to his set of environmental conditions. The designer is also expected to acknowledge that design
procedures will keep changing with the development of new knowledge.
(a) Group Index method

This empirical design method, developed in the USA, is based on the particle size distribution and plasticity of the subgrade
materials. The following is the design formula:

GI ranges between 0 and 20; GI = 0 implies very good material (high bearing capacity), and GI = 20 implies very poor material
(low bearing capacity).

The design chart shown in Fig. 6.25 provides the pavement layer thickness for values of GI corresponding to different traffic-
loading levels
Curve A-thickness of selected material sub-base only
Curve B - combined thickness of surface, base & selected material sub-base (light traffic) Curve C - combined thickness of surface, base & selected
material sub-base (medium traffic) Curve D - combined thickness of surface, base & selected material sub-base (heavy traffic) Curve E - thickness of
additional base which may be substituted for sub-base of curve A Curve F — combined thickness of surface and base (no sub-base, light traffic) Curve G
- combined thickness of surface and base (no sub-base, medium traffic) Curve H - combined thickness of surface and base (no sub-base, heavy traffic)
Fig. 6.25 Design chart for the Group Index method. [Source: reference (6) / (10).

(b) 1 CBR design method

The CBR design method, as developed by the California State Highway Department (11), involves the determination of the CBR
value of the subgrade as well as that of the sub-base and base materials. Pavement layer thicknesses are then selected from the
chart shown in Fig. 6.26 on the basis of the relevant design wheel load
.

Fig. 6.26 Design curves for the CBR method. [Source: reference ( 7 ) j

This method has undergone considerable modification over the years to accommodate varying traffic-loading patterns, as well as
different environmental conditions.

(c) Road Note 29 design method

Road Note 29 (RN29) presents a guide to the structural design of pavements for new roads for UK conditions (12). RN29 has,
however, been used in some tropical countries where traffic loading was beyond that covered by Road Note 31 (13).

Sub-base thickness is selected on the basis of subgrade CBR and the expected cumulative standard axles during the pavement
design life (see Fig. 6.27 overleaf). Base and surfacing thicknesses are determined from charts, on the basis of the type of
construction material and the design life of the pavement. Figs. 6.28 and 6.29 overleaf show design charts for dense macadam,
wet-mix and dry-bound macadam road-bases.
* RN29 has been superseded by TRRL report No. LR1132 which is a probabilistic design method based on empirical results,
extended to provide for higher axle loads using mechanistic methods.
(d) Road Note 31 design method

Road Note 31 (RN31), developed by TRRL for developing countries, presents a guide to the structural design of bitumen-
surfaced roads in tropical and sub-tropical countries (13). The third edition of RN31 considers the traffic loading in terms of the
cumulative number of standard axles on the basis of which the type of surfacing, and thicknesses of the base and sub-base, are
selected.

Selection of the sub-base thickness is also based on the bearing strength of the subgrade, as is shown in Fig. 6.30.

Fig. 6.30 Pavement design chart ( R N 31). [Source: reference ( 9 ) J

( f ) AASHTO design guide

* RN31 is undergoing revision to incorporate traffic levels of up to 25 x 10 6 standard axles.

(e) CEBTP pavement design method for tropical countries

(Centre Experimental de Recherches et d'Etudes du Bâtiment et des Travaux Publics, Manuel de dimensionnement de chaussées
pour les pays tropicaux Secretariat d'Etat aux Affaires Etrangères).

This is a common design method in French-speaking tropical countries (14). The subgrade strength is assessed on the basis of the
CBR, and traffic is categorised into four classes. It is essentially a modification of the original CBR design method. Design
involves selection of a pavement structure from a list of four basic pavements.

( f ) AASHTO design guide

This guide was developed from the results of the AASHTO Road Test and is suitable for use in the USA. However, it has been
widely used in tropical countries. Subgrade strength is defined in terms of the soil support value, while pavement thickness is
expressed in terms of the structural number (SN) ranging from 1.0 to 6.0. Traffic loading is expressed in terms of cumulative
standard axles during the design life of the pavement, or in terms of daily axle applications, as shown in Fig. 6.31 (15).

Thus, given the soil support value (which could be defined in terms of the^G©R_or the group index of the alignment soil) and
the traffic-loading value (in terms of equivalent daily standard axles), one obtains a structural number, SN, as shown in Fig. 6.31.
By applying a regional factor a new weighted structural number, SN' is obtained. This new structural number is used in the
design equation shown in Fig. 6.31. The coefficients of D 1 , D2 and D3 could vary from one location to another. The designer is
required to select the thicknesses of surfacing, base and sub-base which satisfy the design equation, as well as the economic and
other constraints. For example, for weighted structural number SN = 2.7, the following could be a possible solution, (i) If the
pavement were to be made up of one layer (cheap pavement), then:
(g) Other methods

There are other methods which can be included in this category of empirical and semi-empirical design procedures and it is not
intended to cover them exhaustively here. However, mention should be made of: the shell pavement design method which has
been developed over the years to incorporate the effect of temperature on bituminous materials; and the Hveem stabilometer
design method in which primary soil strength is determined using a Hveem stabilometer (a closed tri-axial cell), the flexural
strength of the paving materials is determined on the basis of a cohesio-meter test, and traffic loading is expressed in terms of a
traffic index.

2 Analytical design methods

In general, analytical pavement design involves the assumption of a pavement structure system. The strength characteristics (in
terms of the modulus and Poisson's ratio) for each layer may be established, or can be assumed. Traffic loading is then introduced
and structural analysis carried out to determine the stresses and strains at critical points in the structure. The values of stresses and
strains obtained from the analysis are compared with the maximum allowable values, to determine whether the design is
satisfactory. If the design is unsatisfactory, another system is tried. In essence, analytical design should involve the following
steps:
• Development of mathematical models to represent pavement behavior;

 selection of appropriate solution techniques to the equations developed above and thus computation of stresses, strains
and deformations at critical points in the pavement structure;
 material characterisation for the various layers of the pavement structure for a given environment; and
 establishing design criteria, such as in terms of allowable stresses or strains in certain critical points in the structure.

Several computer programs to carry out pavement analysis and design have been developed, and are commercially available.
Analytical design methods have not yet gained wide acceptance by road pavement designers mainly because of the complexity of
the mathematical models involved. Other reasons for the lack of acceptance relate to inadequate material characterisation which
prevents a designer from carrying out a theoretical analysis with confidence.
When trying to achieve material characterisation there are a number of interesting features which complicate the exercise,
especially when dealing with bituminous materials. It has, for example, been observed that bituminous materials are capable of
recovering strength substantially after cracking under temperatures that prevail in many parts of the tropics. However, it has also
been observed that, for a significant proportion of high-standard bituminous pavements in tropical countries, failure has tended to
start in the surfacing, in the form of cracking. It is thought that one of the major causes of this surfacing distress is the age
hardening process which these bituminous materials undergo in hot tropical climates. This leads to a more brittle surfacing which
cracks easily.

3 Pavement design in Kenya

Pavement design in Kenya has undergone considerable development since rule-of-thumb design in the 1940s and 1950s. During
the 1960s most major roads were designed on the basis of the earlier editions for RN31 and RN29. Then, a road design manual
adopted in 1970 required the designer to determine traffic loading on the basis of the number of heavy vehicles expected per 24-
hour day five years after the road was opened to traffic.

The latest design procedure, adopted in 1981, requires the designer to determine the subgrade
quality, in terms of the CBR and traffic loading, during the design life of the pavement, in terms of cumulative standard axles as
determined by RN29. The pavement structure is then selected from a catalogue of structures (see examples in Figs. 6.32 to 6.36)
depending on the materials available for construction (16). It will be noted that the Kenyan design procedure adopts the French
method of using a catalogue of pavement structures unlike RN29, which uses charts. The reader may wish to note that the
differences between using the catalogues and using the charts would be insignificant for given values of traffic loading, subgrade
strength and pavement construction materials. The following four basic steps are involved.

 Analysis and classification of traffic loading. The classification of traffic loading is as follows:
 Evaluation of alignment soils and classification of the subgrade, on the basis of the CBR as follows: [TcJUk- Ô^As-^-i-J
 Selection of construction materials which meet the specifications shown in Tables 5.1 to 5.3.

Traffic loading Equivalent standard axles

class x 106
Tl 25-60
T2 10 - 25
T3 3-10
T4 1-3
T5 0.25 - 1

Subgrade class CBR

(per cent)
SI 2 - 5
S2 5-10
S3 7-13
S4 10 - 18
S5 15 - 30
S6 > 30

f\
• Selection of the pavement structure from a catalogue of structures. (-eg • n t 6 f»C'*v
Interpretation, of solutions
It is important for the designer to understand the implications of his choice of design method. If the design method is empirical he
must guard against extrapolation by the introduction of loading and environmental conditions which did not prevail during the
development of the method.

The designer must also have an appreciation of the accuracy involved and its implications in terms of construction costs and
maintenance costs.

Design of unpaved roads

The development of rural areas in many developing countries will continue to depend on road transportation for the foreseeable
future. Because limited funds are available and because of low traffic volumes, rural roads are generally constructed to gravel
(and sometimes to earth) standard only.

(i) Design of gravel roads

The design of a gravel wearing course is generally based on the bearing capacity of the subgrade and the expected traffic volume.
The following equation has been used to determine the total thickness of the wearing course for new gravel roads in Kenva (16):

Table 6.21 Minimum gravel wearing course thickness D x (mm)

Subgrade strength Initial daily commercial vehicles (both directions)
CBR (%)
< 15 15-50 50-150 150- 500

2- 5 350 425 500 575

5-10 225 275 325 375

7-13 175 225 250 275

10-18 150 175 200 225

15-30 125 150 175 200

> 30 - - -
Source: Road Design Manual, Kenya, reference (16).

In general, shoulders should preferably be made up of the same material as the gravel wearing course and a cross fall of 4 per
cent should normally be provided.

The design should consider the possibility of upgrading the gravel road to a paved road; for this the alignment costs should be
carefully weighed against the possibility of incurring further costs in re-alignment during upgrading.

(ii) Design of earth roads

Earth roads are generally formed of natural materials found along the road alignment or adjacent to the road line. Earth roads
have become very important in rural areas as they help to improve the way of life for the farming communities, by providing
access to markets, schools, health centers, water supply and administrative centers. In many cases, they are constructed by the
communities themselves and the results, as might be expected, are poor. They are supposed to link up with existing classified
gravel or bitumen roads.

The design of an earth road should aim at providing all-weather access as far as is practical, at the lowest cost possible. Labour-
intensive construction techniques are generally used. The road alignment should avoid areas requiring major drainage structures
and the cross-section should ensure rapid discharge of surface run-off.

Design of concrete pavements

The concrete pavement slab functions as a beam on an elastic subgrade so that the deflection of the pavement slab due to applied
wheel loads is accompanied by an equal deformation of the subgrade.

Temperature changes cause concrete slabs to expand and contract, as a result of which stresses are set up (when this contraction
or expansion is prevented). Movement of the slab could be entirely or partially prevented by friction between the slab and the
subgrade, thereby leading to tensile stresses developing in the slab with a fall in temperature. The design aims at providing a
concrete section that is capable of resisting the stresses developed; if necessary reinforcement may be provided.

Joints are provided in concrete pavements for a variety of reasons (17). The contraction joints (see the example shown in Fig.
6.37) for example, are provided to relieve tensile stresses resulting from contraction and warping of the concrete slab. Dowel bars
are used for load transfer across the joints.

Expansion joints (see the example shown in Fig. 6.37.) are provided, in the form of clear breaks in the concrete slab, to allow for
expansion. Again, dowel bars are used for load transfer across the joints.

Construction joints (see the example shown in Fig. 6.37) mark the end of a day's construction work and are normally of the butt
type with dowel bars provided for load transfer.

Hinge and warping joints (see the example shown in Fig. 6.37) are used to control cracking along the centreline of the concrete
pavement slab.

Pumping and blowing are major problems associated with concrete pavements. Pumping is the ejection of water and subgrade
soil through joints, cracks and along the edges of pavements, as a result of downward slab movement caused by the passage of
heavy axle loads over the pavement slab. Extensive deformation of the concrete slab leads to transverse cracking by cantilever
action. Blowing is a form of pumping, associated with the base or sub-base under the concrete slab, which leads to longitudinal
cracking. Mud-jacking and joint sealing are used to correct these defects.

6.3.4 . Examples of pavement design

The following examples are included to give a more complete perspective of the pavement design procedures as applied in a
number of countries in the tropics. The examples are to be considered an integral part of the text because, in some cases, different
procedures have been used to solve the same design problem in order to show the differences expected between the different
design methods.

Example 10
(a) Describe how the Boussinesq and Burmister's theories can be applied in the evaluation of stresses and deformations in flexible
pavements. What are the limitations of using these theories in the design of flexible pavements?
(b) Use the Burmister's theory to calculate the expected pavement surface deflection for a
« 3Q0 mm stabilised gravel pavement structure lying on a murram subgrade of infinite depth, Assume the average modulus of
elasticity of the stabilised gravel is 344500 kN/m2 and that of the murram subgrade is 68900 kN/m2. Assume also a uniform
surface loading of g ^689 kN/m2 distributed over a circular area of radius 150 mm.
(University of Nairobi, 1985)

Example 11
(a) Prove that, when Poisson's ratio =p 0.5, the volume change of a unit element is zero when subjected to a triaxial state of
stress.
(b) Calculate the surface deflection under the centre of the tyre given that:
radius of contact circle = 15 cm * r tyre pressure = 6 kg/cm2
pavement thickness = 30 cm '
modulus of paving materials = 9000 kg/cm2 modulus of subgrade = 90 kg/cm2
(University of Zambia, 1985)
Example 12
A soil sample from a proposed highway site was tested in a laboratory and the following parameters were obtained:
• soil passing sieve no. 200 (BS) = 55 per cent
• liquid limit = 40 per cent
• plasticity index = 20 per cent It was further estimated that a traffic volume comprising 200 trucks and buses per day will be
using the facility when it is opened. Determine the pavement thickness using the group index method of design.
(University of Zambia, 1985)

Example 13
A two-way, two-lane highway section between Dar-Es-Salaam and Morogoro cities is to be constructed. A one-week axle-load
survey on this section was carried out and the average daily commercial traffic is as tabulated below:
With a ten-year design period and assuming a traffic growth rate of 5 per cent per annum, it was calculated that the cumulative
standard axles during the design period would be 1.03 x 10 6 in both directions. [Note Liddle's formula: ESA = (L780)38, where L
= the axle load in
kNTT
(a). Using the Road Note 31 design procedure, design the pavement structure.

(b) Using the AASHTO interim guide (assuming a regional factor of 2.0), re-design the pavement structure.
(c) Comment on the suitability of the two methods.
(University of Dar-Es-Salaam, 1985)

Selection is generally based on cost implications of the alternatives. As the materials for D 3 are cheaper, then select the following
structure: 2 in (50 mm) bituminous surfacing; 4 in (100 mm) base; and 19 in (480 mm) sub-base.
(c) Suitability of methods
The two methods give comparable layer thicknesses, with the AASHTO design guide giving a slightly thicker sub-base than
RN31.
It must be appreciated that, with empirical design methods, the designer must understand the underlying assumptions and the
environment for which the methods were developed.
Example 14
(a) Describe the basic difference between the CBR and the Hveem design methods.
(b) The test results of sandy clay collected along the proposed alignment of a new road gave the CBR = 7 per cent and the PI = 10
per cent. The material to be used for the sub-base gave a CBR of 35 per cent, and good quality stone for the road-base
construction is available close to the construction site.
Using the traffic-loading data shown in the table below, carry out a complete pavement design using the Road Note 29 procedure
for a 20 year design life and assuming a traffic growth rate of 5 per cent per year.
Axle load Equivalence Number of passes per day
(kg) factor in the year of construction
(each direction) /

4540 0.09 400

5440 0.19 300
6350 0.35 400
7260 0.61 400
8160 1.0 600
9070 1.5 500
9980 2.3 200
10890 3.2 150

(University of Nairobi, 1980)

Solution
(a) There are a number of differences between the CBR and Hveem design methods which can be obtained from the references.
The most significant differences refer to the incorporation of wheel load repetitions which is a factor in the Hveem method but
not the CBR method of design.
Consideration of expansion pressures and the evaluation of exudation pressures (including the evaluation of resistance values of
subgrade soil) which are part of the Hveem design method are not, in the same sense, part of the CBR method. The Hveem
design method also considers the cohesion and friction of paving materials, unlike the CBR method which involves measurement
of an empirical strength number using the CBR test.
(b) Numerical part—design using RN29. See the table at the foot of the page.
Therefore, number of standard axles in the year of construction
= 365 x 2767 = 1009955
Number of standard axles during 20 years design life at 5 per cent growth rate per year
= 1009955 x (1.05° + 1.051 + 1.052 . . . .

......1-0519) C S A = 345* (V* M

= 1009955 x 33.1 = 33.4 x 106
From Road Note 29 design charts: select sub-base thickness = 190 mm (Fig. 6.27) select road-base thickness = 255 mm (Fig.
6.28) select surfacing thickness = 165 mm (Fig. 6.28)
Example 15
Solve the problem presented in example 14 using the design procedure of the Ministry of Transport and Communications, Kenya.
Solution
Subgrade class—select class S2.
Traffic loading class—select class TI.
Using Fig. 6.33, it is seen that the traffic-loading class would not be suited by the pavement combination suggested (ie, crushed
stone base and natural material sub-base). However, Fig. 6.36 gives a pavement structure made up as follows: 50 mm surfacing;
150 mm dense bitumen macadam base; and 300 mm graded crushed-stone sub-base.
Example 16
(a) Outline the Road Note 29 procedure of designing flexible pavements in terms of traffic loading, subgrade evaluation, and the
selection of sub-base, base and surfacing thicknesses.
(b) The data shown in the tables below and at the top of p 201 include traffic-loading and material characteristics for use in
pavement design using the Ministry of Transport and Communications (MOTC) design procedure, for a design life of 15 years
and a traffic growth rate of Ji. per cent per annum.
Carry out a complete pavement design for the road in two sections (chainage 0+000 to 10+000; and chainage 10+000 to 20 +000)
showing the basic calculations.
Construction material characteristics
Layer Material type Characteristics

sub-base murram CBR = 65 per cent PI = 7,

PM = 180
base crushed stone LAA = 30 per cent ACV =
20 per cent

surfacing surface dressing LLA = 20 per cent ACV =

chippings 15 per cent Bitumen
affinity—good
Axle load Number of passes per day Equivalence Standard axles per day
(kg) in each direction factor (each direction)
4540 400 0.09 36
5440 300 0.19 57
6350 400 0.35 140
7260 400 r> . 0.61 244
8160 600 \ ' f 1 0 600
9070 500 ^ \ ^ 0 \ 1 5 750
9980 200 k s A & r 23 460
10890 150 V<r€> 3.2 480
sis:
sum = 2767
Alignment soils
Chaînage Soil type CBR PI
(km) (4 days soak)
0 + 000 gravel 23 10
2 + 500 gravel 21 11
5 + 000 gravel 24 10
7 + 500 gravel 25 9
10 + 000 gravel 23 10
12 + 500 silty clay 5 20
15 + 000 silty clay 3 22
17 + 500 silty clay 3 24
20 + 000 silty clay 4 21
Traffic loading data

Axle load Equivalence Number per day

(kg) factor at time of opening
(each direction)
6350 0.35 300
7260 0.61 200
8160 1.0 100
9070 1.5 70
9980 2.3 30
10890 3.2 20
11790 4.4 15
12700 5.8 15
(University of Nairobi, 1985)
Solution
(a) The answer to this part of the example is contained in the description of RN29 given in section 6.3;3.
(b) Numerical part—design using MOTC procedure. See the table below.
Therefore, number of standard axles at the time of opening = 262070
With a design life of 15 years at 5 per cent growth rate per annum the cumulative number of standard axles during the design life
= 21.6 x 262 070= & = 5.7 x 106

Therefore, the traffic-loading class = T3.

Chaînage 0+000 to 10+000
The CBR is in the range 21 to 25 per cent, which
gives subgrade class S5.
From Fig. 6.33, the appropriate pavement structure is made up as follows:
triple surface dressing;
200 mm graded crushed-stone base; and
150 mm murram sub-base.
Chaînage 10+000 to 20+000
The CBR is in the range 3 to 5 per cent which
gives subgrade class SI.
Thus, from Fig. 6.33 the appropriate pavement structure is made up as follows:
triple surface dressing;
200 mm graded crushed-stone base; and
450 mm murram sub-base.
Example 17
Carry out the pavement design for the data presented in example 16 using the Road Note 31 design procedure.
Solution
Using the RN31 chart shown in Fig. 6.30, the pavement structure for 5.7 x 106 standard axles would be outside the range of the
chart because
Axle load Number per Equivalence
( k g ) / day factor
Standard axles
per day per year

105 38325
122 44530
100 36500
105 38325
69 25185
64 23360
66 24090
87 31755
= 718 262 070

6350.a(0 300 PÛ+rJ 5 0.35 A Jf

7260^ 200 ^«"0 0.61 V *^ J\

8160 100 1.0
9070^,0 70 1.5
9980 Q^ 30 2.3
10890 „0 20 3.2
11790^ 15 4.4
12700 15 5.8
Sum =
the chart only allows up to 2.5 x 106 cumulative standard axles. This would suggest that the design using the RN31 method could
consider a shorter design life of 2.5 X 106 standard axles to be the first stage of construction, for which the corresponding
pavement structure would be as follows:
Chaînage 0+000 to 10+000 50 mm bituminous surfacing; 150 mm base; and 100 mm sub-base, or
double surface dressing; 200 mm base; and 100 mm sub-base.
Chaînage 10+000 to 20+000 50 mm bituminous surfacing; 150 mm base; and 410 mm sub-base, or
double surface dressing; 200 mm base; and 410 mm sub-base.
Example 18
Carry out the pavement design for the data presented in example 16 using the Road Note 29 design procedure.
Solution
Using the RN29 charts shown in Figs. 6.27 and 6.29 for 5.7 x 106 standard axles would give as follows:
Chaînage 0+000 to 10+000 100 mm surfacing; 200 mm base; and 150 mm sub-base.
Chaînage 10+000 to 20+000 100 mm surfacing; 200 mm base; and 380 mm sub-base.
Solutions to examples 16 and 18 show comparable pavement structures, ie, RN29 and MOTC design methods give comparable
pavement structures. The problem being considered is outside the range of the RN31 procedure in terms of traffic loading.
Example 19
(a) Derive the expression for stresses due to temperature changes in a reinforced concrete slab of a rigid pavement in which no
cracking is allowed.
(b) A concrete pavement 7 m wide and 25 cm thick is to be provided with 15 mm diameter steel bars across the longitudinal joint.
Assuming the coefficient of friction between the concrete slab and the subgrade to be 1.2, the allowable stress in the steel bars to
be 155 N/mm2 and the density of concrete to be 2500 kg/m3, calculate the necessary spacing of the steel bars.
Solution
(a) Fig. 6.39 shows a schematic representation of a reinforced concrete pavement slab. For equilibrium the frictional forces from
the centre to the free end of the slab must equal the tension in the slab, ie,
acAc + /S^4S —
where: d
WL
xbx/
thickness of slab; oc = stresses in concrete; A c - area of concrete; /s = stresses in steel; A s = area of steel; L = length of slab;
b = width of slab; / = friction coefficient; and W = weight of concrete per unit area, (b) Numerical part
As the steel bars are spanning across the
-likAc+fsAs)
Friction resistance
im= fully mobilized resistance
Fig. 6.39 Stresses in a reinforced concrete pavement slab
longitudinal joint the stress in the concrete is zero and all the stresses due to friction resistance are taken by the steel bars.
Therefore
where
/s = 155 N/ram2;
W = 2500 kg/m3 = 625 kg/m2
= 6125 N/m2; L = 7 m; b = 1 m; and f = 1.2 Therefore
WLbf
6125 x 7 x 1 x 1.2
166 mm2/m
2 x 155
Area of one bar of steel = 176.8 mm2
166
Therefore, number of bars/m = = 0.939 Therefore, use a bar spacing of 1 m c/c.
Example 20
(a) Compare the functions of a sub-base in a flexible pavement with those of a sub-base in a rigid pavement.
(b) Calculate the spacing between contraction joints for 3.5 m wide slabs having a thickness of 10 cm for the following cases:
(i) for plain cement concrete; and
(ii) for reinforced cement concrete with 3.5 kg/m2 reinforcement equally distributed in both directions.
Available data include: coefficient of friction
between slab and soil = 1.5^ unit weight of concrete = 24 kN/m3 allowable tensile stress
in concrete = 0.08 N/mm2
allowable tensile stress ^
in steel = 60 N/mm2
unit weight of steel = 75 kN/m3 '
(University of Zambia, 1984)
Solution
(a) In the case of flexible pavements the sub-base contributes towards the structural strength (stress distribution) of the pavement
structure whereas in rigid pavements the sub-base is not considered in structural analysis because the strength of the pavement is
based on the strength of the concrete slab. The sub-base generally provides lateral drainage in both flexible and rigid
pavements. The sub-base can be used to correct weak spots in the sub-grade of rigid pavements but not in flexible pavements, (b)
(i) Allowable stress in concrete x cross-sectional area of concrete = friction force between the concrete slab and subgrade. Using
notations as defined in Fig. 6.39:
- x b x d j Yc / = o cbd
where YC — unit weight of concrete. Therefore
2oc 2 x 0.08 x 103 L = -- - -—-—-= 4.44 m
Yc/
24 x 1.5
= spacing between contraction joints, (ii) friction force between concrete slab and sub-grade = area of steel x allowable stress in
steel

(I x b x d j Yc / = /sASx
Therefore
2/A
L=
bdyj
3.5 kg/m2 of steel in both directions = 1.75 kg/m2 in one direction. Therefore cross-section width b would give 1.756 kg of steel
1.756 1.75 x 3.5 x 9.8 , -As = -=-—- x 103
Y steel '5
= 0.8 x 103 mm2 Therefore s<>'
L=
2 x 60 x 0.8 x 103
; = 7.6m
3.5 x 0.10 x 24 x 1.5.x 103 = spacing between contraction joints.
Example 21
Calculate the stresses at the interior and corner regions of a concrete pavement using Wester-gaard's analysis, given the following
data:
wheel load P = 4100 kg
modulus of elasticity of concrete E = 3.0 x 105 kg/cm2
pavement thickness d = 15 cm Poisson's ratio \i =0.15 modulus of subgrade
reaction K =3.0 kg/cm3
radius of contact area a = 15 cm
(University of Zambia, 1985)
Solution
Radius of relative stiffness L is given by: L
Ed3 ]' _12(l-U2)iC
3.0 x 105
12(1-0.15
x 153~|1/4 _ 2)3.0 _
73.25 cm
Equivalent radius of resisting section: r = Vi.6a2 + d2 - 0.675d
= Vi.6 x 152 + 152 - 0.675 x 15 = 14.05 cm
Stresses at the interior:

(U16Pr ( L —I 4 logio
d2
0.316 x 4100 152
= 22.67 kg/cm2 Stress at the corner:
+ 1.069
4 log10
73.25 14.05

j + 1.069
3P|\ /ay/2\0-6' 0c = ^ | . 1 - l — j
3 x 4100
1
152
= 28.70 kg/cm2
15V2\°-6 73.25/

6.4 The drainage design problem

6.4.1 Objectives
The main objective of drainage for highways is to ensure that surface water and subsurface water are removed from the highway
so that the road pavement is not adversely affected by it. The design should also ensure that adjacent property is not adversely
affected by the designed facility. The design should aim at providing an efficient disposal system which is consistent with the
cost and importance of the highway.
Where a river crossing is involved, the designer may wish to design a culvert or a bridge structure, for which the basic hydrologie
study and hydraulic analysis as outlined in this section would apply. However, structural design of such structures will normally
be carried out by a structural engineer; the highway engineer concerns himself with the selection of the type of structure and its
location, as described in chapter 7.
The drainage design should also consider the level and method of maintenance of the designed drainage facility. For example, if
grading is likely to be used to maintain the side ditches then the shape of the drainage ditch should be such that it can be
conveniently worked on by a grader. %
6.4.2 Stormwater drainage design
In general, the stormwater drainage design of a road will ensure that on tangents the cross-section will readily drain into the side
drains, for which cross slopes in the range of 2 to 4 per cent are used. The drainage design should also take into account
shoulders. For this purpose, the cross slopes of shoulders should not be less than the steeper longitudinal grade.
Catchwater drains running along the road can help to intercept water from the surrounding areas before it reaches the roadway.
Stormwater drainage design involves the estimation of the amount of surface water expected and the design of a facility capable
of disposing of that quantity of water without causing damage to the adjacent property or to the environment.
It is important to consider the drainage requirements of a proposed highway at the preliminary design stage, when alternative
routes are being considered, in order to avoid potentially troublesome areas. In this respect, it is important that the necessary
investigations are carried out. In most cases, topographic maps, rainfall data and stream flow data (where applicable) would be
sufficient to enable the designer to estimate drainage requirements at preliminary design.
Stormwater drainage design requires hydrologie analysis (which involves estimating the expected amount of run-off) and
hydraulic design (which involves designing the required facility) to accommodate the amount of run-off estimated at the
hydrologie analysis stage.
1 Hydrologie analysis
The factors affecting run-off or discharge from a given catchment area include: