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Practical Finite Element Analysis
Linear Static and Dynamic Analysis

Prof. M.P.Ranaweera
Emeritus Professor
University of Peradeniya

Dr. K.R.B.Herath
Laboratory Work Book
Senior Lecturer Prepared for the two-day workshop
University of Peradeniya & SLIIT arranged by IESL at Colombo Head Office
on 27th and 28th of June 2017.
Eng. M.Vignarajah
Senior Lecturer
University of Jaffna
Table of Contents

1 Introduction to SAP2000 1

1.1 The Software Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2 Modeling Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.3 Solution Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.4 Interpretation of Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2 Linear Static Analysis 9

2.1 Analysis of a 2D Concrete Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2.2 Analysis of a 3D Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.3 Analysis of a 3D Concrete Frame–Slabs System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.4 Analysis of Multistory Concrete Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.5 Plane Stress Problem with Triangular Mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.6 Plane Stress Problem with QUAD4 Mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2.7 Plane Strain Problem with QUAD4 Mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2.8 Axisymmetric Problem with QUAD4 Mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2.9 Plate Bending Problem with QUAD4 Mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3 Linear Dynamic Analysis 18

3.1 Free Vibration of SDOF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3.2 Forced Vibration of SDOF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3.3 SDOF Subjected to Ground Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

4 Practical Modeling Exercise 21

References 25

i
List of Figures

1.1 Nodal degrees of freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2 From Ed. Wilson’s Book ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.3 Frame element internal forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.4 Predefined section properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.5 Shell element conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.6 Shell element internal forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2.1 Arrangement of structural frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2.2 Nodal and distributed load patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.3 A 3D concrete frame structure for Exercise-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.4 A 3D concrete frame-slab system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.5 Plan of the building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.6 Elevation of the building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.7 Plate with central hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.8 Finite element model of plate with a hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.9 Plain strain problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2.10 Axisymmetric problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2.11 Plate bending problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3.1 SDOF System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3.2 Frame structure subjected to harmonic load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3.3 Two DOF System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

4.1 Gravity masonry dam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

4.2 Circular chimney under wind load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

4.3 Portal frame bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

4.4 Schematic diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

4.5 Cross section of segmental bridge module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

4.6 Model of segmental bridge module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

ii
List of Tables

1.1 Nodal degrees of freedom and their functionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

iii
 1
Introduction to SAP2000

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Founded in 1975 by Dr. Edward L. Wilson1 , Computers and Structures,

Inc. (CSi) is recognized globally as the pioneering leader in software
tools for structural and earthquake engineering. Software from CSi
is used by thousands of engineering firms in over 160 countries for
the design of major projects including the Taipei 101 Tower in Taiwan,
One World Trade Center in New York, the 2008 Olympics Birds Nest
Stadium in Beijing and the Cable-Stayed Centenario Bridge over the
Panama Canal.

Prof. Edward L. Wilson

§ 1.1 The Software Package

The SAP name has been synonymous with state-of-the-art analytical methods since its introduc-
tion over 30 years ago. SAP2000 follows in the same tradition featuring a very sophisticated,
intuitive and versatile user interface powered by an unmatched analysis engine and design tools
for engineers working on transportation, industrial, public works, sports, and other facilities.

From its 3D object based graphical modeling environment to the wide variety of analysis and
design options completely integrated across one powerful user interface, SAP2000 has proven
to be the most integrated, productive and practical general purpose structural program on the
market today. This intuitive interface allows you to create structural models rapidly and intu-
itively without long learning curve delays. Now you can harness the power of SAP2000 for all
of your analysis and design tasks, including small day-to-day problems.

Complex Models can be generated and meshed with powerful built in templates. Integrated
design code features can automatically generate wind, wave, bridge, and seismic loads with
comprehensive automatic steel and concrete design code checks per US, Canadian and interna-
tional design standards [11].

The SAP2000 package can perform variety of analysis, namely:

• linear/nonlinear static analysis
• modal analysis
• response spectrum analysis
• time-history analysis (using modal superposition / direct integration)
• buckling analysis
• moving load analysis
• power spectral density analysis

§ 1.2 Modeling Basics

In the finite element analysis of structures, the solution is obtained for the nodal quantities,
namely the displacements. Nodes may have maximum of six degrees of freedom (DOF) associ-
ated with them.

In an active node, all six DOF may be available. Also nodes may be restrained or constrained.
For more information see the SAP2000 analysis reference [1].

A typical displacement vector d can be written as

d = {U1 , U2 , U3 , R1 , R2 , R3 }
1 https://www.nae.edu/28196.aspx

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Figure 1.1: Nodal degrees of freedom

Connections of nodes generates body of the structure. Proper understanding of nodal DOF status
is crucial to make the structural model behaves as close as to the physical model. A nodal DOF
status is elaborated in the Table (1.1)
Table 1.1: Nodal degrees of freedom and their functionality

DOF Status Meaning of the status

Active The nodal displacement d is unknown.

Restrained The displacement d is known, force f will be calculated in the analysis.
Constrained The displacement d is not free. It is governed by other equations.
None The nodal DOF is ignored in the analysis. The equations are not used in the
assembly process.
Unavailable The DOFs are explicitly removed from the analysis. Though nonzero values
are supplied, they will be discarded in the analysis.

When modeling a structure please follow the steps given below. If any one of these steps are not
clear or unknown, do not attempt to solve the problem. The SAP2000 has facility to check the
numerical stability and assign multipliers to the system equations while solving slightly ill-posed
problems. If user is unaware of this phenomena, a serious wrong interpretation may arise.

1. Define material sets that are being used in the analysis. Please delete all other unwanted
materials from the database.

2. Define frame sections, area sections, . . . etc. All other sections which are not in use must
be cleaned up. If you would like to perform parametric study then use Auto-select option.
Please check whether correct material name is assigned to the section.

3. Create the model with hierarchical modeling or from data table input. The model you
have created may be an object-based model. It is very useful to use the “group” option to
identify the object models. This feature will be explained in the class.

4. Before preparing the mesh, assign boundary conditions and external loads (point/line/
surface) to the object based model. Create suitable and realistic load patterns. We may
study load patterns and analysis cases in the class.

5. Now you may mesh the model and create an analytical model (numerical) which is ready
for the solution process. The solutions can be obtained for the selected analysis cases.

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The SAP2000 Ver 14.2 has many advance features in modeling. Interestingly the grid system can
have object based models. Objects can be imported and combined. Please pay some attention
in the class for such advanced features.

§ 1.3 Solution Process

In SAP2000 the solutions are scheduled with the “Analysis Cases” in which “Load Patterns” con-
tributes the combinations. Until the load pattern is included in the analysis case, it has no effect
in the solution. You may create as many load patterns as you like and keep them for future use.
Also, you may use selected combination of the load patterns directly included into the analysis
case. Please pay attention to the class not to misuse this feature.

The SAP2000 Ver 14.2 allows us to select advanced solver. Selection of the solver depends on the
problem size. Most of the time all the solvers gives almost same answer unless heavily nonlinear
systems involved.

Relatively simple problems which are used to demonstrate the finite element analysis features
can be solved with Model Alive feature. Please discuss in the class.

§ 1.4 Interpretation of Results

Once the nodal solutions are obtained for selected analysis cases, it is possible to calculate the
internal stress resultants such as bending moment, shear and axial forces, . . . etc. The SAP2000
has a very effective user interface that presents those results in high quality graphics. We may
look into these features in the class.

The interpretation of results must be in accordance with the sign conventions and axis directions
specified in the SAP2000 Reference Manual. The local axis can be plotted if there is any doubt
arise. The output with wrong interpretation causes serious error and it will destroy the time and
money involved in the analysis.

Here is the interesting “quote” from Ed. Wilson’s book [2]

Figure 1.2: From Ed. Wilson’s Book ...

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Figure 1.3: Frame element internal forces

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Figure 1.4: Predefined section properties

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Figure 1.5: Shell element conventions

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Figure 1.6: Shell element internal forces

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 2
Linear Static Analysis

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There are nine exercises given in this chapter. Each one of them needs special attention and
skills to prepare the model and solve. Please follow the instructions or ask help from instructors
and try your best to solve these problems by your own.

§ 2.1 Analysis of a 2D Concrete Frame

Details of a two dimensional concrete frame subjected to dead load, live load and wind loads are
given below. The frame has two types of columns (C1 and C2) and beams (B1 and B2) whose
dimensions and material properties are given below. Base of the structure is fixed to the ground.
Find out the bending moments, shear forces and axial forces of each member for the following
load combinations.

COMBO1: 1.4 DEAD

COMBO2: 1.0 DEAD + 1.0 LIVE + 1.0 WIND
COMBO3: 1.4 DEAD + 1.6 LIVE + 1.2 WIND

4m 4m 4m

B1 B1 B1
3m

C1 C1 C1 C1

B2 B2 B2
3m

C1 C1 C1 C1

B2 B2 B2
4m

C2 C2 C2 C2

Figure 2.1: Arrangement of structural frames

Member sizes and material properties are given below

Member Size Property Value

C1 250 × 250 mm Concrete Strength fcu 25 MPa
C2 300 × 300 mm Young’s Modulus E 24 GPa
B1 300 × 225 mm Poisson’s Ratio ν 0.20
B2 350 × 225 mm Concrete Unit Weight 24 kN/m3

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Loading:

(a) DEAD load on beams (in addition to self-weight)

on beams type B1 = 4.0 kN/m
on beams type B2 = 5.0 kN/m
point load P1 = 18 kN, P2 = 25 kN, and P3 = 35 kN as shown in Figure (2.2)

(b) LIVE loads

on beams type B1 = 6.0 kN/m
on beams type B2 = 8.0 kN/m

(c) WIND pressure distribution along X direction is shown in Figure (2.2)

P1 P2 P3 P2 P1

6 kN/m

2 kN/m

2 kN/m

Figure 2.2: Nodal and distributed load patterns

§ 2.2 Analysis of a 3D Frame

Create a 3-Dimensional SAP2000model as shown in Figure (2.3). Here, material, dimensions

and loading patterns of two frames along X direction are as same as that used in Exercise-1.
Beams in Y direction are of type B1 at Level-3 and type B2 at Level-1 and 2. In addition to the
loads established in Exercise-1, a horizontal point load P4 (=20 kN) acts along Y-direction as
indicated in the figure.

Investigate axial force, shear force and bending moment (hogging and sagging) distribution of
each member for load combinations Combo1, Combo2 and Combo3. Plot deformation shape
under load combination Comb2.

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Figure 2.3: A 3D concrete frame structure for Exercise-2

§ 2.3 Analysis of a 3D Concrete Frame–Slabs System

Modify the 3D Frame you developed in Exercise-2 by adding concrete slabs at Levels 1, 2 and
3with given thicknesses as shown below.

Figure 2.4: A 3D concrete frame-slab system

Loads on slabs (in addition to the self-weights and loads assigned in Exercises 1 and 2):

• on slab-1 and slab-2 ⇒ LIVE: 3.0 kN/m2

• on slab-3 ⇒ LIVE: 2.0 kN/m2

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§ 2.4 Analysis of Multistory Concrete Building

Details of a 3-dimensional 25-Storey (half of the building is 15-Storey) wall-frame building

structure are shown in Figure (2.6). The building has a shear core, six types of columns, and
two types of beams as indicated. The building is subjected to DEAD load, LIVE loads, WIND
loads and SEISMIC loads that are specified below.
(a) Construct a suitable finite element model in SAP2000to analyze this building.

(b) Find the bending moments, shear forces, axial forces of each member for following load
combinations.

Combo1: 1.4 DEAD load only

Combo2: DEAD + LIVE + WIND
Combo3: 1.4 DEAD + 1.6 LIVE + 1.2 WIND

(c) Perform a modal analysis, apply non-structural loads as lumped masses, and obtain first
ten fundamental modes and frequencies/periods. Compare the fundamental period with
the approximate value: T = h/46.

(d) Apply wind load along Y direction, and determine drift-index1 and the maximum inner
storey drif-index2 .

(e) Perform response spectrum analysis using EC 8 spectrum

(f) Perform time history analysis using ..//Computers and Structures/SAP2000 14 /Time His-
tory Functions/LACC-NOR-1.TH acceleration profile. Obtain maximum acceleration of the
building at the roof level. Check maximum stresses at various members due to dynamic
loads.

Building Data:
Concrete properties: E = 20 GPa, Unit weight = 24 kN/m3 , and Poisson’s ratio ν = 0.2

Loading:
• Dead load (in addition to self weight); Floor partitions(1.50 kN/m2 )

• Live load: All floors (2.0 kN/m2 ), Roof (1.5 kN/m2 )

• Wind pressure: (Along Y - Direction) ≈ 1.50 kN/m2

• Seismic Load: 0.2g acceleration in the Y direction, damping coefficient 0.5

Member Sizes: (Columns and Beams are square)

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6
1000 mm 880 mm 800 mm 1200 mm 1000mm 900 mm

B1 B2 Shear Walls Slabs

600 mm 500 mm 630 mm 220 mm

1 drift-index of building = lateral deflection of the building/height of the building

2 inner-storey drift index = lateral deflection of a storey/storey height

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Figure 2.5: Plan of the building

Figure 2.6: Elevation of the building

The bottom ends of all the columns are fixed to the ground. In actual situations bottom ends
are at the footing level which some times vary with the ground profile. Tie beams will be there
at ground elevations.

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§ 2.5 Plane Stress Problem with Triangular Mesh

It is required to analyze the rectangular plate shown in Figure (2.7), with a central hole under
a boundary stress of 6 N/mm2 . The plate is in a state of plane stress, and because of symmetry
about axes, only a quadrant of the plate needs to be analyzed. Plate thickness is 4 mm, Young’s
Modulus (E) is 210 GPa, and Poisson’s ratio (ν ) is 0.25

y, v

σ = 6 N/mm2
80 mm

40 mm
x, u

160 mm

Figure 2.7: Plate with central hole

The finite element model with 21 nodes and 24 elements is shown in the Figure (2.8)

Figure 2.8: Finite element model (element numbers are given within parentheses)

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Nodal coordinates and boundary conditions are given below.

Node X - Coord Y - Coord

Node R - Coord θ - Coord
Number (mm) (mm)
Number (mm) (deg)
11 0 40.0
1 20 0.0
12 20 40.0
2 20 22.5
13 40 0.0
3 20 45.0
14 40 20.0
4 20 67.5
15 40 40.0
5 20 90.0
16 60 0.0
6 25 0.0
17 60 20.0
7 25 22.5
18 60 40.0
8 25 45.0
19 80 0.0
9 25 67.5
20 80 20.0
10 25 90.0
21 80 40.0

Boundary conditions

(a) Along X axis v = 0

(b) Along Y axis u = 0

Results:

Study the results such as the following:

(a) Deflected shape and maximum/minimum displacements

(b) Stress contours and maximum/minimum stresses

Find the stress concentration factor (SCF) defined as

σmax
SCF =
σnominal

§ 2.6 Plane Stress Problem with QUAD4 Mesh

In this section you may use the nodal point coordinates defined in Section 2.5

(a) Analyze the plate of Section 2.5 with the quadrilateral elements (QUAD4 elements). Com-
pare your results with those obtained in Section 2.5

(b) Analyze the plate with a finer mesh of QUAD4 elements and compare the results with the
above. (Hint: You may subdivide the elements in (a) to get finer mesh)

§ 2.7 Plane Strain Problem with QUAD4 Mesh

A three dimensional body has its cross section as shown in Figure (2.7) and is very long in the
third dimension. Analyze the problem by using plain strain QUAD4 elements. Compare your
results with those obtained from Section 2.6

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Figure 2.9: Plain strain problem

§ 2.8 Axisymmetric Problem with QUAD4 Mesh

Consider a cylinder of diameter 160 mm with a central spherical cavity of diameter 40 mm

Figure (2.10). Analyze the problem with the same geometry used in Section 2.5 with the QUAD4
mesh used in Section 2.7.

Figure 2.10: Axisymmetric problem

§ 2.9 Plate Bending Problem with QUAD4 Mesh

Analyze the geometry shown in Figure (2.7) as a plate bending problem of a plate with central
hole, clamped over the outer edges and under a pressure of 6 N/mm2 . Use the same mesh used
in Section 2.7.

Figure 2.11: Plate bending problem

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 3
Linear Dynamic Analysis

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There are three exercises given in this session. In case, if the audience request special procedures
in the nonlinear static/dynamic analysis that will be considered and decided in the workshop.

§ 3.1 Free Vibration of SDOF

A single degree of freedom system composed of a column fixed at its base and a concentrated
mass at its top. Study the mode shape, natural frequency and period of oscillation of this
structure.

M = 20, 000 kg
E = 200 kN/mm2
I = 100 ∗ 106 mm2
h = 3m

Figure 3.1: SDOF System

Use analytical expression for natural frequency and estimate the period of oscillation. Also,
using SAP2000, model the problem, solve it numerically and compare your analytical result
against finite element solution.

§ 3.2 Forced Vibration of SDOF

The steel frame shown in Figure (3.2) supports a rotating machine that exerts a horizontal force
at the girder level F(t) = 200 sin(t). Assume 5% of critical damping, determine

(a) Displacement history of the girder,

(b) Reactions (Bending Moment, Shear and Axial Forces) at column base

Assume the girder is rigid. Other details are given as follows. Columns are of 200 × 200 × 10 mm
steel box section with Es = 200 kN/mm2 .

M = 1000 kg

F(t)
3m

6m

Figure 3.2: Frame structure subjected to harmonic load

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§ 3.3 SDOF Subjected to Ground Excitation

Assume that a simplified two degrees of freedom system as shown in the figure below:

M2
• self weight of all the elements is neglected

• material used is steel E = 200 kN/mm2 , ν = 0.3

E, I2

h
• height h = 3 m, M1 = M2 = 50, 000 kg

• moment of inertia I1 = I2 = 450 ∗ 106 mm4

M1
• no restrictions are allowed at the two levels

Use modal analysis to find the two fundamental frequencies. In ad- E, I1

h
dition apply ground acceleration record (input from a separate file
extracted from (...//Computers and Structures/SAP2000 14/Time
History Functions/LACC-NOR-1.TH) at column base and examine
the response of the structure.
Figure 3.3: Two DOF System

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 4
Practical Modeling Exercise

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1. A trapezoidal masonry dam shown in the Figure (4.1) is to have its water face vertical and
to be 33 m high with a maximum water height 3 m lower. The width of the crest is 4 m
and the density of the masonry is 2500 Kg/m3 . Determine the minimum width of the base
if no tension is to develop when the water level is at maximum. Take the density of water
as 1000 Kg/m3 .

Figure 4.1: Gravity masonry dam

Use SAP2000 and model the problem and apply hydrostatic pressure loading. Study the
stresses and identify the areas which are susceptible for tensile cracking.

2. A circular chimney is constructed from brick and mortar of density 2000 Kg/m3 . The
external and internal diameters are constant at 5 m and 4 m respectively. Determine the
maximum height of the chimney if no tension is to be included at the base under a wind
pressure, assumed to be constant across the chimney width and acting on the projected
area of the chimney, given by √
p = 0.2 H kN/m2 (4.1)
where H is the height above ground level in metres.

Figure 4.2: Circular chimney under wind load

Model the problem in SAP2000 and perform modal analysis, and study the responses due
to wind and earthquake loading on it.

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3. In design calculations, ‘exact’ values are often not needed. In general, the purpose of the
structural analysis of a frame is not to calculate the maximum member forces at the beam
column junction of the centrelines, but rather at the inner face of the corner for bending or
at a distance of 0.5d to 1.0d for shear, depending on the design code. However, the exact
modeling of the stiffness of the frame corner is important, as these can have a large effect
on both the internal forces and the deformation of the member or structure.
Model the portal frame bridge shown in the Figure (4.3) below using a skeletal frame
model. Study the effects of end rigid zones.

Figure 4.3: Portal frame bridge

The schematic diagram is given below.

Figure 4.4: Schematic diagram

Study the internal forces and displacements under the following load cases

(1) asymmetric earth pressure

(2) live load on the backfill (left/right)
(3) traffic loads on the bridge (moving loads)

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4. The figure shows the cross-section of a hollow box girder bridge. In this particular case,
these segments are standard cross-sections of the one of the longest segmental hollow box
girders in the world, the Second Stage Expressway Systems in Bangkok, Thailand.

Figure 4.5: Cross section of segmental bridge module

Using a skeletal frame model, study the bending moment and shear forces developed in the
cross-section due to DEAD load. You may use the following figure to model the segment.

Figure 4.6: Model of segmental bridge module

Examine the behavior of the structure under the knife-edge loading of 10 kN/ m at

(1) the outer edge of the cantilever slab

(2) the mid span of the top slab
Comment on the results of the simplified frame model. For the load
on the cantilever slab, check the effect on the bending moment and
displacements when you model the corners (shown right) with or
without coupling. Check those influence when the load is applied
at mid-span of top slab.

24
 References

[1] CSI Analysis Reference Manual–2015, Computers & Structures Inc., Berkeley, California,
USA.

[2] Edward L. Wilson, Three-Dimensional Static and Dynamic Analysis of Structures, A phys-
ical approach with emphasis on earthquake engineering, Computers & Structures, Inc.,
Berkeley, California, USA.

[3] Karl-Gunnar Olsson and Ola Dahlblom, Structural Mechanics–Modelling and Analysis of
Frames and Trusses, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2016.

[4] P.R.Lancaster and D.Mitchell, Advanced Solid Mechanics, The Macmillan Press Ltd, 1980.

[5] R.W.Young, Essential Solid Mechanics, The Macmillan Press Ltd, 1976.

[6] R.W.Young, Energy Methods of Structural Analysis, The Macmillan Press Ltd, 1981.

[7] G.A.Rombach, Finite Element Design of Concrete Structures, ICE Publishing, UK, 2011.

[8] fib Bulletin 45, Practitioners’ guide to finite element modelling of reinforced concrete struc-
tures, fédération internationale du béton, 2008.

[9] Pierre Ladevèze, Local Effects in the Analysis of Structures, Elsevier Science Publishers,
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[10] Derek Seward, Understanding of Structures, The Macmillan Press Ltd, 1994.

[11] https://www.csiamerica.com/about

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