OVERVIEW

This module was primarily created for first year college students to aid them in the
processes of writing and communication for academic purposes. More often than not, many
students still have the tendency to mix up their writing and speaking styles even when there is a
required format or style for them to use. This is what this module aims to address.

The module contains lessons on the characteristics of the academic paper as well as the
process of writing one. It also dedicates a particular portion on common papers written by
college students such as the report and the research paper. Moreover, the last part also
discusses the presentation of academic papers in oral form so as to round out the entire process
of academic communication.

1
 OBJECTIVES

By the time the students had gone through this module, they are expected to:

1. Write and present academic papers using appropriate tone, style, conventions and
reference styles;

2. Adopt awareness of audience and context in presenting ideas; and

3. Convey ideas through oral, audio-visual and/or web-based presentations for different
target audiences in local and global settings using appropriate registers

2
THE ACADEMIC PAPER: AN INTRODUCTION

One of the first things you will notice once you become a college student is how
different the writing tasks are from those you did when you were in high school. Because of this,
you might find that the writing strategies you relied on before do not serve you well anymore.
What you need to realize is that most writing tasks in college are classified as “academic
writing”.

Academic Writing

This is a writing style that scholars and researchers use to define the intellectual
boundaries of their respective disciplines or their areas of expertise (Hartley, 2008).

Accordingly its general purpose is to aid the understanding of its readers. More particularly,
it has three purposes (Whitaker, 2009):

1. To persuade
You want to convince your reader to agree with your perspective so you use reason and
evidence to influence their stance about an issue or topic.

2. To analyze
You aim to explain and evaluate possible points about an issue or topic based on criteria.
Academic papers having this purpose usually investigate, examine, evaluate, assess,
establish relationships and synthesize.

3. To inform
You want to explain and give readers new points about an issue or topic.

Listed below are the basic types of academic paper. Which of them have you already
experienced writing? Put a check mark before those that you have already written and compare
with your classmates.

o Essay o Research o Reaction o Journal

Paper Paper
o Book o Synthesis o Literature
Review Review
Chances are you will be required to write a majority of these papers sooner or later in
your course. That is why it is important for you to know how to write one. While academic
papers may have different writing conventions, vocabulary and discourse depending on your
area of discipline, there are general features that are relevant for all.

Features of Academic Writing (Gillett, 2018)

3
 Here are the defining characteristics of academic writing that makes it different from the
other types of writing you might have done in the past:

1. Complexity
The complexity of academic papers lies in the grammar not in the vocabulary. Compare
the following examples:

Non-academic Writing Academic Writing

You can control the trains this way and if
you do that you can be quite sure that
they’ll be able to run more safely and
more quickly than they would otherwise,
no matter how bad the weather gets.
The use of this method of control
unquestionably leads to safer and faster
train running in the most adverse weather
conditions.
Halliday as cited by Koutraki (2015)

2. Formality
Academic writing is formal because colloquial words and expressions (stuff, sort of) as
well as contractions (can’t, doesn’t) are avoided. Knowing the level of formality needed
in your paper is crucial that is why you should also know who your readers are and your
purpose for writing. The following table shows the three levels of formality:

Non-formal Semi-formal Formal

Hi! I read in the paper that
you’re looking for a
receptionist. I think that I
am good for that job
because I’ve done stuff like
it in the past, am good with
words, and am incredibly
well-organized.
I am applying for the
receptionist position that is
currently open in the
company. As you are aware,
I have worked as a
temporary employee with
your company in this
position before. As such, I
not only have experience
and knowledge of this
position, but also already
understand the company’s
needs for this job.
I am applying for the
receptionist position
advertised in the local
paper. I am an excellent
candidate for the job
because of my significant
secretarial experience,
good language skills, and
sense of organization.
Koutraki (2015)

3. Precision
In academic writing, you have to make use of particular information, dates and figures.
For an instance, instead of saying “there are a lot of participants” say “there are 100
participants” instead.
4
 4. Objectivity
Academic writing is not personal. This is because the emphasis should be on the
information and not on the writer. To ensure objectivity, strong support such as facts,
examples and expert opinions can be used.

5. Explicitness
The text of an academic paper is explicit in establishing the relationships in its contents.
It is not just all facts and summaries. Explicitness can be achieved by using transitional
devices.

6. Accuracy
Since academic writing is written by scholars for other scholars, the information therein
should be truthful and exact. Accuracy is seen not only in the information or data given
but also in the use of words. For an instance, while they may have similarities, the terms
“gathering”, “conference” and “meeting” refer to different things.

7. Organization
Academic writing is well-organized because the content flows easily from one part to
another. There is a standard organizational pattern for each kind but basically there is an
introduction, a body and a conclusion.

8. Planning
Academic writing is well-planned. The writer has a specific purpose in writing which has
been established after research and evaluation. For this, many research sources should
be used to support ideas that are integrated in the paper.

Activity 01
Given is a short informative essay that is weak and faulty by standards. Brainstorm with a
seatmate to identify the parts that need editing. Afterwards, rewrite an improved version in the
space provided after the essay.

5
 New Zealand

In the past, New Zealand was a part of the Polynesian territory. In fact, the islands’ first settlers
were the Maori people who arrived there at around 800 AD. The narratives of the Maori say
that the discovery of New Zealand is credited to Kupe, a Polynesian from Hawaiki. The first
European who discovered the islands came in 1642 and gave it its name: Niew Zeeland but it
was 127 years after when another European explorer, James Cook, visited it again. He mapped
the territory and made a report of it back to Britain, outlining its inhabitants, resources, etc.
(Wilson, 2005). In 1840, Maori local chiefs ceded their sovereignty to Great Britain and
formalizing New Zealand as a colony. By the 1850s, the locals began seeking for self-government
but they were defeated in a series of wars. It was only in 1907 when it became independent
(CIA, 2017).

Which of the essay’s features was faultily done? Place a

Complexity
checkmark on the space provided each feature that needs Formality
improvement and discuss with your partner how you can make Precision
it better. Objectivity
Explicitness
Accuracy
Organization
Planning

Write down the improved version of the essay here:

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
WRITING THE ACADEMIC PAPER

6
 You might wish that writing the academic paper is
as easy as what Calvin tells Hobbes in the comic
strip.

While Calvin’s way may seem as the easy way out

in finishing most of your school requirements, it is
not necessarily the most effective way.

Watterson (1993)

Test your knowledge!

Answer the questions below by encircling the letter of the best answer.

1. Some forms of academic writing are geared towards the general public. Most types
however are meant for which audience?
a. Professionals
b. Specialists
c. Students
d. Writers
2. All of the following are classified under the academic writing genre except for one.
Which does not belong?
a. Literary analysis
b. Instructional manual
c. Term paper
d. Short story collection
3. Which of the following best describes the tone of most academic writing?
a. Brief
b. Descriptive
c. Informative
d. Narrative
4. Quotation marks are used in all of the following except for one. Which does not belong?
a. Exact statement from a person
b. Paraphrased statement
c. Titles of poems
d. Titles of articles
5. What punctuation mark is used for in-text citation of references?
a. Colon

7
 b. Hyphen
c. Quotation marks
d. Parentheses

If you might have noticed, the questions you answered pertained to the different
aspects of academic writing: tone, style, conventions and referencing. In order for you to write
an effective academic paper, these are the things you need to consider.

Tone and Style in Academic Writing

While Tone is most associated with speech, it also exists in writing. Tone refers to the
writer’s voice in his/her work. It is what the readers might perceive as the reflection of the
writer’s attitude towards what he/she is talking about in the text. Hence, writers should know
how to use tone properly in order to convey the right ideas to the readers.

Walden University (2017) specified that objectiveness is what defines the tone of
academic writing. Objectivity can be achieved by ensuring that your content is unbiased,
scholarly and supported by evidence. Furthermore, APA (2010) indicated that all of the
following should be avoided so as to ensure objectivity:

 Generalizations (using words such as ‘always’ and ‘never’)

 Over-sweeping objectives (using words such as ‘excellent’ or ‘perfect’)
 Adverbs (‘really’, ‘very’)
 Qualifiers (‘a little’, ‘some’)
 Emotional language (‘It is heartbreaking’)

Formality on the other hand refers to a language style that does not have a personal or
conversational tone to it. According to Purdue Owl (2018), you can determine the level of
formality you need to use in your paper by two things: your purpose in writing and your
readers’ expectations.

To ensure a formal tone, the following should be avoided:

 Addressing readers especially by using second person pronouns
Ex. You will find the graph in the appendices

 Contractions
Ex. The document doesn’t indicate the said data…

8
  Questions (unless in the statement problem of a research paper)
Ex. How does the process work?
 Exclamations
Ex. Evidence is needed!
 Two-word verbs
Ex. The proficiency levels went down

 Run on expressions
Ex. Some of these are tablets, smart phones, etc.

 Coordinating conjunctions at the beginning of sentences

Ex. So the evidence indicates…

 Passive voice (unless the agent of the action is unimportant)

Ex. The data was provided by the 300 respondents…

Citing and Referencing in Academic Writing

Academic writing involves sources of information from authorities of published materials

(books, journal articles and published reports). These sources are used to support the ideas you
present. They are classified as primary and secondary.

Primary: publicly available data (historical documents, interview data), raw data from
experiments and demographic records

Secondary: data that were also based on primary data and have been produced for public
consumption in journal articles or chapters in edited books.

When you include sources in your academic paper, they are known as literature. When you
use literature in your paper, it is known as citing or in-text referencing.

1. Citation Style Types

There are many types of citations styles used in academic writing and they depend on the
type of paper you are doing. Generally, students do not choose, they simply comply with the
referencing style guidelines provided by the school or department they belong to. The
following are the citation style types commonly used in academic writing:

9
a. APA (American Psychological Association): this is used within the social sciences and
sometimes in other related fields. It is an author-date format by which in-text references
are given within parentheses.

In-text referencing:
Ex. Diaz (2010) suggested that…
Recommendations suggested that…(Diaz, 2010)
Reference list:
1. Book: Author’s last name, Initials. (Year Published). Title of book. Place of
publication. Publisher.

Ex. Walklate, S. (2017). Criminology: The basics (2nd ed.). London, United Kingdom:
Taylor & Francis Ltd.

2. Journal article: Last name, Initials. (Year Published). Title of article. Title of Journal,
Volume number. Page numbers.

Ex. Sorensen, J., Snell, C., & Rodriguez, J. J. (2006). An Assessment of Criminal Justice
and Criminology Journal Prestige∗. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 17(2), 297-
322.

3. Webpage: Author’s last name, Initials. (Year Published). Title of webpage. Retrieved
from [URL here].

Ex. Muirehead, R. (2016). Components of the Criminal Justice System | Goodwin

College. Retrieved from https://www.goodwin.edu/enews/components-criminal-
justice/

Notes: If there is no author, begin with the title and then the publication date
If there is no publication date, write n.d. (no date) within the parentheses instead

b. MLA (Modern Language Association): this is used within the fields of literature and
language. In-text referencing is also done within parentheses at the end of the sentence.

In-text Referencing: In MLA, the last name of the author and the page number are cited.
Ex. Diaz suggested that…(11)
Recommendations suggested that…(Diaz 11)

10
 Reference list:
1. Book: Author’s last name, First Name. Book Title. Place of publication. Publisher,
Publication year.

Ex. Walklate, Sandra. Criminology: The Basics. 2nd ed. London, United Kingdom:
Taylor & Francis Ltd, 2017.

2. Journal Article: Author’s last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Journal Title. Volume.
Issue Publication Year. Inclusive page numbers.

Ex. Sorensen, Jon, et al. "An Assessment of Criminal Justice and Criminology Journal
Prestige∗." Journal of Criminal Justice Education, vol. 17, no. 2, 2006. pp. 297-322.

3. Webpage: Author’s last name, First name. “Title of Work.” Title of overall website.
Version. Publisher. Publication Year. Date of access.

Ex. Muirehead, Roger. "Components of the Criminal Justice System." Goodwin

College. Wordpress, 2016, www.goodwin.edu/enews/components-criminal-justice/.
Accessed 11 Nov. 2015.

Activity 02
Given here are some literature sources. Write them in the reference list as prescribed by the
formats you have studied earlier.
1. Book
Title: Visualizing Technology
Author: Debra Geoghan
Year Published: 2013
Publisher: Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA

APA

MLA

11
 Journal Article
Title: The Effect of an Educational Computer Game for the Achievement of Factual
and Simple Conceptual Knowledge Acquisition
Author: Luis C. Almeida
Year Published: 2012
Journal: Education Research Journal Volume 2012
Pages: 1-6

APA

MLA

2. Webpage
Title: Technology and Society-Impact of Technology on Society
Author: Karehka Ramey
Year Published: 2012
Website: Useoftechnology.com
URL Address: https://www.useoftechnology.com/technology-society-impact-
technology-society/

APA

MLA

2. Using Other Authors’ Ideas in Your Paper

12
You cannot simply copy literature when you cite them in your paper. You have to state the
author’s idea in your own words. While this may be difficult at first, you can improve with
practice. You can do this effectively by summarizing and paraphrasing.

a. Summarizing
To summarize is to select the key or important features of a text and then
consolidate these into a shorter version of the original text. Summarizing is done by
simplifying ideas and by using differently structured sentences (Bowker, 2007).

Look at the following example:

Original Text
According to Quijano (2007), reading
problems are one of the primary reasons
why some students do poorly in the
National Achievement Test or NAT has
something to do with reading. Students’
poor reading skills are credited to their
lack of interest in reading itself.
Summarized Version
One of the main reasons why students
do poorly in the National Achievement
Test is poor reading skills (Quijano,
2007). Which in turn are due to the
students’ disinterest in reading.

As you can see, there are words that were extracted from the original text and
used again in the summarized version. These are the keywords and preserving them
in the summarized version of the text is necessary to ensure that the original idea is
still retained.

b. Paraphrasing

When you paraphrase a text, you restate information differently. The difference
of summarizing from paraphrasing is that paraphrasing does not necessarily need to
shorten or condense the text. The aim of paraphrasing is to rewrite by using different
words and phrases (Bowker, 2007).

Look at the following example:

Original Text
This study was conducted among 100
Grade V pupils of Reina Mercedes
Central School during the school year
2017-2018. Through the data-gathering,
the researcher was able to determine
Paraphrased Version
100 Grade V pupils in Reina Mercedes
Central School in the school year 2017-
2018 participated as respondents in this
study. Data gathered from the
respondents indicated the relationship

13
 the relationship between the reading between reading performance and the
performance and the reading anxiety of reading anxiety experienced by the
the pupils pupils.

As you might have noticed, the paraphrased version is not necessarily shorter
than the original text. Furthermore, the order of ideas did not change.

Additional Techniques in Summarizing and Paraphrasing

Your summarizing and paraphrasing skills can be improved if you take the time to
develop an extensive vocabulary of words you can use. You may start with the
following terms (Bowker, 2007):

Articulate, comment, mention, maintain, note, point out, say, state, suggest,
indicate, refer
Hypothesize, predict, theorize, conceptualize, demonstrate, show, convey,
portray, support
Substantiate, corroborate, verify, confirm
Investigate, research, experiment, conduct, administer, observe
Acknowledge, assert, claim
Argue, challenge, compare, contradict, contrast, counteract, debate, defend,
refute, hold
Comprise, consist, constitute, embody, characterize, define, identify, recognize,
diagnose
Create, construct, develop, generate, produce, evolve, manufacture
Synthesize, coordinate, cooperate, correspond, collaborate, contribute, share
Reveal, conceal
Analyze, examine, evaluate, scrutinize, criticize
Report, record, collect, collate, categorize, document
Differentiate, deviate, distinguish, divide, separate
Access, utilize, deploy, adopt, practice
Strengthen, increase, expand, weaken, reduce, decrease, contract, condense
Convince, compel, justify, explain, clarify, reason, account
Signify, highlight, specify, specialize, symbolize
Accumulate, calculate, maximize, minimize, formulate
Relate, connect, link, associate, correlate
Exclude, include, situate, locate, place
Condemn, deny, decline, negate

14
Dominate, segregate, subordinate
Affect, influence, transform
Conclude, summarize

You can also practice effectively summarizing and paraphrasing by changing the
structure and form of the sentences. For that, you may use the following strategies
(Bowker, 2007):

1. Start by citing the author’s name first

Ex. Diaz (2010) stated that….
According to Diaz (2010)….

2. Cite the author’s name in the middle or at the end of the statement
Ex. As indicated by Diaz (2010)….
Reading anxiety was defined by Diaz (2010)….
Reading anxiety is the….as stated by Diaz (2010).

3. Use different linking expressions or transitional devices to start a statement

related to the previous one.
Ex.

a. Being Specific
In particular… Regarding…
In relation to… With respect to…
More specifically… In terms of…

b. Giving examples
For an instance… Namely…
For example… …such as…
This can be illustrated by…

c. Clarifying
In other words… Basically… Namely…

d. Parallel ideas
Concurrently… At the same time…
Simultaneously… Equally…

e. Common points
15
 Traditionally… Typically…
Commonly… Often…
Conventionally…

f. Acknowledging something but bringing up a different perspective

Although… Even though…
Despite… Despite…
Notwithstanding…

g. Following a line of reason

Therefore… Consequently…
Hence… Accordingly…
Subsequently… To this end…
As a result... As a corollary…

4. Summarize a point shared by different authors

Ex. Diaz (2010), Cruz and Po (2013) and Santos (2016) argued in their
respective studies that…

Activity 03

Improve the tone and formality of the following statements by rewriting them. Write your
answer in the space provided.

1. Many schools make use of psychological assessment for their students.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

2. Personality tests are regarded by psychologists and educators as important in helping

them manage students perfectly in schools.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

16
3. Personality tests help out teachers by giving them a picture of their students’ personality
traits.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

4. Personality tests are also utilized by teachers in finding out students’ strengths and
needs.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

5. However, we should know that personality tests are not supposed to brand students.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

6. Take note, personality tests should never be used as basis for discriminating students.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

7. They are supposed to be utilized to make teaching and learning more effective.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

8. These tests are used for opening up the lines of communication and give guidance.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

9. Teachers can use the personality test results as basis for planning lessons and fun
activities for the students.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

17
 10. When students are made to feel that the teacher really understands them, they will
more likely blossom more to their full potentials.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Summarize/Paraphrase the following passage by following the steps indicated below.

A parallel study conducted by Santiago and Prudente (2010) on high school

students showed that high school students perceived climate change as a very serious
issue. Students expressed concern, optimism and willingness to solve this environmental
problem. However, the same students scored very low in the concept test. Bautista, Perez
and Santos (2010) reported that students are not confident with what they know about
the cause of climate change and everyone should be committed in contributing
something to solve the problem: it is not an entirely personal but a communal
commitment.
-Evaluating Students’ Knowledge, Attitude and Perception on Climate Change
By Diana Joy B. Calacsan and Lorelei C. Tabago

1. List down the key words or key phrases then give alternative phrases or synonyms for
these.

2. Write down the main point of the passage in your own words (including the alternative
phrases/synonyms of the key words/phrases you have identified).

18
 3. Simplify what you have written down in Item 2.

THE WRITING PROCESS

Writing is considered as a difficult task for many students and they attribute it to many
reasons. How about you? What are your reasons in thinking that writing is difficult? Write them
down in the space provided:

19
 Share what you have written above in an informal class discussion with your classmates.
Do you have the same reasons with your classmates?

Nevertheless, writing does not have to as problematic as you make it out to be. All you
really need to do is to master certain techniques and practice.

First of all, you need to understand that academic writing involves the interpretation of
information and the development of an educated opinion which can be supported by pertinent
data.

This might sound complicated but you can simplify what academic writing is all about by
following this process:

Steps in Writing

I. Preparation
P r e p a R e s a rc h W r it e
Since most academic writing you might do is for requirements in your respective
courses, you can expect that most topics will be by your teacher’s choosing. In that case,

20
your preparation will compose primarily of clarifying the topic assigned and
brainstorming.

When you clarify the topic assigned to you, you get to ensure that you really
understand what you are supposed to do. Furthermore, you will also make more
informed choices when you go through the steps of writing.

You can do this by rephrasing the assigned statement or question and

determining if it makes sense to you. If not, you can always consult with your teacher
and classmates.

To help you clarify your topic, you can also look for certain keywords and
determine what they really mean. Underline them because they will guide you on the
tasks you need to do. Here are common key words used for academic writing topics:

Analyze Examine each part of an issue and describe how they are
related
Argue Present opposing views or support one by presenting a logical
sequence of discussions
Assess Weigh the positive and negative features of something and
make a judgment about it
Compare Show the similarities and differences
Contrast Emphasize the difference between two concepts
critique/criticize Analyze something by weighing its features and making a
judgment about it
Describe Identify features, qualities and aspects
Define Give the meaning of something
Discuss Explain several perspectives about something
Enumerate List down the main features of something
Evaluate Consider different perspectives and then arrive at a judgment
identify/indicat Point out the main features or factors
e
Interpret Explain something in deeper detail
Illustrate Give examples
Justify/prove Reason out by logical argument
Outline Provide the important or main points
Review Provide an overview
Summarize Give a short description

21
 Once you have made sure that you have really understood your topic, you can
proceed to brainstorming.

Brainstorming can be done in different ways depending on your preference. It

may include any of the following:
1. Asking questions

This brainstorming technique will be particularly useful in giving you an

effective beginning if you ask the right questions. Metzinger (2017) identified
the following types of questions you can use:

a. Observational questions: these compose of questions focused on what

you can directly perceive. (Ex. What facilities are lacking or missing in
the laboratory?)

b. Reflective questions: these compose of questions focused on the

previous experiences of someone—including you—about the topic. (Ex.
Which laboratory feature did you have the most difficulty with?)

c. Interpretative questions: these compose of questions that lead to a

discussion since they allow for consideration of the meaning,
significance and even implications on a certain topic. (Ex. How does the
laboratory affect science learning in the school?)

d. Decisional questions: these compose of questions that will lead to an

action that can be done to address the issue or topic. (Ex. What should
be improved in the school laboratory?)

2. Mapping

22
 Mapping is an effective technique especially if you want to distinguish the
significance of related ideas as sub-topics to your main topic. Here is an
example:
S tu d e n ts'
p e r c e p t io n o n
t h e s c ie n c e
la b o r a to r y
N eg
a tiv
e

P o s s ib le P o si
im p ro v e m tiv e
e n ts

The topic is written in the center and the sub-topics are connected to it.
You can add more ideas to the sub-topics as you go on; and from there, you
will be able to determine for yourself which ideas are relevant to your paper.

Activity 04

Given here is a topic for an academic paper, particularly an essay. Prepare for it by clarifying the
topic and by brainstorming. Do this together with a partner.

TOPIC: Discuss and justify why Iceland is considered as

one of the most progressive countries in the world today

A. Clarifying the topic

B. Brainstorming

23
II. Research

Once you have understood your topic, you may start the second phase of
researching. The research phase consists mainly of reading broadly and formulating a
position based on what you have gleaned from your readings.

1. Reading for research

“Academic texts are not meant to be read like a novel, they are generally meant
to be scoured and plundered for their ideas and arguments.”
-Academic Reading (University of Technology Sydney)

When you read for research, you do so to get ideas and to gain a deeper
understanding about a topic. To read efficiently, you should predict, question and
then integrate.

Predict
 What information do you want to get?
 Is the source reliable and up to date?
 Is the given information relevant or helpful to your purpose?

Give the text a skim. Focus on the introduction and then the conclusion since
these often contain the summary of the entire text. Also take note of sections,
graphics (tables and charts) and references. These mark the important points of the
text.

24
Question
Ask yourself some questions while you are reading. These questions will help you
determine the usefulness of the text:

 Is this text useful for my topic?

 Am I learning something from it?
 Do I understand what it is saying?

If you answer yes to these questions, you can start reading in detail. While you
are doing so, you can start taking notes for important points. When you take notes,
remember to include referencing.
Also, do not copy out everything in their original form. It would be better if you
put the statements in your own words to make sure you understand it.

For a more organized note-taking, you can always make use of a matrix such as
this:

Topic Author and year Title of Relevant

published Source Content
The role of Avi Hofstein and The Laboratory The laboratory
laboratory in Vincent N. in Science has always been
science Lunetta (2003) Education: considered as an
education Foundations for important part
the Twenty-First of science
Century learning since it
lets students
construct
knowledge and
engage in
investigative
work and inquiry

Integrate

25
 After reading, review your notes and then integrate. This means
highlighting important points and connecting them to other ideas or perspectives
you have read.

2. Formulating a position

Now that you know enough of your topic, you can finally formulate a
position. A position is simply your perspective about the topic. Once you have
established your position, you can start formulating your line of reason or
argument.

Activity 05

Now that you have done your preparation in Activity 03, it is time to do your research on the
same topic. With your partner, work on your research by following the given steps:

A. Predict
Be guided accordingly by these points:

 What information do you want to get?

 Is the source reliable and up to date?
 Is the given information relevant or helpful to your purpose?
 Question

B. Outline a matrix here. Limit your notes to a minimum of five (5) and a maximum of ten
(10).

(Refer to the next page)

Topic Author Title of Relevant

and year Source Content
published

26
C. Integrate and formulate your position.

27
III. Writing

28
 By now, you have done a lot of focused reading and you finally have a clear view of
your position. It is now time to write. The best way to start writing is to compose an
outline. Outlining will allow you to organize your ideas in a logical and coherent manner.

An outline is a “blueprint” for your paper. Refer to the following sample as your
guide for outlining:

The Laboratory in Science Education

I. Importance of the laboratory

A. Effect on education
1. On learning in general
2. On improving science education
II. Perceived impact by
A. Teachers
B. Students

The outline you can see here is a simple example only. It is known as the
alphanumeric outline since it makes use of the following order of markers signifying
main topics from sub-topics:

 Roman numerals (main topic)

 Capitalized letters (sub-topics)
 Arabic minerals (details)
 Lower case letters (minor details)

Of course, if your topic is broad and you have more discussions to include, you can
expand the number of sub-topics as you see fit.

After outlining, you may begin your first draft based on the order of ideas in your
outline. It is also important to note that your paper should have the following parts:
introduction, body and conclusion.

1. The Introduction

29
 Usually, this part is 1-2 paragraphs long but can be adjusted depending on
the academic paper and its specifications. Regardless of the length, the
introduction should accomplish the following:
 Gain the interest of the reader
 Provide background information on the topic and define important
concepts
 Briefly introduce the important points of the paper
 Give the thesis statement

2. The Body
While the paragraphs in the body can be written in a variety of ways
depending on your purpose, it is important to note that each paragraph should
have one point that supports your thesis statement. The body should also have
the following:
 Topic sentence
 Explanation of topic sentence
 Supporting details
 Concluding sentence

3. The Conclusion
Out of all the parts of the paper, this may be the shortest but it is also as
important. Effective conclusions should accomplish the following:
 Summarize the findings
 Show the significance of the findings

Activity 06

30
A. Create an alpha-numeric outline on the topic provided. Base your outline on the
resources you have gathered in Activity 4.

TOPIC: Discuss and justify why Iceland is

considered as one of the most progressive
countries in the world today

B. Write a five-paragraph essay based on the outline you have written. Be guided by the
following criteria:

31
 Organization of ideas 10
Tone, style and formality 15
Objectivity and accuracy 15

REPORT WRITING

32
 Reflect and share!

Whether you admit it or

not, there is a grain of truth in this
meme.
Aside from false security,
excuses, laziness and denial, what
do you think are the reasons why
you fail in writing an effective
report? Share your point of view
in an informal discussion with
your class.

Bowker (2007) defines the report as a type of academic writing which involves the
identification and examination of issues, events or findings that can be perceived or observed in
the physical sense. In some cases, the report can also be about events and issues that can be
explained by literature. Basically, a report is a means for you to present your investigation and
analysis of an issue or data while recommending actions to be taken for them.

A report can be used for a variety of areas such as business, science and research.
Nonetheless, they are generally similar since they are defined by three main characteristics:
a. A pre-defined structure
The report is a highly-structured piece of writing. It is composed of main sections that are
identified by headings. Generally, the main sections of a report are (1) introduction, (2)
discussion and (3) conclusion.

b. Independent structures
Each section, although a part of a whole, should be written in such a way that it can
stand alone. This is done so as to enable the reader to selectively identify the section
he/she wants to read without having to read the entirety of the report.

c. Unbiased conclusions
Reports are meant to be objective as all types of academic writing. There are times
however that you are required to present a certain point of view. If this is the case,
you should write in such a way that you arrived at that point of view through an
objective and through analysis of the issue.

33
The Report Structure
As the three main sections are already pre-defined, you, the writer, have the freedom to
select the structure of the discussion part of the report. Bowker (2007) identified three
structural formats for the report and they are as follows:
1. Flat Structure
You can use this structure when the ideas you present in the discussion are of equal
merit or weight—when one is not more important than the other:

Discussion

Idea 1 Idea 2 Idea 3 Idea 4

2. Hierarchical Structure
This type of structure is organized in such a way that the ideas are ranked according to
importance.

Discussion

Idea 1

Idea 2

Idea 3

Idea 4

3. General-Specific
For this structure, one main idea is further divided into smaller or more specific ideas.

Discussion

34
 Main Idea

Specific Idea 1 Specific Idea 2 Specific Idea 3

4. Relationship-oriented Structure
This structure is used if the ideas are related to each other.

Idea 1 Idea 2 Idea 3

Analyzing for a Report

Making a report usually requires you to analyze an issue or an event and this can range
from the simple to the complex identification, description and evaluation of the subject matter
you are writing about.
Bowker (2007) proposed three analysis techniques you can use in report-writing and
they are as follows:
1. SWOT Analysis
This analysis is derived from business studies and it involves looking into the pros and
cons of an issue. More particularly, it contains the following:
 Strengths
 Weaknesses
 Opportunities
 Threats

2. Force Field Analysis

This is similar to the SWOT Analysis; however aside from identifying the pros and cons,
they are also compared so as to arrive to a decision at the end. These are the steps for
the Force Field Analysis:
 Identify what motivates or supports a decision
 Identify what might hold back or restrain against a decision
 Prioritize the strongest driving and restraining force impacting the decision

3. PESTLE

35
 Another analysis technique, its name is derived from the following acronym:

Political
Economic or Educational
Sociological or Social
Technological
Legal
Environmental

For this technique, Bowker (2007) suggests that the different perspective may
comprise one section each in your report.

There will be instances when not all the given perspectives can be applied to the
topic of your report. If such is the case, you can just select the needed perspectives.

Formatting
While the format of reports varies depending on the requirements specified by your
instructor, the following are the common parts:
1. Title page
2. Executive summary
3. Table of Contents
4. Introduction
5. Discussion
6. Conclusion and Recommendations
7. References
8. Appendices

Activity 07

36
Plan a report by filling out the following outline. Your topic has already been provided below.
After outlining, draft a report and show it to your adviser for initial checking. From there,
develop a full-blown report.
TOPIC: Managing Your Mental Health in the 21st Century
Report Structure
Type of Analysis
Outline

WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER

37
 The fast pace of life in the 21 st Century had generated wider avenues for research.
Scientific inquiry has become such a useful skill that even students are encouraged to conduct
research studies so they can master this at an early age.

But how exactly do you master scientific inquiry? Hank Green of Crash Course in
YouTube specified the importance of testing and challenging knowledge, which is, basically,
what scientific inquiry is all about. He mentioned this in his Crash Course video entitled ‘Karl
Popper, Science and Pseudoscience’. Here are some important points in his discussion:

The traditional understanding of the scientific method,

going all the way back to the ancient Greeks, relied on the
belief that, to look at the world with a scientific eye is to
observe with no preconceived notions. You simply look, see
what you see, and then develop hypotheses based on those
observations.
Crash Course Youtube

But Popper argued that everyone has preconceived notions of some kind. We all start
out with a hunch, whether we admit it or not. After all, what we decide to observe is determined
by what you already care about enough to observe in the first place; and the fact that you care
about it so much also means that you already have some beliefs about it.

So the question is, when we begin to test a theory, are we looking to confirm it, or disconfirm
it? This is the key point for Popper—science disconfirms while pseudoscience confirms. He
elaborated on this insight by establishing a series of distinct conclusions about science and
knowledge:

 First, it’s easy to find confirmation of a theory if you’re looking for it.

 Confirmation should only count if it comes from risky predictions—ones that could
actually destroy your theory. Because Popper observed that every good scientific theory
is prohibitive—it rules things out. This might sound strange, because no one wants to be
wrong. But Popper says that every false belief we discover is actually good, because that
gets us that much closer to believing only true things.

 Popper argued that the only genuine test of a theory is one that’s attempting to falsify it.
Popper also points out that irrefutable theories are not scientific. If they can’t be tested,
then your theory doesn’t have much value. If you want to be able to really trust your

38
 belief, in a genuinely scientific way, you need to put your belief to the test, in every single
way you can imagine.

 Finally once you’ve disproven your theory, Popper said you need to be willing to give it
up…accept the evidence. Move on.

And this is the modern scientific thinking that we accept today: testable, refutable,
falsifiable. You don’t seek to prove scientific hypotheses right, you only prove them wrong…
Always remaining open to the idea that your current beliefs might be wrong is the best way to
get ever closer to the truth.

So where does this leave us? Remember, we started out trying to prove that we know the
things we thought we knew. But you have to be open to the idea that your beliefs might be false
—because that’s the only way that holding onto them can really mean anything. Otherwise,
we’ll all just believe whatever we want, with no grounds for adjudicating between beliefs.

Discussion Questions:
1. What was the traditional scientific method we inherited from the Greeks?
2. What was Karl Popper’s argument against this traditional method?
3. What is the difference between science and pseudoscience? Explain in detail.
4. Based on Popper’s explanation, how then do are we supposed to describe scientific
thinking?
5. How does the article above explain what scientific inquiry is? Explain.

Scientific inquiry develops logical thinking and this is exactly the reason why students are
encouraged to master it regardless of their specialization. After all, logical thinking is valuable
for everyone no matter what their background or the career they choose to take.

The National Research Council (2002) identified guiding principles of scientific inquiry:

 Provide relevant questions that can undergo empirical investigation

 Connect research to theory
 Use methods that allow direct and concrete investigation of the problem or question
 Replicate and generalize through different studies
 Open the research to others to allow for professional critique

Basically, these principles are meant to serve as your guide in carrying out research. They
underline the importance of objectivity, open-mindedness and accurate reporting.

39
The Research Paper

The research paper is the result of an exhaustive process that involves critical thinking,
source evaluation, organization and composition (Baker, Brizee and Velazquez, 2018). It aims to
further the field it was written for and provides scholars with the means for increasing their
knowledge.
It should not be confused with summary of informed sources however. Nor it is an
expository or an interpretative essay. The research paper is much more since it requires an
exhaustive amount of investigation and evaluation of resources about a particular topic.

I. Types of Research Paper

A. Argumentative Research Paper (Goal: Persuasion)

In this type of research paper, everything starts with an introduction that

introduces the topic and the stance it intends to take. Since this is the case, the
topic should be controversial or debatable.

Examine this topic carefully:

Peer-reviewed studies, medical organizations and even major

government reports from all over the world have identified the
medical properties of marijuana in treating symptoms of cancer, AIDS,
multiple sclerosis, epilepsy and chronic pain.

While the topic can instantly be classified as controversial, you might have
mistakenly concluded that it is also debatable. It is not.

If you examine the statement more carefully, you will notice that no claim
is made. The statement simply articulated how various official sources have
studied the effect of marijuana and found it to be effective against some
diseases. In other words, there is no stance yet.

If you want to use the same topic in your research paper, you should
state it this way:

Various studies and pertinent organizations have identified the

beneficial effects of marijuana on some diseases hence it should be 40
legalized in the Philippines.
 In this statement, the stance of the writer is already present. The writer is
challenging the established norm of marijuana being illegal. Now, the thesis
statement is both controversial and debatable.

From there, the writer may develop the research paper by citing primary
and secondary sources to support her thesis and thus persuade his readers that
the interpretation he presented is possible.

B. Analytical Research Paper (Goal: Exploration and Evaluation)

In this type of research paper, a question is usually addressed. And while

the question may also be debatable or controversial, the writer does not take a
stance since that is not the intention of the paper in the first place.

Look at this example:

How can the story of Cinderella be interpreted using the Marxist lens
of literary criticism?

The statement above might be controversial and debatable in the sense

that fairy tales are not naturally examined or interpreted using the Marxist
perspective; but take note that there is no stance presented hence the writer
does not intend to challenge the traditional readings or interpretations on the
fairy tale.

Instead, the writer simply aims to provide a new perspective or reading of the
literary piece.

II. Parts of a Research Paper

Most probably, your professor will give you the format for the research paper you are
required to do. Nonetheless, a research paper generally consists of the following parts:

41
A. Title Page
As the first page of your paper, this contains the following:
 Title
 Author’s name
 Institutional affiliation

Note: Your professor may also add additional information in the title page such
as semester and school year among others.

B. Main Text
The main text of a research paper is composed of the following parts:

 Abstract (Should not exceed 120 to 150 words)

The abstract should specify the purpose of the study, the
participants (if there are) and the results.

Note: Below the abstract are the keywords of the study which are
to be separated by commas.

 Introduction
This part should describe the rationale of the study. Preferably, the
discussion must run from general to specific and end with a
purpose or a hypothesis.

 Review of Related Literature and Studies

This contains the primary and secondary sources used by the
researcher in identifying the gap of the study and in building the
background for inquiry.

 Methodology
The Methodology includes information on the participants and
their profile, the instruments used and the procedure for data-
gathering and analysis.
 Results and Discussion
This part contains the outcome of the study and the analysis done
on the data gathered and treated.

42
 C. References
It is also termed as Bibliography or Works Cited in some instances. The sources
should be arranged in alphabetical order with hanging indention.

III. Developing the Introduction, Body and Conclusion (White, 2009)

A. The Introduction

The introduction’s purpose is to show the reader the issues that enabled the
researcher to develop the inquiry in the first place and how he proposes to
address them.

The introduction of a research paper does not have to be very long. In fact, a
shorter introduction is better.

B. The Body

The body of the research paper contains (a) the development of the argument
and (b) needed information to sustain the conclusion. It is also composed of a
number of sections which are indicated by headings.

The headings act as signposts on how the argument is being developed. For a
paper of 5,000 words, it is advisable that only two levels of heading are used. For
a paper of about 15,000 words, three levels of heading can be used.

To develop the body, you may use relevant illustrations and authoritative
quotations. When you use these elements, make sure that you also weave in
your argument or points in between. Remember, illustrations and quotations are
useful in validating your perspective but they should not be the sole content of
your paper.

C. The Conclusion

43
 The last part of your paper, the conclusion, draws together everything that you
have argued and stated about the topic. Its focus should be on addressing the
question you asked at the beginning of the paper.

Phrase your conclusion in such a way that the inquiry will be finalized. There
should be no new arguments in this part of your paper.

IV. Re-drafting and Editing

Critiquing your first draft is a must. Look it over and reflect on the following questions:
 Is the message clear?
 Are the points well-developed and exemplified?
 Is there a clear thread of argument?
 Are there gaps in the reasoning?
 Are there too many or too few quotations?
 Are the citations correctly stated?
 Was the research question/issue properly or clearly addressed?
 Do you think this is a good piece of writing?

It is at this stage that you will also receive the critique and advice of your professor.
Many students are apprehensive of this stage, but this should not be the case. Instead,
students should use this phase wisely since the supervisor’s criticism will enable you to
sharpen your ability to assess your own strengths and weaknesses in writing.

V. Preparing the Final Text

At this phase, your tasks will include the following:

 Following up points that need attention.

 Ensuring proper referencing.
 Editing the work to ensure that it complies with the specific requirements.

Activity 08

44
 A. Read the following statements and determine if they are argumentative or analytical.
Write your answer before the number.

_______________ 1. Various studies have indicated how more and more Gen Zs and
Millennials are experiencing worse mental health issues
compared to their predecessors. This has been brought about by
internal and external factors that are unique to their generation.
_______________ 2. The shift to federalism is one of the aims of the Philippine
president’s goals for the government because of its numerous
advantages. Federalism will address many of the problems in our
society.
_______________ 3. Animal experimentation and testing is widely practiced in the
development of new medicine and in determining the safety of
some products. It causes suffering and even death to animals
hence it is deemed as an immoral and unethical practice.
_______________ 4. While many activists today talk a lot about feminist issues such as
the objectification of women, there is also such a thing as
objectification of men.
_______________ 5. Denuclearizing North Korea is one of the foremost issues that the
US president is dealing with at the moment. But with Kim Jong Un
backtracking on proposed talks, it seems like North Korea will not
be agreeing to this anytime soon.

B. Choose one of the topics above as your research paper thesis statement. Prepare an
outline of your paper below and have it checked by your professor. If approved, write
your research paper.

PRESENTING YOUR ACADEMIC PAPER

45
 Finishing your academic paper is not the end of it. After all, the contents of an academic
paper are meant to be shared to others, especially to a scholarly audience. Hence, there will be
times when you will present your work orally or submit it to publications for wider
dissemination.

Presenting Your Paper

In the tertiary level of education, students are expected to present their academic works
in different settings such as in the classroom, in conferences and other relevant events.
Generally, you may find these activities daunting because you have to summarize a long report
into a few minutes of presentation only. With careful preparation however, the activity can be
made easier. Furthermore, presenting your paper to the public enables you to receive
constructive feedback for improving your work.

According to McNair Scholars (2011), an oral presentation of an academic paper should

accomplish the following:

a. Show the importance of your work

b. State findings and analysis clearly
c. Stimulate others to ask questions, provide feedback or suggestions and develop an
interest in your topic

1. Preparing your draft

First of all, you have to keep in mind that to understand your work, your
audience will listen more to you rather than read what you show in your visual aids. That
is why it is important that you talk in such a way that your audience can easily follow
you.

The Duke Writing Studio (2018) specified the following things that you should
remember to include in your talk:

 A brief introduction about yourself

 Thesis statement
 Rationale of your work
 Summarized body of your work
 Conclusion

46
2. Incorporating visuals

Visual components are meant to promote understanding of what you are saying
hence they should be presented as an aid and not a distraction to your discussion. Here
are some tips for you to consider in creating your visuals:

 Make sure that the background you use is simple and visually interesting. Also,
avoid backgrounds that make the text difficult to read.
 Text colors should contrast the background and keep them simple as well.
 Use fonts that are easy to read such as Times New Roman, Calibri or Arial. Use
only one font style all throughout your presentation. To ensure the readability of
your text observe these:
Titles: 44-point
Body: 22-point

 Avoid text heaviness. It is highly suggested that you create slides for each main
point of your discussion.
 Organize quantitative data in graphs or tables.

3. Presenting your work

The time allotment for your presentation is something that you have to consider.
After all, you need to address your topic directly and clearly in a matter of few minutes,
usually 10 to 20 minutes.

What students fear most in oral presentations is the prospect of questions about
their research. Nonetheless, if you understand your topic and what you did in your
paper, this is not really a problem. Moreover, you can always prepare and practice
responses to possible questions ahead of time.

Tips in addressing questions

 Listen attentively to the questioner. If possible, paraphrase the question to verify
if you understand what he/she is asking about:
“So you were asking if…”
“You would like to know if…”
 You do not have to answer right away. A short pause is acceptable because this
allows you to deliberate on how you will respond.
 If you cannot answer the question, be honest about it. There is nothing shameful
about not being able to answer some questions. You can simply say:
“Thank you for that question. Unfortunately I don’t have that information with
me at present.”
You can just offer to find out the answer and address it the next time.
47
Activity 09

A. Based on the research paper you wrote in the previous lesson formulate an outline of a
Powerpoint presentation. Write down the outline of your presentation below.

B. Organize your Powerpoint presentation and present in class. You may refer to the
following rubrics as your guide for your oral presentation.

CRITERIA Exceptional Admirable Acceptable Amateur

Content Points are clearly There are many Most points Thesis is unclear
and directly points that were were discussed and the
expressed. There discussed clearly in a disjointed information that

48
 is a large amount and directly but manner which were provided
of material to some parts were discourages do not support
support what vague. There is clarity and the discussion in
was discussed. sufficient directness. any way.
evidence and There is also
sources to little material to
support what support what
was discussed. was discussed.
Coherence & The discussion Most points are The connections The presentation
Organization flows smoothly presented between ideas of ideas is
from one point logically but the are loose and choppy because
to the next. The transitions still there is a lack of there is no
transitions need transitions. proper flow and
organize the improvement. logic to the
whole discussion discussion.
effortlessly.
Material The multimedia A majority of the The multimedia The multimedia
used was multimedia that was presented used was
appropriate and accompanied the unevenly and ineffective
complementary discussion was did not really because there is
to what was appropriate and synchronize too much/not
discussed. complementary with the enough to
for most parts. discussion. support the
discussion.
Speaking The presenter Articulation was There were Inaudible or too
Skills was poised and clear but not as some points loud. There was
enthusiastic. confident and that were not no clarity in the
There was clear polished articulated well. articulation.
and confident Confidence was
articulation of also lacking.
ideas.

References

Baker, J., Brizee, A., & Velazquez, A. (2018). Writing a Research Paper. Retrieved from
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/owlprint/658/

Bowker, N. (2007). Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing. Palmerston North, New Zealand:
Massey University.

49
Gillett, A. (2018, April 2). Features of Academic Writing. Retrieved from
http://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/featfram.htm

Hartley, J. (2008). Academic Writing and Publishing: A Practical Handbook. New York, NY: Francis &
Taylor.

Koutraki, M. (2015). Section 4: Complexity & Formality as Features of Academic Writing [PDF]. Retrieved
from
https://opencourses.uoc.gr/courses/pluginfile.php/16673/mod_resource/content/0/Presentatio
n%204-Complexity%20%20Formality.pdf

McNair Scholars. (2011). How to Create an Oral Research Presentation [PDF]. Retrieved from
http://mcnair.ucsb.edu/documents/HowtoCreateaResearchPresentation_000.pdf

Metzinger, D. (2017, May 31). 4 Types of Questions for Better Brainstorming - GovLoop. Retrieved from
https://www.govloop.com/community/blog/4-types-questions-better-brainstorming/

National Research Council. (2002). Guiding Principles for Scientific Inquiry. In Scientific Research in
Education. Northwest, WA: National Academies Press.

Purdue Owl. (2018). Purdue OWL: Using Appropriate Language. Retrieved from
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/608/02/

Walden University. (2017). Walden University Writing Center. Retrieved from

https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/c.php?g=465763&p=4557873

Watterson, B. (1993). Calvin and Hobbes [Comic Strip]. Retrieved from

http://www.gocomics.com/calvinandhobbes/2014/06/12

Whitaker, A. (2009, September). Academic Writing Guide 2010 A Step-by-Step Guide to Writing
Academic Papers [PDF]. Retrieved from
http://www.vsm.sk/Curriculum/academicsupport/academicwritingguide.pdf

White, R. C. (2009). Writing Guide 2: Writing a Research Paper (2nd ed.). Leicester, United Kingdom:
University of Leicester.

50