Imperialism

For other uses, see Imperialism (disambiguation). group of people.[6] This is often through various forms of
Imperialism is a type of advocacy of empire. Its name “othering” (see other) based on racial, religious, or cul-
tural stereotypes. There are “formal” or “informal” im-
perialisms. “Formal imperialism” is defined as “physical
control or full-fledged colonial rule”.[6] “Informal impe-
rialism” is less direct; however, it is still a powerful form
of dominance.[6]
The definition of imperialism has not been finalized for
centuries and was confusedly seen to represent the poli-
cies of major powers, or simply, general-purpose aggres-
siveness. Further on, some writers used the term imperi-
alism, in slightly more discriminating fashion, to mean
all kinds of domination or control by a group of peo-
ple over another. To clear out this confusion about the
definition of imperialism one could speak of “formal”
and “informal” imperialism, the first meaning physical
control or “full-fledged colonial rule” while the second
implied less direct rule though still containing perceiv-
able kinds of dominance.[6] Informal rule is generally
less costly than taking over territories formally. This is
because, with informal rule, the control is spread more
subtly through technological superiority, enforcing land
officials into large debts that cannot be repaid, owner-
ship of private industries thus expanding the controlled
area, or having countries agree to uneven trade agree-
ments forcefully.[7]
Cecil Rhodes and the Cape-Cairo railway project. Rhodes It is mostly accepted that modern-day colonialism is an
founded the De Beers Mining Company, owned the British Southexpression of imperialism and cannot exist without the
Africa Company and had his name given to what became the
latter. The extent to which “informal” imperialism with
state of Rhodesia. He liked to “paint the map British red” and
no formal colonies is properly described remains a con-
declared: “all of these stars ... these vast worlds that remain out
of reach. If I could, I would annex other planets”.[1] troversial topic among historians.[8] Both colonization
and imperialism have been described by Tom Nairn and
originated from the Latin word "imperium", which means Paul James as early forms of globalization:
to rule over large territories. Imperialism is “a policy of
extending a country’s power and influence through col- Even if a particular empire does not have a
onization, use of military force, or other means”.[2][3] It “global reach” as we would define it today, em-
has also allowed for the rapid spread of technologies and pires by their nature still tend to contribute to
ideas. The term imperialism has been applied to West- processes of globalization because of the way
ern (and Japanese) political and economic dominance es- that imperial power tends to generate counter-
pecially in Asia and Africa in the 19th and 20th cen- power at its edge-lands and send out reverber-
turies. Its precise meaning continues to be debated by ations far beyond the territories of their imme-
scholars. Some writers, such as Edward Said, use the diate control.[9]
term more broadly to describe any system of domination
and subordination organised with an imperial center and The word imperialism became common in Great Britain
a periphery.[4] during the 1870s and was used with a negative
Imperialism is defined as “A policy of extending a coun- connotation.[10] In Britain, the word had until then mostly
try’s power and influence through diplomacy or military been used to refer to the politics of Napoleon III in ob-
force.”[5] Imperialism is particularly focused on the con- taining favorable public opinion in France through foreign
trol that one group, often a state power, has on another military interventions.[10]

1
2 2
1 Colonialism vs Imperialism
“The word ‘empire’ comes from the Latin word im-
perium; for which the closest modern English equivalent
would perhaps be ‘sovereignty’, or simply ‘rule’".[11] The
greatest distinction of an empire is through the amount of
land that a nation has conquered and expanded. Political
power grew from conquering land, however cultural and
economic aspects flourished through sea and trade routes.
A distinction about empires is “that although political em-
pires were built mostly by expansion overland, economic
and cultural influences spread at least as much by sea”.[12]
Some of the main aspects of trade that went overseas
consisted of animals and plant products. European em-
pires in Asia and Africa “have come to be seen as the
classic forms of imperialism: and indeed most books on
the subject confine themselves to the European seaborne
empires”.[13] European expansion caused the world to be
divided by how developed and developing nation are por-
trayed through the world systems theory. The two main
regions are the core and the periphery. The core consists
of high areas of income and profit; the periphery is on
the opposing side of the spectrum consisting of areas of
low income and profit. These critical theories of Geo-
politics have led to increased discussion of the meaning
and impact of imperialism on the modern post-colonial
world. The Russian leader Lenin suggested that “imperi-
alism was the highest form of capitalism, claiming that
imperialism developed after colonialism, and was dis-
tinguished from colonialism by monopoly capitalism”.[14]
This idea from Lenin stresses how important new political
world order has become in our modern era. Geopolitics
now focuses on states becoming major economic players
in the market; some states today are viewed as empires
due to their political and economic authority over other
nations.
Territories that were once part of the British Empire.
The term “imperialism” is often conflated with
"colonialism", however many scholars have argued
that each have their own distinct definition. Imperialism
and colonialism have been used in order to describe one’s
superiority, domination and influence upon a person
or group of people. Robert Young writes that while
imperialism operates from the center, is a state policy
and is developed for ideological as well as financial
reasons, colonialism is simply the development for
JUSTIFICATION
settlement or commercial intentions. Colonialism in
modern usage also tends to imply a degree of geographic
separation between the colony and the imperial power.
Particularly, Edward Said distinguishes the difference
between imperialism and colonialism by stating; “impe-
rialism involved 'the practice, the theory and the attitudes
of a dominating metropolitan center ruling a distant
territory', while colonialism refers to the 'implanting of
settlements on a distant territory.'[15] Contiguous land
empires such as the Russian or Ottoman are generally
excluded from discussions of colonialism.[16]:116 Thus
it can be said that imperialism includes some form of
colonialism, but colonialism itself does not automatically
imply imperialism, as it lacks a political focus.
Imperialism and colonialism both dictate the political and
economic advantage over a land and the indigenous pop-
ulations they control, yet scholars sometimes find it dif-
ficult to illustrate the difference between the two.[17] Al-
though imperialism and colonialism focus on the suppres-
sion of an other, if colonialism refers to the process of
a country taking physical control of another, imperial-
ism refers to the political and monetary dominance, ei-
ther formally or informally. Colonialism is seen to be the
architect deciding how to start dominating areas and then
imperialism can be seen as creating the idea behind con-
quest cooperating with colonialism. Colonialism is when
the imperial nation begins a conquest over an area and
then eventually is able to rule over the areas the previ-
ous nation had controlled. Colonialism’s core meaning
is the exploitation of the valuable assets and supplies of
the nation that was conquered and the conquering nation
then gaining the benefits from the spoils of the war.[18]
The meaning of imperialism is to create an empire, by
conquering the other state’s lands and therefore increas-
ing its own dominance. Colonialism is the builder and
preserver of the colonial possessions in an area by a pop-
ulation coming from a foreign region.[19] Colonialism can
completely change the existing social structure, physical
structure and economics of an area; it is not unusual that
the characteristics of the conquering peoples are inher-
ited by the conquered indigenous populations.[20]
2 Justification
A controversial aspect of imperialism is the defense and
justification of empire-building based on seemingly ratio-
nal grounds. J. A. Hobson identifies this justification on
general grounds as: “It is desirable that the earth should
be peopled, governed, and developed, as far as possi-
ble, by the races which can do this work best, i.e. by
the races of highest 'social efficiency'".[21] Many others
argued that imperialism is justified for several different
reasons. Friedrich Ratzel believed that in order for a state
to survive, imperialism was needed. Halford Mackinder
felt that Great Britain needed to be one of the greatest
imperialists and therefore justified imperialism.[22] The
2.2 Cartography 3

purportedly scientific nature of "Social Darwinism" and a Orientalism, as theorized by Edward Said, refers to
theory of races formed a supposedly rational justification how the West developed an imaginative geography of
for imperialism. The rhetoric of colonizers being racially the East.[31] This imaginative geography relies on an
superior appears to have achieved its purpose, for exam- essentializing discourse that represents neither the di-
ple throughout Latin America “whiteness” is still prized versity nor the social reality of the East.[32] Rather, by
today and various forms of blanqueamiento (whitening) essentializing the East, this discourse uses the idea of
are common. place-based identities to create difference and distance
The Royal Geographical Society of London and other ge- between “we” the West and “them” the East, or “here” in
the West and “there” in the East.[33] This difference was
ographical societies in Europe had great influence and
were able to fund travelers who would come back with particularly apparent in textual and visual works of early
European studies of the Orient that positioned the East
tales of their discoveries.[23] These societies also served as
a space for travellers to share these stories.[23] Political ge- as irrational and backward in opposition to the rational
and progressive West.[30][34] Defining the East as a nega-
ographers such as Friedrich Ratzel of Germany and Hal-
ford Mackinder of Britain also supported imperialism.[24] tive vision of itself, as its inferior, not only increased the
West’s sense of self, but also was a way of ordering the
Ratzel believed expansion was necessary for a state’s sur-
vival while Mackinder supported Britain’s imperial ex- East and making it known to the West so that it could be
pansion; these two arguments dominated the discipline dominated and controlled.[35][36] The discourse of Orien-
for decades.[25] talism therefore served as an ideological justification of
early Western imperialism, as it formed a body of knowl-
Geographical theories such as environmental determin- edge and ideas that rationalized social, cultural, political,
ism also suggested that tropical environments created un- and economic control of other territories.[33][37]
civilized people in need of European guidance.[23] For
instance, American geographer Ellen Churchill Semple
argued that even though human beings originated in the
tropics they were only able to become fully human in the
temperate zone.[26] Tropicality can be paralleled with Ed-
ward Said’s Orientalism as the west’s construction of the
east as the “other”.[27] According to Siad, orientalism al- 2.2 Cartography
lowed Europe to establish itself as the superior and the
norm, which justified its dominance over the essential-
See also: Cartographic propaganda
ized Orient.[28]
Technology and economic efficiency were often im-
One of the main tools used by imperialists was cartog-
proved in territories subjected to imperialism through the
raphy. Cartography is “the art, science and technology
building of roads, other infrastructure and introduction of
of making maps”[38] but this definition is problematic.
new technologies.
It implies that maps are objective representations of the
The principles of imperialism are often generalizable to world when in reality they serve very political means.[38]
the policies and practices of the British Empire “during For Harley, maps serve as an example of Foucault’s power
the last generation, and proceeds rather by diagnosis than and knowledge concept.
by historical description”.[29] British imperialism often
To better illustrate this idea, Bassett focuses his anal-
used the concept of Terra nullius (Latin expression which
ysis of the role of nineteenth-century maps during the
stems from Roman law meaning 'empty land'). The coun-
"scramble for Africa".[39] He states that maps “con-
try of Australia serves as a case study in relation to British
tributed to empire by promoting, assisting, and legitimiz-
settlement and colonial rule of the continent in the eigh-
ing the extension of French and British power into West
teenth century, as it was premised on terra nullius, and
Africa”.[39] During his analysis of nineteenth-century car-
its settlers considered it unused by its sparse Aboriginal
tographic techniques, he highlights the use of blank space
inhabitants.
to denote unknown or unexplored territory.[39] This pro-
vided incentives for imperial and colonial powers to ob-
tain “information to fill in blank spaces on contemporary
2.1 Imaginative Geographies and Orien- maps”.[39]
talism Although cartographic processes advanced through im-
perialism, further analysis of their progress reveals
Imperial control, both territorial and non-territorial, is many biases linked to eurocentrism. According to
justified through discourses that shape our understanding Bassett, "[n]ineteenth-century explorers commonly re-
of different spaces.[30] The concept of imaginative ge- quested Africans to sketch maps of unknown areas on the
ographies explains how this understanding is limited by ground. Many of those maps were highly regarded for
our attitudes and ideas which work to obscure the reality their accuracy”[39] but were not printed in Europe unless
of these spaces.[30] Europeans verified them.
4 3 HISTORY

in social and cultural circles, i.e. its soft power, such that
it changes the moral, cultural and societal worldview of
another. This is more than just “foreign” music, televi-
sion or film becoming popular with young people, but that
popular culture changing their own expectations of life
and their desire for their own country to become more
like the foreign country depicted. For example, depic-
tions of opulent American lifestyles in the soap opera
Dallas during the Cold War changed the expectations of
Romanians; a more recent example is the influence of
smuggled South Korean drama series in North Korea.
The importance of soft power is not lost on authoritar-
ian regimes, fighting such influence with bans on foreign
popular culture, control of the internet and unauthorised
satellite dishes etc. Nor is such a usage of culture recent,
as part of Roman imperialism local elites would be ex-
posed to the benefits and luxuries of Roman culture and
lifestyle, with the aim that they would then become will-
ing participants.
Imperialism has been subject to moral or immoral cen-
sure by its critics, and thus the term is frequently used in
international propaganda as a pejorative for expansionist
and aggressive foreign policy.[40]

3.1 Age of Imperialism

The Age of Imperialism, a time period beginning around

1700, saw (generally European) industrializing nations,
engaging in the process of colonizing, influencing, and
annexing other parts of the world in order to gain politi-
Ottoman wars in Europe cal power. Although imperialist practices have existed for
thousands of years, the term “Age of Imperialism” gener-
ally refers to the activities of European powers from the
3 History early 18th century through to the middle of the 20th cen-
tury, for example, the "The Great Game" in Persian lands,
Imperialism has played an important role in the histories the "Scramble for Africa" and the "Open Door Policy" in
of Japan, Korea, India, China, Assyria, Ancient Egypt, China.[41]
Ancient Greece, the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Em-
pire, the Persian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, the British
Empire, and many other empires. Imperialism was a ba-
sic component to the conquests of Genghis Khan dur-
ing the Mongol Empire, and of other war-lords. Histori-
cally recognized Muslim empires number in the dozens.
Sub-Saharan Africa has also featured dozens of empires
that predate the European colonial era, for example the
Ethiopian Empire, Oyo Empire, Asante Union, Luba Em-
pire, Lunda Empire, and Mutapa Empire. The Americas
during the pre-Columbian era also had large empires such
as the Aztec Empire and the Incan Empire.
Although normally used to imply forcible imposition of a
foreign government’s control over another country or over
conquered territory that was previously without a unified
government, “imperialism” is sometimes used to describe
loose or indirect political or economic influence on weak
states by more powerful ones.[40]
Cultural imperialism is when a country’s influence is felt Africa, divided into colonies under multiple empires, circa 1913
 5

During the 20th century, historians John Gallagher

(1919–1980) and Ronald Robinson (1920–1999) con-
structed a framework for understanding European im-
perialism. They claim that European imperialism was
influential, and Europeans rejected the notion that “im-
perialism” required formal, legal control by one gov-
ernment over another country. “In their view, histori-
ans have been mesmerized by formal empire and maps
of the world with regions colored red. The bulk of
British emigration, trade, and capital went to areas out-
side the formal British Empire. Key to their thinking is
the idea of empire 'informally if possible and formally if British assault on Canton during the First Opium War, May 1841
necessary.'"[42] Because of the resources made available
by imperialism, the world’s economy grew significantly
and became much more interconnected in the decades dustrialists sought raw materials such as dyes, cotton, veg-
before World War I, making the many imperial powers etable oils, and metal ores from overseas. Concurrently,
rich and prosperous.[43] industrialization was quickly making Europe the center
of manufacturing and economic growth, driving resource
Europe’s expansion into territorial imperialism was
needs.[48]
largely focused on economic growth by collecting re-
sources from colonies, in combination with assuming po- Communication became much more advanced during
litical control by military and political means. The col- European expansion. With the invention of railroads
onization of India in the mid-18th century offers an ex- and telegraphs, it became easier to communicate with
ample of this focus: there, the “British exploited the po- other countries and to extend the administrative control
litical weakness of the Mughal state, and, while military of a home nation over its colonies. Railroads and global-
activity was important at various times, the economic and ized shipping assisted in transporting massive amounts of
[48]
administrative incorporation of local elites was also of goods to and from colonies.
crucial significance” for the establishment of control over Along with advancements in communication, Europe
the subcontinent’s resources, markets, and manpower.[44] also continued to advance in military technology. Euro-
Although a substantial number of colonies had been de- pean chemists made deadly explosives that could be used
signed to provide economic profit and to ship resources to in combat, and with innovations in machinery they were
home ports in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, able to manufacture improved firearms. By the 1880s, the
Fieldhouse suggests that in the nineteenth and twentieth machine gun had become an effective battlefield weapon.
centuries in places such as Africa and Asia, this idea is This technology gave European armies an advantage over
not necessarily valid:[45] their opponents, as armies in less-developed countries
were still fighting with arrows, swords, and leather shields
Modern empires were not artificially con- (e.g. the Zulus in Southern Africa during the Anglo-Zulu
structed economic machines. The second ex- War of 1879).[48]
pansion of Europe was a complex historical
process in which political, social and emotional
forces in Europe and on the periphery were
more influential than calculated imperialism.
4 Theories of imperialism
Individual colonies might serve an economic
purpose; collectively no empire had any de- In anglophone academic works, theories regarding impe-
finable function, economic or otherwise. Em- rialism are often based on the British experience. The
pires represented only a particular phase in the term “Imperialism” was originally introduced into En-
ever-changing relationship of Europe with the glish in its present sense in the late 1870s by opponents
rest of the world: analogies with industrial sys- of the allegedly aggressive and ostentatious imperial poli-
tems or investment in real estate were simply cies of British prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli. It was
misleading.[46] shortly appropriated by supporters of “imperialism” such
as Joseph Chamberlain. For some, imperialism desig-
nated a policy of idealism and philanthropy; others al-
During this time, European merchants had the ability leged that it was characterized by political self-interest,
to “roam the high seas and appropriate surpluses from and a growing number associated it with capitalist greed.
around the world (sometimes peaceably, sometimes vi- Liberal John A. Hobson and Marxist Vladimir Lenin
olently) and to concentrate them in Europe”.[47] added a more theoretical macroeconomic connotation to
European expansion greatly accelerated in the 19th cen- the term. Lenin in particular exerted substantial influ-
tury. To obtain raw materials, Europe expanded imports ence over later Marxist conceptions of imperialism with
from other countries and from the colonies. European in- his work Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism.
6 6 IMPERIALISM BY COUNTRY

In his writings Lenin portrayed Imperialism as the clo- scholars believed that Northern Europe and the Mid-
sure of the world market and the end of capitalist free- Atlantic temperate climate produced a hard-working,
competiton that arose from need for capitalist economies moral, and upstanding human being. Alternatively, tropi-
to constantly expand investment, material resources and cal climates yielded lazy attitudes, sexual promiscuity, ex-
manpower in such a way that necessitated colonial ex- otic culture, and moral degeneracy. The people of these
pansion. This conception of imperialism as a structural climates were believed to be in need of guidance and in-
feature of capitalism is echoed by later Marxist theoreti- tervention from the European empire to aid in the gov-
cians. Many theoreticians on the left have followed in erning of a more evolved social structure; they were seen
emphasizing the structural or systemic character of “im- as incapable of such a feat.[46] Similarly, orientalism is a
perialism”. Such writers have expanded the time period view of a people based on their geographical location.[53]
associated with the term so that it now designates neither
a policy, nor a short space of decades in the late 19th cen-
tury, but a world system extending over a period of cen- 6 Imperialism by country
turies, often going back to Christopher Columbus and, in
some accounts, to the Crusades. As the application of the
term has expanded, its meaning has shifted along five dis- 6.1 Britain
tinct but often parallel axes: the moral, the economic, the
systemic, the cultural, and the temporal. Those changes Main articles: Historiography of the British Empire and
reflect - among other shifts in sensibility - a growing un- British Empire
ease, even squeamishness, with the fact of power, specif- Britain’s imperialist ambitions can be seen as early as the
ically, Western power.[49][50]
The correlation between capitalism, aristocracy, and
imperialism has long been debated among historians
and political theorists. Much of the debate was pi-
oneered by such theorists as J. A. Hobson (1858–
1940), Joseph Schumpeter (1883–1950), Thorstein Ve-
blen (1857–1929), and Norman Angell (1872–1967).
While these non-Marxist writers were at their most pro-
lific before World War I, they remained active in the in-
terwar years. Their combined work informed the study
of imperialism and it’s impact on Europe, as well as con-
tributed to reflections on the rise of the military-political
complex in the United States from the 1950s. Hobson
argued that domestic social reforms could cure the in- The end result of the Boer Wars was the annexation of the Boer
ternational disease of imperialism by removing its eco- Republics to the British Empire in 1902
nomic foundation. Hobson theorized that state interven-
tion through taxation could boost broader consumption, sixteenth century. In 1599 the British East India Com-
create wealth, and encourage a peaceful, tolerant, multi- pany was established and was chartered by Queen Eliz-
polar world order.[51][52] abeth in the following year.[54] With the establishment
of trading posts in India, the British were able to main-
tain strength relative to others empires such as the Por-
tuguese who already had set up trading posts in India.[54]
5 Environmental determinism In 1767 political activity caused exploitation of the East
India Company causing the plundering of the local econ-
The concept environmental determinism served as a omy, almost bringing the company into bankruptcy.[55]
moral justification for domination of certain territories By the year 1670 Britain imperialist ambitions were well
and peoples. It was believed that a certain person’s be- off as she had colonies in Virginia, Bermudas, Honduras,
haviours were determined by the environment in which Antigua, Barbados, Jamaica and Nova Scotia.[55]
they lived and thus validated their domination. For ex- Due to the vast imperialist ambitions of European coun-
ample, people living in tropical environments were seen tries, Britain had several clashes with France. This com-
as “less civilized” therefore justifying colonial control as petition was evident in the colonization of what is now
a civilizing mission. Across the three waves of European known as Canada. John Cabot claimed Newfoundland for
colonialism (first in the Americas, second in Asia and the British while the French established colonies along the
lastly in Africa), environmental determinism was used to St. Lawrence River and claiming it as “New France”.[56]
categorically place indigenous people in a racial hierar- Britain continued to expand by colonizing countries such
chy. This takes two forms, orientalism and tropicality. as New Zealand and Australia both of which were not
According to geographic scholars under colonizing em- empty land as they had their own locals and cultures.[57]
pires, the world could be split into climatic zones. These Britain’s nationalistic movements were evident with the
6.2 France 7

creation of the common wealth countries where there was and elsewhere. Canada, Australia, and New Zealand be-
a shared nature of national identity.[58] came self-governing dominions.[69][70]
The First British Empire was based on mercantilism, and
involved colonies and holdings primarily in North Amer-
ica, the Caribbean, and India. Its growth was reversed
by the loss of the American colonies in 1776. Britain
made compensating gains in India, Australia, and in con-
structing an informal economic empire through control
of trade and finance in Latin America after the indepen-
dence of Spanish and Portuguese colonies about 1820.[59]
By the 1840s, Britain had adopted a highly successful
policy of free trade that gave it dominance in the trade
of much of the world.[60] After losing its first Empire to
the Americans, Britain then turned its attention towards
Asia, Africa, and the Pacific. Following the defeat of
Napoleonic France in 1815, Britain enjoyed a century
of almost unchallenged dominance and expanded its im-
perial holdings around the globe. Unchallenged at sea,
British dominance was later described as Pax Britannica
(“British Peace”), a period of relative peace in Europe
and the world (1815–1914) during which the British Em-
pire became the global hegemon and adopted the role of
global policeman.[61][62][63][64]
A resurgence came in the late 19th century with the
Scramble for Africa and major additions in Asia and the
Middle East. The British spirit of imperialism was ex-
pressed by Joseph Chamberlain and Lord Rosebury, and
implemented in Africa by Cecil Rhodes. The pseudo-
sciences of Social Darwinism and theories of race formed
an ideological underpinning during this time. Other influ-
ential spokesmen included Lord Cromer, Lord Curzon,
General Kitchner, Lord Milner, and the writer Rudyard
Kipling.[71] The British Empire was the largest Empire
that the world has ever seen both in terms of landmass and
population. Its power, both military and economic, re-
mained unmatched. After the First Boer War, the South
African Republic and Orange Free State were recognized
by Britain but eventually re-annexed after the Second
Boer War.
British imperialism continued after World War II. Some
notable examples of post-war British interventions are
Britain’s involvement in the Iranian coup d'état of 1953
and in Egypt during the Suez Crisis in 1956.

6.2 France

Main article: French colonial empire

The “First colonial empire”, that existed until 1814, by

Smoke rises from oil tanks beside the Suez Canal hit during the
initial Anglo-French assault on Egypt, 5 November 1956

In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution be-

gan to transform Britain; by the time of the Great Exhi-
bition in 1851 the country was described as the “work-
shop of the world”.[65] The British Empire expanded to
include India, large parts of Africa and many other ter-
ritories throughout the world. Alongside the formal con-
trol it exerted over its own colonies, British dominance of
much of world trade meant that it effectively controlled
the economies of many regions, such as Asia and Latin
America.[66][67] Domestically, political attitudes favoured
free trade and laissez-faire policies and a gradual widen-
ing of the voting franchise. During this century, the popu-
lation increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid
urbanisation, causing significant social and economic
stresses.[68] To seek new markets and sources of raw ma-
terials, the Conservative Party under Disraeli launched a
period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, French poster about the "Madagascar War"
8 6 IMPERIALISM BY COUNTRY

which time most of it had been lost, and the “Second colo- 6.3 Germany
nial empire”, which began with the conquest of Algiers in
1830 and came for the most part to an end with the grant- Main articles: Holy Roman Empire, List of former
ing of independence to Algeria in 1962.[72] The French German colonies, and German colonial empire
history was marked by numerous wars, large and small,
and also by significant help to France itself from the colo-
From their original homelands in Scandinavia and north-
nials in the world wars.[73]
ern Europe, Germanic tribes expanded throughout north-
During the 16th century, the French colonization of the ern and western Europe in the middle period of classical
Americas began with the creation of New France. It was antiquity; southern Europe in late antiquity, conquering
followed by the establishment of trading posts in Asia and Celtic and other peoples; and by 800 CE, forming the
Africa in the 17th century. Holy Roman Empire, the first German Empire. However,
In the 19th and 20th centuries, it was the second-largest there was no real systemic continuity from the Western
colonial empire in the world behind the British Empire, Roman Empire to its German successor which was fa-
extending over 12,347,000 km2 (4,767,000 sq. miles) mously described as “not holy, not Roman, and not an
at its height in the 1920s and 1930s. France controlled empire”,[79] as a great number of small states and princi-
nearly 1/10th of the Earth’s land area, with a population palities existed in the loosely autonomous confederation.
of 110 million people on the eve of World War II (5% of Although by 1000 CE, the Germanic conquest of cen-
the world’s population at the time).[74] tral, western, and southern Europe (west of and including
Italy) was complete, excluding only Muslim Iberia. There
France took control of Algeria in 1830 but began in was, however, little cultural integration or national iden-
earnest to rebuild its worldwide empire after 1850, con- tity, and “Germany” remained largely a conceptual term
centrating chiefly in North and West Africa, as well as referring to an amorphous area of central Europe.
South-East Asia, with other conquests in Central and East
Africa, as well as the South Pacific. Republicans, at first
hostile to empire, only became supportive when Germany
started to build her own colonial empire. As it developed,
the new empire took on roles of trade with France, sup-
plying raw materials and purchasing manufactured items,
as well as lending prestige to the motherland and spread-
ing French civilization and language as well as Catholi-
cism. It also provided crucial manpower in both World
Wars.[75]
German colonial empire.
It became a moral justification to lift the world up to
French standards by bringing Christianity and French cul-
Not a maritime power, and not a nation-state, as it would
ture. In 1884 the leading exponent of colonialism, Jules
eventually become, Germany’s participation in Western
Ferry declared France had a civilising mission: “The
imperialism was negligible until the late 19th century.
higher races have a right over the lower races, they have
The participation of Austria was primarily as a result of
a duty to civilize the inferior”.[76] Full citizenship rights –
Habsburg control of the First Empire, the Spanish throne,
‘’assimilation’’ – were offered, although in reality assim-
and other royal houses. After the defeat of Napoleon,
ilation was always on the distant horizon.[77] Contrast-
who caused the dissolution of that Holy Roman Empire,
ing from Britain, France sent small numbers of settlers
Prussia and the German states continued to stand aloof
to its colonies, with the only notable exception of Alge-
from imperialism, preferring to manipulate the European
ria, where French settlers nevertheless always remained a
system through the Concert of Europe. After Prussia uni-
small minority.
fied the other states into the second German Empire after
In World War II, Charles de Gaulle and the Free French the Franco-German War, its long-time Chancellor, Otto
used the overseas colonies as bases from which they von Bismarck (1862–90), long opposed colonial acqui-
fought to liberate France. However after 1945 anti- sitions, arguing that the burden of obtaining, maintain-
colonial movements began to challenge the Empire. ing, and defending such possessions would outweigh any
France fought and lost a bitter war in Vietnam in the potential benefits. He felt that colonies did not pay for
1950s. Whereas they won the war in Algeria, the French themselves, that the German bureaucratic system would
leader at the time, Charles de Gaulle, decided to grant not work well in the tropics and the diplomatic disputes
Algeria independence anyway in 1962. Its settlers and over colonies would distract Germany from its central in-
many local supporters relocated to France. Nearly all terest, Europe itself.[80]
of France’s colonies gained independence by 1960, but
However, in 1883–84 Germany began to build a colo-
France retained great financial and diplomatic influence.
nial empire in Africa and the South Pacific, before losing
It has repeatedly sent troops to assist its former colonies
interest in imperialism. Historians have debated exactly
in Africa in suppressing insurrections and coups d’état.[78]
why Germany made this sudden and short-lived move.[81]
6.6 Soviet Union 9

Bismarck was aware that public opinion had started to

demand colonies for reasons of German prestige.[82] He
was influenced by Hamburg merchants and traders, his
neighbors at Friedrichsruh. The establishment of the
German colonial empire proceeded smoothly, starting
with German New Guinea in 1884.[83]

6.4 Japan
Main articles: Empire of Japan and List of territories oc-
cupied by Imperial Japan
During the First Sino-Japanese War in 1894, Japan ab-

Ottoman troops marching in Aleppo.

in particular at the height of its power under the reign

of Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottoman Empire was
a powerful multinational, multilingual empire controlling
much of Southeast Europe, Western Asia, the Caucasus,
North Africa, and the Horn of Africa. At the beginning
of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces
and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later ab-
sorbed into the empire, while others were granted various
types of autonomy during the course of centuries.

Japanese march into Zhengyangmen of Beijing after capturing With Istanbul as its capital and control of lands around
the city in July 1937. the Mediterranean basin, the Ottoman Empire was at
the center of interactions between the Eastern and West-
sorbed Taiwan. As a result of the Russo-Japanese War ern worlds for six centuries. Following a long period of
in 1905, Japan took part of Sakhalin Island from Rus- military setbacks against European powers, the Ottoman
sia. Korea was annexed in 1910. During World War I, Empire gradually declined into the late nineteenth cen-
Japan took German-leased territories in China’s Shan- tury. The empire allied with Germany in the early 20th
dong Province, as well as the Mariana, Caroline, and century, with the imperial ambition of recovering its lost
Marshall Islands. In 1918, Japan occupied parts of far territories, but it dissolved in the aftermath of World War
eastern Russia and parts of eastern Siberia as a partic- I, leading to the emergence of the new state of Turkey in
ipant in the Siberian Intervention. In 1931 Japan con- the Ottoman Anatolian heartland, as well as the creation
quered Manchuria from China. During the Second Sino- of modern Balkan and Middle Eastern states, thus ending
Japanese War in 1937, Japan’s military invaded cen- Turkish colonial ambitions.
tral China and by the end of the Pacific War, Japan
had conquered much of the Far East, including Hong
Kong, Vietnam, Cambodia, Myanmar, the Philippines, 6.6 Soviet Union
Indonesia, part of New Guinea and some islands of the
Pacific Ocean. Japan also invaded Thailand, pressuring See also: Criticism of communist party rule and Soviet
the country into a Thai/Japanese alliance. Its colonial am- Empire
bitions were ended by the victory of the United States in By the 18th century, the Russian Empire extended its
the Second World War and the following treaties which control to the Pacific, forming a common border with the
remanded those territories to American administration or Qing Empire.
their original owners.[84][85][86] Bolshevik leaders had effectively reestablished a polity
with roughly the same extent as that empire by 1921,
however with an internationalist ideology: Lenin in par-
6.5 Ottoman Empire ticular asserted the right to limited self-determination for
national minorities within the new territory.[87] Beginning
Main articles: Ottoman Empire and Territorial evolution in 1923, the policy of “Indigenization” [korenizatsiia] was
of the Ottoman Empire intended to support non-Russians develop their national
cultures within a socialist framework. Never formally re-
The Ottoman Empire was an imperial state that lasted voked, it stopped being implemented after 1932. After
from 1299 to 1923. During the 16th and 17th centuries, World War II, the Soviet Union installed socialist regimes
10
The maximum territorial extent of countries in the world under
Soviet influence, after the Cuban Revolution of 1959 and before
the official Sino-Soviet split of 1961.
modeled on those it had installed in 1919–20 in the old
Tsarist Empire in areas its forces occupied in Eastern Eu-
rope.[88] The Soviet Union and the People’s Republic of
China supported post–World War II communist move-
ments in foreign nations and colonies to advance their own Ceremonies during the annexation of the Republic of Hawaii,
interests, but were not always successful.[89] 1898
Trotsky, and others, believed that the revolution could
only succeed in Russia as part of a world revolu-
tion. Lenin wrote extensively on the matter and fa-
mously declared that Imperialism was the highest stage
of capitalism. However, after Lenin’s death, Joseph
Stalin established 'socialism in one country' for the Soviet
Union, creating the model for subsequent inward looking
Stalinist states and purging the early Internationalist ele-
ments. The internationalist tendencies of the early revolu-
tion would be abandoned until they returned in the frame-
work of a client state in competition with the Americans
during the Cold War. With the beginning of the new era,
the after Stalin period called the “thaw”, in the late 1950s,
the new political leader Nikita Khrushchev put even more
pressure on the Soviet-American relations starting a new
wave of anti-imperialist propaganda. In his speech on the
UN conference in 1960, he announced the continuation
of the war on imperialism, stating that soon the people
of different countries will come together and overthrow
their imperialist leaders. Although the Soviet Union de-
clared itself anti-imperialist, critics argue that it exhib-
ited tendencies common to historic empires.[90][91] Some
scholars hold that the Soviet Union was a hybrid entity
containing elements common to both multinational em-
pires and nation states. It has also been argued that the
USSR practiced colonialism as did other imperial powers
and was carrying on the old Russian tradition of expan-
sion and control.[92] Mao Zedong once argued that the So-
viet Union had itself become an imperialist power while
6 IMPERIALISM BY COUNTRY
maintaining a socialist façade. Moreover, the ideas of im-
perialism were widely spread in action on the higher levels
of government. Non Russian Marxists within the Russian
Federation and later the USSR, like Sultan Galiev and Va-
syl Shakhrai, considered the Soviet Regime a renewed
version of the Russian imperialism and colonialism.
6.7 United States
Main article: American imperialism
A former colony itself, the early United States expressed
its opposition to Imperialism, at least in a form dis-
tinct from its own Manifest Destiny, through policies
such as the Monroe Doctrine. However, beginning in
the late 19th and early 20th century, policies such as
Theodore Roosevelt’s interventionism in Central Amer-
ica and Woodrow Wilson’s mission to “make the world
safe for democracy”[93] changed all this. They were of-
ten backed by military force, but were more often ef-
fected from behind the scenes. This is consistent with
the general notion of hegemony and imperium of his-
torical empires.[94][95] In 1898, Americans who opposed
imperialism created the Anti-Imperialist League to op-
pose the US annexation of the Philippines and Cuba.
One year later, a war erupted in the Philippines caus-
ing business, labor and government leaders in the US
to condemn America’s occupation in the Philippines as
they also denounced them for causing the deaths of many
Filipinos.[96] American foreign policy was denounced as
a “racket” by Smedley Butler, an American general. He
said, “Looking back on it, I might have given Al Capone a
few hints. The best he could do was to operate his racket
in three districts. I operated on three continents”.[97]
One key figure in the plans for what would come to be
known as American Empire, was a geographer named
Isiah Bowman. Bowman was the director of the Ameri-
can Geographical Society in 1914.[98] Three years later in
1917, he was appointed to then President Woodrow Wil-
son’s inquiry.[98] The inquiry was the idea of President
 11

Wilson and the American delegation from the Paris Peace
Conference.[98] The point of this inquiry was to build a
premise that would allow for U.S authorship of a 'new
world' which was to be characterized by geographical
order.[98] As a result of his role in the inquiry, Isiah Bow-
man would come to be known as Wilson’s geographer.
Bowman’s role as the President geographer didn't change
as Wilson left office, as he would go one to later become
Roosevelt’s geographer. At the end of WWII, Presi-
dent Roosevelt was greatly opposed to allowing European
colonialism to be maintained. Both he and Isiah Bowman
felt that former European colonies would need to be in-
corporated into a US-led global economic order.[98] It can
be said that “the United States’ antipathy to colonialism
in this period expressed at root a self-interested drive to
open new markets.” [98] Post WWII, The United States
and the Soviet Union had similar interests in becoming
superpowers which would eventually create a global con-
flict - this led to what is known as the Cold War. After
the collapse of the Soviet Union, the United States did not
diminish its global ability to project force and became a
“hyper-power”. A system of "Unipolarity" came to define
international politics, with the United States at the center.
ism faced resistance, as external colonialism did, but the
anti-colonial presence was far less prominent due to the
nearly complete dominance that the United States was
able to assert over both indigenous peoples and African-
Americans.[102] In his lecture on April 16, 2003, Edward
Said made a bold statement on modern imperialism in
the United States, whom he described as using aggres-
sive means of attack towards the contemporary Orient,
“due to their backward living, lack of democracy and the
violation of women’s rights. The western world forgets
during this process of converting the other that enlighten-
ment and democracy are concepts that not all will agree
upon”.[103]
In 2015, the United States reportedly had nearly 800
military bases in more than 70 countries around the
world.[104]
7 See also
• Colonialism
• Postcolonialism

• Cultural imperialism

• Globalization

• Hegemony

• Historiography of the British Empire

• Imperialism in Leninist theory

• Imperium

• Impact of Western European colonialism and

colonisation

• International relations of the Great Powers (1814–

1919)
One of the New York Journal's most infamous cartoons, depicting
Philippine–American War General Jacob H. Smith's order “Kill
• John A. Hobson
Everyone over Ten,” from the front page on May 5, 1902.
• List of empires
Some have described the internal strife between vari- • List of largest empires
ous people groups as a form of imperialism or colo-
nialism. This internal form is distinct from informal • Neocolonialism
U.S. imperialism in the form of political and financial
hegemony.[99] This internal form of imperialism is also • New Imperialism
distinct from the United States’ formation of “colonies” • Oil imperialism theories
abroad.[99] Through the treatment of its indigenous peo-
ples during westward expansion, the United States took • Pluricontinental
on the form of an imperial power prior to any attempts
at external imperialism. This internal form of empire • Scientific imperialism
has been referred to as “internal colonialism”.[100] Par-
• Super-imperialism
ticipation in the African slave trade and the subsequent
treatment of its 12 to 15 million Africans is viewed by • Ultra-imperialism
some to be a more modern extension of America’s “in-
ternal colonialism”.[101] However, this internal colonial- • Uneven and combined development
12
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9 FURTHER READING
9 Further reading
• Ankerl, Guy. Coexisting Contemporary Civiliza-
tions: Arabo-Muslim, Bharatai, Chinese, and West-
ern, Geneva, INU PRESS, 2000, ISBN 2-88155-
004-5.
• Bayly, C. A. ed. Atlas of the British Empire (1989).
survey by scholars; heavily illustrated
• Brendon, Piers. “A Moral Audit of the British Em-
pire”. History Today, (Oct 2007), Vol. 57 Issue 10,
pp 44–47, online at EBSCO
• Brendon, Piers. The Decline and Fall of the
British Empire, 1781–1997 (2008), ISBN 978-
0307270283, wide ranging survey
• Bickers, Robert and Christian Henriot, New Fron-
tiers: Imperialism’s New Communities in East Asia,
1842–1953, Manchester, Manchester University
Press, 2000, ISBN 0-7190-5604-7
• Blanken, Leo. Rational Empires: Institutional Incen-
tives and Imperial Expansion, University Of Chicago
Press, 2012
• Barbara Bush, Imperialism and Postcolonialism
(History: Concepts, Theories and Practice), Long-
mans, 2006, ISBN 0-582-50583-6
• Darwin, John. After Tamerlane: The Rise and
Fall of Global Empires, 1400–2000, Penguin Books,
2008.
• Fay, Richard B. and Daniel Gaido (ed. and
trans.), Discovering Imperialism: Social Democracy
to World War I. Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2012.
• Niall Ferguson, Empire: How Britain Made the
Modern World, Penguin Books, 2004, ISBN 0-14-
100754-0
• Michael Hardt and Toni Negri, Empire, Harvard
University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-674-00671-2
• E. J. Hobsbawm, The Age of Empire, 1875–1914,
Abacus Books, 1989, ISBN 0-349-10598-7
• E. J. Hobsbawm, On Empire: America, War, and
Global Supremacy, Pantheon Books, 2008, ISBN 0-
375-42537-3
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 15

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Contribution to an Economic Explanation of Imperi-
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10 External links
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• The Paradox of Imperialism by Hans-Hermann

Hoppe. November 2006.

• Imperialism Quotations
16 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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plat, CanisRufus, Izalithium, Lycurgus, Kwamikagami, Gilgamesh he, Phoenix Hacker, PhilHibbs, Bluelemur, Axezz, Bobo192, Cretog8,
Smalljim, Kevin Myers, JeR, Man vyi, Gunnernett, TheProject, Roy da Vinci, Shorne, Twobells, Minghong, Sam Korn, Jumbuck, Patsw,
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Atrix20, Snailwalker, Imnotminkus, Osli73, Chobot, Sharkface217, DVdm, Bgwhite, Gwernol, Blackbattleknight, The Rambling Man, Sus
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DanMS, SpuriousQ, Stephenb, Macukali, Wimt, Bullzeye, Gillean666, Andipi, PaulGarner, NawlinWiki, EWS23, Shreshth91, Wiki alf,
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cube, KnowledgeOfSelf, Hydrogen Iodide, Phaldo, Ikip, KocjoBot~enwiki, Thunderboltz, Jfurr1981, Jrockley, Monty Cantsin, BiT, Srnec,
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Panda, Gracenotes, Royboycrashfan, Zsinj, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Egsan Bacon, Cipher nemo, Shalom Yechiel, ComradeRyan,
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taqbal, EdGl, Kyuss-Apollo, BryanG, Curly Turkey, Ck lostsword, John Reid, Will Beback, SashatoBot, Bcasterline, Rklawton, Giovanni33,
Dbtfz, Kuru, Lapaz, 3Jane, Tazmaniacs, Ocee, Disavian, Breno, Accurizer, Gilead, IronGargoyle, Ckatz, Mr. Vernon, Slakr, Werdan7,
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Iridescent, Capitan Obvio, The Giant Puffin, Joseph Solis in Australia, Mrdthree, Igoldste, Courcelles, Audiosmurf, Tawkerbot2, Dlo-
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Scohoust, Vision Thing, Lighthead, JohnCD, DeLarge, Runningonbrains, KnightLago, WeggeBot, Casper2k3, Albia, Karenjc, ObiterDicta,
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Click23, FrancoGG, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Guidedbyalan, Colin4C, Peter morrell, StuartF, Qwyrxian, Serpent-A, Steve Dufour, N5iln,
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Natalie Erin, Navigatr85, PottersWood, Escarbot, Mentifisto, AntiVandalBot, The Obento Musubi, Gioto, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, Blue Tie,
Keneke45, StringRay, Czj, Quintote, Lumbercutter, Jj137, Dylan Lake, LibLord, Jhg812, Spencer, Alphachimpbot, Zigzig20s, Lfstevens,
Tucu Mann, Sluzzelin, The Fifth Horseman, Husond, MER-C, Skomorokh, BlindEagle, Matthew Fennell, Instinct, Andonic, Geniac, Yahel
Guhan, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Dentren, Wikidudeman, JNW, JamesBWatson, TARBOT, Cadsuane Melaidhrin, CTF83!,
Michaelcullinane, Catgut, WhatamIdoing, Cgingold, Brlawrencelc, Robotman1974, Loonymonkey, Allstarecho, P.B. Pilhet, Alexsau1991,
Ludvikus, JaGa, Edward321, Gun Powder Ma, Dirigible Plum, Gjd001, Hdt83, MartinBot, Mmoneypenny, Tholly, Anaxial, Davidhechen,
Vicagbeko, R'n'B, Windscar77, AlexiusHoratius, KTo288, Sbrends47, Ash, J.delanoy, Getdave, Rgoodermote, EscapingLife, Uncle Dick,
Maurice Carbonaro, Strobilus, McSly, Super-soviet, L'Aquatique, JayJasper, (jarbarf), Daniel5Ko, NewEnglandYankee, T Clems, In-
bloom2, Hatake ayumi, FJPB, Madhava 1947, Sunderland06, BrettAllen, 2help, Juliancolton, Cometstyles, Ledenierhomme, Endlessmike
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Lights, VolkovBot, Johan1298~enwiki, ABF, Hersfold, Jeff G., Nburden, Kerrow, LeilaniLad, Philip Trueman, Esiweb Berlin, TXiKi-
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Ocolon, Woilorio, Jarusafes, Sirkad, Ninkendo, Wassermann~enwiki, StillTrill, Wiae, FFMG, Madhero88, Petrelg, Kmhkmh, BigDunc,
Billinghurst, Coching, Andrewaskew, Michaeldsuarez, Zach104, Yk Yk Yk, Lamro, Turgan, Olga1104, Tttom, Grahamboat, TrickOfThe-
Light, Vinhtantran, Solicitr, Saint gold, PokeYourHeadOff, EmxBot, Rocky717717, Lightbreather, EJF, Jon33, Greatpalestine, SieBot,
Jwray, Tiddly Tom, Malcolmxl5, Jauerback, Dawn Bard, Caltas, Yintan, Keilana, Anglicanus, Breawycker, BlueAzure, Flyer22 Reborn,
Radon210, The Evil Spartan, Oda Mari, Elcobbola, Ghilie, Phalanxpursos, Oxymoron83, Antonio Lopez, Globaleducator, KoshVorlon,
Poindexter Propellerhead, Khvalamde, Macy, Samlax16, Sunrise, Diego Grez-Cañete, Maelgwnbot, Segregold, Vice regent, Nn123645,
Kissoffire, Pinkadelica, Denisarona, Tegrenath, ShajiA, OxAO, WikipedianMarlith, Atif.t2, Delighted eyes, Elassint, ClueBot, GPdB,
Avenged Eightfold, Korybryan, The Thing That Should Not Be, La la ooh, Truth44, Drmies, Blanchardb, Neverquick, Jacko79, Klumpped,
Excirial, Jusdafax, Three-quarter-ten, David Barba, Caldwen, Tyler, NuclearWarfare, Salty1984, Tnxman307, Rugby911, Botsjeh, Call of
cthulhu, Noosentaal, Redthoreau, Saebjorn, Professor T, Penaslubba, BOTarate, La Pianista, RJEdit, Thingg, Aitias, Eon102, Ssanagav,
Luigifan1985, Dance With The Devil, Versus22, SoxBot III, Vanished user uih38riiw4hjlsd, Against the current, XLinkBot, Rror, Bradv,
Little Mountain 5, Avoided, Redman19, Rockybiggs, Rishidigital1055, Alexius08, WikiDao, KAVEBEAR, Atomicdor, Sixwordsofadvice,
ZooFari, Outofline189, JCDenton2052, Thatguyflint, Triger289, Addbot, Willking1979, Daleman1994, AVand, Some jerk on the Internet,
Jojhutton, Non-dropframe, Kongr43gpen, Blethering Scot, Ronhjones, TutterMouse, CanadianLinuxUser, Cst17, Download, Glane23,
Michaelwuzthere, Favonian, Kyle1278, AtheWeatherman, 5 albert square, Numbo3-bot, Gnt2006, Tide rolls, Tigmic, Jan eissfeldt, Krano,
Romanskolduns, Tenth Plague, Gail, Jarble, Krukouski, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Worldbruce, Fraggle81, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, PM-
Lawrence, Bourbonist, Eduen, Eric-Wester, Tempodivalse, Synchronism, Mdw0, AnomieBOT, 1exec1, Jim1138, IRP, Piano non troppo,
AdjustShift, Kingpin13, Yachtsman1, Crystal whacker, Bluerasberry, Materialscientist, Wasi63, Gabrieltn, Bigzombie62, Frankenpuppy,
ArthurBot, Clark89, LilHelpa, Marshallsumter, LongLegOfTheLaw, Xqbot, Mhsstar93, Mr. Alex. P, Cureden, Capricorn42, Nasnema,
11.2 Images 17

Quark1005, Jmundo, Ched, Almabot, Theeagleman, Parabellum101, Robert froste, Earlypsychosis, RibotBOT, Bellerophon, Carrite,
Amaury, Doulos Christos, Artrock101, Srr712, Shadowjams, Callumnicolson, Nenya17, George2001hi, FrescoBot, Surv1v4l1st, Tobby72,
DiprotiumOxide, Wikipe-tan, Adam9389, SecretService13103, Muniham, D'ohBot, Chalkart, Bambuway, Jamesooders, Egosumcignus,
Pinethicket, I dream of horses, TERQ, DTMGO, Spidey104, Tom.Reding, Jschnur, Ongar the World-Weary, SpaceFlight89, Airmaned-
wards, Jujutacular, Bgpaulus, Reconsider the static, JIMENEZ45, MassiveLoop, Tim1357, Flosssock1, Xeroxli, TobeBot, Dark Lord of
the Sith, Valdemarasl, Sumone10154, Fox Wilson, Sara.koopman, Vrenator, Zvn, Reaper Eternal, Hurrywanting, Doerayme31, Diannaa,
Weedwhacker128, Brian the Editor, Brperry, Keegscee, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Andrea105, Jnlitchy94, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, TheArguer,
Ifly6, Xnigiancos, Bhawani Gautam, BCtl, Polylepsis, DASHBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Ghostofnemo, Immunize,
Gfoley4, Dapimpdaddy4600, Big bouncing balls, IncognitoErgoSum, RA0808, RenamedUser01302013, Smappy, Dmsdjing, Tommy2010,
Winner 42, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, Gurbir1994, Ao333, JSquish, Susfele, Illegitimate Barrister, Fæ, Bollyjeff, Bigfloppydonkey567, Cristiano
Tomás, ElationAviation, VivaEspania, Aplex84, Mr legumoto, Wayne Slam, Mattamo, Thine Antique Pen, Rcsprinter123, Morgan Hauser,
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Ruggert1, DASHBotAV, Special Cases, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Gaioa, GoetheFromm, Skylar130, K1eyboard, Satellizer, Piast93, BryanGross,
Amritamj, Snotbot, Cntras, Hai uncg, Hahaimreal, Najib52, Picaballo, Widr, Toyhammered, Helpful Pixie Bot, Missyboy, Titodutta,
Calabe1992, Gob Lofa, Kinaro, Lowercase sigmabot, Theitalian05, BG19bot, Rapn21, Skillageiou123, Arnavchaudhary, Herr Lennartz,
M0rphzone, Nononini, ISTB351, Steakeater4, PhnomPencil, AngBent, Wiki13, MusikAnimal, Sarumanatee, Ambatlarge, Amp71, Mar-
cocapelle, Mark Arsten, Onewhohelps, OttawaAC, Cadiomals, Desertwasp61, Snow Blizzard, Ernio48, Dizzyspork, MRKLEMSTER,
Insidiae, Klilidiplomus, Giggitygiggity111, Labelesprit, Anbu121, 7HMR, BattyBot, Smartyyy112, Bagoto, Yupitsme12345, BrxBrx, Unit-
slast123456789, Pepe8079, MrPopsicle, Stumink, Jmelissa1, Laggan Boy, Dexbot, Badman730, Mogism, Pleekly21, Rbricker, Paraloco,
Lugia2453, Frosty, SFK2, Juan0215, Dschslava, Cunn11, Jcbrad5503, Blaue Max, Epicgenius, Seraborum, BreakfastJr, Eyesnore, Praeto-
rianFury, Cmckain14, Jakec, Tajanae Harris, DavidLeighEllis, Gicantor93, Stilgar27, Kharkiv07, Markunit23, Whizz40, N0n3up, Genan-
drar, Wronganswer888888888, Andylara2014, DoctorShuffle, Sietecolores, Monkbot, Leflerz, Proudcommunist111111, Vieque, Santi-
Lak, Mixania, Jim Carter, ChiefKeef300, Mattdoge, Milesjolly1997, Vikramsahu, TheYoloGuy, TheDon2408, Karmanatory, Trusted14,
SamuelOdinga, RyanRAM, Dutchstig, Feras.yahya, Fattor09, Yorkie15, Syim912, CV9933, Sikseb, Yangjasmine, Emilybourke, Tlux211,
NasraAhmed, Dannyt19, Cjaikaran, IC-edit, Trausnitz, Darrenzanussi, Jennap7, AkuraJ, Rachellfaithh, Jessiiee14, Matt.Faf, E.A.2070,
Kjamjamz, Xyconat, Alikoca190, Geoguser, 111002020032a, Mina Alimi, GONZALNM 41, IChurakv, Nagihuin, Nate dogg 2, Wishva
de Silva, Christo Jesus, God jesus123456, KasparBot, Marcus1093, Ducksfan15, Atsglily, Docreynolds, Nationalismplease, Pedro8790,
The Pancake of Heaven!, JanetTom55, Swegswegswegsweg, Nunabuiz, Crcarey, Sladeira, Stilahun, XABHISHEK23x, O.morris8, Hungry
hippos-illuminati, Rushikesh1435, Killjoy4, Saiujwal and Anonymous: 1780

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18 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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domain Contributors: File:BlankMap-World-large.png and own work by uploader. Composed from maps found in: Original artist: The
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