PROJECT REPORT

UTILISATION OF ELECTRICAL ARC FURNACE SLAG IN CEMENT

CONCRETE & HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION

FOR

VARDHMAN SPECIAL STEELS LIMITD, LUDHIANA

BY
Prof. R K Mahajan
Department of Materials & Metallurgical Engineering
Punjab Engineering College (Deemed to be University)
Chandigarh

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 PART 1

UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL ARC FURNACE SLAG IN HIGHWAY

CONSTRUCTION OR ASPHALT

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 CONTENTS
CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 General………………………………………………………....……………………………...4
1.2 Properties of Aggregates………………………………………………………………………5
1.3Bitumen used in Road Construction…………………………………………………………...7
1.4 Slag Production during EAF Steel Making. ………………………………………...11
1.5 Basic Properties of steel slag………………………………………………………...12
1.6 Engineering Properties of Steel Slag………………………………………………...13
1.7 Historic Review of slag in road construction………………………………………...13
1.8 Foreign Research in Applications of Steel Slag……………………………………..15
1.9 Idea to use slag instead of aggregates………………………………………………..20

CHAPTER-2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 MORTH CODE 2013………………………………………………………………..21

2.1.1 Sieve Analysis……………………………………………………………...22
2.1.2 Determination of aggregates less than 75 micron………………………….27
2.1.3 Determination of Flakiness Index………………………………………….29
2.1.4 Determination of Elongation Index………………………………………..30
2.1.5 Aggregate Impact Value Test……………………………………………...32

CHAPTER-3 EXPERIMENTATION

3.1 Marshall Stability Test……………………………………………………………….35

3.2 Material used and process in making Samples………………………………………37

CHAPTER-4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Results Obtained……………………………………………………………………..41

CHAPTER-5 CONCLUSION

5.1 Conclusion and Future Scope………………………………………………………..45

REFRENCES…………………………………………………………………………………...46

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Chapterter-1 Introduction
1.1 General
Electric Arc Furnace Slag (EAFS) contains low percentage of amorphous silica, high content of
iron oxide and consequently has low pozzolanic activities in comparison with Blast Furnace Slag
(BFS), thus may not be suitable for cement production. Due to these characteristics, properties of
EAF slag, it has been tried as a substitute for coarse aggregates (bajri) in cement concrete and hot
mix used for road construction. Experiments were conducted for evaluating the properties of
cement concrete and hot mix made by substituting coarse aggregates with EAF slag in 0%, 25%,
50%, 75% and 100%. These experiments included determination of compressive strength, water
absorption in case of cement concrete and stability, flow in case of hot mix used in road
carpeting.

Steel slag generated as a waste in iron & steel manufacturing can be broadly categorized into
blast furnace slag and EAF steel slag. Blast furnace slag is obtained during smelting of iron ore
in blast furnace while producing molten pig iron. It consists of non-ferrous components
contained of the iron ore together with limestone as an auxiliary materials and ash from coke.
Depending on the cooling method used, it is classified either as air-cooled slag or granulated
slag.

Steel making slag is generated while converting hot metal (molten pig iron) into steel in L D
Converter (Basic Oxygen Furnace) and electric arc furnace slag is generated during the electric
arc furnace steel making by using steel scrap, pig iron, sponge iron, DRI as raw materials. In the
present study, solid waste which is generated during the melting of steel scrap, sponge iron, pig
iron, DRI is granulated slag.

The waste material is neutral and non-hazardous in nature as per chemical analysis report of
Central Pollution Control Board India (CPCB) (Hazardous waste rules, 2008, Ref.No-22). The
quantity of generation of this slag is around 24 lacs MT per year from different steel industries in
India (CRRI, 2010). Steel slag may be used as a land fill cover liner (Inga, 2010, Ref.No-23.).

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Use of steel slag in asphaltic concrete minimizes potential expansion and takes advantage of the
positive features in giving high stability, stripping resistant excellent skid resistance (Emery,
1994 and Mullick2005, Ref.No-24). Presently, this steel slag is not being utilized and is dumped.
Study was carried out to utilize the slag in different layers of road construction. Being cohesion
less material, it was mixed with local soil in the range of 5-25% and their geotechnical
characteristics were evaluated. Technical specifications of slag were developed for utilization in
the construction of embankment, sub grade, sub base layers of road pavement. Slag was
investigated for its feasibility in bituminous layers.

1.2 Properties of Aggregates

Strength
The aggregates used in top layers are subjected to:
1) Stress action due to traffic wheel load,
2) Wear and tear,
3) Crushing.
For a high quality pavement, the aggregates should possess high resistance to crushing and to
withstand the stresses due to traffic wheel load.
Hardness
1) The aggregates used in the surface course are subjected to constant rubbing or abrasion
due to moving traffic.
2) The aggregates should be hard enough to resist the abrasive action caused by the
movements of traffic.
3) The abrasive action is severe when vehicles moves over the aggregates exposed at the top
surface.
Toughness
1) Resistance of the aggregates to impact is termed as toughness.
2) Aggregates used in the pavement should be able to resist the effects caused by the
jumping of wheels from one particle to another at different levels which causes severe
impact on the aggregates.

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Shape of aggregates
1) Aggregates which happen to fall in a particular size range may have rounded, cubical,
angular, flaky or elongated particles.
2) It is evident that the flaky and elongated particles will have less strength and durability
when compared with cubical, angular or rounded particles of the same aggregate.
3) Hence flaky and elongated particles of aggregates should be avoided as far as possible.
Adhesion with bitumen
1) The aggregates used in bituminous pavements should have less affinity with water when
compared with bituminous material otherwise the bituminous coating on the aggregate
will be stripped off in presence of water.
Durability
1) The property of aggregates to withstand adverse action of weather is called soundness.
2) The aggregates are subjected to the physical and chemical action of rain under surface
water, impurities there-in and that of atmosphere, hence it is desirable that the aggregates
used in road construction should be sound & good enough to withstand the weathering
action.
Freedom from deleterious particles
1) Specifications for aggregates used in bituminous hot mix usually require the aggregates
to be clean, tough and durable in nature and free from excess amount of flat or elongated
pieces, dust, clay balls and other objectionable material.
2) Similarly aggregates used in Portland cement concrete mixes must be clean and free from
deleterious substances such as clay lumps, silt and other organic impurities.
Aggregate tests
In order to decide the suitability of the aggregate for use in pavement construction, following
tests should be done:
 Crushing test
 Abrasion test
 Impact test
 Soundness test
 Shape test
 Specific gravity and water absorption test
 Bitumen adhesion test
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1.3 Bitumen Used in Road Construction
Bitumen is used in road construction due to various properties and advantages it has over other
pavement construction materials beside availability & cost.
Bitumen has certain unique properties that are inbuilt in it during its manufacture. The bitumen
as a raw material in flexible road construction and bitumen as a mix (composing other materials
i.e. aggregates and stone dust) serves certain advantages that prompt to use bitumen widely in
road construction.

The reasons behind the significant application of bitumen in flexible pavements are explained
below:
1. Production of Bitumen is economical
 Bitumen is a by-product of crude oil distillation process. Crude oil itself is a composition
of hydrocarbons. The primary products that are available are the petrol, diesel, high
octane fuels and gasoline.
 When these fuels are refined from the crude oil, the bitumen is left behind. Further
treatment of by-product, to make it free from impurities gives pure bitumen.
 As the primary product demand is of utmost importance to the society, the bitumen as a
by-product has survival for long. This by product is utilized as a road construction
material without going for any other new resource.
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2. Properties of Bitumen bring Versatility
 The physical and the chemical properties of bitumen are found to be a function of load
level, temperature and the duration of loading. It is a thermoplastic and viscoelastic
material.
 These dependencies make us to truly access the traffic on the road so that a bitumen mix
properties can be varied based on the stress levels calculated.
 This versatility of bitumen results in a large variety of bitumen mix, based on the road
application.
3. Melting Point of Bitumen is low
 It is highly appreciable about the fact that bitumen has a favourable melting point that
helps in both surface dressing and wearing resistance with ease.
 The melting point of the bitumen should not be high so that it can be melted easily during
pavement laying.
 At the same time bitumen has a melting point which would not let the already laid road
pave to melt and deform under higher temperatures.
 In areas of high temperatures with these properties of bitumen, aggregate composition
helps to take care of higher temperature.
4. Bitumen can undergo Recycling
 As the melting point of bitumen is favourable, it can be melted back to its original state.
This is called as asphalt recycling process.
 The torn-up asphalt pieces are taken up to the recycling plant, instead of sending them to
landfills. This recycled mix can be reused.
 If necessary, the old bitumen is mixed with new bitumen and new aggregates to make the
mix live again.
5. Bitumen gain Adhesive Nature
 Bitumen, it is free from hydrocarbon and hence not toxic.
 The by product is refined to maximum to get rid of organic materials and impurities.
 The bitumen has a highly adhesive nature, which keeps the materials in the road mix bind
together with strong bonds.
 It becomes stronger when the mix is set i.e. ready for vehicle movement.

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Requirements of Bitumen Mixes for Road Construction
A bitumen mix or hot mix used in the construction of flexible pavement should satisfy the
following points:
 Structural Strength
 Surface Drainage
 Surface Friction
The structural bitumen layer composes of:
 Bituminous surface or wearing course
 Bituminous binder course
 Bituminous base course

The primary purpose of these bitumen mixes is structural strength. This involves even load
dispersion throughout the layers of the pavement. The loads involved are dynamic or static loads,
which is transferred to the base subgrade through the course aggregates. A granular base with a
bituminous surface course is only provided for roads for low traffic. It is just sufficient and
economical.

The rebounding effect of bitumen upper layers helps in having resistance against high dynamic
effect due to the heavy traffic. Rebounding property is reflected by the stiffness and the
flexibility characteristics of the bitumen top layers. When looking from bottom to top, the
flexibility characteristics should increase. Studies have shown that the above mentioned
characteristics of aggregates are attained using densely graded bitumen mixes. This mix should
make use of nominal maximum size aggregate (NMSA) that must decrease from the base course
to binder course to surface course. The nominal maximum size aggregate (NMAS) should be one
sieve larger than first sieve to retain more than 10% of combined aggregate. There is a higher
content of bitumen in the wearing course, which makes the layer more flexible. This would help
in increasing the durability.

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Surface Drainage of Bituminous Pavements
 Subsurface drainage can be facilitated using granular sub base in the construction of
flexible pavement. Permeable asphalt treated base (PATB) can be used to provide
positive surface drainage in major highways.
 This would behave as a separate course for facilitating subsurface drainage.
Surface Friction of Bituminous Roads
 It is essential for the pavement layer to provide enough skid resistance and friction,
during vehicle passage, especially in wet condition.
 This would ensure the safety of the passengers.
 The macro and the micro surface texture of the asphalt mix contribute towards the surface
friction.
 The mix gradation i.e. open graded or dense graded will contribute to macro surface
texture.
 The open graded mix have higher macro surface than dense graded.
 The water is squeezed out from the bottom of vehicle tyre when the high macro surface
texture is implemented.
The micro surface texture is contributed by the aggregate surface that is exposed when the above
bitumen layer is torn.

Advantages of Bituminous Road Construction over Concrete Pavements

1. Smooth Ride Surface
 It does not make use of any joints and thus provide a smooth surface to ride. It also gives
less sound emission when compared with concrete pavements.
2. Gradual Failure
 The deformation and the failure in bituminous pavement is a gradual process.
 The concrete pavement shows brittle failures.
3. Quick Repair
 They have an option to be repaired quickly.
 They don‘t consume time in opening the path for traffic as these roads set fast. Since
cement concrete roads require few week time for setting where as asphalt roads can be
opened to traffic immediately after final roll.

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4. Less Cost
 The initial cost and overall maintenance cost of bituminous pavement are less compared
to concrete pavement.
5. Temperature Resistant
 They have resistance to higher temperature from melting and are not affected by de-icing
materials.
Disadvantages of Bituminous Pavement
 Bituminous pavements are less durable.
 Low tensile strength compared to concrete pavement.
 Extreme weather conditions tend to make bituminous pavement slick and soft.
 Bitumen with impurities can cause pollution to soil and ground water by their melting.
These may have hydrocarbons in small amounts.
 Clogging of pores and drainage path during construction and service life.

1.4 Slag Produced during EAF Steel Making

Slag is a waste material generated during production of steel by EAF. Granulated slag with fine
particle size, due to its composition, has excellent properties and in the presence of an
appropriate activator (such as calcium hydroxide) will behave in a manner similar to Portland
cement. Electric arc furnace slag is produced during the manufacture of crude steel by the
electric arc furnace (EAF) process. In this process steel scrap with additions of fluxes (lime stone
and/or dolomite) are heated to liquid state by means of an electrical energy using graphite
electrodes. During melting process, fluxes combine with non-metallic scrap components and
steel incompatible elements to form the liquid slag. As the slag has a lower density than steel, it
floats on top of the molten bath of steel. The liquid slag is tapped at temperatures around 1600
°C and allowed to cool.

Depending on the intended steel quality (carbon steel or stainless/high alloy steel), two different
types of slag can be generated:
- Electric arc furnace slag from carbon steel production
- Electric arc furnace slag from stainless steel production

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For carbon steel production, plain carbon steel scrap is used as input material and for
stainless/high alloy steel production, low - or high alloyed steel scrap is used. Alloying elements
are added in the form of ferro-alloys along with fluxes to achieve the required chemical
composition.

Electric arc furnace (EAF) slag is a strong, dense, none porous aggregate having good resistance
to impact/crushing and has an excellent affinity to bitumen. This makes it an ideal aggregate for
asphalt roads and road surface is resistant to deformation, rutting, safe and durable.

1.5 Basic Properties of Steel Slag

Slag is a waste product in the production of a specific type of steel by melting in EAF. Now a
day, steel is produced in either basic oxygen furnace or in electric arc furnace. In each of the
procedures, the furnace is filled with hot and/or cold metal and additives to obtain steel with
desired characteristics.
The nature & composition of slag depends on the steelmaking process used, nature &
composition of additions made during melting. All this in turn depends on the steel being
produced. In composition of steel slag there is a significant share of calcium and magnesium
oxides, which are considered responsible for the biggest lack of this material and its limited
usage in road building.
Steel slag is expandable and due to this reason the volume can change by as much as 10 % (free
oxides of calcium and magnesium under the influence of humidity cause large changes in
volume). Slag weathering/seasoning in atmospheric conditions is considered to be one of the
most appropriate methods of eliminating this adverse property. The weathering period varies
depending on the application method and the type of slag itself, i.e., the quantity of free calcium
and magnesium oxides. Therefore, it sometimes takes several months of weathering in
atmospheric conditions by occasional sprinkling of water. According to Belgian and Dutch
regulations for the use of slag in unbound base courses, one year of weathering is sufficient,
whereas there are known data on the need for weathering for as much as 18 months before using
the slag as aggregate.

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These big volume changes, limit the use of steel slag in rigid pavement. However, they can be
controlled in asphalt mixtures, or even used as improvement of the properties of built-in material
in shoulders or non-asphalt parking areas. The presence of free calcium oxide, accounting for
more than 1 %, causes another adverse property of steel slag, namely, the appearance of white
powder in the form of sediment.

Free CaO from leachate is bound with water, forming calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] which when
exposed to atmospheric conditions, reacts with carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide forming
calcium carbonate (CaCO3) [5]. It settles down in the form of white powder and may cause
obstructions in the drainage systems and water retention. Those obstructions are particularly
dangerous in the case of freezing, which renders large damage to pavement structures.

This, however, unlike expansions, cannot be prevented by slag weathering. Among other
characteristics, two should be stressed – a big bulk density of steel slag and unit weight of 1600-
1920 kg/m3. The grains of this material are angular, with rough surface, and this is particularly
suitable in case of use in asphalt mixtures for reason of an increase in adhesiveness between the
pavement and the wheels. The big angle of internal friction (40°-45°) contributes to big stability
of materials and CBR value of up to 300 % [5]. Steel slag belongs to medium alkaline materials,
with pH values of 8-10.

1.6 Engineering Properties of Steel Slag

The various parameters on which the properties of steel slag depend are:
1. Chemical Composition of steel slag and affinity of steel slag with binder.
2. Physical and Mechanical Properties of steel slag:
 Specific Gravity
 Particle size, shape and distribution
 Compaction Characteristics
 Shear Resistance
 Thermal Properties
 Impact/crushing resistance
 Hardness

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1.7 Historic Review of Slag in Road Building
The first appearance of slag was recorded as early as the year 700 B.C. At that time in the area of
the British islands iron processing was recorded, and thereby the appearance of slag. It can be
concluded from this data that the history of slag is as old as the melting process in which it is
generated. Slag was used for the first time in road construction as early as Roman era, when slag
rubble from processing of crude iron was utilized in building the road bed.

The modern roads in the construction of which slag was utilized first were built in England in
1813, and after that the use of slag spread fast to the American continent as well. The use of slag
in road building was recorded there for the first time in 1830. As early as 15 years later, after
good experiences with the application of this material in road construction were confirmed, slag
started to be used in railway construction as well. More massive application of slag in various
activities began in mid-19th century with the discovery of latent hydraulic properties of
granulated blast-furnace slag.

Since then, blocks obtained by casting of slag have been massively applied in Europe and
America for road pavements. In the course of World War - I the production of steel increased,
and this also implied an increase in the production of slag. Given the increase in production, the
need for management of waste materials also emerged. Intensive construction of military roads
in which slag was used contributed to resolution of slag disposal problem.

1.8 Foreign Research in Application of Steel Slag

The first experiences in the application of slag as an aggregate in asphalt mixtures date from
1969, when a trial road section was built in Toronto, on which steel slag was utilized as an
aggregate in base courses and road asphalt surfaces. The studied asphalt mixtures have
demonstrated very good properties in terms of bearing capacity, resistance to external impacts,
and durability.
In 1974, in Ontario (Ontario Ministry of Transportation and Communications) 17 trial road
sections were built in which slag was used in asphalt concrete that was carried out as a measure
of rehabilitation of concrete pavement with a view to increasing surface friction. The obtained
results have demonstrated good resistance of road surfaces to friction and good properties of

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adhesiveness of road surfaces. It was established that the number of traffic accidents on wet
pavement was approximately the same as the number of accidents that occurred on dry
pavement. Emery states that in the first uses of slag in asphalt there were occurrences of fractures
and heaves of pavement, which later on was linked to the lack of stability of slag because of free
oxides of calcium and magnesium.

The reasons were an insufficiently careful selection of materials and improper embedding
method. Hydration of free oxides due to which expansion occurred was usually prevented, i.e.,
controlled by a sufficient time period of slag weathering before its use in pavement base courses.
However, the same author specifies that weathering is not the critical criterion in the utilization
of slag in asphalt layers if smaller slag fractions are used, with grain size of 13-13.2 mm. In the
process of production of asphalt mixture the aggregate undergoes the washing and screening
phases, as well as drying, with ensuing instantaneous hydration and expansion of slag. The
second condition that enables application without preliminary weathering is pre-coating the
aggregate grain with a bitumen film that limits potential expansion.

For aggregates with larger grain size, in particular those larger than 19 mm, the necessary
weathering period of a minimum of 30 days is specified. An additional measure of prevention of
pavement deformation due to expansion which is specified is the recommendation that slag used
in asphalts should contain up to 3 % of ingredients other than slag, whereas Emery and Wuet al
limit the share of free CaO to a maximum of 6 %. In his doctoral thesis Mäkikyrö specifies a
significantly stricter criterion of the share of free CaO, if non-weathered slag is utilized, and
states that this percentage is only 4 % for slag applied in bitumen layers and 7 % in unbound
base course.

Canadian regulations, as an additional measure against the possibility of occurrence of

deformations in the course of the use of the pavement, limit the expansion to 1 %. Although up
to this point mostly negative properties arising from the presence of free calcium oxide have
been highlighted, it has also had a positive impact in the application of slag in asphalt mixtures.
Namely, Shen et al state that the presence of free CaO increases the resistance to stripping,
adhesion between aggregate grains and binder, thus contributing to higher durability of road

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surface. The increase in adhesion is facilitated by the very nature of slag as a by-product of the
steel production process, i.e., it does not contain clay.

Physical properties of slag should be highlighted among other advantages of slag in its utilization
in asphalt mixtures. Sharp edges, a proper grain shape, and rough surface texture also contribute
to better adhesiveness of aggregate binder and grain, and increase the coefficient of internal
friction of bituminous overlay more than any other natural aggregate. Those physical properties,
in addition to the proper granulometric composition, increase shear tightness of mixtures and
resistance to appearance of rut. It is for this reason that those mixtures are most frequently used
in places where great wear resistance and good adhesiveness of pavement is required, such as
roads in industrial installations, parking spaces exposed to heavy freight vehicles and junctions.
Among physical properties of steel slag Emery and Ali et al highlight a great specific weight and
density of steel slag, which also increases specific weight and density of asphalt mixtures in
comparison with those with natural aggregate.
This big specific weight leads to the advantage of those mixtures in winter-time road
maintenance. Emery and Shen et al also state that a strong stability of mixtures containing steel
slag as aggregate (as much as 1 5-3 times greater than that in standard mixtures) and increased
maintenance of temperature and dryness aggregate, besides reducing the energy consumption in
winter rehabilitation of pavement, contributes to the duration of rehabilitation and easier
disposition. In embedding those mixtures have demonstrated high workability, long-term
maintenance of temperature, and very good compaction properties. The confirmation of the
convenience of utilization of this waste material in asphalt mixtures was provided by research
carried out at McMaster University which has demonstrated that elasticity modules of asphalt
mixtures with steel slag are higher by 20-80 % than mixtures with standard aggregate at
temperature of 29 °C.

Emery states that the values of Poisson coefficients of those mixtures are lower than the standard
ones, which additionally points to a higher stability during utilization and resistance to the
occurrence of plastic deformations. With regard to those data and the state of pavement structure
stress, he indicates the possibility of designing of pavement structures with reduced thickness of
asphalt concrete compounds up to as much as 37 mm. This could make up for one of the
disadvantages of these mixtures, a bulk density higher by 15-25 %, which increases costs of
16
transportation of fresh asphalt mixtures. Among the disadvantages is also the increased need for
binder due to granular sharp edges and rough surface. Steel slag can be applied as an aggregate
both in hot and cold asphalt mixtures. The only limitation specified as regards this use is the
quantity of aggregate made up of slag.

More precisely, mixtures with 100 %-share of steel slag as aggregate have proven to be
sustainable to appearance of fractures at large distances and big bulking of mixtures due to sharp
edges and regular grain shape. Ahmedzade and Sengoz indicate that in such mixtures there may
appear an increased need for binder in the course of the production and stripping of bitumen
binder in pavement utilization. For this reason it is recommended that slag is used only as a
replacement for smaller or larger aggregate grain size in the applications in wear-exposed asphalt
layers. According to Ahmedzade and Sengoz, the research carried out byAsi has shown that
asphalt concrete mixtures are more friction resistant if they contain 30 % of slag and that 75 %
substitution of limestone aggregate by slag has rendered significant improvements of mechanical
properties of asphalt concrete.

Among those properties particularly important is the Marshall stability, for which the research
conducted by Kara has demonstrated a better stability than the mixtures with the limestone
aggregate. This is the reason for the higher resistance to permanent deformations of such
overlays, as well as higher stiffness. The research indicated above also included testing of
electric conductibility, which also confirmed that slag was an aggregate with better performance.
Electric conductibility may be useful in the use of special techniques of winter maintenance (e.g.
in the maintenance of runways). Authors Shen et al. showed in their research that porous asphalt
with BOF slag has a number of advantages: lower susceptibility to abrasion, better absorption
due to big porousness and excellent drainage of water from pavement surface (higher traffic
safety) and better properties in terms of traffic noise, i.e., they belong to the "silent" overlays
group.

Xue et al. in their research included rehabilitation of stiff pavement by a new layer of stone
mastic asphalt (SMA) in which the slag is utilized as aggregate and concluded: expansion of
embedded layer is very slow (7 days – only 1 %), adhesion connectivity between aggregate
grains and binder is exceptionally good, which results in increased resistance of pavement to
17
wear and tear, better resistance to permanent deformations at high temperatures, and better
resistance to the appearance of fractures at low temperatures. Application of slag in unbound
base courses has been described by authors Motz et al..

A number of trial road sections with slag in unbound base courses were constructed, while the
research carried out a comparison of layers containing steel slag as an aggregate and layers with
crushed stone. A comparison of the results has shown that the layers with slag have demonstrated
higher bearing capacity immediately after material compaction. Further increase in the strength
was explained by carbonate hardening due to free oxides of calcium. According to the source,
attaining of greater bearing capacity may also be accounted for by the shape of slag grain which
is convenient for compaction, creating a very hard, compact and durable surface that may sustain
heavy traffic loads. Authors De Bock et al. described the application of slag from the production
of stainless steel as aggregate in cement-bound base courses in the building of a warehouse
plateau in Belgium.

Volume changes of embedded material and compressive strength were observed, and the
obtained results of volume change of 2 3 % after 7 days and compressive strength of 7 MPa
indicated that the material was of satisfactory quality. The same authors presented another
example of the utilization of slag from production of stainless steel in rigid pavement structures
for pavement of rolled concrete constructed on a side suburban road. In that case the measured
value of CBR was no less than 250 %, but this value declined quickly to 80 % with the increase
in the humidity of the material. Problems have been observed with the appearance of fractures
and swelling of pavement due to the reaction of free calcium oxides and water. The problem of
hydration of free oxides may be resolved by a proper selection of grain size distribution of slag,
as discussed by Mäkikyrö in his dissertation.

Research results have indicated that small grain slag (0/4 mm) has bigger expansion properties
than larger-grain slag. This fact represents an advantage provided that slag is applied as a binder,
in particular if the share of binder in comparison with the aggregate is low – in that case
expansiveness of slag is lost in the total mixture mass. Numerous authors, Mäkikyrö, Shena et
al., Luckman and Satish, and Mahieux et al., have pointed to weak cementitious and pozzolanic
behavior of steel slag. However, despite poor pozzolanic behavior, research still continues and
18
new methods of utilization of slag as binder or binder addition are being sought. In their research
Luckman et al.have found and described the method of processing EAF slag with a view to
improving cementitious behavior.

EAF slag was melted and cooled under water-jet, with the resulting significant changes in the
slag composition and structure. The results of laboratory tests have shown that this procedure
increased 4 times the pozzolan hardness. Authors Mahieux et al have proven poor activation of
BOF slag in cement mixtures, given that a lack of pozzolana reaction after 28 and 90 days of
hardening was observed. Research has shown that this slag cannot be applied as the main
constituent of hydraulic binders in road building, but that its free oxides may be used for
activation with other materials, e.g., blast furnace slag from iron production. Research by the
same authors has shown that mixtures of blast furnace and BOF slag with the addition of
activators accounting to 5 % did not demonstrate any problems in terms of expansion, and it has
also been observed that higher values of compressive strengths are attained with smaller grain
size of BOF slag. In his doctoral dissertation Mäkikyrö studied mixtures of steel slag, cement,
and granulated blast furnace slag. The resultants have shown that, although to attain equal
properties of bearing capacity of mixtures with blast furnace slag as the mixtures with cement,
bigger thicknesses of the layer and a greater quantity of binder were required, the slag-based
binders develop good strengths in stabilized mixes and are convenient for utilization in road
building.

1.9 Idea to Use Steel Slag instead of Aggregates

We knew that steel slags have been used in crackers instead of aggregates, so from there an idea
comes that steel slag can be used instead of aggregates in road buildings where aggregates were
being consumed in bulk.

We performed a simple & rough impact test using a small hammer in which hammer was struck
on both slag and aggregates particles, similar in size & shape, and exactly under similar
conditions. Slag particles were found to have higher impact/crushing strength/resistance than
aggregates. This was due to iron content present in steel slag. So from there we concluded that
we should explore the possibility of replacing coarse aggregates in concrete and asphalt with
steel slag.
19
Chapter-2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 MORTH CODE: 2013
Lime should be dry slaked lime
Purity not less than 70% by weight of quick lime (CaO)

Physical properties of Coarse Aggregates

Property Test Requirement Test Method

Size Grain size analysis Max 5% passing IS: 2386 Part I

75 micron
Particle Shape Combined Flakiness and Max 35% IS: 2386 Part I
Elongation Index
Strength Los Angeles Abrasion Value Max 40% IS: 2386 Part IV
or Aggregate Impact Value Max 30% IS: 2386 Part IV

Durability Soundness (Sodium or 5 cycles

Magnesium)
Sodium Sulphate Max 12% IS: 2386 Part V
Magnesium Sulphate Max 18% IS: 2386 Part V

Water Absorption Water Absorption Test Max 2% IS: 2386 Part III

Stripping Coating and Stripping of Min: Retained coating IS: 6241

Bitumen Aggregate 95%

Water Sensitivity Retained Tensile Strength Min 80% AASHTO 263

20
2.1.1 SIEVE ANALYSIS

2.1.1.1 Object

This method covers the procedure for the determination of particle size distribution of fine,
coarse and all-in-aggregates by sieving or screening.

2.1.1.2 Apparatus

(i) Sieves - Sieves of the sizes given in Table I, conforming to IS: 460-1962 Specification for
Test Sieves shall be used.

TABLE I: IS SIEVES FOR SIEVE ANALYSIS OF AGGREGATES FOR CONCRETE

TYPE SIEVE DESIGNATIONS

Square hole, perforated/punched plate
Fine mesh, wire cloth
80 mm, 63 mm, 50 mm, 40 mm, 31.5 mm,
25 mm, 20 mm, 16 mm, 12.5 mm, l0 mm,
6.3 mm, 4.75 mm
3.35 mm, 2.36 mm, l.l8 mm, 600 micron,
300 micron, 150 micron, 75 micron

(ii) Balance - The balance or scale should be such that it is readable and accurate up to 0.1
percent of the weight of the test sample.

2.1.1.3 Sample
The weight of sample available should be not less than the weight given in Table II. The sample
for sieving (see Table II) shall be prepared from the larger sample either by quartering or by
means of a sample divider,

21
TABLE II: MINIMUM WEIGHTS FOR SAMPLING

Maximum Size Present in substantial Minimum weight of sample dissipated for

proportions (in mm) testing (in Kg)
63 100
50 100
40 50
25 50
20 23
16 23
12.5 12
10.0 6
6.3 3

2.1.1.4 Test Procedure for Coarse and Fine Aggregate

(i) The sample shall be brought to an air-dry condition before weighing and sieving. This may be
achieved either by drying at room temperature or by drying in an oven at a temperature of 100
to 110°C. The dry sample shall be weighed and sieved successively on the appropriate sieves
starting with the largest. Care shall be taken to ensure that the sieves are clean before use.

(ii) Each sieve shall be shaken separately over a clean tray until not more than a trace passes, but
in any case for a period of not less than two minutes. The shaking shall be done with a varied
motion, backwards and forwards, left to right, circular clockwise and anti-clockwise, and with
frequent jarring, so that the material is kept moving over the sieve surface in frequently
changing directions. Material shall not be forced through the sieve by hand pressure, but on
sieves coarser than 20 mm, placing of particles is permitted. Lumps of fine particles, if
present, may be broken by gentle pressure with fingers against the side of the sieve. Light
brushing with a soft brush on the underside of the sieve may be used to clear the sieve
openings.

(iii) Light brushing with a fine camel hair brush may be used on the 150 micron and 75 micron
IS sieves to prevent aggregation of powder and blinding of apertures. Stiff or worn out

22
 brushes shall not be used for this purpose and pressure shall not be applied to the surface of
the sieve to force particles through the mesh.

On completion of sieving, the material retained on each sieve, together with any material
cleaned from the mesh, shall be weighed.

 In order to prevent binding of the sieve apertures by overloading, the amount of

aggregate placed on each sieve shall be such that the weight of the aggregate retained on
the sieve at completion of the operation is not greater than the value given for that sieve
in Table III.

Sample weights given in Table IV will thus normally require several operations on each sieve.

2.1.1.5 Test Procedure for All-in-Aggregates, or Mixed Coarse and Fine Aggregates

The weight of sample available shall not be less than the weight given in Table II. The sample
for sieving (see Table IV) shall be prepared from the larger sample either by quartering or by
means of a sample divider. It shall be brought to air dry condition before weighing and sieving.
This may be achieved either by drying at room temperature or by drying at a temperature of 100
to 110°C.

TABLE III: MAXIMUM WEIGHT TO BE RETAINED AT THE COMPLETION OF

SIEVING

COARSE AGGREGATE FINE AGGGERGATE

MAXIMUM MAXIMUM MAXIMUM
IS SIEVE WEIGHT FOR 45 WEIGHT FOR 30 IS SIEVE WEIGHT FOR 20
cm dia. sieve cm dia. sieve cm dia. sieve
50 mm 10 4.5 2.36 mm 200
40 mm 8 3.5 1.18 mm 100
31.5 mm or 25 6 2.5 -
mm
20 mm 4 2 600 micron 75
16 mm or 12.5 3 1.5 300 micron 50
mm
10 mm 2 1 -
6.3 mm 1.5 0.75 150 micron 40
4.75 mm 1 0.50 75 micron 25
3.35 mm - 0.30 -
23
TABLE IV: MINIMUM WEIGHT OF SAMPLE FOR SIEVE ANALYSIS

MAXIMUM SIZE PRESENT IN MINIMUM WEIGHT OF SAMPLE TO BE

SUBSTANTIAL PROPORTIONS (mm) TAKEN FOR SIEVING (kg)
63 50
50 35
40 15
25 5
20 2
12.5 1
10 0.5
6.3 0.2
4.75 0.2
2.36 0.1

(i) In some cases the sieve analysis of all-in-aggregate can be carried out in accordance with the
procedure given in 2.4. Frequently, however, this will result in heavy overloading of the finer
sieves. In such cases it will be necessary to make a preliminary separation of the all-in-aggregate
into two fractions, coarse and fine, using for this purpose a convenient sieve for example, a
3.35mm or 4.75mm IS Sieve.

(ii) If the amount of either the coarse or fine aggregate obtained as above is substantially less
than that required for testing in accordance with Table IV, another sample shall be taken which is
sufficiently large to produce an adequate sample of both coarse and the fine aggregates. If the
amount of either coarse or fine aggregate thus obtained is substantially greater than that required
for testing, it shall be reduced by quartering or by means of a sample divider.

2.1.1.6 Reporting of Results

The results shall be calculated and reported as:

a) The cumulative percentage by weight of the total sample passing each of the sieves, to the
nearest whole number or

b) The percentage by weight of the total sample passing through a sieve and retained on the next
smaller sieve to the nearest 0.1 percent.

Graphical Method of Recording Results - The results of sieve analysis may be recorded
graphically as direct chart or indirect or cumulative chart.

24
2.1.2 DETERMINATION OF MATERIALS FINER THAN 75-MICRON

2.1.2.1 Object

This method of test deals with the procedure for determining the total quantity of material finer
than 75micron IS Sieve in aggregates by washing.

2.1.2.2 Apparatus

The apparatus shall consist of the following:

a) Weighing Balance -The balance or scale shall be of sufficient capacity and sensitivity and
shall have an accuracy of 0.1 percent of the weight of the test sample.

b) Sieve - A nest of two sieves, the lower being 75 micron IS Sieve and the upper approximately
l-18-mm IS Sieve [see IS: 460-1962 Specification for Test Sieves (Revised)].
c) Container -- A pan or vessel of a size sufficient to contain the sample covered with water and
to permit stirring without inadvertent loss of any part of the sample or water.
d) Oven - An oven of sufficient size capable of maintaining a uniform temperature of 110 +/- 5
degree C.
2.1.2.3 Sample

The test sample shall be selected from material which has been thoroughly mixed and which
contains sufficient moisture to prevent segregation. A representative sample, sufficient to yield
not less than then appropriate weight of dried material, as shown below, shall be selected.

MAXIMUM NOMINAL SIZE OF APPROXIMATE MINIMUM WEIGHT OF

AGGREGATES (mm) SAMPLE (kg)
4.75 500
10 2000
20 2500
40 or over 5000

2.1.2.4 Procedure

(i) The test sample shall be dried to constant weight at a temperature of 110 +/- 5 degree C and
weighed to the nearest 0.1 percent.

25
(ii) The test sample after being dried and weighed shall be placed in the container and sufficient
water added to cover it. The contents of the container shall be agitated vigorously.

(iii) The agitation shall be sufficiently vigorous to result in the complete separation from the
coarse particles of all particles finer than 75-micron and bring the fine material into
suspension. Care shall be taken to avoid, as much as possible, the decantation of the coarse
particles of the sample. The operation shall be repeated until the wash water is clear.

(iv)The wash water containing the suspended and dissolved solids shall be immediately poured
over the nested sieves arranged with the coarser sieve on the top.

(v) All material retained on the nested sieves shall be returned to the washed sample. The washed
aggregates shall be dried to a constant weight at a temperature 110°C and weighed to the
nearest 0.1 percent.

2.1.2.5 Calculation

The amount of material passing the 75-micron IS Sieve shall be calculated as follows:

A = (B-C/B) X 100

A = percentage of material finer than 75-micron,

B = original dry weight, and

C = dry weight after washing.

2.1.3 DETERMINATION OF FLAKINESS INDEX

2.1.3.1 Object

This method of test lays down the procedure for determining the flakiness index of coarse
aggregate.

The flakiness index of an aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles in it whose least
dimension (thickness) is less than three-fifth of their mean dimension. The test is not
applicable to sizes smaller than 6.3 mm.

2.1.3.2 Apparatus
26
The apparatus shall consist of the following:

a) Balance-The balance shall be of sufficient capacity and sensitivity and shall have an accuracy
of 0.1 percent of the weight of the test sample.

b) Metal Gauge -- The metal gauge shall be of the pattern

c) Sieves - IS Sieves of sizes shown in Table V.

2.1.3.3 Sample

A sufficient quantity of aggregate shall be taken to provide the minimum number of 200 pieces
of any fraction to be tested.

2.1.3.4 Procedure

(i) Sieving - The sample shall be sieved in accordance with the method described in 3 with the
sieves specified in Table V.

(ii) Separation of Flaky material- Each fraction shall be gauged in turn for thickness on a metal
gauge of the pattern or in bulk on sieves having elongated slots. The width of the slot used in the
gauge or sieve shall be of the dimensions specified in co1 3 of Table V for the appropriate size of
material.

27
 TABLE V DIMENSIONS OF THICKNESS AND LENGTH GAUGES

SIZE OF SIZE OF THICKNESS GUAGE LENGTH GUAGE

AGGREGATES AGGREGATE (mm) * (mm) ^
PASSING THROUGH RETAINED ON THE
IS SIEVE SIEVE
63 mm 50 mm 33.9 -
50 mm 40 mm 27 81
40 mm 31.5 mm 19.5 58.5
31.5 mm 25 mm 16.95 -
25 mm 20 mm 13.5 40.5
20 mm 16 mm 10.8 32.4
16 mm 12.5 mm 8.55 25.6
12.5 mm 10 mm 6.75 30.2
10 mm 6.3 mm 4.89 14.7
 *This dimension is equal to 0.6 times the mean sieve size.
 ^This dimension is equal to 1.8 times the mean sieve size.

(iii) Weighing of Flaky Material - The total amount passing the gauge shall be weighed to an
accuracy of at least 0.1 percent of the weight of the test sample.

2.1.3.5 Reporting of Results

The flakiness index is the total weight of the material passing the various thickness
gauges or sieves, expressed as a percentage of the total weight of the sample gauged.

2.1.4. DETERMINATION OF ELONGATION INDEX

2.1.4.1 Object

This method of test lays down the procedure for determining the elongation index of coarse
aggregate.

The elongation index of an aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles whose greatest
dimension (length) is greater than one and four-fifths times their mean dimension. Normally,

28
the properties of interest to the engineer are sufficiently covered by the flakiness or angularity
tests. The elongation test is not applicable to sizes smaller than 6.3 mm.

2.1.4.2 Apparatus

The apparatus shall consist of the following:

(a) Balance - The balance shall be of sufficient capacity and sensitivity and shall have an
accuracy of 0.1 percent of the weight of the test sample.

(b) Metal Gauge - The metal gauge shall be of the pattern shown in

(c) Sieves - IS Sieves of the sizes shown in Table V.

2.1.4.3 Sample

A quantity of aggregate shall be taken, sufficient to provide a minimum number of 200 pieces of
any fraction to be tested.

2.1.4.4 Procedure

(i) Sieving - The sample shall be sieved in accordance with the method described in 3 with the
sieves specified in Table V.

(ii) Separation of Elongated Material- Each fraction shall be gauged individually for length on a
metal length gauge of the pattern. The gauge length used shall be that specified in col 4 of Table
V for the appropriate size of material.

(iii) Weighing of Elongated Material - The total amount retained by the length gauge shall be
weighed to an accuracy of at least 0.1 percent of the weight of the test sample.

2.1.4.5 Report of Results

The elongation index is the total weight of the material retained on the various length gauges,
expressed as a percentage of the total weight of the sample gauged.

29
2.1.5. AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE TEST

2.1.5.1 INTRODUCTION

The principal mechanical properties required in stones (aggregates) are:

i. Satisfactory resistance to crushing/impact under rolling during construction.

ii. Adequate resistance to surface abrasion under traffic particularly heavy traffic.

Aggregate used in road construction, should be strong enough to resist crushing under traffic
wheel loads. If the aggregates are weak, the stability of the pavement structure is likely to be
adversely affected. The strength of coarse aggregate is assessed by aggregate crushing test. The
aggregate crushing test provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing under a gradually
applied compressive load. To achieve a high quality of pavement, aggregate possessing low
aggregate crushing value should be avoided.

2.1.5.2 Object

To determine the aggregate crushing value by aggregate by compressive testing machine

2.1.5.3 Apparatus

i. Steel cylinder with open ends, and internal diameter 152 mm, square base plate plunger a
piston of diameter 150mm, with a hole provided across with stem of the plunger so that
rod could be inserted for lifting or placing the plunger in the cylinder
ii. Cylindrical measure having internal diameter of 115 mm and height 180 mm
iii. Steel tamping rod with one rounded end, having a diameter of 16 mm and length 450 to
600 mm
iv. Balance of capacity 3 kg with accuracy up to 1gm
v. Compression testing machine capable of applying load of 40 tones, at a uniform rate of
loading of 4 tones per minute.

2.1.5.4 Procedure

The aggregate passing 12.5 mm IS sieve and retained on 10mm IS sieve is selected for standard
test. The aggregate should be in surface dry condition before testing. The aggregate may be dried

30
by heating at a temperature 100 to 110 degree C for a period of 4 hours and is tested after being
cooled to room temperature.

The cylindrical measure is filled by the test sample of aggregate in three layers of approximately
equal depth, each layer being tamped 25 times by rounded end of the temping rod. After the third
layer is tamped, using the tamping rod as a straight edge levels off the aggregate at the top of the
cylindrical measure. About 6.5 kg of aggregate is required for preparing two test samples. The
test sample thus taken is then weighed. The same weight of the sample is taken in the repeat test.

The cylinder of the test apparatus is placed in the position of the base plate: one third of the test
sample is placed in this cylinder and tamped 25 times by the tamping rod. Similarly, the other
two parts of the test specimen are added, each layer is subjected to 25 blows. The total depth of
the material in the cylinder after tamping shall however be 100mm. The surface of the aggregate
is leveled and the plunger inserted so that it rests on this surface in level position. The cylinder
with test sample and the plunger in position is placed on compressive testing machine. Load is
the applied through the plunger at a uniform rate of 4 tones per minute until the load is 40 tones,
and then the load is released Aggregates including the crushed portion are removed from the
cylinder and sieved on a 2.36 mm IS sieve. The material which passes this sieve is collected.

The above crushing test is repeated on second sample of the same weight in accordance with
above test procedure. Thus two tests are made for the same specimen for taking an average value

2.1.5.5 Calculation

The aggregate crushing value is defined, as ratio of the weight of fines passing the specified IS
sieve 2.36 mm to the total weight of the sample expressed as a percentage.

Aggregate Crushing Value = 100W2/W1

W1= total weight of dry sample
W2= weight of the portion of crushed material passing through 2.36 IS sieve

31
2.1.5.6 Results

The mean of the crushing value obtained in the two tests is reported as the aggregate crushing
value

2.1.5.7 Limits

The aggregate crushing value for cement concrete pavement shall not exceed 30%

The aggregate crushing value for wearing surfaces shall not exceed 45%

Value Recommended by IRC (Indian Road Congress)

Marshall Stability (min) 820 Kg (1800lb)

Marshall Flow (mm) 2-4
Percentage void in mix 3-5
% voids mineral aggregate (VMA) Min 11-13%
% voids in mineral aggregate filled by bitumen 65-75
Binder content% by weighing of mix Min 4.5%

Requirements for Mix Design (MORTH)

Minimum Stability (KN at 60 C) 8.2

Minimum Flow (mm) 2
Maximum Flow (mm) 4
Compaction Level (no of blows) 75 blows on each of the two faces of the
specimen
Percentage voids in mineral aggregate (VMA) 14
Percentage air voids 3-5
Percentage voids filled with bitumen 65-78

32
Chapter-3 EXPERIMENTATION

3.1 MARSHALL STABILITY TEST

This test is done to determine the Marshall stability of bituminous mixture as per ASTM D 1559.
Marshall Stability is the resistance to plastic flow of cylindrical specimens of a bituminous
mixture loaded on the lateral surface. It is the load carrying capacity of the mix at 60 degree C
and is measured in kg. The apparatus needed to determine Marshall Stability of bituminous
mixture is

i) Marshall stability apparatus

ii) Balance and water bath

From Marshall Stability graph, select proportions of coarse aggregates, fine aggregates and filler
in such a way, so as to fulfill the required specification. The total weight of the mix should be
1300g.

Procedure to determine Marshall Stability of bituminous mix

33
 i) Heat the weighed aggregates and the bitumen separately up to 170 degree C and 163 degree C
respectively.

ii) Mix them thoroughly, transfer the mixed material to the compaction mould arranged on the
compaction pedestal.

iii) Give 75 blows on the top side of the specimen mix with a standard hammer (45cm, 4.86kg).
Reverse the specimen and give 75 blows again. Take the mould with the specimen and cool it for
a few minutes.

iv) Remove specimen from mould by gentle pushing. Mark the specimen and cure it at room
temperature overnight.

v) A series of specimens are prepared by a similar method with varying quantities of aggregates
& slag content.

vi) Before testing, keep samples in water bath having temperature of 60 degree C for half an
hour.

vii) Check the stability of the by Marshall Stability apparatus.

3.2 Materials Used and Process in Making Samples

% COARSE FINE COARS FINE BITUM LIME (gm) STONEDUST

SLAG AGGREGAT AGGREGAT E SLAG SLAG EN (gm) (gm)
E (gm) E (gm) (gm) (gm)
0 456.1 456.1 0 0 71.5 17.3 299
25 342.075 342.075 114.025 114.025 71.5 17.3 299
50 228.05 228.05 228.05 228.05 71.5 17.3 299
75 114.025 114.025 342.075 342.075 71.5 17.3 299
100 0 0 456.1 456.1 71.5 17.3 299

Lime: The benefits of using lime:

34
Limestone is a rock with variety of uses. Limestone is crushed and used as a construction
material. Road building without lime powder (filler) is scarcely unthinkable. Roads have to shoe
lasting stability. They have to withstand frost and other weather factors. The upper area of a road
consists of asphalt binder course and bitumen maladam. Lime powder and bitumen show an
excellent adhesiveness to each other

 Lime allows building to breathe: Lime binders are promoted by the society for the
protection of ancient building for repair because they are vapour permeable and allow
buildings to breathe. This reduces the risk of trapped moisture and consequent damage to
the building fabric.
 Lime provides a comfortable environment
 The use of lime has ecological benefits
 Lime mortar can protect adjacent materials
 Lime readers can assist out by evaporation
 Lime mixers have good workability
 Lime binders can be durable and have stood the test of time
 Lime finishes are beautiful
 Lime contributes a healthy environment
 Self- heating
 Free lime encourages the growth of calcite crystals
 Local lime enhances regional identity and diversity
 Disfiguring by cement can be avoided by the use of lime
 Indefinite shelf life

35
36
 LIME POWDER

 We will be making cylindrical samples of 7.5 cm X 10 cm weighing 1300 gm by

replacing slag with the aggregates
 Samples will be containing bitumen, stone dust, aggregates, slag, limestone.
 5 types of samples will be made i.e. with 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, 100% slag content
respectively

 After making the samples we will be doing Marshall Stability Test which is done to
determine the Marshall stability of bituminous mixture as per ASTM D 1559.
 The ratio of the mixture for 0% slag will be
26.36 : 26.36 : 4.13 : 1 : 17.28

coarse aggregate: fine aggregate: bitumen: Limestone: Stone dust

37
38
Chapter-4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Water Absorption Test

39
 SERIAL SLAG% Before Absorption (in After Absorption (in Increase in Weight
NO. gms) gms) (in gms)
1 0 1278 1284 6.0
2 0 1264 1266.5 2.5
3 0 1242 1254.5 12.5
4 25 1190 1206 16.0
5 25 1238 1262.5 24.5
6 25 1274 1282.5 8.5
7 50 1271 1289 18.0
8 50 1251 1263 12.0
9 50 1235 1246 11.0
10 75 1230 1237 7.0
11 75 1240.5 1252 12.5
12 75 1236 1245 9.0
13 100 1274.5 1281 6.5
14 100 1225.5 1234 8.5
15 100 126.5 1273 7.5

The test passes the MORTH CODE 2013 as it states that road materials should absorb max 2%
water.

Stability and Flow Value

Marshall Stability Test providing Ring Constant

ONE SMALL DIVISION = 9.1 Kg/Div

Serial No Slag% Stability (in Kg) Flow Flow (in mm)

1 0 280 X 9.1 2548 1.69 4.29
2 0 330 X 9.1 3003 0.6 1.52
3 0 320 X 9.1 2912 0.15 0.38
4 25 320 X 9.1 2912 0.18 0.45
5 25 325 X 9.1 2957.5 0.13 0.33
6 25 325 X 9.1 2957.5 1.18 2.99
7 50 365 X 9.1 3321.5 0.4 1.01
8 50 320 X 9.1 2912 0.87 2.20
9 50 320 X 9.1 2912 1.54 3.91
10 75 350 X 9.1 3185 0.96 2.43
11 75 320 X 9.1 2912 1.74 4.41
12 75 320 X 9.1 2912 1.59 4.03
13 100 285 X 9.1 2593.5 1.85 4.69
14 100 360 X 9.1 3276 1.62 4.11
15 100 325 X 9.1 2957.5 1.21 3.07

40
Mean Values: 00% = 2821.00 kg, 2.06mm

25% = 2942.34 kg, 1.25mm

50% = 3048.50 kg, 2.37mm

75% = 3003.00 kg, 3.62mm

100% = 2942.10 kg, 3.95mm

Slag% v/s Stability Value

3100

3048.5
3050

3003
STABILITY VALUE (in Kg)

3000

2942.34 2942.3
2950

2900

2850

2821
2800
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
SLAG%

41
Slag% v/s Flow Value

4.5

4
3.95
3.5 3.62
FLOW VALUE (IN MM)

2.5
2.37
2 2.06

1.5
1.25
1

0.5

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
SLAG %

42
Chapter-5 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

CONCLUSION

Results of Water Absorption Test and Marshall Stability Test confirm that EAF Slag can
substitute coarse aggregates (bajri) in highway construction as the results of these tests are even
better than the standard results of these tests and also, better than the corresponding results of
mix having 0% slag, that is when only coarse aggregate were used. Replacing aggregates with
slag in road construction can be done without any reservations and we, too recommend it.

43
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[21] Ministry of Transport and Highway Code 2013

[22] Hazardous Waste Materials rules (2008), Ministry of Environment and Forest Notification
New Delhi, Published By Gazette of India

[23] Inga Hermann, Lale Andreas, Siviua Dienner and Lotta Lind (2010), Steel Slag used in
Landfill cover liners: Laboratory and field tests. Journal of Waste Management, Vol. 28(12) pp
1114-1121

[24] Emaergy Mullick A (2005), High Performance concrete in India development practices and
standardization. Indian Concrete journal pp 83-98

[25] R.Alizadeh, M.chini, P.Ghods, M.Hosini, Sh. Montazer, M.Shekarchi, Utilization of electric
arc furnace slag as aggregates in concrete-environmental issue. International Conference on
recent advances in concrete technology, Bucharest, Romania, pp 451-464, June 2003

[26] Ivana baristic, Sanja Dimter, Ivanka Netinger, Possibilities of application of slag in road
construction, technical gazette11, 4(2010), 523-528

[27] Sandeep S Patil, S.S. Bachhav, D.Y.K. Kshirasagar, Use of steel slag in construction of
flexible pavement. International Journal of Engneering and innovative Technology (IJEIT) Vol.
5, Issue11, May 2016

45
 PART 2

UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL ARC FURNACE SLAG IN CEMENT

CONCRET

46
 ABSTRACT
Ferrous and non-ferrous metal industries produce million of tons of waste in the world. Slag is a
major waste of Steel industry and was being used as a land filling material for many years. But
use of slag for land filling is becoming a problem due to rapid increase in disposal cost due to
increasing distances. In an effort to use slag in large volume, research has been carried out for
its possible large scale utilization in cement concrete as partial replacement of aggregate and
also, in highway construction.

This experimental investigation was performed by determining compressive strength and water
absorption capacity of concrete cubes in which coarse aggregate was replaced with (0%, 25%,
50%, 75% & 100%) EAF slag by weight. Compressive strength of cement concrete cubes
prepared by replacing coarse aggregate (bajri) with 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, 100% slag did not fall.
Also, from the review of past research works it could be concluded that utilizing slag holds a
great potential in concrete mix, highway pavement, and other cement concrete products.

47
 CONTENT

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1. General……………………………………………………..………………………………..52
1.2. Properties of Aggregate………………………………….…………….……………………53
1.2.1. Strength…………………………..…………….……………………………………..53
1.2.2. Hardness…………………………………….……………………………………......53
1.2.3. Toughness……………………………………………………………………………53
1.2.4. Shape of aggregates………………………………………………………………….54
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1.Overview……………………………………………………………..………………………55
2.2.Concrete…………………………………………………………………...…………………55
2.3.Aggregate…………………………………………………………..………………………...55
2.4. Properties of Aggregates required for Mix Design…………………………….……………56
2.5. Non-traditional Aggregates…………………………………………………..……………...57
2.6. Steel Slag and its production………………………………………….……………………..57
2.7. Current Uses of Steel Slag………………………………………….……………...………..58
2.8. Properties of Steel Slag………………………………………………………….…………..59
2.8.1. Physical properties……………………………………………...………………….........59
2.8.2. Chemical Composition………………………………………………....…………...........60
2.8.3. Effect on the Environment and Health………………………….………………...……...61
2.9.Problems associated with Steel Slag aggregates……………………….…………...………..61
2.10. Past studies on steel slag aggregates………………………………..………….………...62

CHAPTER 3: EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

3.1 Materials used in Concrete Cube………………………………………….……………........66

3.2 Process of Preparing Cement Concrete cubes Samples…………………………….………..69

48
3.3 Experimental Procedure for testing Concrete cubes made by using Slag…………………...72
3.3.1 Determination of compressive strength……………………………………….……….72

3.3.2 Determination of water absorption test…………………………………….………………72

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS……………………………………….……..74

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION……………………………………………………….………..81

REFERENCES

49
 CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. GENERAL
Slag is a by-product/waste of iron & steel industry. Rapidly water-cooled blast furnace slag, due
to its relative high amorphous silica content which has pozzolanic activities, is being used in the
production of blended cement. There are research works available in which air-cooled and
granulated EAF slag is used as aggregate. The conclusions of these studies indicate that there is a
great likelihood to use EAF slag instead of natural and normal coarse aggregate (bajri) in
concrete. Electric arc furnace slag, also called steel slag, has little pozzolanic activity. But it has
been widely used as aggregate, mainly in base, sub-base and bituminous pavement for road
construction, in which steel slag provides many advantages in comparison with natural
aggregates. A number of studies have been done for using steel slag in road construction and
cement concrete. ASTM C336 gives specifications for the use of blast furnace slag as aggregates
in concrete, while there is no such standard for steel slag. The recycling of EAF slag has been
taken as an important issue at Vardhman Special Steels Ltd, Ludhiana and this will ultimately
solve the problem of disposal of EAF slag.

Cement concrete is one of the most widely used materials. Many aspects of our daily life depend
directly or indirectly on concrete which is prepared by mixing various constituents like cement,
coarse aggregates (bajri), fine aggregates (sand) and water. Concrete is a composite material
composed of granular materials like coarse aggregates embedded in a matrix and bound together
with sand & cement, as binder, which fills up the space between the coarse aggregates particles
and held them together.

Concrete plays a critical role in the design and construction of the infrastructure projects like
highways, bridges, flyovers, malls and other high rise/multi storeys buildings. More than three
quarters of volume of concrete is composed of aggregates. To meet the demand of concrete in
future, it is becoming a more challenging task to find suitable alternatives for natural aggregates
for use in concrete. Natural aggregates are obtained from natural rocks. They are inert filler
materials and depending upon their size they can be separated into coarse aggregates and fine
aggregates. The coarse aggregate fraction is that retained on 10.25mm sieve, while the fine
50
aggregates fraction is that passes through the same sieve. According to some estimates after the
year 2010, the global concrete industry will require annually 8 to 12 billion metric tons of natural
aggregates. During the past 25 years, the production of crushed stone has increased at an
average annual rate of about 3.3 percent.

Therefore the use of alternatives for natural aggregates is becoming increasingly important. Slag
is a waste, which should become a by-product, of iron and steel industries. The use of steel slag
aggregates in concrete by replacing natural aggregates appears very promising. Steel slag
aggregates are already being used as aggregates in asphalt paving roads, hot mixes due to their
mechanical strength, stiffness and wear resistance.

1.2 Properties of Aggregates

1.2.1 Strength

The aggregates used in top layers are subjected to

a. Stress action due to traffic wheel load,

b. Wear and tear,
c. Crushing, the aggregates should possess high resistance to crushing, and to withstand the
stresses due to traffic wheel load.
1.2.2. Hardness
a. The aggregates used in the surface course are subjected to constant rubbing or
abrasion due to moving traffic.
b. The aggregates should be hard enough to resist the abrasive action caused by the
movements of traffic.
c. The abrasive action is severe when steel tiered vehicles moves over the aggregates
exposed at the top surface.
1.2.3. Toughness
a. Resistance of the aggregates to impact is termed as toughness.
b. Aggregates used in the pavement should be able to resist the effect caused by the
jumping of the steel tyre wheels from one particle to another at different levels causes
a severe impact on the aggregates.

51
1.2.4. Shape of aggregates
a. Aggregates which happen to fall in a particular size range may have rounded, cubical,
angular, flaky or elongated shapes.
b. It is evident that the flaky and elongated particles will have less strength and
durability when compared with cubical, angular or rounded particles of the same
aggregate.
c. Hence flaky and elongated aggregates should be avoided as far as possible.

52
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Overview

This chapter discusses concrete in general as well as the effects of using steel slag aggregates in
concrete mixture. Topics covered include steel slag, how it is produced, its properties,
comparison of steel slag aggregates with natural aggregates, and its feasibility for use as a
replacement for natural aggregates in concrete.

2.2 Concrete

Concrete is a composite material which is composed of coarse granular materials called

aggregates or filler embedded together in the form of a matrix with the help of the cement, a
binding material that fills the space between the aggregates particles and held them together in
the presence of fine aggregate and water. Aggregates are usually obtained from natural rocks,
either crushed stones or natural gravels. Cement binds the aggregates together. Other material
like fly ash or ground granulated blast furnace slag may also be used as binding material.
Aggregates are divided into two parts, fine aggregates and coarse aggregates. Fine aggregates are
considered to be the material passing through 10.25mm sieve and coarse retained over it. Finally,
water is added to initiate the binding process. This makes the mix stiffer and forms the material
called concrete, which can be used in construction.

2.3 Aggregates

Aggregates provide dimensional stability and wear resistance to concrete. Not only do they
provide strength and durability to concrete, but they also influence the mechanical and physical
properties of concrete. Aggregates should be hard, strong, free from undesirable impurities and
chemically stable. They should be free from impurities and organic matters which may affect the
hydration process of cement. The workability, strength, durability and moisture susceptibility of
concrete are greatly influenced by the characteristics of aggregates. The size and grading of

53
aggregates are important parameters in the design of a mix for a particular project because they
can influence the workability of concrete and its hardened strength. The porosity (voids present)
of aggregates and their water absorption capacity affects the resistance of concrete to freezing
and thawing.

2.4 Properties of Aggregates required for Concrete Mix Design

For a good workability, the ideal aggregate particle should be close to spherical in shape, or
well-rounded with a relatively smooth surface. The shape of aggregates and particle
characteristics influences the cement paste requirements. Sufficient cement is required to coat the
aggregates and to provide enough lubrication to decrease interaction between aggregate particles
during mixing. The rough angular shape of crushed aggregates favourably influences the tensile
strength of concrete by increasing the surface area for bonding with cement and reducing high
internal stress concentrations.

The particle size, shape & distribution of aggregates affect the overall economy of concrete mix,
as they determine the amount of cement required for a particular concrete. The quantity of
cement required depends on the void space, which can be altered by using different size particles
of aggregates. Sieve analysis is carried out for the grading of aggregates. Another property of
aggregates is their ability to absorb water due to pores present. Water can also be retained on the
surface as adsorbed water in the form of a thin film.

Soundness is also an important property of coarse aggregates. Aggregates are said to be unsound
when their volume changes depending upon the change in environment i.e. due to chemical
reactions. The resistance of concrete to freeze-thaw conditions depends on the high internal
stresses developed when the water inside freezes and causes a change in volume during cold
weather. This leads to series of micro cracks in the concrete which will ultimately reduce the
strength and weaken the concrete.

54
2.5 Non-traditional Aggregates

When any new material is used as a substitute to aggregates, three major considerations are
relevant:

1) economy,
2) compatibility with other materials and
3) concrete properties.

The economical use of non-traditional materials in concrete depends on various factors, like
transportation required to bring the materials to the site of construction, quantity available, and
the mix design requirements. Many sources are located very far off from their potential markets
and involve high transportation cost. Crushing the aggregates to particular sizes is also an
important issue. The aggregates should not react adversely with other constituents of the concrete
mixture. They should not change the properties of the concrete adversely. The aggregates have
vital role in concrete and provide strength and durability to concrete. The use of industrial by-
products in concrete has received increasing attention in the recent years. Blast furnace slag is
used as an aggregate for asphalt concrete and also, as a cementitious material in concrete. Steel
slag, a waste earlier should now be called a by-product, has potential to be used as an aggregate
in concrete.

2.6 Slag in Steel production

Steel slag is a by-product obtained either from conversion of iron to steel in a Basic Oxygen
Furnace (BOF), or by melting of scrap to make steel in the Electric Arc Furnace (EAF). The
thick molten liquid is a complex solution of silicates and oxides that solidifies on cooling and
forms steel slag. Steel slag is defined by the American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM) as a non-metallic product, consisting essentially of calcium silicates and combined with
fused oxides of iron, aluminium, manganese, calcium and magnesium. The chemical
composition and cooling of molten steel slag have a great effect on the physical and chemical
properties of solidified steel slag.

55
Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) does not use hot metal, but uses steel scraps. Charged material is
heated to a liquid state by means of an electric current supplied through graphite electrodes.
During melting ferro-alloys are added to have the required chemical composition. Meanwhile
oxygen is blown into the EAF to purify the steel. This slag which floats on the surface of molten
steel is then poured off.

The main constituents of iron and steel slags are silica, alumina, calcium, and magnesia, which
together make about 95% of the total composition. Minor elements included are manganese,
iron, sulphur compounds and traces of several other elements. Physical characteristics such as
porosity, density, particle gradation are affected by the cooling rate of the slag and its chemical
composition.

2.7 Current Uses of Steel Slag

Some of the current uses of steel slag are as follows:

1. Steel slag is used as an aggregate in hot mix asphalt (HMA) due to its high frictional
resistance and skid resistance characteristics. The cubical nature of steel slag and its rough
texture provides more resistance than round, smooth and elongated aggregates.

2. It is also used in making Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA) because the particle-to-particle contact
of the aggregate does not break down during the manufacturing, laying down, or compaction
process. Illinois Department of Transportation (IDOT) has successfully specified steel slag SMA
bituminous mixes on roadways.

3. It is also used for manufacture of Portland cement.

4. It is used in base application, construction of unpaved parking lots, as a shoulder material, and
also in the construction of berms and embankment.

5. It is also used in agriculture because it has minerals like iron, manganese, magnesium, zinc
and molybdenum which are valuable plant nutrients.

56
6. It is environment friendly. During the production of cement, the CO2 emissions are reduced as
slag has previously undergone the calcination process.

7. Steel slag aggregates are used for soil stabilization or soil improvement material and for
remediation of industrial waste water run-off.

2.8 Properties of Steel Slag

2.8.1 Physical properties

Steel slag aggregates are fairly angular, roughly cubical pieces having flat or elongated shapes.
They have rough vesicular nature with many non-interconnected cells which gives a greater
surface area than smoother aggregates of equal volume; this feature provides an excellent bond
with Portland cement.

Steel slag has a high degree of internal friction and high shear strength. The rough texture and
shape ensure little breakdown in handling and construction. Steel slag has high bulk specific
gravity and less than 3% water absorption.

Steel slag aggregates have high density, but apart from this feature most of the physical
properties of steel slag are better than hard rock aggregates. Below are listed some of the positive
features of steel slag:

1. They are strong and durable.

2. They have angular shape which helps to develop very strong interlocking properties.

3. They have high resistance to abrasion and impact.

57
 Table 1: Physical Properties of Slag

2.8.2 Chemical Composition

Blast furnace slag usually contains four major oxides, namely lime, magnesia, silica and
alumina. Minor elements include sulphur, iron, manganese, alkalis and trace amount of several
others. The chemical composition of slag is generally expressed in terms of oxides determined
by x-ray fluorescence.

Table 2: Chemical Composition of Slag

Steel slag is mildly alkaline, with a solution pH generally in range of 8 to 10. However, the pH of
leachate from steel slag can exceed 11, a level that can be corrosive to aluminium or galvanized
steel pipes placed in direct contact with the slag.

According to Department of Transportation (DOT) and Federal Highway Administration (FHA),

the amount of free calcium and magnesium oxides is not completely consumed in steel slag. The
58
hydration of unslaked lime and magnesia in contact with moisture is largely responsible for the
expansive nature of most steel slag. The free lime hydrates very rapidly and can cause large
changes in volume over a relatively short period of time, i.e. weeks, while magnesia hydrates
much more slowly and contributes to long term expansion which may continue for many years.

Free lime (Calcium oxide) (CaO) + water (H2O ) = Calcium carbonates (CaCO3)

Magnesium oxide (MgO) + water (H2O) = Magnesium carbonates (MgCO3)

2.8.3 Effect on the Environment and Health

A Steel Slag Coalition (SSC) was formed in 1995 to provide a comprehensive study of steel
slag. This coalition consisted of iron and steel manufacturers, slag processors, chemical
laboratories and risk assessment teams, environmental scientists and toxicologists to conduct an
industry-wide human Health and Ecological Risk Assessment on iron and steel slag. The result
of this study confirmed that the iron and steel slag have no threats to human health or the
environment when used in residential, agricultural, industrial and construction applications. Slag
has also been effectively used to treat acid mine drainage discharge and is also useful in the
removal of excess phosphorous from waste water discharges, thus rendering the waste water
more ecologically beneficial.

2.9 Problems associated with Steel Slag aggregates

Steel slag aggregates have two main features which are of concern to their use in construction,
namely, volume expansion and high particle density. During the making of steel there is a small
percentage of calcium and magnesium oxides which is left undissolved in the slag. These non-
hydrated calcium and magnesium oxides then later come in contact with moisture which leads to
hydration process. The volume expansion is primarily caused by the reaction between the free
lime in slag and water during the hydration process to produce calcium hydroxide. As a result,
there is an increase in volume due to the difference of density of the hydration product. These
changes in volume can occur either in a few weeks after production of slag or may occur many
years later if the slag is initially protected from contact with moisture. A general method usually

59
used to overcome the expansion problem is to store the slag mixed with water for aging in
stockpiles for some four to six months before using it.

Density of steel slag is also an important issue to be considered. Steel slag is a heavier material
than natural rock types such as basalt, granite, or limestone. Thus, any given volume would have
about 15 to 25% greater tonnage of steel slag than traditional natural aggregates which may
create an economic disadvantage for steel slag in some applications where transportation costs
are significant.

Steel slag must be allowed to undergo the weathering process before using as an aggregate in
construction because of its expansive nature. This is done in order to reduce the quantity of free
lime to acceptable limits. The steel slag is allowed to stand in stockpiles for a period of at least 4
months and exposed to weather. During this weathering process, the steel slag is required to be in
contact with water so that the hydration process between lime and water takes place. Hydration
of free lime (CaO) or free magnesia (MgO) is responsible for expansive nature of steel slag.

2.10 Past studies on Steel Slag aggregates

The successful use of steel slag as an aggregate in concrete has been studied. Steel slag is an
industrial waste/by-product and instead of disposing it in the landfill, the use of such product in
the construction would improve the health of economy of a nation. The physical and chemical
characteristics of steel slag have been examined carefully. Due to its expansive properties, it
requires special care if used in construction or other specific applications. The possibility of
utilizing such product as a concrete aggregate with ecological benefits has been globally studied
by several researchers like Anastasiou and Papayianni, (2006).

They conducted several tests with slag aggregates in concrete and found out that the 28-day
strength was increased by 21% with replacement of natural aggregates with slag aggregates,
while there was no increase in the setting time of concrete mixtures. The cement-aggregate
interface seemed to be very dense without cracks or other discontinuities. The concrete that is
produced with steel slag aggregates is of high specific gravity compared to conventional
concrete. However, the specific gravity can be increased or reduced proportionally by the
combination of different types of aggregates.
60
The aggregates typically account for about 75% of the concrete volume and play a substantial
role in different concrete properties such as workability, strength, dimensional stability and
durability. Sultan A. Tarawneh did thorough investigation and results had indicated that the
increase in compressive strength after 7 days was much more than that of 28 days for all types of
aggregate replacement. This indicates that the added slag could work as accelerator at early age
while at 28 days age, the effect is reduced. Furthermore, the fine slag replacement scores the
highest effect. Also, results have shown that slag aggregate has better abrasion factor and impact
value than natural aggregate which are used in this study.

A study on durability of the concrete made with Electric Arc Furnace slag as an aggregate was
done by Manso and Gonzalez (2004), and the results showed that it was acceptable. The concrete
mixes using conditioned/seasoned EAF slag showed good fresh and hardened properties and
acceptable behaviour against aggressive environmental conditions. It was observed that the
compressive strength was similar to that of traditional concrete. The durability was slightly lower
than conventional concrete. The concrete had good physical and mechanical properties, but
results showed that special attention should be paid to the gradation and crushing process. The
results showed that the high porosity of EAF slag aggregates affects concrete resistance to
freezing and thawing but improvements in the field could be possibly obtained by adding air
entraining admixtures.

Comparison of steel slag and crushed limestone aggregate was done by Maslehuddin, et al,
(2003). They studied the mechanical properties and durability characteristics of steel slag
aggregate concrete in comparison with limestone aggregates. Their results showed that the
durability and physical properties of concrete with steel slag aggregates was better than
limestone aggregates. They suggested that the use of steel slag aggregates in concrete was
beneficial, particularly in areas where good quality aggregates are not available or have to be
hauled from far off distances. Abrasion resistance, specific gravity, water absorption, chemical
soundness, alkalinity, concentration of chloride and sulphates were tested and compared with
lime stone aggregates. Shrinkage and expansion characteristics of steel slag and sand cement
mortar specimens were evaluated and length was measured at periodic intervals. Their results
showed that the compressive strength of steel slag aggregates increased with the proportion of
coarse aggregates from 4550 psi (31.4 MPa) with 45% coarse aggregates to 6190 psi (42.7 MPa)

61
with 65% coarse aggregates. The flexural strength and split tensile strength also increased while
the water absorption capacity was reduced. They stated that the shrinkage of steel slag exposed
to a dry environment was similar to limestone aggregate with no major expansion i.e. less than
0.05% as specified by ASTM C 33. The time of initiation of reinforcement corrosion and time of
cracking of concrete specimens was observed to be longer than with lime stone aggregates.

Further study by Manso, Polanco et al (2006) reaffirmed that with a proper mix both the
mechanical strength and durability of steel slag aggregate concrete can be improved. He
conducted two tests for durability: 1) Autoclave test and 2) Accelerated aging test. Autoclave test
is used to detect the presence of expansive compounds, free lime or magnesia in Portland
cement, while accelerated ageing test is done based on ASTM D-4792. Results showed that the
compressive strength was improved after testing. He conducted chemical reactivity test to
observe the possible reactions between slag aggregates and other components of concrete. For
the freeze-thaw test, three samples were stored in moist room for 28 days and subjected to 25
freezing and thawing cycles. They were then immersed in water at 4o C for 6 hours and
maintained in frost storage at -17o C for 18 hours. Variations in weights and compressive
strength were recorded and results showed that electric arc furnace slag concrete showed greater
strength and lower water penetration/absorption. He also stated that the use of air entraining
admixtures increased the freeze-thaw resistance and durability of slag concrete was satisfactory.
Industrial by-products/waste like steel slag require a detailed study of its potential toxicity. There
are several dangerous heavy metals and salts present in the steel slag. A leaching test is required
prior before using the EAF slag as a filling material. Manso et al, (2006) conducted the leaching
test for determining the possible attack of concrete in the environment. Analysis of leached water
from crushed slag aggregates were used to detect the sulphates, fluorides and total chromium
present in it. The results showed that smaller size of crushed slag produces higher concentration
of dangerous substances in leached water. The cloistering effect was found to be greater in larger
sizes of crushed slag. He concluded that the use of EAF slag aggregate in concrete will help to
reduce its potential toxicity and the results confirmed an important cloistering effect of
cementitious matrix on the contaminants elements. Also, some previous research was carried out
at the Cleveland State University by (Obratil et al, 2008) who examined the effects of replacing
various percentages of natural aggregates with steel slag in a standard concrete pavement
mixture which showed satisfactory results.
62
Research on freeze-thaw resistance of steel slag aggregate concrete was done by Takashi et al,
(2007). Concrete specimens were prepared with steel slag aggregates, recycled aggregates and
crushed stones and compared with each other. The size of steel slag aggregates used for the
research ranged from 15-20mm. The samples were cyclically exposed to -18°C to 5°C, every 5
hours in water. Results showed that resistance to freezing and thawing of steel slag aggregates
concrete was better than the recycled aggregates and almost same as crushed stone. Results also
showed that compressive strength and resistance to freezing and thawing increased with increase
in cement content.

In Saudi Arabia, research was conducted to utilize locally available steel slag in concrete by
Abdulaziz et al, (1996). The steel slag was used as coarse aggregates in concrete and comparison
was made with crushed gravel. The results showed that the compressive and flexural strength for
slag concrete was slightly higher than the natural gravel concrete. The splitting tensile strength
and modulus of elasticity were higher, while drying shrinkage was lower than the natural gravel
concrete. The results were encouraging since they showed no negative effects on short term
properties of hardened concrete. The slag was analysed chemically and it did not show any
presence of free lime or any other unstable substances, which can cause swelling effects. Four
trial mixes were made with different water/cement ratio and compared with reference mix of
crushed gravel as coarse aggregates. The Young‘s modulus of elasticity, E of steel slag
aggregates concrete at 28 days was 5 x 106 Psi (34.3 GPa) while it was 4 x 106 Psi (27.9 GPa)
for gravel concrete. The improvement in strength properties of steel slag aggregate concrete may
be due to shape of particles and surface texture, which provide better adhesion and bond between
particles and the cement matrix.

63
 CHAPTER-3

EXPERIMENTATION

This chapter describes the details of experimental programs for the measurement of strength and
water absorption properties of concrete cubes prepared by mixing fine aggregates, coarse
aggregate, cement, water and slag, as a substitute for coarse aggregate.

3.1 Materials used in Concrete Cube

Following materials were used for the compressive strength and water absorption tests.
3.1.1 River Sand

Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and
mineral particles. It is defined by size, being finer than gravel and coarser than silt. Sand can also
refer to a textural class of soil or soil type; i.e. a soil containing more than 85 percent sand-sized
particles by mass. It is obtained from the banks and beds of rivers.

Figure 2: River Sand

3.1.2. Cement

Cement and concrete might be synonyms as household terms, but by nature are different.
Cement, an ultra-fine grey powder, binds sand and aggregates into a mass or matrix of concrete.
Cement is the key ingredient of concrete

Portland cement is a generic term for nearly all modern cement. Modern Portland cement is a
product of high temperature conversion of finely ground materials and blends of limestone, clay
and shale containing four key ingredients viz calcium oxide, silica, alumina and iron.
64
When processed in a long horizontal furnace known as a rotary kiln, blends of raw materials re-
formulate into glass-like nodules called clinker. Suppliers then grind clinker and gypsum to
extreme fineness to produce cement. The finished product is shipped to concrete producers in
bags or in bulk. Cement‗s natural chemistry comes to life in the presence of water, sand, and
gravel or crushed stone—known as fine and coarse aggregate respectively. Upon mixing with
water, cement‘s calcium compounds hydrate to form new agents that bind the aggregates into
concrete.
The most common cement used is Pozzolana Portland cement. The Ordinary Portland
Cement of43 grade (JAYPEE cement OPC) conforming to IS: 81 12—1989 is be used.

Figure 3: Cement

3.1.3. Aggregate

Aggregates are the important constituents in concrete. They give body to the concrete, reduce
shrinkage and affect economy. One of the most important factors for producing workable
concrete is a good gradation of aggregates. By good gradation, we mean a sample of aggregates
in different sizes proportions to have minimum voids. Samples of well graded aggregate
containing minimum voids require minimum paste of cement and water to fill up the voids in the
aggregates. Minimum paste means low requirement of cement and water, which in turn means
lower cost, higher strength, lower shrinkage and greater durability.
3.1.4. Coarse Aggregate
Aggregates most of which are retained on 4.75 mm IS Sieve and containing only so much finer
material as is permitted for the various types described in this standard.

65
 Figure 4: Coarse Aggregates

3.1.5. Fine aggregate

Those fractions from 4.75 mm to 150 micron are termed as fine aggregate. The river sand and
crushed sand is to be used in combination as fine aggregate conforming to the requirements of
IS:1383. The river sand is washed and screened to eliminate deleterious materials and over size
particles. Most of fine aggregates pass through 4.75 mm IS Sieve and contains only so much
coarser material as permitted.

Some of the examples of fine aggregates are-

 Natural Sand — Fine aggregate resulting from the natural disintegration of rock and
which has been deposited by streams or glacial agencies.
 Crushed Stone Sand- Fine aggregate produced by crushing hard stone.
 Crushed Gravel Sand -fine aggregate produced by crushing natural gravel.

3.1.6. Water

Water is an important ingredient of concrete as it actually participates in the chemical

reaction with cement. Since it helps to form strength giving cement gel, the quantity and quality
of water is required to be looked into very carefully. Water should be added strictly in proportion
to cement added as mentioned in the standard.

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3.2 Preparing Cement Concrete cubes Samples

Concrete is the most commonly used construction material. It is versatile

construction material and freshly mixed concrete is plastic and malleable in nature, yet strong
and durable when set/hardened on complete curing. These qualities explain why concrete can be
used to build skyscrapers, bridges, highways, multi storey buildings, malls and dams. Utilization
of slag in concrete processes will be very beneficial for our society and industries. If even the
partial replacement of slag in concrete mix turns out to be positive, then it will help in resolving
a big problem of disposal of the electric arc furnace slag. Concrete cubes were prepared by
mixing fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, cement, water and slag (in different percentage). Five
different types of mixes were prepared by replacing coarse aggregate with 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%,
& 100% EAF slag.

3.2.1. Mixing of Concrete

M20 grade cement concrete mix samples were prepared by taking cement: fine aggregate: coarse
aggregate in the ratio 1:1.5:3 respectively by volume. Volume measurements of all the three i.e
cement, fine aggregates & coarse aggregates were weighed separately and recorded in kg in the
table given below. The water to cement ratio was fixed at 0.5 for every sample. After thorough
mixing in mechanical mixer, cubes were filled close packed with the help of a vibrator.

Figure 5: Mixer

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Volume weighed Water: Cement: Sand: (Aggregate + Slag Ratio) = 0.5: 1: 1.5: 3

Fine (<10mm) Aggregate: Coarse (>10 mm) Aggregate = 5: 4

Volume of one cube = 15X15X15cm3 = 3375cm3

Table 3: Weight of materials added for preparing the various mixes

Slag 0% Slag 25% Slag 50% Slag 75% Slag 100 % Slag

Weight of water(Kg) 5.060 5.622 5.622 5.622 5.622

Weight of cement
10.420 11.570 11.570 11.570 11.570
(Kg)
Sand(Kg) 21.330 23.700 23.700 23.700 23.700
Weight of Course
Aggregate [>10mm] 19.400 16.160 10.770 5.380 0
(kg)
Weight of Fine
Aggregate [<10mm] 24.250 20.200 13.470 6.740 0
(Kg)
Weight of Course
0 5.380 10.770 16.160 21.540
Slag [>10mm] (kg)
Weight of Fine
0 6.740 13.470 20.200 26.940
Slag [<10mm] (Kg)
3.2.2.– Cubical moulds of size 150x l50xl50 mm were used after due cleaning & assembling.

Figure 6: Steel Moulds

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All bolts and screws of moulds should be properly tightened to have no gaps at the joints so that
no cement slurry leaked out. Lubricating oil was applied on the inner side of the mould surfaces
to have good surface finish on cube faces on opening.

3.2.3. Filling the Moulds

Steel cube moulds were filled with cement concrete mix in layers by compacting each layer of
mix with bars. After that the moulds were placed on a vibrating table to have no or minimum
voids and a dense concrete cube. More mix was added to make up the shortage during vibrating
and again extra mix was removed at the end from top with the help of free edge of a steel foot
rule.

Figure 7: Filled & finished moulds

These moulds were then left under room conditions for 24 hours and the moulds were opened
next day. The cubes were then transferred to the non-saline water tank for 7days, 14 days, 28
days.

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3.3 Testing of Concrete Cubes
3.3.1 Water Absorption Test

The cubes were taken out of water tank after 7, 14, 28 days curing. Cubes were then made
surface dry by removing the free adsorbed water from the surface. Cubes were then weighed and
this weight was noted as the wet weight of the cube (WW). There after the cubes were dried in
an oven at 110 degree C for 24 hours or sun dry for few days till the mass became constant and
again weighed. This weight was noted as dry weight of the cube (DW).
( )
Water adsorption percentage =

3.3.2 Determination of compressive strength

Dry cubes after performing water absorption test were tested by compressive strength testing
machine for finding their compressive strength.

Compressive strength=
Area of cube = 150X150 mm2

Filled Cube Moulds

Concrete cube Cubes in water tank

70
Cubes after curing & drying
 CHAPTER-4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Results of water absorption test and compression test of cement concrete cubes prepared by
replacing coarse aggregate with 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, 100% EAF slag.
Standard Value of Compressive Strength for M20 cube is minimum13.5 N/mm2 i.e. 303.75 KN
to failure of cube.

Table 4: Curing period of 7 Days

7 Days Sample Report
Average
Wet Dry Water
Slag Water Compressive Average Load
weight Weight Absorption
Content Absorption Load (KN) (K N)
(Kg) (Kg) (in %)
(in %)
--- --- --- 456.30
0% --- --- --- --- 159.00 407.60
--- --- --- 358.90

8.53 8.45 0.95 386.90

25% 8.9 8.81 1.02 1.04 408.50 417.63
8.72 8.62 1.16 457.50

8.98 8.85 1.47 464.00

50% 8.94 8.83 1.25 1.36 392.80 430.83
8.90 8.78 1.37 435.70

9.00 8.90 1.12 475.80

75% 9.24 9.13 1.20 2.49 512.30 494.05
8.60 8.18 5.13 103.00

9.42 9.23 2.06 464.90

100% 9.64 9.41 2.39 2.24 485.20 475.05
9.50 9.29 2.26 578.20
Red marked values were ignored.

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4.1.1. Sample Observations
Red colour readings indicate that samples were either not properly cast or damaged during
opening.
4.1.2. Graphical representation of average compressive strength Vs slag content

Curing Period : 7 Days

600.00

494.05
500.00 475.05
Average Compressive Strength

417.63 430.83
407.60
400.00

300.00

200.00

100.00

0.00
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
Slag Content

Figure 9: Curing time 7 Days

4.1.3.Conclusion: After 7 days curing time we found that the strength of all cubes having slag
was higher than the cubes having no slag (0%).

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4.2. CURING PERIOD: 14 DAYS
Standard value of M20 mix after 14 days period is approximately taken as 90% of the value after
28 days. That is 90% of 450 KN load to failure for the cube which comes out to be 405 KN.
Table 5: Curing time 14 Days

Average
Wet Dry Water Average
Slag Water Compressive
Sample weight Weight Absorption Compressive
Content Absorption Load (KN)
(Kg) (Kg) (in %) Load (KN)
(in %)

S4 8.24 8.13 1.35 523.50

0% S5 8.12 8.01 1.37 1.43 486.30 515.80

S6 8.41 8.28 1.57 537.60

S4 8.72 8.61 1.28 502.10

25% S5 8.58 8.48 1.18 1.12 469.90 467.80

S6 8.97 8.89 0.90 431.40

S4 9.07 8.97 1.11 562.00

50% S5 9.37 9.28 0.97 1.06 553.00 569.33

S6 9.08 8.98 1.11 593.00

S4 9.50 9.39 1.17 598.00

75% S5 8.97 8.86 1.24 1.14 608.80 592.53

S6 8.94 8.85 1.02 570.80

S4 10.20 10.09 1.04 588.00

100% S5 10.10 10.01 0.90 1.31 510.00 570.67

S6 9.79 9.60 1.98 614.00

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 Curing Period : 14 Days
700.00

592.53
600.00 569.33 570.67
515.80
Average Compressive Strength

500.00 467.80

400.00

300.00

200.00

100.00

0.00
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
Slag Content

Figure 10: Curing Time 14 Days

4.2.1 Conclusion

After 14 days curing time we found that the strength of all cubes having slag was higher than the
cubes having no slag (0% slag).

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 4.3 CURING PERIOD: 28 DAYS
Standard Value of Compressive Strength for M20 cube after 28 day curing is minimum 20
N/mm2 i.e. 450 KN for the cube 150X150X150 mm3 to failure which comes out to be 405 KN.
Table 6: Curing 28 Days

Wet Dry Water Average

Slag AverageWater Compressive
Sample weight Weight Absorption Compressive
Content Absorption(%) Load (KN)
(Kg) (Kg) (in %) Load (KN)

S7 8.50 8.38 1.43 672.20

0% S8 8.46 8.36 1.20 1.24 571.40 597.57

S9 8.27 8.18 1.10 549.10

S7 8.96 8.85 1.24 519.80

25% S8 9.00 8.91 1.01 1.11 444.60 524.83

S9 8.51 8.42 1.07 610.10

S7 8.89 8.83 0.68 631.70

50% S8 9.45 9.37 0.85 0.80 640.90 645.77

S9 9.18 9.10 0.88 664.70

S7 9.06 8.98 0.89 608.90

75% S8 8.85 8.73 1.37 1.08 583.50 629.10

S9 9.21 9.12 0.99 694.90

S7 9.46 9.28 1.94 613.00

100% S8 9.36 9.21 1.63 1.85 595.00 623.40

S9 9.74 9.55 1.99 662.20

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 Curing Period : 28 Days
700.00 645.77 629.10 623.40
597.57

Average Compressive Strength

600.00 524.83
500.00
400.00
300.00
200.00
100.00
0.00
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
Slag Content

Figure 11: Curing 28 Days

Conclusion of the graph: After 28 days curing time we found that the strength of all cubes
having slag 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% slag was higher than the standard value of 450 KN after
28 days curing.

4.4 Water Absorption Test:

From the above table, it is very much clear that water absorption results of mixes having slag
25%, 50%, 75% & 100% are less than the standard/allowed value of 2.00 to 4.00%.

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 Average Water Absorption (in %)
2.50

2.00 2.24

1.50 1.85
1.43 1.36
1.00 1.24 1.31
1.161.141.08
1.041.121.11 1.07
0.50 0.8

0.00
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

7 Days 14 Days 28 Days

Figure 12: Average Water Absorption

Average water absorption in all cases except 2 (2.49% & 2.24% which is far less than 4%) was
less than 2% which is consider to be very good.

Average Compressive Strength

700.00 645.77 629.10 623.40
597.57
600.00 569.33 592.53 570.67
524.83
515.80 494.05
500.00 467.80 475.05
407.60 417.63 430.83
400.00

300.00

200.00

100.00

0.00
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

7 Days 14 Days 28 Days

Figure 13: Average Compressive Strength

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Conclusion:

Strength of 7 days samples is approximately 68% of total strength, strength of 14 days samples is
approximately 90% of 28 days strength which is 20 N/mm2 and full strength is achieved in a year
approximately. Concrete is prepared by mixing cement, water and aggregate together to make a
workable paste. The concrete needs moisture to hydrate and cure (harden). When water is added
to cement, all compounds are hydrated. Only calcium silicates contribute to strength. Tri-calcium
silicate is responsible for most of early strength while di-calcium silicate, which reacts at a very
slow rate, contributes to strength at later stages.

Compressive strength of concrete prepared by substituting coarse aggregates with 25%, 50%,
75%, 100% slag is better than the one having 0% slag as well as the standard values of M20
cement concrete. Also, the results of water absorption test of concrete having slag 25%, 50%,
75% and 100% are good & well below the standard value of 2-4% of M20 cement concrete.
Therefore, on the basis of this limited study, one can recommend the substitution of coarse
aggregates (bajri) with EAF slag in cement concrete. But it is also, recommended that the present
study of substituting the coarse aggregate with EAF slag in cement concrete be further extended
to study the following aspects as well:
1. Investigations regarding resistance of concrete having EAF slag aggregates to attack by
sulphates, alkali silica reactions, carbonation, sea water attack, harmful chemicals and
resistance to high temperatures. The behaviour of concrete having steel slag aggregate
under corrosive environments and its fire resistance should also be investigated. The
results of such studies would directly benefit the construction industry and broader use of
steel slag in concrete would improve overall properties and cost effectiveness.
2. Characterization of slag available from various steel manufacturing plants should be done
for comparison of performances of concretes obtained with these slag.
3. The long term behaviour of concrete having EAF steel slag aggregates should be studied
and its compatibility with reinforcing steel should be analysed.
4. Study of environmental problems due to dumping of EAF slag and not being recycled.

78
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