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One of the serious limitations of the ModiglianiMiller theory
is the suggestion about perpetuity of the companies. We lift
up this limitation and show, that the accounting of the finite V = V0 + DT (2)
lifetime of the company leads to change of the equity cost, This theorem was formulated by Modigliani and Miller for
k e , as well as of the weighted average cost of capital,
perpetuitive companies, but we apply it for a company with
WACC, in the presence of corporative taxes. We give a a finite lifetime.
rigorous proof of the BrusovFilatova theorem, that in the ¥
absence of corporative taxes cost of company equity, k e , V = V0 + TS = V0 + k d DT å (1 +k d ) -t =
as well as its weighted average cost, WACC, do not depend t =1
on the lifetime or age of the company. We show that
perpetuity ModiglianiMiller theory underestimates the equity
cost k e , as well as the weighted average cost of capital,
[
= V0 + wdVT 1 - (1 + k d )
-n
] (4)
WACC, and thus underestimates the financial risks, which
could become one of the implicit reasons for the financial
crisis. ( [
V 1 - wdVT 1 - (1 + k d )
-n
]) = V 0
(5)
There is a common use of the following two formulas for the
< G3 < G11 < G32 < G33 < Perpetuity Companies < cost of the financially independent and financially depend
Companies with Finite Lifetime < Companies of Arbitrary Age < ent companies [3,4]
Weighted Average Cost < Equity Cost < ModiglianiMiller Theory
< BrusovFilatova Theorem V0 = CF k 0 and V = CF / WACC (6)
However, these almost always used formulas were derived
Until now, the basic theory of the cost of capital of for perpetuitive company and in case of a company with a
companies was the theory of Nobel Prize winners Modigliani finite lifetime they must be modified in the same manner as
and Miller. One of the serious limitations of the Modigliani the value of tax shields [1,2]
Miller theory is the suggestion about perpetuity of the
companies. We lift up this limitation and show, that the
accounting of the finite lifetime of the company leads to [ ]k ;
V0 = CF 1 - (1 + k0 )
-n
0
change of the equity cost, k e , as well as of the weighted
V = CF [1 - (1 + WACC ) ] WACC
-n
average cost of capital WACC in the presence of corporative (7)
taxes. The effect of leverage on the cost of equity capital of
the company, k e , with an arbitrary lifetime, and its weighted
average cost of WACC is investigated. We give a rigorous From formula (5) we get BrusovFilatova equation for
proof of the BrusovFilatova theorem, that in the absence WACC [1,2]
of corporative taxes cost of company equity, k e , as well as
its weighted average cost, WACC, do not depend on the
lifetime of the company. [1 - (1 + WACC )- n ] = [1 - (1 + k ) ] 0
-n
WACC [
k0 1 - T (1 - (1 + k
d d )- n )] (8)
Let us consider the situation with finite lifetime companies. Here, S the value of own (equity) capital of the company,
First of all we will find the value of tax shields, TS , of the
company for n years D
wd = the share of debt capital;
n
[
TS = k d DT å (1 +k d ) -t = DT 1 - (1 + k d )
t =1
-n
] (1) D+S
S
(We used the formula for the sum of n terms of a geometric ke , we = the cost and the share of the equity
progression). D + S of the company,
Here, D is the value of debt capital; k d the cost of debt L = D/S financial leverage
capital, T income tax rate.
Next, we use the Modigliani Miller theorem [3,4]: At n=1 we get Myers (Myers, 1974) formula for oneyear
company
(1 + k 0 )k d
WACC = k 0 - wd T (9)
1 + kd
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From ModiglianiMiller to General Theory of Capital Cost and Capital Structure of the Company
1- 2 ± 4 +1
WACC = (22)
2
where
2 + k0
=
é 2k + k d2 ù (23)
(1 + k 0 ) 2 ê1 - d T d
ë (1 + k d )2 úû
For n = 3 and n = 4 equation for the WACC becomes more
complicate, but it still can be solved analytically, while for n
> 4 it can be solved only numerically.
We would like to make an important methodological notice:
taking into account the finite lifetime of the company, all
formulas, without exception, should be received with use
formulas (18) instead of their perpetuity limits (17).
Below, we will describe the algorithm for the numerical
solution of the equation (19).
Let us return back to nyear project (nyear company). We
have the following equation for WACC in nyear case
[1 - (1 + WACC ) ] - A(n) = 0,
-n
(24)
WACC Source: Authors
Myers (Мyers,1974) has compared his result for one–year
project [formula (11)] with Modigliani and Millers result for
perpetuity limits (8). He has used the following values of
parameters:
k 0 = 8 % ¸ 24 %; k d = 7 %; T = 50 %; w d = 0 % ¸ 60 %
and estimated the difference in the WACC values following
from the formulas (11) and (8). We did make the similar
calculations for two, three,five and tenyear project for
the same set of parameters and we have gotten the following
Source: Authors
results, shown in Table.I (second line (bulk)), Table.II
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From ModiglianiMiller to General Theory of Capital Cost and Capital Structure of the Company
3. The relative difference between oneyear and twoyear
projects increases when the equity cost k 0 decreases. This
Source: Authors means that the error in oneyear project WACC for twoyear
Fig.2. Dependence of the ratio r = D 1 D 2 of differences project increases when the equity cost k 0 decreases as well.
D1 = WACC1 - WACC¥ , D 2 = WACC At the same time the relative difference between twoyear
1 - WACC 2 on
project and perpetuity MM project increases with the equity
debt share wd for different values of equity cost k0 (from Table II). cost k 0 .
2. WACC= we × ke + wd × kd ; and thus
Source: Authors
L
Table III. Dependence of the average ratios r =< D 1 D 2 > k0 - kd
WACC - wd × k d 1 + L = k + L(k - k (19)
on equity cost k 0 . ke = = 0 0 d )
we 1
1+ L
k0 10% 12% 16% 20% 24%
For the finite lifetime companies ModiglianiMiller theorem
about equality of value of financialy independent and
r =< D1 D2 > 1.22 2.00 3.67 4.69 5.69 financialy dependent companies (V 0 = V L ) has the following
view [1,2]
Source: Authors
on the equity cost, k 0 . k0 WACC
Using this relation, we prove an important BrusovFilatova
theorem:
ke
k e = k 0 + L (k 0 - k d ) WACC = k 0 (21)
Let us consider first the one and twoyear companies
а) for one– year company one has from (20)
[1 - (1 + k ) ] = [1 - (1 + WACC ) ]
0
-1 -1
(22)
k0 WACC
Source: Authors
1 1
and thus = (23)
1. From Table 1 and Fig.2 it is obviously that WACC has a 1 + k 0 1 + WACC
maximum for one year project and decreases with the
lifetime of the project, reaching the minimum in the
ModiglianiMiller perpetuity case. Dependence of all WACC
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From ModiglianiMiller to General Theory of Capital Cost and Capital Structure of the Company
2 + k0 2 + WACC
=
(1 + k 0 )2 (1 + WACC )2 (25)
WACC = k 0 (1 - wd t ) = we × k e + wd × k d (1 - t );
2 + k0
Denoting = and thus
(1 + k0 )2 , we get the following quadratic
WACC- wd × kd × (1 - t )
equation for WACC:
ke = =
we
× WACC 2 + (2 - 1) × WACC + ( - 2 ) = 0 (26) (35)
L
It has two solutions k0 (1 - wd t ) - kd (1 - t )
1+ L = k0 + L(k0 - kd )(1 - t ).
1- 2 ± 4 +1 1
WACC1, 2 = . (27)
2 1+ L
2 + k0 Let us consider how the weighted average cost of capital,
Substituting = , we get
(1 + k 0 )2 WACC, and the cost of equity capital, k e , will be changed
under taking into account the finite lifetime of the company.
WACC1, 2 =
(k 2
0 - 3) ± (k 0 + 3)(1 + k 0 )
. (28) а) One–year company
2(2 + k 0 ) From (20) one has
2k + 3
WACC 1 = k 0 ; WACC 2 = - 0
k0 + 2
< 0 . (29) [1 - (1 + WACC ) ] = -n
[1 - (1 + k ) ] (36)
0
-n
k [1 - w t (1 - (1 + k ) )]
-n
WACC 0 d d
The second root is negative, but the weighted average cost
of capital can only be positive, so only one value remains
For oneyear company we get
WACC 1 = k 0 .
c) For company with arbitrary lifetime n BrusovFilatova
[1 - (1 + WACC) ] = -1
[1 - (1 + k ) ] (37)
0
-1
k [1 - w t (1 - (1 + k ) )]
-1
formula (20) gives WACC 0 d d
[1 - (1 + k 0 )-n
] = [1 - (1 + WACC ) ] -n
(30) From (37) we obtain the wellknown Myers formula (9),
k0 WACC which is the particular case of Brusov Filatova formula (20).
For a fixed k0 (30) is an equation of ndegree relative to
WACC. It has n roots (in general complex). One of the roots,
as shown by direct substitution, is always WACC = k 0 .
1 + k0
WACC = k 0 - k d wd t
Investigation of the remaining roots is difficult and not part 1 + kd
of our problem.
k e = k 0 + L (k 0 - k d ) Thus
WACC = k0
æ (1 + k 0 ) × k d L ö
Thus we have proved the BrusovFilatova theorem. WACC = k 0 çç1 - × t ÷÷ (38)
è (1 + k d ) × k 0 1 + L ø
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From ModiglianiMiller to General Theory of Capital Cost and Capital Structure of the Company
Fig.4. The dependence of the WACC on leverage in the Let us investigate the question of the tax shields value for
absence of corporate taxes (the horizontal line (t = 0)), as companies with different lifetime in more detail.
well as in the presence of corporate taxes (for oneyear (n
= 1) and perpetuitive companies ( n = ¥ )). Curves for the
WACC of companies with an intermediate lifetime (1 < n < ¥) General expression for the tax shield has the form (Brusov
lie within the shaded region. Filatova)
TS = å
n k d Dt
= d
[
k Dt 1 - (1 + k d )
-n
] -n
[
= Dt 1 - (1 + k d ) . (42) ]
i =1 (1 + k )
d
i
(
(1 + k d ) 1 - (1 + k d )-1 )
1) In perpetuitive limit (n ® ¥) tax shield is equal to TS ¥ = Dt ,
which leads to the socalled effect of the tax shield
associated with the appearance of a factor (1- t ) in the equity
cost k e = k 0 + L (k 0 - k d )(1 - t ) .
2) For the oneyear company tax shield value is equal to
Source: Authors
Equating the right part to general expression for WACC (
TS 1 = Dt 1 - (1 + k d )-1 ) = Dtk d (1 + k d ) (43)
WACC = we × k e + wd × k d (1 - t ) (39) kd æ ö
This leads to appearеnce of a factor çç1 - 1 + k t ÷÷ in the equity
one gets è d ø
1 + k0 æ kd ö
k0 - k d wd t = we × k e + wd × k d (1 - t ) (40) cost ke = k0 + L(k0 - kd )çç1 - t ÷÷. (41)
1 + kd è 1 + kd ø
Thus 3) tax shield for a twoyear company is equal to
1 é 1 + k0 ù (
TS 2 = Dt 1 - (1 + k d )
-2
) = Dtk (2 + k
d d ) (1 + k d )2 (44)
ke =
we êk 0 - 1 + k k d wd t - k d w d (1 - t )ú = and if the analogy with oneyear company will keep, then
ë d û
factor (1- t ) in the ModiglianiMiller theory would be replaced
kd by the factor
= (1 + L)k0 - L [(1 + k0 )t + (1 + kd )(1 - t )] =
1 + kd æ kd (2 + kd ) ö
ç1 - t ÷
ç (45)
è (1 + kd )2 ÷ø
æ k ö
= k0 + L(k0 - kd )çç1 - d t ÷÷. However, due to a nonlinear relation between WACC and
è 1 + kd ø k0 and k d in BrusovFilatova formula (15) for twoyear
company (and companies with longer lifetime), such a
æ k ö simple analogy is no longer observed, and the calculations
k e = k 0 +
L( k 0 - k d ) çç1 - d t ÷÷. (41)
become more complex.
è 1 + kd ø
So, we see, that in case of oneyear company the perpetuity
In the paper an important step towards a general theory of
limit k e = k 0 + L (k 0 - k d )(1 - t ) is replaced by (41). capital cost and capital structure of the company has been
Difference is due to different values of the tax shield for a done. For this perpetuity theory of Nobel Prize winners
oneyear company and perpetuitive one. Modigliani and Miller, which is still the basic theory of capital
cost and capital structure of companies, extended to the
Fig.5. Dependence of the equity cost, k e , on leverage in the case of companies with an arbitrary lifetime, as well as for
absence of corporate taxes (the upper line (t = 0)), as well companies of arbitrary age.
as in the presence of corporate taxes (for oneyear (n = 1)
and perpetuitive companies ( n = ¥ )). Dependences of the We show that taking into account the finite lifetime of the
company in the presence of corporate taxes leads to a
cost of equity capital of companies, ke , with an intermediate
lifetime (1 < n < ¥ ) lie within the shaded region. change in the equity cost of the company, ke , as well as in
its weighted average cost, WACC.
Thus, we have removed one of the most serious limitations
of the theory of ModiglianiMiller connected with the
assumption of perpetuity of the companies. The effect of
leverage on the cost of equity capital of the company with
an arbitrary lifetime, k e , and its weighted average cost,
WACC, is investigated. We give a rigorous proof of an
important BrusovFilatova theorem, that in the absence of
corporate tax equity cost of companies, k e , as well as its
weighted average cost, WACC, do not depend on the
lifetime of the company.
Source: Authors
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From ModiglianiMiller to General Theory of Capital Cost and Capital Structure of the Company
Source: Authors
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