The Reflection and Refraction of Electromagnetic

Waves
PYL100: Electromagnetic Waves and Quantum Mechanics
Semester I 2018-2019

Prof. Rohit Narula1

1 Department of Physics

The Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi

September 12, 2019

Outline

Preliminaries

Reflection and Refraction at Oblique Incidence

p-polarization
s-polarization
Polarization by reflection: Brewsters law
Phase change on reflection
Total Internal Reflection
References

▶ Introduction to Electrodynamics, David J. Griffiths [IEDJ]

▶ Chapter IX. Electromagnetic Waves
▶ Optics, A. K. Ghatak [OAKG]
▶ Chapter IX. Vibrations and Waves
Reflection and Refraction at Oblique Incidence
p-polarization

▶ We’ll consider the reflection and refraction of a plane EM

wave incident at the interface of two dielectrics characterized
by (ϵ1 , µ1 ) and (ϵ2 , µ2 ).
▶ Both media are linear, nonabsorbing, isotropic and
homogenous.
Reflection and Refraction at Oblique Incidence
p-polarization

▶ The incident electric field is polarized parallel to the plane of

incidence1 (p-polarization aka, the transverse magnetic (TM)
mode.)2 .

1
The plane of incidence is the plane containing the surface normal (x̂) and
the propagation vector (k1 ) of the incoming radiation.
2
If E1 lies ⊥ to the plane of incidence, we have the so-called s-polarization,
transverse electric (TE) mode.
Reflection and Refraction at Oblique Incidence
p-polarization
Setting Up The E Fields
p-polarization

▶
E1 = E10 ei(ω1 t−k1 ·r)
E2 = E20 ei(ω2 t−k2 ·r) (1)
E3 = E30 ei(ω3 t−k3 ·r)
where E10 , E20 and E30 are independent of space and time,
and are, in general, complex.
▶ By construction, (see Fig.) we already have that,

k1y = 0, (2)
i.e., k1 for the incident wave is ∥ to the x − z plane.
Reflection and Refraction at Oblique Incidence
p-polarization

▶ Since the fields in a non-absorbing dielectric/vacuum must

satisfy the wave equation
1 ∂2f
∇2 f = , (3)
v2 ∂t2
we get for each ray,

k21 = ω12 ϵ1 µ1 ,
k22 = ω22 ϵ2 µ2 , (4)
k23 = ω32 ϵ1 µ1 .
Applying Boundary Condition for Ez
p-polarization

▶ We begin by resolving the electric vector E along the x and

z-axis
▶ Since the z-component is tangential to the surface we must
have Ez continuous across the interface (E1∥ = E2∥ ) giving
us,

E1z + E3z = E2z ,

[ ]
−E10 ei(ωt−k1 ·r) cos θ1 + E30 ei(ω3 t−k3 ·r) cos θ3 = (5)
[ ] x=0
−E20 ei(ω2 t−k2 ·r) cos θ2 .
x=0
Applying Boundary Condition for Ez
p-polarization

▶ Expanding,
k · r = kx x + ky y + kz z
(6)
= ky y + kz z (at the interface x = 0).

▶ Thus,

[ ]
−E10 ei(ωt−k1y y−k1z z) cos θ1 + E30 ei(ω3 t−k3y y−k3z z) cos θ3 =
[ ] x=0 (7)
−E20 ei(ω2 t−k2y y−k2z z) cos θ2 ,
x=0
which must be valid at all t, and for all values of y and z (on the
plane x = 0)
Frequencies ω Remain Unaltered
p-polarization

Consequently, the coefficients of y, z, and t in the exponents

appearing in the above equation must be equal3 .
▶
ω = ω2 = ω3 ,
k1y = k2y = k3y , (8)
k1z = k2z = k3z ,
and thus the frequencies associated with the reflected and
refracted waves must be the same as that of the incident
wave.
▶ And further,
√
k1 = ω ϵ1 µ1 = k3
√ (9)
k2 = ω ϵ2 µ2

3
See the problem set for a derivation of this result.
∠i = ∠r (Law of Reflection)
p-polarization

▶ Since k1y = 0, we must have,

k2y = k3y = 0. (10)

i.e., k1 , k2 and k3 will all be parallel to the x − z plane, thus
establishing that all the rays lie in the plane of incidence.
▶ Using k1z = k2z = k3z derived above we get,

k1 sin θ1 = k2 sin θ2 = k1 sin θ3 , (11)

▶
θ 1 = θ3 (12)
i.e., law of reflection: the angle of incidence equals the angle
of reflection.
Snell’s Law of Refraction
p-polarization

▶ Further,
√
sin θ1 k2 ϵ1 µ1 n2
= = = , (13)
sin θ2 k1 ϵ2 µ2 n1
which is Snell’s law of refraction.
Reflection (r∥ ) and Transmission (t∥ ) amplitude coefficients
p-polarization

▶ Using Eqns. 7, 8 and 12 we get,

(E10 − E30 ) cos θ1 = E20 cos θ2 (14)

▶ Further, the normal component of D must also be continuous

(D1⊥ = D2⊥ ), and since for linear, isotropic media D = ϵE,
we must have,

ϵ1 E1x + ϵ1 E3x = ϵ2 E2x , (15)

Reflection (r∥ ) and Transmission (t∥ ) amplitude coefficients
p-polarization

▶ or,
ϵ1 (E10 + E30 ) sin θ1 = ϵ2 E20 sin θ2 . (16)
Combining Eqs. 14 and 16 we obtain,
▶
E30 ϵ2 sin θ2 cos θ1 − ϵ1 sin θ1 cos θ2
r∥ ≡ = ∈C (17)
E10 ϵ2 sin θ2 cos θ1 + ϵ1 sin θ1 cos θ2
where r∥ is the reflection amplitude coefficient, and the
subscript refers to parallel (or p-) polarization.
Reflection (r∥ ) and Transmission (t∥ ) amplitude coefficients
p-polarization

▶ Similarly we get for the transmission amplitude coefficient t∥ ,

E20 2ϵ1 sin θ1 cos θ1

t∥ = = ∈C (18)
E10 ϵ2 sin θ2 cos θ1 + ϵ1 sin θ1 cos θ2
Calculating Intensities

▶ To calculate the reflection coefficient/reflectance R, we

must determine the ratio of the x components of the Poynting
vectors associated with the incident and, reflected waves.
▶ If S1 denotes the magnitude of the Poynting vector associated
with the incident wave, then the energy incident on area dA
(on the surface x = 0) per unit time is S1x dA = S1 dA cos θ1 .
Calculating Intensities

▶ Similarly, the energy transmitted through area dA is

S2x dA = S2 cos θ2 dA, (19)

and the energy reflected from area dA is,

S3x dA = S3 cos θ1 dA, (20)

Reflection Coefficient (R∥ )
p-polarization

▶
S3x S3 cos θ1
R∥ = =
S1x S1 cos θ1
√
⟨Re[E3 ] × Re[H3 ]⟩ ϵ1 /µ1 | E30 |2
= =√ (21)
⟨Re[E1 ] × Re[H1 ]⟩ ϵ1 /µ1 | E10 |2
 
 E30 2
=   = |r∥ |2
E10 

▶ ( )2
ϵ2 sin θ2 cos θ1 − ϵ1 sin θ1 cos θ2
R∥ = ∈R (22)
ϵ2 sin θ2 cos θ1 + ϵ1 sin θ1 cos θ2
Transmission Coefficient (T∥ )
p-polarization

▶
S2x S2 cos θ2
T∥ = =
S1x S1 cos θ1
√
⟨Re[E2 ] × Re[H2 ]⟩ cos θ2 ϵ2 /µ2 | E20 |2 cos θ2
= =√ ̸= |t∥ |2
⟨Re[E1 ] × Re[H1 ]⟩ cos θ1 ϵ1 /µ1 | E10 | cos θ1
2
(23)

▶
4ϵ1 ϵ2 sin θ1 cos θ1 sin θ2 cos θ2
T∥ = ∈R (24)
(ϵ2 sin θ2 cos θ1 + ϵ1 sin θ1 cos θ2 )2

▶ We observe that R + T = 1 which is a consequence of EM

energy conservation.
E Is Polarized ⊥ To The Plane Of Incidence
s-polarization

▶ Consider the reflection and refraction of a linearly polarized

plane wave with its electric vector perpendicular to the plane
of incidence which describes the transverse electric (TE)
mode, or s-polarization.
Setting Up The Electric Field
s-polarization

▶
E1 = ŷE10 ei(ω1 t−k1 ·r)
E2 = ŷE20 ei(ω2 t−k2 ·r) (25)
E3 = ŷE30 ei(ω3 t−k3 ·r)
where the amplitudes E10 , E20 and E30 are independent of
space and time, and complex4 .
▶ Since the y-axis is tangential to the interface, the y
component of E must be continuous across the interface
(E1∥ = E2∥ ) and consequently,

E10 + E30 = E20 (26)

4
E10 , E20 and E30 are complex because they carry phase information.
Setting Up The Magnetic Fields H
s-polarization

▶ The magnetic fields H are oriented in the plane of incidence

and are given by:

k1 × E10 i(ωt−k1 ·r)

H1 = H10 ei(ωt−k1 ·r) = e
ωµ1
k2 × E20 i(ωt−k2 ·r)
H2 = H20 ei(ωt−k2 ·r) = e (27)
ωµ2
k3 × E30 i(ωt−k3 ·r)
H3 = H30 ei(ωt−k3 ·r) = e
ωµ1
Applying Boundary Condition For The H Tangential To
the Interface
s-polarization

▶ Using the boundary condition for the component of tangential

to the interface H1∥ − H2∥ = Kf⊥ , and realizing that Kf⊥ = 0
for a dielectric we get,

H10 cos θ1 − H30 cos θ1 = H20 cos θ2 , (28)

▶
k1 k2
(E10 − E30 ) cos θ1 = E20 cos θ2 (29)
ωµ1 ωµ2
Reflection (r⊥ ) and Transmission (t⊥ ) amplitude
coefficients
s-polarization
▶ Using Eq. 26 in Eq. 30 we get,

k1 k2
(E10 − E30 ) cos θ1 = (E10 + E30 ) cos θ2 (30)
ωµ1 ωµ2

▶ After some algebra we finally get5 ,

E30 (k1 /ωµ1 ) cos θ1 − (k2 /ωµ2 ) cos θ2 sin(θ1 − θ2 )

r⊥ = = =−
E10 (k1 /ωµ1 ) cos θ1 + (k2 /ωµ2 ) cos θ2 sin(θ1 + θ2 )
(31)

▶
E20 E30 2 sin θ2 cos θ1
t⊥ = =1+ = (32)
E10 E10 sin(θ1 + θ2 )
5
Both the final results are only strictly true for non-magnetic media, i.e.,
µ 1 = µ2 = µ
Comparing r∥ and r⊥

Figure: The reflection amplitude coefficients for p- and, s-polarizations.

Why is r∥ = r⊥ for θ = 0?
Brewster’s Law

▶ Now let’s investigate the Brewster’s angle (θp ) or the angle

of incidence θ1 where there’s no reflected beam for
p-polarization (i.e., r∥ = 0).
▶ Experimentally, it occurs when,

θ1 + θ2 = π/2 (33)
Brewster’s Law

▶ If an unpolarized beam is incident at an angle such that

θ1 + θ2 = π/2 , then the p-polarized component of the E
vector will not be reflected and the reflected light will be
perfectly linearly polarized with its E vector perpendicular
to the plane of incidence (s-polarization).
Brewster’s Law

▶ Notice that the angle of refraction will be θ2 = π/2 − θp , and

therefore Snell’s law takes the form,

n2 sin θ1 sin θp
= = , (34)
n1 sin θ2 sin(π/2 − θp )

▶ This gives us Brewster’s angle,

( )
−1 n2
θp = tan . (35)
n1
▶ Thus, when the angle of incidence is equal to tan−1 (n2 /n1 )
then the reflected beam is perfectly plane polarized.
▶ Further, the transmitted beam is partially polarized (i.e., the
p-polarization is dominant).
Phase Change on Reflection
s-polarization, light incident on a denser medium

▶ The phase change on reflection is given by ϕ where,

rp,s = |rp,s |eiϕp,s Phasor Form

where |rp,s | is the complex modulus, and ϕp,s is the phase,

or the complex argument of the reflection amplitude
coefficient.
▶ For s-polarization, there’s always a phase change6 of ϕs = π.
6
Note that the calculated phase change depends on the presumed direction
of the reflected, and refracted rays w.r.t the incident ray.
Phase Change on Reflection
p-polarization, light incident on a denser medium

▶ For p-polarization, there is no phase change for θ1 < θp .

▶ But a phase change of π when θ1 > θp .
▶ Compare the case of normal incidence for p, and s
polarizations.
Total Internal Reflection

▶ When an EM wave is incident on a rarer medium (i.e.,

n2 < n1 ) then θ2 > θ1 and Snell’s law (Eq. 13) can be written
in the form7 :
√
n1 ϵ1
sin θ2 = sin θ1 = sin θ1 (36)
n2 ϵ2
7
Both media are assumed non-magnetic.
Total Internal Reflection

▶ Problem: What’s the reflectance R for p-polarization?.8

▶ Precisely at the critical incident angle θc , θ2 = 90◦
( ) √
−1 n2 −1 ϵ2
θc ≡ sin = sin (37)
n1 ϵ1
( )
▶ Clearly, when θ1 > θc = sin−1 n2
n1 we have sin θ2 > 1.
▶ Using Eq. 37 to rewrite Eq. 17 describing r∥ we get,
√
E30 cos θ1 − (ϵ1 /ϵ2 ) sin2 θc − sin2 θ1
r∥ = = √ . (38)
E10 cos θ1 + (ϵ1 /ϵ2 ) sin2 θc − sin2 θ1

8
Do the s-polarization case as HW!
Total Internal Reflection

▶ Clearly, for θ1 > θc the quantity under the square root

becomes negative and we may write,
√ √
ϵ1 2 2 ϵ1 ϵ2
sin θc − sin θ1 = − sin2 θ1 = iγ, (39)
ϵ2 ϵ2 ϵ1

▶ where,
√
ϵ1 ϵ2
γ= sin2 θ1 − , (40)
ϵ2 ϵ1
is a real number. Substituting this into Eq. 41 we get:
Total Internal Reflection
▶
cos θ1 − iγ
r∥ = , (41)
cos θ1 + iγ
and the reflectance,

R∥ =| r∥ |2 = 1

showing that the entire energy is reflected back into the first
medium. This is the well-known phenomenon of total
internal reflection.
▶ We may, however, note two points:
1. Since r∥ is a complex number, i.e., there is a phase change on
reflection.
2. However, the amplitude transmission coefficient t∥ ̸= 0. Thus,
the field in the rarer medium is not zero. In fact, an
important side-effect of total internal reflection is the
appearance of an evanescent wave beyond the boundary
surface.
Phase Change During Total Internal Reflection

▶ Let’s calculate the phase change in the beam which undergoes

total internal reflection. From Eq. 41 we have,

cos θ1 − iγ
r∥ = ,
cos θ1 + iγ
(42)
Ae−iϕ
= = e−2iϕ ,
Aeiϕ
√
where A = cos2 θ1 + γ 2 , cos ϕ = √ cos θ1
and
cos2 θ1 +γ 2
sin ϕ = √ γ
, which gives us the phase change ∆,
cos2 θ1 +γ 2
▶
( √ )
γ ϵ1 sin2 θ1 − sin2 θc
∆ = 2ϕ = 2 tan−1 = 2 tan−1
cos θ1 ϵ2 cos θ1
(43)
Evanescent Wave In The Rarer Medium

▶ t∥ ̸= 0. Thus, the field in the rarer medium is not zero.

▶ An evanescent wave appears in the rarer medium just
beyond the interface.
▶ Essentially, even though the entire incident wave is reflected
back into the originating medium, there is some penetration
into the second medium at the inteface.
▶ The evanescent wave appears to travel along the boundary
between the two materials. It is characterized by its
propagation in the z direction and an exponential
attenuation in the x direction.
Evanescent Wave In The Rarer Medium

▶ Let’s determine the nature of the transmitted wave when

the beam undergoes total internal reflection.

E2 = E20 ei(k2 ·r−ωt)

= E20 ei(k2x x+k2z z−ωt) (44)
= E20 ei(k2 x cos θ2 +k2 z sin θ2 −ωt)
▶ Using Snell’s law of Eq. 13 we find that,
√
ϵ2
cos θ2 = iγ, (45)
ϵ1
√
where γ = ϵϵ21 sin2 θ1 − ϵϵ21 .
Evanescent Wave In The Rarer Medium

▶ Thus,
√ϵ
i[(k2 1 sin θ1 )z−ωt]
E2 = E20 e−βx e ϵ2 (46)

▶ where,
√ √
ϵ2 ω
β = k2 γ = n21 sin2 θ1 − n22 (47)
ϵ1 c
The field given by Eq. 46 represents a wave propagating in the
+z direction with an amplitude decreasing exponentially in
the x direction. Such a wave is known as a surface wave or an
evanescent wave.
Evanescent Wave In The Rarer Medium

▶ We’d remarked that for the case of total internal reflection t∥ ̸= 0,

but nevertheless R∥ = 1.
▶ In order to see this we must calculate the time-averaged Poynting
vector in the x̂ direction.
▶ It turns out that9 ,
⟨S2 ⟩ · x̂ = ⟨Re(E2 ) × Re(H2 )⟩ · x̂ = 0 (48)
demonstrating that the average energy transferred to the rarer
medium is zero, thus justifying R∥ = 1.
▶ However, a simplistic textbook derivation yields,
⟨S2 ⟩ · ẑ ̸= 0 (49)
indicating that there is average energy flow in the ẑ direction.
9
The auxiliary field H2 must be calculated from E2 using Faraday’s law,
∇ × E = − ∂B∂t
, (the evanescent wave is not transverse, i.e., ∇ · E = 0 and
∇ · B = 0).
Comparing R for incidence from a rarer to a denser
medium
Comparing R for incidence from a denser to a rarer
medium
Frustrated Total Internal Reflection

(b) Frustrated Total Internal

(a) Total Internal Reflection Reflection

▶ By placing a high-index material in the presence of the

evanescent wave power can be coupled through the low-index
gap, ”frustrating” the total internal reflection
▶ The prisms must be within a few wavelengths (where the
evanescent field is non-zero) for this to work
▶ This is the principle of operation for cube beamsplitters
Uses for Total Internal Reflection
Fiber Optics

▶ Glass fibers are used as waveguides to transmit light over

great distance
▶ High index core guides the light
▶ A low index cladding protects the interface of the core
▶ The acceptance angle of a fiber determines what light will be
guided through the fiber
Fingerprinting with TIR [END OF LEC. 13]

Fingertip valleys reflect light via TIR, while finger tip ridges in
contact with prism frustrate the reflection.