Kinematics in Two Dimensions

Our world is three‐dimensional. For easier analysis, many motions can be simplified to two
dimensions. For example, an object fired into the air moves in a vertical, two‐dimensional plane;
also, horizontal motion over the earth's surface is two‐dimensional for short distances.
Elementary vector algebra is required to examine the relationships between vector quantities in
two dimensions.
Addition and subtraction of vectors: geometric method

The vector A shown in Figure (a) represents a velocity of 10 m/s northeast, and vector B
represents a velocity of 20 m/s at 30 degrees north of east. (A vector is named with a letter
in boldface, nonitalic type, and its magnitude is named with the same letter in
regular, italic type. You will often see vectors in the figures of the book that are represented by
their magnitudes in the mathematical expressions.) Vectors may be moved over the plane if the
represented length and direction are preserved.

Figure 1

Graphical addition of vectors, A + B = C.

In Figure (b), the same vectors

are positioned to be geometrically added.
The tail of one vector, in this case A, is
moved to the head of the other vector
( B). The vector sum ( C) is the vector
that extends from the tail of one vector to
the head of the other. To find the magnitude of C, measure along its length and use the given
scale to determine the velocity represented. To find the direction θ of C,measure the angle to the
horizontal axis at the tail of C. Figure (a) shows that A + B = B + A. The sum of the vectors is
called the resultant and is the diagonal of a parallelogram with sides Aand B. Figure (b)
illustrates the construction for adding four vectors. The resultant vector is the vector that results
in the one that completes the polygon.
Figure 2

(a) A + B = B + A. (b) Graphical addition of

several vectors.

To subtract vectors, place the tails together. The

difference of the two vectors ( D) is the vector
that begins at the head of the subtracted vector
( B) and goes to the head of the other vector
( A). An alternate method is to add the negative
of a vector, which is a vector with the same
length but pointing in the opposite direction.
The second method is demonstrated in Figure .

Figure 3

Graphical subtraction of vectors, A − B = D.

Addition and subtraction of vectors: Component method

For precision in adding vectors, an analytical method

using basic trigonometry is required because scale
drawings do not give accurate values.

Consider vector A in the rectangular coordinate system of Figure . The vector A can be
expressed as the sum of two vectors along the x and y axes, A = A x + A y, where A x and A y are
called the components of A. The direction of A x is parallel to the x axis, and that of A y is
parallel to the y axis. The magnitudes of the components are obtained from the definitions of the
sine and cosine of an angle: cos θ = A x / A and sin θ = A y / A, or
Figure 4

Components of a vector.

To add vectors numerically, first find the components of all

the vectors. The signs of the components are the same as
the signs of the cosine and sine in the given quadrant. Then,
sum the components in the x direction, and sum the
components in the ydirection. As shown in Figure , the sum
of the x components and the sum of the y components of
the given vectors ( A and B) comprise the x and y components of
the resultant vector ( C).

Figure 5

Component method of vector addition, A + B = C.

These resultant components form the two sides of a right

angle with a hypotenuse of the magnitude of C; thus, the
magnitude of the resultant is
The direction of the resultant ( C) is calculated from the tangent because tan θ = C x / C y . To
solve for the angle θ, use θ = tan −1 ( Cy / C x ).

The procedure can be summarized as follows:

1. Sketch the vectors on a coordinate system.

2. Find the x and y components of all the vectors, with the appropriate signs.

3. Sum the components in both the x and y directions.

4. Find the magnitude of the resultant vector from the Pythagorean theorem.

5. Find the direction of the resultant vector using the tangent function.

Follow the same procedure to subtract vectors by calculating the appropriate algebraic sum of the
components in Step 3.

Multiplication of vectors

The dot product: There are two different ways in which two vectors may be multiplied together.
The first is the dot product, also called the scalar product, which is written A · B. This can be
evaluated in two ways:

 A · B = A xB x+ A yB y
 A · B = AB cos θ, where θ is the angle between the vectors when they are set tail to tail,
and A and B are the lengths of the vectors.

Note that the order of the vectors does not matter and that the result of the dot product is a scalar
rather than a vector. Note that if two vectors are perpendicular, their dot product is zero
according to the second rule above.

Cross product: The second way to multiply vectors is called the cross product or the vector
product. It is written A · B. It can be evaluated in two ways:

 A · B = ( A x B y − A y B x z, when the vectors A and B both are in x–y plane.

The z indicates that the result is a vector that points along the z axis. In general, the vector
resulting from a cross product is always perpendicular to both of the vectors being
multiplied together.
  A · B = AB z sin θ, where θ is the angle between the vectors Aand B when they are
placed tail to tail. Again, the result is a vector perpendicular to A and B (and therefore
points along the z axis if A and B are in the x–y plane).

The result of a cross product does depend on the order of the vectors. Note from the first rule
that A · B = − B · A. Also, if A and Bare parallel, the second rule implies that their cross product
is zero.

Finally, the cross product give rise to the “right hand rule,” which allows you to easily determine
the direction of the resulting vector. For the general expression A × B = C, point your thumb in
the direction of A. Now point your index finger in the direction of B; if necessary, flip over your
hand. The vector C points outward from your palm.

Velocity and acceleration vectors in two dimensions

For motion in two dimensions, the earlier kinematics equations must be expressed in vector
form. For example, the average velocity vector is v = ( d f − d o )/ t, where d o and d f are the initial
and final displacement vectors and t is the time elapsed. As noted earlier, the velocity and
displacement vectors are shown in bold type, whereas the scalar (t) is not. In similar fashion, the
average acceleration vector is a = ( v f − v o )/ t, where v o and v f are the initial and final velocity
vectors.

An important point is that the acceleration can arise from a change in the magnitude of the
velocity (speed) as well as from a change in the direction of the velocity. If an object travels
around a circle at a constant speed, there is an acceleration due to the change in the direction of
the velocity, even though the magnitude of the velocity does not change. A mass moves in a
horizontal circle with a constant speed in Figure . The velocity vectors at positions 1 and 2 are
subtracted to find the average acceleration, which is directed toward the center of the circle.
(Note that the average acceleration vector is placed at the midpoint of the path in the given time
interval.)
 Figure 6

Velocity and acceleration

vectors of an object moving in a circle

The following discussion summarizes the four

different cases for acceleration in a plane:

 Case 1: Zero acceleration

 Case 2: Acceleration due to changing direction but not speed
 Case 3: Acceleration due to changing speed but not direction
 Case 4: Acceleration due to changing both speed and direction.

Imagine a ball rolling on a horizontal surface that is illuminated by a stroboscopic light.

Figure (a) shows the position of the ball at even intervals of time along a dotted path. Case 1 is
illustrated in positions 1 through 3; the magnitude and direction of the velocity do not change
(the pictures are evenly spaced and in a straight line), and therefore, there is no acceleration.
Case 2 is indicated for positions 3 through 5; the ball has constant speed but changing direction,
and therefore, an acceleration exists. Figure (b) illustrates the subtraction of v 3 and v 4 and the
resulting acceleration toward the center of the arc. Case 3 occurs from positions 5 to 7; the
direction of the velocity is constant, but the magnitude changes. The acceleration for this portion
of the path is along the direction of motion. The ball curves from position 7 to 9, showing case 4;
the velocity changes both direction and magnitude. In this case, the acceleration is directed
nearly upward between 7 and 8 and has a component toward the center of the arc due to the
change in direction of the velocity and a component along the path due to the change in the
magnitude of the velocity.
Figure 7

(a) Path of a ball on a table.

(b) Acceleration between points 3 and 4.

Projectile motion
Anyone who has observed a tossed object—for example, a baseball in flight—has
observed projectile motion. To analyze this common type of motion, three basic assumptions
are made: (1) acceleration due to gravity is constant and directed downward, (2) the effect of air
resistance is negligible, and (3) the surface of the earth is a stationary plane (that is, the curvature
of the earth's surface and the rotation of the earth are negligible).

To analyze the motion, separate the two‐dimensional motion into vertical and horizontal
components. Vertically, the object undergoes constant acceleration due to gravity. Horizontally,
the object experiences no acceleration and, therefore, maintains a constant velocity. This velocity
is illustrated in Figure where the velocity components change in the y direction; however, they
are all of the same length in the x direction (constant). Note that the velocity vector changes with
time due to the fact that the vertical component is changing.
Figure 8

Projectile motion.
In this example, the particle leaves the origin with an initial velocity ( v o ), up at an angle of θ o.
The original x and ycomponents of the velocity are given by v x0 = v o and v y0 = v o sin θ o .

With the motions separated into components, the quantities in the x and y directions can be
analyzed with the one‐dimensional motion equations subscripted for each direction: for the
horizontal direction, v x = v x0 and x = v x0 t; for vertical direction, v y = v y0 − gt and y = v y0 − (1/2)
gt 2, where x and y represent distances in the horizontal and vertical directions, respectively, and
the acceleration due to gravity ( g) is 9.8 m/s 2. (The negative sign is already incorporated into
the equations.) If the object is fired down at an angle, the y component of the initial velocity is
negative. The speed of the projectile at any instant can be calculated from the components at that
time from the Pythagorean theorem, and the direction can be found from the inverse tangent on
the ratios of the components:

Other information is useful in solving projectile problems. Consider the example shown in
Figure where the projectile is fired up at an angle from ground level and returns to the same
level. The time for the projectile to reach the ground from its highest point is equal to the time of
fall for a freely falling object that falls straight down from the same height. This equality of time
is because the horizontal component of the initial velocity of the projectile affects how far the
projectile travels horizontally but not the time of flight. Projectile paths are parabolic and,
therefore, symmetric. Also for this case, the object reaches the top of its rise in half of the total
time (T) of flight. At the top of the rise, the vertical velocity is zero. (The acceleration is
always g, even at the top of the flight.) These facts can be used to derive the range of the
projectile, or the distance traveled horizontally. At maximum height, v y = 0 and t = T/2;
therefore, the velocity equation in the vertical direction becomes 0 = v o sin θ − g T/2 or solving
for T, T = (2 v 0 sin θ)/ g.

Substitution into the horizontal distance equation yields R = ( v ocos θ) T. Substitute T in the
range equation and use the trigonometry identity sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ to obtain an expression
for the range in terms of the initial speed and angle of motion, R = ( v o 2/ g) sin 2θ. As indicated
by this expression, the maximum range occurs when θ = 45 degrees because, at this value of θ,
sin 2θ has its maximum value of 1. Figure sketches the trajectories of projectiles thrown with the
same initial speed at differing angles of inclination.

Figure 9

Range of projectiles launched at different angles.

Uniform circular motion

For uniform motion of an object in a horizontal circle of radius(R), the constant speed is given
by v = 2π R/ T, which is the distance of one revolution divided by the time for one revolution.
The time for one revolution (T) is defined as period. During one rotation, the head of the
velocity vector traces a circle of circumference 2π v in one period; thus, the magnitude of the
acceleration is a = 2π v/ T. Combine these two equations to obtain two additional relationships in
other variables: a = v 2/ Rand a = (4π 2/ T 2) R.
The displacement vector is directed out from the center of the circle of motion. The velocity
vector is tangent to the path. The acceleration vector directed to the center of the circle is
called centripetal acceleration. Figure shows the displacement, velocity, and acceleration
vectors at different positions as the mass travels in a circle on a frictionless horizontal plane.

Figure 10

Uniform circular motion.

Motion in Two and Three Dimensions
The displacement of an object is a vector, because it has both a distance and a direction. The
displacement can be written as a difference between one position vector and another,

In this form, the magnitude of the displacement is equal to the magnitude of the vector , and the
direction of the displacement can be written as a unit vector . The position vectors have
components, so the vector can be written as,

The displacements in the x, y, and z axes can be calculated separately, and added to find the total
displacement. Therefore, any kinematic equations meant to calculate displacement in one
dimension can be used to find each of the components independently.

Velocity can also be written as a two or three dimensional vector,

The velocity vector has components,

The rate of change of relative to time does not have to be constant. If an object speeds up or
slows down, more or less distance is traveled in each unit of time. Between any two times the
average velocity is,

This equation for average velocity can be separated into its components,
Each component has the same form as the average velocity in one dimension. It is possible to
separate the velocity vector and use the formulas for kinematics in one dimension to calculate the
velocity component in each axis.

A change in velocity relative to time is called acceleration. Acceleration can be written as a two
or three dimensional vector,

The acceleration vector has components,

The rate of change of relative to time does not have to be constant. Between any two times the
average acceleration is,

Separating vectors into components can be a very powerful tool when trying to solve physics
problems. For example, assume an object has an initial velocity in two dimensions,
, and an acceleration that only has a component in one axis, . If you
are asked to find the velocity at a later time t, the one-dimensional kinematic formulas can be
used to find the velocity in each axis,

Since the acceleration in the y axis is zero, the velocity in the y direction remains constant,

Therefore, the velocity at the later time t is equal to,

The one-dimensional kinematic formulas can be used to solve two- or three-dimensional motion
problems by considering the components separately.
What is a Projectile?

Defining Projectiles

A projectile is an object upon which the only force acting

is gravity. There are a variety of examples of projectiles.
An object dropped from rest is a projectile (provided that
the influence of air resistance is negligible). An object that
is thrown vertically upward is also a projectile (provided that the influence of air resistance is
negligible). And an object which is thrown upward at an angle to the horizontal is also a
projectile (provided that the influence of air resistance is negligible). A projectile is any object
that once projected or dropped continues in motion by its own inertia and is influenced only by
the downward force of gravity.

By definition, a projectile has a single force that acts upon it - the force of
gravity. If there were any other force acting upon an object, then that object
would not be a projectile. Thus, the free-body diagram of a projectile would
show a single force acting downwards and labeled force of gravity (or simply
Fgrav). Regardless of whether a projectile is moving downwards, upwards,
upwards and rightwards, or downwards and leftwards, the free-body diagram
of the projectile is still as depicted in the diagram at the right. By definition,
a projectile is any object upon which the only force is gravity.
Projectile Motion and Inertia

Many students have difficulty with the concept that the only force
acting upon an upward moving projectile is gravity. Their conception
of motion prompts them to think that if an object is moving upward,
then there must be an upward force. And if an object is moving
upward and rightward, there must be both an upward and rightward
force. Their belief is that forces cause motion; and if there is an
upward motion then there must be an upward force. They reason, "How in the world can an
object be moving upward if the only force acting upon it is gravity?" Such students do
not believe in Newtonian physics (or at least do not believe strongly in Newtonian physics).
Newton's laws suggest that forces are only required to cause an acceleration (not a motion).
Recall from the Unit 2 that Newton's laws stood in direct opposition to the common
misconception that a force is required to keep an object in motion. This idea is simply not true! A
force is not required to keep an object in motion. A force is only required to maintain an
acceleration. And in the case of a projectile that is moving upward, there is a downward force
and a downward acceleration. That is, the object is moving upward and slowing down.

To further ponder this concept of the downward force and a downward acceleration for a
projectile, consider a cannonball shot horizontally from a very high cliff at a high speed. And
suppose for a moment that the gravity switch could be turned off such that the cannonball would
travel in the absence of gravity? What would the motion of such a cannonball be like? How
could its motion be described? According to Newton's first law of motion, such a cannonball
would continue in motion in a straight line at constant speed. If not acted upon by an unbalanced
force, "an object in motion will ...". This is Newton's law of inertia.
Now suppose that the gravity switch is turned on and that the cannonball is projected
horizontally from the top of the same cliff. What effect will gravity have upon the motion of the
cannonball? Will gravity affect the cannonball's horizontal motion? Will the cannonball travel a
greater (or shorter) horizontal distance due to the influence of gravity? The answer to both of
these questions is "No!" Gravity will act downwards upon the cannonball to affect its vertical
motion. Gravity causes a vertical acceleration. The ball will drop vertically below its otherwise
straight-line, inertial path. Gravity is the downward force upon a projectile that influences its
vertical motion and causes the parabolic trajectory that is characteristic of projectiles.

A projectile is an object upon which the only force is gravity. Gravity acts to influence the
vertical motion of the projectile, thus causing a vertical acceleration. The horizontal motion of
the projectile is the result of the tendency of any object in motion to remain in motion at constant
velocity. Due to the absence of horizontal forces, a projectile remains in motion with a constant
horizontal velocity. Horizontal forces are not required to keep a projectile moving horizontally.
The only force acting upon a projectile is gravity!

Source

https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/vectors/Lesson-2/What-is-a-Projectile
Circular Motion

Circular Motion
When an object moves in a circle at a constant speed its velocity (which is a vector) is
constantly changing. Its velocity is changing not because the magnitude of the velocity is
changing but because its direction is. This constantly changing velocity means that the object is
accelerating (centripetal acceleration). For this acceleration to happen there must be a resultant
force, this force is called the centripetal force.

Angular Speed
The angular speed ( ) of an object is the angle ( ) it moves through measured in radians
(rad) divided by the time (t) taken to move through that angle. This means that the unit for
angular speed is the radian per second (rad s-1).

v is the linear velocity measured in metres per second (ms-1).

r is the radius of the circle in metres (m).

f is the frequency of the rotation in hertz (Hz).

Centripetal Acceleration
Centripetal acceleration (a) is measure in metres per second per second (ms-2). It is always
directed towards the center of the circle.

Centripetal Force
When an object moves in a circle the centripetal force (F) always acts towards the centre of the
circle. The centripetal force, measured in newtons (N) can be different forces in different settings
it can be gravity, friction, tension, lift, electrostatic attraction etc.

Source
http://physicsnet.co.uk/a-level-physics-as-a2/further-mechanics/circular-motion/
ACTIVITIESSSSSSS
Projectile motion crossword puzzle

A Q E T Y F O C C C R S S C S B G H
B R I G H 1F T H A A A A V T F L L I
F J A J O I R S E V I V E B O D G G
G R E P2 A R A B O L A3 E D G F R C G
H E I H B R I T C H X E S L I T C N
Y F4 O R C E O F F R I C T I O N G C
V W U D I S D F H U S E M U S E H C
X D B D U I Y S L R C C M5 A E J I S
V B C D R S R G6 L A A B A G L Z O E
M E D Z T T A R D R7 A N G E I R V D
A A D H G A R A K R A M N Y A E A G
E R E C8 O N S V E L O C I T Y N Z H
E D E G G C Y I D E W E T R E B S U
E T9 R A J E C T O R Y U U J
Z J S W E K F Y D G J H D G U I N J
S G A E R T Y U I O P L E N M A Z X

I I E A10 C C E L E R A T I O N X O S
A H S I N I P I G W O R L F G D P N
M B Q W E E D F G I R L I N T H E B
Across
2. Shape of a projectiles path
4. A force that consistently opposses movement
7. Horizontal distance traveled by a projectile
8. With horizontal motion, it has?
9. Path or projectile—
10. The vertical motion of a projectile is?

Down
1. With projectile motion we usually ignore?
3. Line or point around which an object rotates
5. Size or length—
6. What is the main force acting on a projectile?

Word Bank
Forceoffriction Trajectory
Parabola Airresistance
Range Axis
Cons.velocity Acceleration
Gravity Magnitud
Circular Motion and Gravitation

A V T L A C I T P I L L E D C Y
O R B I T D O I R E P W X H R I
L A I T N E T O P T L E T A N O
L F P D R O T C E V L N N A O N
A W L N C G A G X A E O L K I O
F L A N I M R E T M I A N A T I
E R N Q E A S E E T N K O N C T
E T E X V C P C A T I V T G A A
R W T I A I A T N L E F W U R R
F M T P R L S A O L O I E L T E
X Y E T P O T G O R I P N A T L
L P N S E S R C C K L M C R A E
Q E I G N A I E F N G U A F M C
C D O O M T C I R C U L A R G C
P Q C G Y R O A Q M A S S N E A
F L D L E I F E C R O F I U U B

ACCELERATION ESCAPE MASS

ANGULAR FORCE ORBIT
ATTRACTION FORCEFIELD PERIOD
CENTRIPETAL FREEFALL PLANET
CIRCULAR GEOSTATIONARY POTENTIAL
CONSTANT GRAVITY TERMINAL
DISPLACEMENT ISAAC NEWTON VECTOR
ELLIPTICAL KILOGRAM VELOCITY