• CHEMISTRY is the study of matter (composition and MIXTURE is a combination of two or more pure substances with

properties), the changes it undergoes, and the energy involved in variable composition. The substances that make up the mixture
these changes. retain their identities and can be separated by physical means.

• MATTER is anything that has mass and occupies space (has
volume).
• MASS is the measure of the quantity of matter in a sample of
any material.
• COMPOSITION refers to the parts or components of a sample
of matter and their relative proportions.
• PROPERTIES are qualities or attributes that can be used to
distinguish one sample of matter from others.
HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURE– aka SOLUTION, has uniform
composition and properties (e.g. brass – an alloy of Cu and Zn;
air)
HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURE – composition and properties are
not uniform throughout
• SUSPENSION – some of the particles settle out of the mixture
upon standing
• COLLOID – particles spread evenly throughout the medium

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES – properties displayed by matter without

changing its composition

Qualitative:
• Physical state, color, odor, crystal shape
• Malleability, ductility, hardness, brittleness
Quantitative
• Melting point, boiling point, solubility, density
• Thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity
PHYSICAL CHANGE – change that affects the physical properties
of matter but not its chemical composition
e.g. Change in physical state
STATES/PHASES OF MATTER
EXTENSIVE PROPERTY – property that is dependent on the
quantity of matter observed (e.g. mass, volume)
INTENSIVE PROPERTY – property that is independent of the
amount of matter observed (e.g. boiling point, molecular weight,
density)
Mass is the measure of the quantity of matter.
Volume measures the space occupied by matter.
Density (symbol: ρ) is the amount of matter per unit volume of a
sample.

MEASUREMENT – product of a number and a unit

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES – properties of matter that are observed

when it undergoes a change in composition

CHEMICAL CHANGE – change that alters the chemical

composition of matter – aka CHEMICAL REACTION – a process
that cannot be reversed (except by further chemical reactions) –
one or more substances are used up (or at least partially); one or
more new substances are produced
• e.g. Rusting of iron, burning of paper, dissolving metals in
strong acids MASS- describes the quantity of matter (SI unit: kg).
Weight is the force of gravity on an object (W = m x g; where g =
PURE SUBSTANCE is a form of matter with constant composition acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/s2 on Earth)
and distinct properties.
TEMPERATURE is a measure of hotness or coldness of an object;
ELEMENT– fundamental substance and cannot be separated into a measure of intensity of heat.
simpler substances by chemical means. e.g. H, O
HEAT is the amount of energy that is transferred from one object
COMPOUND– substance composed of two or more elements in to another because of temperature difference. It always flows
fixed proportions and can be separated into simpler substances spontaneously from the hotter object to the colder object.
by chemical means. e.g. H2O

“All measurements are subject to error.”
Types of errors
• SYSTEMATIC ERROR – from measuring instruments
• RANDOM ERROR – limitations in an experimenter’s skill or
ability to read scientific device
Figures of Merit
• PRECISION –degree of reproducibility of a measured quantity
(the closeness of agreement when the same quantity is
measured several times)
• ACCURACY –how close a measured value is to the actual value.
PERCENT COMPOSITION– percentage of a component in relation
to the total mass
DENSITY(symbol: ρ) is mass per unit volume
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS
“The total mass of substances after chemical reaction is the same
as the total mass of substances before the reaction” –ANTOINE
LAVOISIER (1774)
Sample Problem
A 0.455 g sample of magnesium is allowed to burn in 2.315 g of
oxygen gas. The sole product is magnesium oxide. After the
reaction, no magnesium remains and the mass of unreacted
oxygen is 2.015 g. What mass of magnesium oxide is produced?
Before reaction: 0.455 g Mg and 2.315 g O2
After reaction: No more Mg, 2.015 g O2 and ? g MgO 0.455 g +
2.315 g = 2.015 g + ?
Answer: 0.755 g MgO
LAW OF CONSTANT COMPOSITION (LAW OF DEFINITE
PROPORTION)
“All samples of a compound have the same composition – the
same proportions by mass of the constituent elements.” –JOSEPH
PROUST (1799)
Also, Different samples of any pure compound contain the same
elements in the same proportions by mass.
Example: All samples of H2O consist of 11.19% H and 88.81% O.
LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS
“If two elements (A and B) combine to form more than one
compound, the masses of one element (B) that combined with a
fixed mass of the other element (A) are in the ratio of small whole
numbers.” –JOHN DALTON (1803- 1808)
Different elements can combine in different ratios to form
different types of compounds.
Example:
Carbon and oxygen can combine to form two different
compounds: CO, CO2
For CO: 1.000 g of carbon reacts with 1.333 g of oxygen For
CO2: 1.000 g of carbon reacts with 2.667 g of oxygen Ratio of
oxygen in the two compounds is 1:2.
DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY –John Dalton (1803-1808)
1. Each chemical element is composed of minute, indivisible
particles called atoms.
2. All atoms in an element are alike in mass and other properties,
but the atoms of one element are different from those of all
other elements.
3. Atoms of different elements combine to form compounds in
simple numerical ratios. For example, one atom of A to one atom
of B (AB) or one atom of A to two atoms of B (AB2).
4. Atoms cannot be created, destroyed, or transformed into
atoms of another element.
5. In chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated, or
rearranged.
ATOMIC NUMBER (Z)
• total number of protons in the nucleus
• provides information on the identity of the element
• the elements in the periodic table are arranged in order of
increasing atomic number

Basic building blocks of atoms: Electrons, Protons, and Neutrons MASS NUMBER (A)
• sum of number of neutrons AND protons in the nucleus
• provides information on the isotopic nature of a particular
element

Atomic number (Z) = # protons (p)

Mass number (A) = # protons (p) + # neutrons (n)
# electrons (e) = # protons (p)
ATOM⎯ basic unit of an element that maintains its chemical
identity through all chemical and physical changes

Examples: H, O, Au, Ne, Hg

• PROTONS AND NEUTRONS reside in a very small region called

the NUCLEUS. The vast majority of an atom’s volume is the ISOTOPES are atoms of the same element (X) with different
electron cloud (mostly empty space), the region in which the numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. They contain the same
electrons are likely to be found. number of protons and also the same number of electrons but
differ in mass.
• In comparison to the mass of a proton and a neutron, the mass
of an electron is very small. Thus, most of the mass of an atom
are centered in the nucleus.

• The number of protons is different for different atoms and is

approximately one-half the atomic weight of the element.

• Every atom has an equal number of electrons and protons. The

atom as a whole is electrically neutral.
MOLECULE ⎯ made up of two or more atoms that are bound
together. Molecules are electrically neutral. Molecule of an
element – if atoms are of the same type
Examples: H2, O2, S8
ATOMIC MASS/WEIGHT is the weighted average mass of an
atom of an element based on the relative natural abundance of
that element’s isotopes.
NOTE: Atomic mass is not equal to the mass number because of
isotopes.

MOLECULE OF A COMPOUND (MOLECULAR COMPOUND) – if

more than one type of atom is present

Examples: H2O, CO2, PCl5

ION – forms when an atom or a molecule gains or loses single or

multiple electrons. They gain extra charge that makes their
properties entirely different from the original atom or molecule.
The number of protons is NOT equal to the number of electrons.

ANION– a negatively charged ion that is formed by gaining

electron/s. Examples: F⎯, O2⎯, CO32⎯

CATION– a positively charged ion that is formed through loss of

electron/s. Examples: K+, Eu3+, NH4+

ATOMIC SYMBOL (X)

• it is based on the element’s name (language of origin: English,
Latin, Greek etc.)
• e.g. H for hydrogen; Au for gold (Latin: aurum)
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION (or RADIANT ENERGY)–form of
energy transmission in which electric and magnetic fields are
propagated as waves through an empty space (vacuum) or
through a medium (e.g. glass).
Examples: visible light (light that is visible to the human eye),
radio waves, ultraviolet (UV) rays, X-rays
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
All waves travel at the same speed through a vacuum but differ
in frequency (𝝂) and wavelength (𝝀).
WAVE – a disturbance that transmits energy through space or
material medium
WAVELENGTH (𝝀) is the distance between two consecutive
crests or two consecutive troughs.
• measured in units of distance/length such as m, cm, nm, Å
• Note: 1 Å = 1 x 10⎯10 m
AMPLITUDE is the vertical distance from the midline of a wave to
the trough or crest. It is related to the intensity of the radiation.
FREQUENCY(𝝂) - is the the number of crests or troughs that pass
a given point per time.
• measured in units of cycles/time
• Note: 1 cycle/s or 1 s⎯1 = 1 Hz
Relating frequency (𝝂) and wavelength (𝝀):
𝒄=𝝀𝝂
where 𝒄 is the speed of light
SPEED is the distance traveled per unit time.
• measured in units of distance/time (e.g. m/s)
The speed of light (𝒄) in vacuum is approximately equal to 3.00 x
8
10 m/s.
HISTORY OF QUANTUM MECHANICS
Three phenomena that the classical wave model of light cannot
explain:
(1) Emission of light from hot objects or the BLACKBODY
RADIATION
(2) Emission of electrons from metal surfaces on which light
shines or the PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
(3) Emission of light from electronically excited gas atoms to form
DISCONTINUOUS (DISCRETE) EMISSION SPECTRA
Classical physics cannot explain blackbody radiation (light
emission by heated object).
As predicted by classical theory, intensity of the radiation
emitted would increase indefinitely with increasing frequency.
MAX PLANCK (1900) proposed that energy (or light) can be
either released or absorbed by atoms only in discrete “chunks”
of some minimum size.
QUANTUM (plural: quanta) – fixed amount; smallest quantity of
energy that can be emitted or absorbed as electromagnetic
radiation
Planck’s equation: 𝑬=𝒉𝝂
where h = 6.626 x 10-34 J-s (Planck’s constant)
Matter can emit and absorb energy only in whole-number
multiples of 𝒉𝝂 (e.g. 𝒉𝝂, 2𝒉𝝂, 3𝒉𝝂).
Energy is quantized!
Ex. Man climbing (Ramp = Continuous energy Staircase =
Quantized energy)
HEINRICH HERTZ (1887) discovered that when light strikes the
surface of certain metals, electrons are ejected – the
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT.
Electron emission only occurs when the frequency of the incident
light exceeds a particular threshold value (𝝂0).
• The number of electrons emitted depends on the intensity of
the incident light
• The kinetic energies of the emitted electrons depend on the
frequency of the light
ALBERT EINSTEIN (1905) proposed that electromagnetic
radiation has particle-like qualities and “particles” of light have a
characteristic energy given by the Planck’s equation.
G.N. LEWIS called these “particles” of light as PHOTONS.
Photon Energy =𝒉𝝂
The VISIBLE SPECTRUM is a continuous spectrum because the
light being diffracted consists of many wavelength components
(rainbow).
An ATOMIC or LINE SPECTRUM is a discontinuous spectrum
where the emitted light consists only of limited number of
wavelength components.
Every element has a unique spectral fingerprint. Thus, we can use
atomic spectra to identify elements.
JOHANN BALMER (1885) deduced a formula that predicts the
wavelengths for the four visible spectral lines of hydrogen
JOHANNES RYDBERG (1888) generalized the Balmer equation for
all transitions of hydrogen (i.e., including lines observed in the
UV and IR region).
NIELS BOHR (1913) resolved the issues regarding the classical
view of the atom. He assumed that electrons move in circular
orbits around the nucleus. He adopted Planck’s idea that
energies are quantized. He postulated that for a hydrogen atom:
1. Only orbits of certain radii are permitted for electrons in an
atom.
2. An electron in a permitted orbit has a specific energy and is in
an allowed energy state. 3. Energy is emitted and absorbed by
the electron only as the electron changes from one allowed
energy state to another. The energy associated with this is given
by 𝑬=𝒉𝝂.
BOHR MODEL of the hydrogen atom:
• The allowed states for electron (n) are integral numbers known
as quantum numbers.
• The radii of the allowed orbits in a hydrogen atom is: rn=n2a0
(where a0 = 0.529 Å)
• The energies corresponding to the allowed orbit can be
calculated:
• Electrons can jump from one allowed energy state to another
by absorbing or emitting photons whose energy corresponds to
the difference between the two states.
• The energy of photon corresponding to the transition can be
calculated:
Inadequacies of the Bohr Model:
• It cannot explain the emission spectra
of atoms and ions with more than one
electron.
• It correctly explains the H
absorption/emission spectrum and
other H-like species but fails for all other elements.
• It cannot explain the effect of magnetic fields on emission
spectra (wave nature).
LOUIS DE BROGLIE (1924) proposed that electrons exhibit
WAVE⎯PARTICLE DUALITY. In his wave nature of matter, an
electron moving about the nucleus of an atom behaves like a
wave and therefore has a wavelength.
C.J. DAVISSON and G.P. THOMSON proved that electron is a
wave using diffraction experiments.
Electrons (in fact, all particles) have both a particle and a wave
like character.
HEISENBERG UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
The Uncertainty Principle
“It is impossible to know simultaneously both the exact
momentum of the electron and its exact location in space.” –
WERNER HEISENBERG (1920s)
It applies not only to electrons but to other small particles.
ERWIN SCHRÖDINGER (1926) incorporated both the wave-like
and particle-like behaviors of the electron in an equation:
𝐻𝛹=𝐸𝛹
where 𝐻 is the Hamiltonian operator, 𝐸 is the energy of the
atom, and 𝛹 is the wave function (i.e., atomic orbital)
Schrödinger equation for hydrogen atom:
MAX BORN (1928) described, through principles of matrices, that
the square of the quantum wave equation (𝛹2) could be used to
predict the probability of where the particle would be found.
2
𝛹 (PROBABILITY DENSITY) – denotes the probability of finding
an electron at a given point in space
 ANGULAR MOMENTUM QUANTUM NUMBER (ɭ)

• describes the shape of the orbital, and the shape is limited by

The 1927 SOLVAY INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE (Topic:
Electrons and Photons) is where the world's most notable
physicists met to discuss the newly formulated quantum theory.
Among the 29 attendees, 17 became Nobel Prize winners.
the principal quantum number n
• can have positive integer values from 0 to n–1 e.g. if n = 3 != 0,
1, 2
• orbitals that have the same value of n but different values of !
are called subshells e.g. for n = 3 there are 3 subshells
• to describe one particular subshell in an atom, both the n value
and the subshell letter are used e.g. if n = 3, ɭ = 0 subshell = 3s if n
= 3, ɭ = 1 subshell = 3p if n = 3, ɭ = 2 subshell = 3d

Solution to Schrödinger’s equation yields a set of wave functions

called ORBITALS.

ORBITALS describe electrons in terms of probabilities, visualized

as electron clouds.

Basic Postulates of QUANTUM MECHANICS:

1. Atoms can exist only in certain energy states (energy levels).
In each energy state, the atom has a definite energy. When an
atom changes its energy state, it must emit or absorb just
enough energy to bring it to the new energy state (the quantum
condition).
MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER (m ɭ)
• describes how the various orbitals are oriented in space • the
value of this number depends on the value of ɭ
• the values allowed are integers from – ɭ to 0 to + ɭ

2. Atoms emit or absorb radiation (light) as they change their

energies. The frequency of the light emitted or absorbed is
related to the energy change by a simple equation.

Relationship among values of n, ɭ and m ɭ

• note that each subshell is made up of 2 ɭ + 1 orbitals
• ɭ = 0 to n⎯1
3. The allowed energy levels of electrons in an atom (the energy • m ɭ =– ɭ to 0 to + ɭ
states) can be described by sets of numbers called QUANTUM
NUMBERS.

Shape and orientation of S orbitals (ɭ = 0)

• shape: spherically symmetric

PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER (n) • centered on the nucleus
• for each value of n, there is only one s orbital
• describes the average distance of the orbital from the nucleus • the larger the value of n, the larger the orbital
and the energy of the electron in an atom
• determines the “level” or the “shell”
• can have positive integer (whole number) values: 1, 2, 3, 4, and
so on
• the larger the value of n, the greater the orbital’s energy and
the larger the orbital.
Shape and orientation of P orbitals (ɭ = 1)
• shape: dumbbell-shaped
• probability density is concentrated in 2 regions (lobes) on
either side of the nucleus
• starting from n = 2, each shell has three p orbitals
GROUND STATE ELECTRON CONFIGURATION – most stable
electron configuration
RULES FOR ASSIGNING ELECTRONS TO ORBITALS
1. AUFBAU PRINCIPLE: Electrons occupy in a way that
minimizes the energy of the atom. Orbitals are filled in
order of increasing energy, with no more than two
electrons per orbital.

Shape and orientation of D orbitals (ɭ = 2)

• shape: four of the d orbitals have a “four-leaf clover” shape 2. PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE: No two electrons in an
with the lobes lying in a plane; one has a dumbbell shape along atom can have all four quantum numbers alike.
the z axis with a ”doughnut” on the xy plane
• starting from n = 3, each shell has five d orbitals

3. HUND’S RULE: When orbitals of identical energies

(degenerate orbitals) are available, electrons occupy
these orbitals singly first before pairing begins.
• This is to minimize repulsion of negative electrons

SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER (mS)

• describes the direction the electron is spinning in a magnetic

field either clockwise or counterclockwise
• for each subshell, there can be only two electrons, one with a
spin of +1/2 and another with a spin of –1/2
• Two possible values:
- +1/2 (usually indicated by ↑)
- –1/2 (usually indicated by ↑)

GEORGE UHLENBECK & SAMUEL GOUDSMIT proposed the idea

that each electron spins on its own axis (just like how Earth spins
in its axis).
Methods of Representing Electron Configurations
OTTO STERN & WALTER GERLACH designed an experiment to
prove that electrons have spins.
1. EXPANDED NOTATION
-----
Example: Write the expanded electron configuration of
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
phosphorus (P).
Electrons in an atom move in three-dimensional space around
Step 1: Determine the total number of electrons of the element.
the nucleus, but NOT in an orbit that has a definite radius
P (Z = 15) has 15 electrons.
Step 2: Apply the Aufbau principle and assign the total number of
ORBITAL
possible electrons in each orbital (maximum: s=2, p=6, d=10,
• Region in space where the electron is most likely to be found
f=14). 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
• Characterized by the four quantum numbers
2. ORBITAL DIAGRAM
Example: Illustrate the correct ground state atomic orbital
diagram of phosphorus.

The ELECTRON CONFIGURATION of an atom is a designation of Step 1: Draw a box (or a line) for each orbital in a subshell.
how electrons are distributed among various orbitals in principal Aufbau principle should not be violated.
shells and subshells.

Step 2: Fill each orbital with two electrons by not violating Pauli
exclusion principle and Hund’s rule.
3. CONDENSED NOTATION (or the NOBLE GAS CORE
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION)
Example: Write the condensed electron configuration of
phosphorus.
Step 1: Determine the noble gas core (i.e., the nearest noble gas
that precedes the element). For P: Noble gas core is Ne.
Step 2: Enclose the noble gas core in a square bracket and write
the rest of the electron configuration [Ne] 3s2 3p3
Note: 1s2 2s2 2p6 is equivalent to the electron configuration of
Ne.
EXCEPTIONS
For Cr, we might expect that the electron configuration is [Ar]
4s2 3d4 However, a HALF FULL D SUBSHELL IS MORE STABLE.
Therefore, the preferred electron configuration is: [Ar] 4s1 3d5
For Cu, we might expect that the electron configuration is [Ar]
4s2 3d9 However, a COMPLETELY FILLED D SUBSHELL IS MORE
STABLE. Therefore, the preferred electron configuration is: [Ar]
4s1 3d10
VALENCE ELECTRONS (also known as OUTERMOST ELECTRONS)
are electrons found at the outermost shell of an atom. These are
the electrons involved in chemical reactions.
For example, F (with an electron configuration of 1s2 2s2 2p5)
contains 7 valence electrons found at its outermost shell (n = 2).
Its VALENCE CONFIGURATION is 2s2 2p5.
IONS are charged species which are products of either a gain or a
loss of electron/s of the parent element.
CATION: loss of valence electrons in the outermost shell of
atoms to gain positive charge.
ANION: gain of electrons in the outermost shell of atoms to gain
negative charge
ISOELECTRONIC – state by which two species are of the same
electron configuration
+ - 3+ 2- 3-
e.g. Na , F , Al , O , and N are all isoelectronic with Ne.
Electron configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p6
Transition metals (d-block elements)form cations by losing its ns
electrons first before losing the appropriate number of its (n⎯1)d
electrons
PARAMAGNETISM– exhibited by atoms/ions with unpaired
electron/s. Paramagnetic materials are weakly attracted by an
externally applied magnetic field, and form internal, induced
magnetic fields in the direction of the applied field.
DIAMAGNETISM–exhibited by atoms/ions with no unpaired
electrons. Diamagnetic materials create an induced magnetic
field opposite to an externally applied magnetic field, and are
repelled by the applied field.
PERIODIC TRENDS
• Properties of elements that behave predictably as we go
vertically or horizontally through the periodic table
1. Atomic size
2. Ionic size
3. Ionization energy
4. Electron affinity
5. Electronegativity
EFFECTIVE NUCLEAR CHARGE (Zeff) is the net positive charge In each period, the noble gases have the highest ionization
experienced by an electron in a multi-electron atom. energy. They are the most stable (inert) because they have
completely filled electron shell.

SHIELDING EFFECT
– describes the decrease in attraction between an electron
and the nucleus in any atom with more than one electron shell
– results from electron⎯electron repulsions, which cancel
some of the attraction of the electron to the nucleus

Z eff increases in the same period because the number of core

electrons is the same while the number of protons increases.

Z eff increases gradually down a group because the more diffuse

core electron cloud is less able to screen the valence electrons
from the nuclear charge.

ATOMIC RADIUS– half the distance between covalently bonded

atoms ELECTRON AFFINITY is the amount of energy change when an
electron is added to a gaseous atom or ion. It is a measure of an
atom’s ability to form negative ions.

For noble gases, EA is positive, which means an electron will not

attach itself to a noble gas atom. Noble gases are inert because
they have stable electron configuration.

ELECTRONEGATIVITY is the tendency of an atom to attract

electrons to it when chemically combined with another element.