Series Circuit

r INTRODUCTION
In Chapters 5 and 6, seriescircuits and parallel cir-

cuits were studied individually. In this chapter,both
seriesand parallel resistors are combined into series-
parallel circuits. In many practical situations, you will
have both seriesand parallel combinations within the
same circuit, and the methods you learned for series
circuits and for parallel circuits will apply.
Important types of series-parallelcircuits are
SERIES.PARALLEL introduced in this chapter.These circuits include the
voltage divider with a resistive load, the ladder net-
CIRCUITS work, and the Wheatstonebridge.
The analysis of series-parallelcircuits requlres
the use of Ohm's law, Kirchhoff's voltage and current
7-1 Parallel
ldentifyingSeries- laws, and the methods for finding total resistanceand
power that you learned in the last two chapters.The
Relationships
topic of loaded voltage dividers is very important
7-2 Parallel
Analysisof Series- becausethis type of circuit is found in many practical
Circuits situations. One example is the voltage-divider bias ci
7-3 VoltageDividerswith Resistive cuit for a transistor amplifier, which you will study in
Loads a later course. Ladder networks are important in sev-
7-4 LoadingEffectof a Voltmeter eral areasincluding a major type of digital-to-
analog conversion,which you will study in the digital
/-5 LadderNetworks
fundamentalscourse.The Wheatstonebridge is used
7-6 The WheatstoneBridge in many systemsfor the measurementof unknown
7-7 Troubleshooting parameters.
7-B TechnologyTheoryinto Practice In the TECH TIP assignmentin Section 7-8,
you will evaluatea voltage-divider circuit board used
Workbench
Electronics (EWB)and in a portable power supply by applying your knowl-
at
available edge of loaded voltage dividers gained in this chapter
PSpiceTutorials
as well as skills developedin previous chapters.The
prenhall.com/floyd
http://www.
voltage divider in this application is designed to pro-
vide reference voltages to three different instruments
that act as loads on the circuit. You will also trou-
bleshoot the circuit board for various common faults.
CHAPTER
OBfECTTVES
Identifyseries-parallelrelationships D Analyze ladder networks
Analyze series-parallel circuits tr Analyze a Wheatstonebridge
Analyzeloadedvoltage dividers D Troubleshoot series-parallelcircuits
Determine the loading effect of a voltmeter on a
circuit
212 T SERIES-PARALLEL
CIRCUITS
7_1 T IDENTIFYING RELATIONSHIPS

SERIES.PARATTEL
A series-parallel circuit consists of combinati.onsof both series arudparullel current
paths. It is important to be able to identify how the components in u circait are
arranged in terms of their series and parullel relutionships.
After completing this section, you should be qble to
r Identify series-parallel relationships
. Recognize how each resistor in a given circuit is related to the other resistors
. Determine series and parallel relationships on a PC board
Figure 7-1(a) shows an example of a simple series-parallel combination of reslstors.

Notice that the resistancefrom point A to point B is R1. The resistancefrom point B to
point C is R2 and R3 in parallel (Rz ll R:). The resistancefrom point A to point C is R1 in
serieswith the parallel combination of R2 and R3, as indicated in Figure 7-l(b).
R1is in
1- -\
I senes
I withR" ll
' " 'R.. I
Y Y
Rl
, B
:]E:]E
(4, (b) (cl
FICURE7-1
A simpleseries-parallelcircuit.
When the circuit of Figure 7-l(a) is connectedto a voltagesourceas shown in Fig-

ure 7-l(c), the total current is through R1 and divides at point B into the two parallel
paths. These two branch currents then recombine, and the total cuffent is into the nega-
tive source terminal as shown.
Now, to illustrate series-parallelrelationships, let's increase the complexity of the
circuit in Figure 7-l(a) step-by-step.In Figure 7-2(a), anotherresistor(Ra)is connected
in serieswith R1.The resistancebetweenpointsA and B is now R1 + Ra, and this combi-
nation is in series with the parallel combination of R2 and R3, as illustrated in Figure
1-2h\.
--'.1
1-R1 + Ro is in series
{ withR,llR.. +
C C
(a) (b)
FIGURE7-2
Rz is addedto the circuit in serieswith fu.
I D E N T I F Y I NSCE R I E S - P A R A LRLEELLA T I O N S H I P. S 2 1 3
In Figure 7-3(a), R5 is connected in series with R2. The series combination of R2

and R5 is in parallel with R,. This entire series-parallelcombination is in series with the
Rr + Ro combination,as illustratedin Figure 7-3(b).
R4 R1
R2 and R5
are in series
C
(b) Bluegroups
arein parallel
F I G U R E7 - 3
R5 is addedto the circuit in serieswith R2.
In Figure 71(a), R6 is connectedin parallel with the series combination of R1 and

Ra. The series-parallelcombinationof R1, Ra, and R6 is in serieswith the series-parallel
combinationof R2,R3, and R5, as indicatedin Figure 1-4(b).
Beige -groups
+ : . '
are 1n sefles.
Blue groups
I
Y
are in parallel
B
R, R,
Raand R1
are in series
C C
(al (b
FIGURE7-4
R6 is added to the circuit in parallel with the series combination of R1 and Ra.
EXAMPTE
7-1 Identify the series-parallelrelationshipsin Figure 7-5.
FICURE7-5
214 I SERIES-PARALLEL
CIRCUITS
Solution Starting at the positive terminal of the source,follow the current paths. All
of the current produced by the source must go through R1, which is in series with the
rest of the circuit.
The total current takes two paths when it gets to point A. Part of it is through R2,
and part of it through R3. ResistorsR2 and R3 are in parallel with each other, and this
parallel combination is in serieswith R,
At point ,8, the currents through R2 and R3 come together again. Thus, the total
current is through Ra. Resistor Ra is in series with R1 and the parallel combination of
R2 and R3. The currents are shown in Figure 7-6, where ft is the total current.
F I G U R E7 _ 6
In summary,R1 and Ra are in series with the parallel combination of R2 and R3

as statedby the following expression:
R1+R2llR3+Ro
Related Prohlem If another resistor, R5, is connected from point A to the negative
side of the source in Figure 7-6, what is its relationship to the other resistors?
EXAMPLE7-2 Identify the series-parallelrelationships in Figure 1-7.
FIGURE7_7 FIGURE7-B
Solution Sometimes it is easier to see a particular circuit arrangementif it is drawn

in a different way. In this case, the circuit schematic is redrawn in Figure 7-8, which
better illustrates the series-parallelrelationships. Now you can see that R2 and R3 are
in parallel with each other and also that Ra and R5 are in parallel with each other. Both
parallel combinations are in series with each other and with R1 as stated by the fol-
lowing expression:
R, + Rrll R3 + R4ll Rs
Related Problem Ifa resistor is connectedfrom the bottom end ofR3 to the top end
of R5 in Figure 7-8, what effect does it have on the circuit?
IDENTIFYINC
SERIES-PARALLEL . 215
RELATIONSHIPS
Describe the series-parallelcombination between points A and D in Figure 7-9.
solution Between points B and c, there are two parallel paths. The lower path con-
sists of Ra, and the upper path consistsof a seriescombination of R2 and R3. This par-
allel combination is in serieswith R5.The Rz, Rz,Ra,R5 combination is in parallel with
R6. Resistor R1 is in series with this entire combination as stated by the followins
expression:
R1 + R6ll (Rs+ (R+ll (Rz+ R:)))

Related Problem If a resistor is connectedfrom point C to point D inFigure 7-9,
describe its parallel relationship.
EXAMPLE
7-4 Describe the total resistancebetween each pair of points in Figure 7-10.
F I G U R E7 - 1 0 B
Solution
1. From point A to B: R1 is in parallel with the seriescombination of R2 and R3.
R1 ll (R2+ R3)
2. From point A to C: R3 is in parallel with the seriescombination of R1 and R2.
R3ll(Rr + Rr)
3. From point B to C: R2 is in parallel with the seriescombination of R1 and R3.
R,ll (R, + Rr)

Related Prohlem Describe the total resistancebetween each point in Figure 7-10
and ground if a resistor,Ra, is connectedfrom point C to ground.
CIRCUITS
on a PrintedCircuit(PC)Board
DeterminingRelationships
Usually, the physical arrangementof componentson a PC board bears no resemblanceto
the actual circuit relationships. By tracing out the circuit on the PC board aad rearang-
ing the components on paper into a recognizable form, you can determine the series-
parallel relationships.This is illustrated in Example 7-5.
EXAMPTE
7-5 Determine the relationships of the resistors on the PC board in Fieure 7-1 1.
F I G U R E7 - 1 1
Solution In Figure 7-12(a), the schematicis drawn in the same arrangementas that
of the resistors on the board. In part (b), the resistors are reaffanged so that the series-
parallel relationships are obvious. ResistorsR1 and Ra are in series;R1 + Ra is in par-
allel with R2; R5 and R6 are in parallel and this combination is in series with R3. The
Rs, Rs, and R6 series-parallelcombination is in parallel with both R2 and the R1 + R4
combination. This entire series-parallel combination is in series with R7, as Figure
7-l2k\ illustrates.
Biue
are in oarallel. are in
: \.i
t l
R1 and iR4 > i
are mt
serles.
l i^'i{ .rl,ri,, !:: !
: ; : iRs :
R6 R5 and R6
: are 1n
parallel.
,n;.|-n"ij
',1:
groups
are ln senes.
B
(a) (b)
F I G U R E7 - 1 2
Related Problem If Rs were removed from the circuit, what would be the relation-
ship of R3 and R6?
A N A L Y S IO
S F S E R I E S - P A R A LCLI E
RLC U I T S. 217
TION7-1 1. Define series-parallel resistive circuit.

IEW 2. A certain series-parallelcircuit is described as follows: R1 and R2 ne in parallel.
This parallel combination is in series with another parallel combination of R3 and
Ra. Sketch the circuit.
3. In the circuit of Figure 7*13, describe the series-parallelrelationships of the resis-
tors.
4. Which resistors are in parallel in Figure 7-14?
F I G U R E7 - 1 3 F I C U R E7 - 1 4
Describe the parallel a.rrangements

in Figure 7-15.
6. Are the parallel combinations in Figure 1-I5 in series?
F I G U R E7 - 1 5
- 2 t ANALYSIS
OF SERIES.PARALLET
CIRCUITS
Severul quantities are important when you have a circuit thqt is a series-parallel con-
figurution of resistors.
After completing this section, you should be able to
I Analyze series-parallel circuits
. Determinelotal resistance
. Determine all the currents
. Determine all the voltage drops
TotalResistance
In chapter 5, you learned how to determine total series resistance.In Chapter 6, you
learned how to determine total parallel resistance.To find the total resistance (Ra) of a
series-parallelcombination, simply define the series and parallel relationships; then per-
form the calculationsthat you have previously learned.The following two examplesillus-
trate this general approach.
CIRCUITS
EXAMPLE7-6 Determine R1 of the circuit in Figure 7-16 between points A and B.
F I C U R E7 - 1 6 Rr
Solution First, calculate the equivalentparallel resistanceof R2 and R3. Since R2 and
R3 are equal in value, you can use Equation (6-6).
R , . = 4 - l o o o= 5 o o
n 2
Notice that the term R2-3was used here to designatethe total resistanceof a portion of
a circuit in order to distinguish it from the total resistance,R1, of the complete circuit.
Now, since R1 is in serieswith R4, add their values as follows:
Rr =Rr * Rz-z- 10 O + 50 Q = 60 O
Related Problem Determine R1 in Figure 7-16 if h is changedto 82 Q.
EXAMPLE7-7 Find the total resistancebetween the positive and negative terminals of the battery in
Fisure 7-17.
R3
47f) 47o"
R4
F I G U R E7 _ 1 7
Solution In the upper branch, R2 is in serieswith R3. This seriescombination is des-

ignated R2-3and is equal to R2 + R3.
Rz-z= Rz* R: - 41 Q + 47 {l = 94 {l
In the lower branch, Ra and R5 are in parallel with each other. This parallel com-
bination is designatedRa-5and is calculated as follows:
(68o)(32q) =
R,t -- t=- &- - L 24.8
a ' o dt
>4
R+*Rs 68e+39o
Also in the lower branch, the parallel combination of Ra and R5 is in serieswith
R6. This series-parallelcombination is designatedRa-5-6and is calculated as follows:
R 6 + R 4 - s= 7 5 d l + 2 4 . 8 Q = 9 9 . 8Q
R+-s-o=
ANALYSIS
OF SERIES-PARALLEL
CIRCUITSt 219
Figure7-18 shows the original circuit in a simplified equivalent form.
F I C U R E7 - 1 8
Now you can find the equivalent resistancebetween points A and B. It is R2_3in
parallel with R4_5_6.
The equivalent resistanceis calculated as follows:
Rar = = 48.4dl
0/94 A) + (l/99.8f))
Finally, the total resistanceis R1 in serieswith Rou.
Rr = Rr * Rts = 100 O + 48.4O= 148.4O
Related Prohlem Determine R1 if a 68 Q resistor is added in parallel from point A

to point B in Figure 7-17.
TotalCurrent
Once the total resistanceand the source voltage are known, you can find total current in
a circuit by applying Ohm's law. Total current is the total source voltage divided by the
total resistance.
h' = R
vtr
For example, assumingthat the source voltage is 30 V the total culrent in the circuit of
Example 7-7 (Figure 7-17) is
30v -)o)ma
r, t -- Rv r t -
A8.4 A
BranchCurrents
Using the current-divider formula, Kirchhoff's current law, Ohm's law or combinations
of these,you can flnd the current in any branch of a series-parallelcircuit. In some cases,
it may take repeatedapplication of the formula to find a given current. The following two
examples will help you understand the procedure. (Notice that the subscripts for the
current variables (4 match the R subscripts;for example, cunent through R1 is referred to
a s1 ' . )
220 | CIRCUITS
SERIES-PARALLEL
7-B
EXAMPLE Find the current through R2 and the current through R3 in Figure 7-19.
F I G U R E7 - 1 9 Rl
Solution First,you needto know how muchcunentis into thejunction (pointA) of

This is the total circuit current.To find ft, you needto know R1.
the parallelbranches.
R z R : = r o k o + ( 2 ' 2k o x 3 ' 3k Q ) = 1 . 0k f t + r . 3 2k o = 2 . 3 2 k e
Rr= Kr *, p;; i.u Ksz-
zzye* 3.3ko
22i =9.48mA
h=Yt-
R. 232k4
Use the current-dividerrule for two branchesas givenin Chapter6 to find the
cuffent through R2.
R' \/- - / 3'3ko\s.+s-a = 5.6emA

b' t = (
\Rr+Rr/''-\5.sko/
Now you can use Kirchhoff's curent law to find the current through R3.
Ir = Iz* Iz
It = h - Iz= 9.48 mA - 5.69 mA = 3.79 mA
Related Problem A 4.7 kQ resistor is connectedin parallel with R. in Figure 7-19.

Determine the current through the new resistor.
7-9
EXAMPLE Determine the current through Ra in Figure 7-20 if Vs = 50 V.
FlcuRE 7-20 +
Rl
tuon
-| R3
ul ,^l
330o -l
R4
560 0
I
Solution First, flnd the cunent (/2) into the junction of R3 and Ra. Once you know
this current, use the current-divider formula to find 1a.
Notice that there are two main branchesin the circuit. The left-most branch con-
sists of only R1. The right-most branch has R2 in series with the parallel combination
of R3 and Ra. The voltage acrossboth of these main branchesis the same and equal to
50 V. Find the current (12)into the junction of R3 and Ra by calculating the equivalent
resistance(Rz_z) of the right-most main branch and then applying Ohm's law, 12is the
total current through this main branch. Thus,
ANALYSIS CIRCUITS.
OF SERIES-PARALLEL 221
Rz_:_+ n3*Ra
Q* Glry4ry9q
=R,+++5 =330
890f2
=538Q
1- , - - ! t - 50v = YJ mA
Rr-^-o 538 O
Use the cuffent-;der fbrmula to calculate 1,.
,^= (=!:=)r, = f*=)o: -o = 34.5mA

+Rol'
\R, Oi \890
Related Problem Determine the cun'ent through R1 and R3 in Figure l-20 if Vs =
20Y.
VoltageDrops
It is often necessaryto find the voltages across certain parts of a series-parallelcircuit.
You can normally find thesevoltagesby using the voltage-divider formula given in Chap-
ter 5, Kirchhoff's voltage law, Ohm's law, or combinations of each. The following three
examplesillustrate use of the formulas.
E 7-10 Determine the voltage drop from point A to ground in Figure 7-21. Then find the volt-
age (Y1) acrossR1.
R1
R1
150c) A
+
R2 R3
# rsoo
rl I
-l
%..:-80V
560c) 560c) y.s : - 8 o v
_T
3no
i280o
I
:
1 l :
_
F I C U R E7 - 2 1 FIGURE
7-22
Solution Note that R2andR3 are in parallelin this circuit. Sincethey are equalin
value,their equivalentresistance
from point A to groundis
Ro=ff*9=280Q
L
In the equivalentcircuit shown in Figure 7-22, & is in serieswith Ra. The total circuit
resistanceas seenfrom the source is
R r = R r * R 4 = 1 5 0Q + 2 8 0 A = 4 3 0 Q
Use the voltage-divider formula to find the voltage acrossthe parallel combina-
tion of Figure 7-27 (betweenpoint A and ground).
=(ff)" =(*^ffi;'o
v=s2.1
v
"
Now use Kirchhoff's voltage law to find V1.
Vs=Vt*Ve
vt = vs - ve = 80 v - 52.1 Y = 27.9 Y
Related Problem Determine Va and Vt if & is changed to 220 Q inFigure 7-21.
222 I SERIES.PARALLEL
CIRCUITS
EXAMPLE
7-11 Determine the voltage acrosseach resistor in the circuit of Figure 7-23.
R,
1 . 5k O
R5
560c)
FIGURE7-23
Solution The source voltage is not given, but you know the total current from the
figure. Since R1 and R2 are in parallel, they each have the same voltage. The current
through R1 is
h =(=3t
+R^ r)1, = *n =688
l ' f+1ry.)r
kA
pA
\R, \3.2 I
The voltages acrossR1 and R2 are
V1= IlRy = (688 pA)(1.0 kO; = 633 -Y

Vz= Vr = 688 mV
The current through R3 is found by applying the current-divider formula.
= (#P)'
r,- = [=--,&**.. 1,", n'o= 346rtA
L R r + ( R 4 + R ls' ) \5.96kO/
The voltageacrossR3is
Vz= IzRz= (346pA)(3.9kO) = 1.35Y
ThecurrentsthroughRaandR5arethe samebecause
theseresistorsarein series.
1 4 =l t - h - I z = l m A - 3 4 6 p . A = 6 5 4p " A
The voltagesacrossRaandR5arecalculatedas follows:
V+= I+R+=(654pA)(1.5kQ) = 931-Y
Vs= IsRs= (654pAX560O) = 366 mV
RelatedProblem What is the sourcevoltage,V5,in the circuit of Figure7-23?
ANALYSIS CIRCUITSa 223
OF SERIES-PARALLEL
Determine the voltage drop acrosseach resistor in Figwe 7-24.
FfCURE7-24 R2
ys
8V R5
680 f,)
R6
3900
Solution Becausethe total voltage is given in the figure, you can solve this problem
using the voltage-divider formula.
First, you need to reduce each parallel combination to an equivalent resistance.
Since R1 and R2 are in parallel between points A and B, combine their values.
= JB?. = Gl€{*lQ
Rou = 2.r5ko
R, + R, 9.5 kO
Since Ra is in parallel with the seriescombination of R5 and R6 between points C and

D, combine these values.
R4(R5+ R6) _ !!!_\91rt.07 ko)
np c o_= p o * p , = )El 'a
i s^ 2
14o= ,^o?kf)
The equivalent circuit is drawn in Figure 1-25. The total circuit resistanceis
R r = R a a+ R 3 + R c o = 2 . 1 5k Q + 1 . 0k O + 5 1 7 O : 3 . 6 7k a
F I C U R E7 - 2 5 Rm
2.15kO R3
ys 1.0ko
8V
Rco
5fio.
Next, use the voltage-divider formula to determine the voltages in the equivalenl
circuit.
46sv
",=(ff)u'=(#ffi)'u=
113v
""=(?)u'=(*ffi)'u=
*=(fr)"=(#*)8v=2'18v
224 r SERIES-PARALLEL
CIRCUITS
Refer to Figure l-24. VABequals the voltage acrossboth R1 and R2, so
Ves= 4,69 Y
V6'pis the voltage acrossRa and acrossthe seriescombination of R5 and R6. Therefore,
Va.=Vco = 1.13V
Now apply the voltage-divider formula to the series combination of R5 and R6 to get
V5 and V6.
v,' = (=i"=)v., ' " = (*9)t.t3 - V = 7r8mv

\R, + Ru) \ 1 0 7 0O / -
'"" = (=!=)v., ' = /#9)t'13 v = 4r2mY
\R, +Rol \1070O/
Related Problem R2 is removed from the circuit in Figure 7-24. Calculate V4B,Ve6,
and V6p.
As you have seen in this section, the analysis of series-parallel circuits can be
approachedin many ways, dependingon what information you need and what circuit val-
ues you know. The examplesin this section do not representan exhaustivecoverage,but
they give you an idea of how to approach series-parallelcircuit analysis.
If you know Ohm's law, Kirchhoff's laws, the voltage-divider formula, and the cur-
rent-divider formula, and if you know how to apply these laws, you can solve most resis-
tive circuit analysisproblems. The ability to recognize seriesand parallel combinations is,
of course, essential.A few circuits, such as the unbalancedWheatstone bridge, do not
have basic seriesand paralled combinations.Other methods are neededfor these cases,as
we will discusslater.
sEcTtoN7-2 1. List_the circuit laws and formulas that may be necessaryin the analysis of series-
REVIEW parallel circuits.
2. Find the total resistancebetweenA andB in the circuit of Figure 7-26.
3. Find the current throughR3 in Figure 7-26.
4. Find the voltage drop across R2inFigureT-26.
5. Determine R1 and 1.1in Figure 7-2'7 as "seeno'by the source.
274
vs
1V
56cl
FIGURE7-26 F'CURE 7-27

VOLTACEDIVIDERS
WITH RESIST|VE
LOADS . 225
I VOITAGEDIVIDERS
WITH RESISTIVE
LOADS
voltage divi.ders were introduced in chapter 5. In this section, you will learn how
resistive loads affect the operation of voltage-divider circuits,

I Analyze loaded voltage dividers
. Determine the effect of a resistive load on a voltage-divider circuit
. Define bleeder current
The voltage divider in Figure 7-28(a) produces an output voltage (vour) of 5 v because
the two resistors are of equal value. This voltage is the unloadecloutput voltage. When a
load resistor,R1, is connectedfrom the output to ground as shown in Figure 7*2g(b), the
output voltage is reduced by an amount that dependson the value of R.. The load resis-
tor is in parallel with R2, reducing the resistancefrom point A to ground and, as a result,
also reducing the voltage acrossthe parallel combination. This is one effect of loading a
voltage divider. Another effect of a load is that more current is drawn from the source
becausethe total resistanceof the circuit is reduced.
T
l_
=
(b) Loaded
FIGURE7-28
A voltagedivi.derwith both unloaded and laaded outputs.
The larger R1 is compared to Rr, the less the output voltage is reduced from its
unloaded value, as illustrated in Figure l-29.When two resistors are connectedin paral-
lel and one of the resistors is much greater than the other, the total resistanceis close to
the value of the smaller resistance.
(b) R; not significantly greater than R2 (c) Rl much greater than R2
7-29
ffict of a load resistor.
CtRCUtTS
EXAMPTE
7-13 (a) Determine the unloaded output voltage of the voltage divider in Figure 7-30.
(b) Find the loaded outpur volrages of rhe voltage divider in Figure 7-30 for the fol-
lowing two valuesof load resistance:Rz = 10 kO and Rr = 100 kfl.
F I G U R E7 - 3 0
Solution
(a) The unloaded output voltage is
=(ffiJY'
/ R' \-- / 'nLo \
vourl'nro .0.a, =(ffi)t u =3.40
v
(b) with the l0 ko load resistor connected,Rl is in parallel with Rr, which gives
RzllRr=of*; =gbuq =5ke

The equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 7-3r(a). The loaded output voltage is
R'lln' \
v o u t t t o a d=e c ' = (
\ Y ^= = v
" l;jnj1 n.,,lY'(t7 k;lt u 2's8
='5ko
With the 100 kO load, the resistancefrom output to ground is
=#t=@##@=e.r
RzlR, ko
The equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 7-31(b). The loaded output voltage is
v o u r ( r o a o e1a')l =
1 (== ) u' , = ( e 1 k o \
i
+R2
\Rl llRt) \l3^stCr/sv=3'3ov
+
vs
5 V, =
T II
RzllRL
5ko
I
I:
.':
(a) RL (b) R. = 100kO
F I G U R E7-3
-
The smaller value of R, causesa greater reduction in v61ry (3.40 v - 2.5g v =

0.82 V) than doesthe largervalue of Rl (3.40V - 3.30v = 0.10 v). This illustratesthe
loading effect ofR. on the voltage divider.
Related Problem Determine vsur in Figure 7-30 for a 1.0 Me load resistance.
VOLTACEDIVIDERS LOADS .
WITH RESISTIVE 227
BleederCurrent
Voltage dividers are sometimes useful in obtaining various voltages from a fixed power
supply. For example, supposethat you wish to derive 12 V and 6 V from a 24 Y supply.
To do so requires a voltage divider with two taps, as shown in Figure 7-32.In this exam-
ple, R1 must equal R2 + R3,and R2 must equal R3. The actual values of the resistors are
set by the amount of current that is to be drawn from the source under unloaded condi-
tions. This current, called the bleeder current, represents a continuous drain on the
source.With these ideas in mind, in Example 1-14 a voltage divider is designed to meet
ceftain specified requirements.
F I G U R E7 - 3 2
Vollagedivider with two output taps.
7-14 A power supply requires l2Y and 6 V from a24Y battery.The unloaded current drain
on this battery is not to exceed 1 mA. Determine the values of the resistors.Also deter-
mine the output voltage at the l2Y Lapwhen both outputs are loaded with 100 kO
each.
Solution A circuit as shown in Figure 1-32is required. In order to have an unloaded

current of I mA, the total resistancemust be
24Y =24kt)
R' . - - l L -
I lmA
To get exactly l2Y,
Rr=RzfR:-12kA
To get exactly 6 V,
Rz=R:=6kO
The 12 kQ is a standardvalue, but the closest standardvalue to 6 kO is 6.04 kO
in a l7o resistor and 6.2 kO in a 5% resistor.We will use 6.2 kO for R2 and R3,
although this will result in small differences from the desired unloaded output volt-
ases.
=("?"ft)^ =(#+*3)z+
vnv u='22v
u*=(^,.ff. o,)r'=(##)z+,
=atv
CIRCUtTS
FICURE7-33
The 100 kQ loads are connected to the outputs as shown in Figure i-33. The
loaded output voltage at the 12 Y tap is determined as follows. First, determine the
equivalent resistance in the circuit. The equivalent resistance from the 12 V tap to
ground is the 100 kQ load resistor,R11,in parallel with the combination of R2 in series
with the parallel combination of R3 and R12.For R3 in parallel with R"r, the equivalent
resistaaceis
(6'2Y'9)(1oo
ko) =
Reer= =ot^? - 5'84 kQ
R3 + RL2 r 06.2-ko.....-
For R2 in serieswith Ruor, the equivalent resistanceis
Rnez= R2 + REel = 6.2kQ + 5.84 kQ = 12.0 kf)

For R.1 in parallel with R6q2,the equivalent resistanceis
= =&rRs=qz- (100koxl2:Oko) = 10.7ke

Rneg
R., + Rro, I 12kO
R6q3is the equivalentresistancefrom the l2Y tap to ground. The equivalent cir-
cuit from the l2Y tap to ground is shown in Figure 7-34. Now, using this equivalent
circuit, calculate the voltage at the 12 v tap of the loaded voltage divider.
u""=(&H;;)" =(ffi)z+v =11'3

v
12 V tap
(1 1.3V loaded)
FIGURE7_34
As you can see, the output voltage at the 12 v tap decreasesslightly from its
unloaded value when the 100 kQ loads are connected. Smaller values of load resis-
tance would result in a greater decreasein the output voltage.
Related Prohlem Determine the output voltage at the 6 v tap when both outputs are
loaded with 100 kQ each.
LOADINC EFFECT
OF A VOLTMETER. 229
N 7-3 l. A load resistoris connectedto an output tap on a voltagedivider. What effect does
the load resistor have on the output voltage at this tap?
2. A larger-valueload resistor will cause the output voltage to change less than a
smaller-valueone will. (T or F)
3. For the voltage divider in Figure 7-35, determinethe unloaded output voltage. Also
determinethe output voltage with a 10 kQ load resistor connectedacrossthe output.
HCURE7-3s
r LOADINGEFFECT
OF A VOLTMETER
As you have learned, voltmeters must be connected in parallel with a resistor in order
to measure the voltage across the resistor. Becsuse of its internal resistance, s volt-
meter puts a load on the circuit and will affict, to a certain extent, the voltage that is
being measured, until now, we have ignored the loading effect because the internal
resistance of a voltmeter is very high, and normally it has negtigible effect on the cir-
cait that is being messured. However, if the internal resistunce of the voltmeter is not
safficient$ greater than the circuit resistance &cross which it is connected, the loud-
ing effect will cuase the meqsured voltage to be less than its uctaal value. You should
always be aware of this effect.
After completing this section, you should be uble to

I Determine the loading effect of a voltmeter on a circuit
. Explain why a voltmeter can load a circuit
. Discuss the internal resistanceof a voltmeter
Why a VoltmeterCan Loada Circuit

when a voltmeter is connectedto a circuit as shown, for example, in Figure 7-36(a), its
intemal resistanceappearsin parallel with Rr, as shown in part (b). The resistancefrom
point A to point B is altered by the loading effect of the voltmeter's internal resistance,
R;a,and is equal to R3ll Rp,,as indicatedin pafl (c).
If R1ais much greater than R3, the resistancefrom A to B changesvery little, and the
meter indicates the actual voltage. If Ry is not sufficiently greater than R3, the resistance
from A to ,B is reduced significantly, and the voltage acrossR3 is altered by the loading
effect of the meter. A good rule of thumb is that if the loading ffict is less than 107o, it
can usually be neglected,depending on the accuracy required.
InternalResistance
of a Voltmeter
Two categoriesof voltmeters are the electromagneticanalog voltmeter (commonly called
VOM), whose internal resistanceis determined by its sensitivity factor, and the digital
voltmeter (the most commonly used type and commonly called DMM), whose internal
230 I SERTES-PARALLEL
CIRCUITS
Rl
l l
+ l
t I
* R2
:' A T i l
- t l
I
t
tl &llRM
(al
- | ; = " +l
(c,
FIGURE7-36
The loading effect of a volhneter.
resistanceis also typically at least l0 MO. The digital voltmeter

presents fewer loading
problems than the electromagnetic type becausethe
internal ,"rirtun"", of DMMs are
much higher.
As mentioned, the internal resistanceof an electromagnetic
voltmeter (voM) is
specified by the sensitivity factor. A common sensitivity valu!
is 20,000 o/V. The inter-
nal resistancedependson the dc voltage range switch setting
of the meter and is deter-
mined by multiplying the sensitivity by the range seming.
Foi example, if the dc vorrage
range switch is set at 10 Y the internal resistanceof the
meter is
Ru = 20,000 Q/V x 10 V = 200,000 O
The lower the range setting, the less the internal resistance
and the greater the load-
ing effect of the voltmeter a circuit. Always use the highest possible range setting that
_on
will allow an accuratereading from the meter scale. However, you
would not use a 60 v
setting to measure1 V becauseyou could not read I V accurately
on the 60 V meter scale.
The following example shows how the range setting affects
the loadins.
EXAMPI-E
7-15 How much does the electromagneticvoltmeter (voM) affect
the voltage being mea-
sured for each range switch setting indicated in Figure 7-37?
Assume the meter has a
sensitivity factor of 20,000 O/V.
+ 1 5V + 1 5V + 1 5V
FIGURE7-37
OF A VOLTMETER.
LOADINC EFFECT 231
Solution The unloaded voltage acrossR2 in the voltage-divider circuit is
vo,=(=!l)u = /**9)'s u = s.36

v
\Rr+ R2l \28 kf)/
of the meteris
Referto Figure7-37(a).The internalresistance
Ru = 20,000O/V x l2Y = 240 kQ
in parallelwith R2is
The meter'sresistance
= / f' ll? ) =l]g|.?l#@

R:ilR..r = e6ko
R,
\Rr+ 2 5 0k A
I
by the meteris
The actualvoltagemeasured
,.,_( R z l l R u\ v = / 9 . 0 t o\ r s u = s . z 2 v
\ R ,+ R r l l R r l \27.6kf)/
of the meteris
Referto Figurel-31(b). The internalresistance
R,u= 20,000O/V x 60 V = 1.2MO
in parallelwith Rt is
R'R, =!9@l*#Q =e.e2ka
Rz1R,.:
o-
R r +R u l.2l Mo
The actual voltage measuredis
u . . _ ( R z l l R u\ y _ f e . e 2 k o ) , s u = s . 3 3 v
\R'+RrllRrl \27.9ko/
of the meteris
Referto Figure7-37(c).The internalresistance
Ru = 20,000C)/Vx 300V = 6 Mfl
in parallelwith R, is
' 7 4=-
RzllF.- R'R' = I1qe{Yq) = e.e8
ko
R z - rR u 6.0l Mo
The actual voltage measuredis
,-" _ ( RzllRu \v = / 9.qsto \rs v = s.3sv

\R' +RrllRrl \27.98ko/
As you can see, the loading decreasesas you increase the range setting on the
voltmeter becausethe measuredvoltage is closer to the unloaded voltage. However,
the l2Y setting is the best choice in this case because,although the loading effect is
greater, you can read the voltage much more accurately than you car on the 60 V
range. Of course,using the 300 V range is not a good choice in this case.
Related Problem Calculate the voltage acrossR2 in Figure 1-31 if the range switch
is set on 100 V.
CtRCUtTS
sEcTtoN7-4 l. What is meanl when you say a voltmeter loadsa circuit?

REVIEW 2. If a voltmeter with a 10 MQ internal resistanceis measuring the voltage across a
1.0ko resistor,should you normally be concerneduuout trr! iouoing Jr."tr
3. A certain electromagnetic-type voltmerer(voM) is set on the l2 v range to mea-
sure 2.5 v. If you switch it down to the 3 v range, will there be an increase or a
decreasein the measured voltage? what is the advantageof using the 3 v range
insteadof the l2 V rangein this situation?
4. what is the intemal resistanceof a 30,000 cyv voM on its 50 v range setting?
7-5 I LADDERNETWORKS
A resistive ladder network is a specinl type of series-parullel circuit. One
form of tadder
network is commonly used to scale down voltages to certuin weighted values
for digitsl-
to-analog conversion, a process that you witl study in unother course.
After completing this section, you shoald be able to

I Analyze ladder networks
. Determine the voltages in a three-stepladder network
. Analyze an R/2R ladder
In this section, we examine basic resistive ladder networks of limited complexity, begin-
ning with the one shown in Figure 7-38. One approachto the analysis of a ladder network
is to simplify it one step at a time, starting at the side farthest from the source.In this way,
the current in any branch or the voltage at any point can be determined, as illustrated in
Example7-16.
FIGURE7-38
Basic three-stepladiler network.
EXAMPLE 7-1 6 Determine the current through each resistor and the voltage at each labeled point with
respectto ground in the ladder network of Fieure 7-39.
FICURE7-39
LADDERNETWORKS. 233
Solution To find the current through each resistor, you must know the total current
from the source (ft). To obtain 1t, you must find the total resistance "seen" by the
source.
Determine R1 in a step-by-stepprocess, starting at the right of the circuit dia-
gram. First, notice that R5 and R6 are in seriesacrossRa. So the resistancefrom point
B to ground is
R"^ = @ - ( l o k Q x 9 . 4k Q ) = - t . g 5k e
R4+ (R, + Ro) 19.4kf2
Using R6 (the resistancefrom point B to ground), you can draw the equivalent circuit
as shown in Figure 7-40.
FICURE7-40
RB
4.85kO
Next, the resistancefrom point A to ground (Ro) is R2 in parallel with the series
combination of R3 and Ru. ResistanceRa is calculated as follows:
R 2 ( R r+ R B ) _ ( 8 . 2 k Q X 8 . 1 5k O )
R", _ = 4 . 0 9k A
R, + (R. + Ru) 16.35kO
Using Ra, you can furlher simplify the equivalent circuit of Figure 140 asshownin
Fieure7*41.
F I G U R E7 - 4 1
+
R,
45V 4.09 ko
-:l
Finally, the total resistance"seen" by the source is R1 in serieswith Ra.
Rr = Rr + RA = 1.0 kO + 4.09 kQ = 5.09 kf2

The total circuit currentis
45v
L' - Y s - =E.E4mA
Rr 5.09 kO
As indicated in Figure 1-40, Ir is into pointA and divides between R2 and the
branch containing R3 + RB. Since the branch resistancesare approximately equal in
this particular example,half the total current is through R2 and half into point B. So the
currents through R2 and R3 are
Iz= 4.42 mA
Iz = 4.42 mA
CIRCUITS
If the branch resistancesare not equal, use the current-divider formula. As indi-
'7-39,
cated in Figure h is into point B and is divided betweenRa and the branch con-
taining Rs + R6. Therefore, the currents through R+,R5, and R6 can be calculated.
/ R.+R. \ /q4ko\
L=l=L l/, = l€14.42rr.A=2.l4mA
\R4 + ( R s+ R 6)\ ' ' \ 1 9 . 4k c ) /
15= lu - 13- Ia = 4.42 mA - 2.14 mr\ = 2.28 mr{
To determine Vr, Va, and V6, apply Ohm's law.
Vt= IzRz= (4.42mAX8.2 kQ) = 36.2y

Vn = IqRq= (2.14mAXlO kQ) = 21.4y
Vc = IoRa = (2.28 mA)(4.1 kQ) = 16.7 y
Related Problem Recalculatethe currents through each resistor and the voltages at
eachpoint in Figure 1-39 if R1 is increasedto 2.2k{>.
The R/2RLadderNetwork
A basic R/2Rladder network circuit is shown in Figure 142. As you can see, the name
comes from the relationship of the resistor values (one set of resistorshas twice the value
of the others). This type of ladder network circuit is used in applications where digital
codes are convertedto speech,music, or other types of analog signals as found, for exam-
ple, in the area of digital recording and reproduction. This application area is called dig-
it aI - to-analog (D/A) conversion.
Let's examine the general operation of a basic R/2R ladder using the four-step cir-
cuit in Figure 143.In a later course in digital fundamentals,you will learn specifically
how this type of circuit is used in D/A conversion.
The switches are used in this illustration to simulate the digital (two-level) inputs.
One switch position is connectedto ground (0 V), and the other position is connectedto
a positive voltage (I4. The analysis is as follows: Starl by assuming that switch SW4 in
Figure 7-43 is at the V position and the others are at ground so that the inputs are as
shown in Figure 7-44(a).
Input 1
Input2
Input3
Input4
FIGURE7-42 FICURE7-43
A basicfour-step N2R ladder network. N2R ladder with switch inputs to simulate
a two-level (digital) code.
LADDERNETWORKS. 235
.Rl
'2R
R2 Rr ll Rz
D
ZK R
'I\3
'R
Rt R4
C
2R ' p - 1 D
.R
R6 R.
:R-
-R
(a )
R rl l R 2 + R 3
2R
R4 (Rr ll R2+ R3)ll R4
C
2R
: R5
.R
R6
B R 8 ^
: R'7
'R Rne
(a11
other
v vour TCSlSIOTS)
(c) (d) (e)
FIGURE7-44
Simpffication of N2R ladderfor a.nallsis.
The total resistancefrom point A to ground is found by first combining R1 and R2

in parallel from point D to ground to simplify the circuit as shown in Figure 714(b).
2R
RrllRz= =^
Z
Rt ll R, is in serieswith R3 from point C to ground as illustrated in part (c).
R r l lR z * R 3 = R + R = 2 R
Next, the above combination is in parallel with R4 from point C to ground as shown in
part (d).
( R l l l R 2+ R : ) l l R += 2 R l l 2 R= { =n
L
Continuing this simplification processresults in the circuit in part (e) in which the output
voltage can be expressedusing the voltage-divider formula as
vour=
(#Y=t
236 I CIRCUITS
SERIES-PARALLEL
FIGURE7-45
Simpffied ladiler with only V input at SW3 in Figure 743.
A similar analysis, except with switch SW3 in Figure 743 connectedto y and the
other switches connectedto ground, results in the simplified circuit shown in Figure 7-45.
The analysis for this caseis as follows: The resistancefrom point B to ground is
R6= (R7+ Rs)ll 2R--3Rll 2R= +

Using the voltage-divider formula, we can expressthe voltage at point B with respectto
ground as
7 n, \v_( 6Rts
\v
Va=l
1R6+ R6) \2R + 6R/5I
_( 6Rts 6 R t s \ u = /6 R \ u = 3 v
\v=(
\l0Ris+6R/s) \l6R/5/ \l6Rl 8
The outputvoltageis, therefore,
vn,.=/ R* \y" = f24\1lY\= -L

4
\R,+Rs/" \3R/\8/
Notice that the output voltage in this case(Vl4) is one half the output voltage (Vl2) for the
case where V is connectedat switch SW4.
A similar analysis for each of the remaining switch inputs in Figure 7-43 results in
output voltages as follows: For SW2 connectedto V and the other switches connectedto
ground,
tY/ O U T -
v
8
For SWI connectedto V and the other switches connectedto ground,
,v o, u r -- V
16
When more than one input at a time are connectedto V the total output is the sum
of the individual outputs. These particular relationships among the output voltages for the
various levels of inputs are very important in the application of R/2R ladder networks to
digital-to-analog conversion.
BRIDCE T 237
THEWHEATSTONE
/-J 1. Sketch a basic four-step ladder network.

, Determine the total circuit resistancepresentedto the sourceby the ladder network
of Figure 7-46.
3. What is the total current in Figure 7-46?
4. What is the current tfuough R2 in Figure 7-46?
What is the voltage at point A with respect to ground inFigtxe 746?
F I G U R E7 - 4 6
r THEWHEATSTONE
BRIDGE
Bridge circuits are wi-delyused in me&surementdevicesund other applications that
you will learn lqter. In this section, you will study the bslanced resistive bridge, which
can be used to measare anknown resistance values.

I Analyze a Wheatstone bridge
. Determine when a bridge is balanced
. Determine an unknown resistanceusing a balancedbridge
' Describe how a wheatstone bridge can be used for temperaturemeasurement
The circuit shown in Figure 7-47(a) is known as awheatstone bridge. Figure 7J7(b) is
the same circuit electrically, but it is drawn in a different way.
A bridge is said to be balancedwhen the voltage (Vour) acrossthe output terminals
A and B is zero; that is, V,q= Va. In Figure 117(b), if Va equals V6, thenVm = Vnz
becausethe top sidesof both R1 and R2connectto the samepoint. Also Vnz= Vn+because
the bottom sides of both R, and Ra connect to the same point. The voltage ratios can be
written as
Vt -Vz
v3 v4
Itt
r A B
'.1
v
FICURE7_47
Wheatstonebridge.
CIRCUITS
Substituting by Ohm's law yields
IrRt _ I2R2
IrRt IzR+
The currents cancel to give
4r=&
R3 R4
Solving for R1 yields the following formula:
n,' =n.f&\
-\R*/
This formula can be used to determine an unknown resistancein a balancedbridge.

First, make R3 a variable resistor and call it Ru. Also, set the ratio R,r/R4to a known value.
If Ry is adjusteduntil the bridge is balanced,the product of Ry and the ratio Ry'Rais eqtal
to R1, which is the unknown resistor (RuNd.
=^"1+)
RuNr '\Rol v-1)
The bridge is balanced when the voltage across the output terminals equals zero
(Ve = Vil. A galvanometer (a meter that measuressmall currents in either direction and
is zero at center scale) is connectedbetween the output terminals. Then Ru is adjusted
until the galvanometer shows zero current (Ve : Vi, indicating a balaaced condition.
The setting of Ry multiplied by the ratio R2/Ra gives the value of RuNrK.Figure 7-48
shows this arrangement.For example, if Rz/R4 = /1s and Rv = 680 Q, then Ruur =
(680 OX%o) = 68 Ct.
FIGURE7-48
Balanced. Wheatstone bridge.
EXAMPLE 7-17 What is RsNr. under the balancedbridge conditions shown inFigulie 749?
FIGURE7-49
Rv
BRIDCE I
THE WHEATSTONE 239
Solution
=^"(fr)=2soo"(#ffi)
RuNr =446a
Related Problem If Rymust be adjustedto 1.8 ko in order to balancethe bridge,
what is R,r**?
A BridgeApplication
Bridge circuits are used for many measurementsother than for determining an unknown
resistance.One application of the Wheatstonebridge is in accuratetemperaturemeasure-
ment. A temperature-sensitiveelement such as a thermistor is connectedin a Wheatstone
bridge as shown in Figure 7-50. An amplifier is connectedacrossthe output from A to B
in order to increasethe output voltage from the bridge to a usable value. The bridge is cal-
ibrated so that it is balanced at a specified reference temperature.As the temperature
changes,the resistanceof the sensing element changes proportionately, and the bridge
becomesunbalanced.As a result, Vas changesand is amplified (increased)and converted
to a form for direct temperaturereadout on a gauge or a digital-type display.
circuit for temperature measurement.

Output voltage is
converted to a
digital readout of
toN 7-6 1. Sketch a basic Wheatstonebridge circuit.

2. Under what condition is the bridge balanced?
3. What formula is used to determine the value of the unknown resistancewhen the
bridge is balanced?
4. What is the unknown resistancefor the values shown in Fisure 7-51?
F I G U R E7 - 5 1
Rz=10kO
Rv
CIRCUITS
7_7 . TROUBLESHOOTING
Troubleshootingis the processof identitying and locating a failure or problem in a
circuit. Sometroubleshootingtechniqueshavealreadybeendiscussedin relati.onto
both seriescircuits and parallel circuits. Thesemethodsare now extendedto the
series-paralleI circuits.
\fter completingthis section,you shouldbe able to
I Troubleshootseries-parallelcircuits
. Determinethe effectsof an opencircuit
. Determinethe effectsof a shortcircuit
. Locateopensand shorts
Opens and shorts are typical problems that occur in electric circuits. As mentioned in
Chapter 5, if a resistor burns out, it will normally produce an open circuit. Bad solder
connections,broken wires, and poor contacts can also be causesof open paths. Pieces of
foreign material, such as solder splashes,broken insulation on wires, and so on, can often
lead to shorts in a circuit. A short is a zero resistancepath between two points. The fot-
lowing three examplesillustrate troubleshooting in series-parallelresistive circuits.
EXAMPLE 7-18 From the indicated voltmeter reading, determine if there is a fault in Figure 7-52. If
there is afault, identify it as either a short or an open.
FIGURE7-52
solution First, determine what the voltmeter should be indicatins. Since R, and R"
are in parallel, their equivalent resistanceis
n,,=#t= @##q =3.2oke

The voltage acrossthe equivalentparallel combination is determined by the volt-
age-divider formula.
Rz-s
v.,=( \o='?10ko\ =4'22Y
\ R ,+ R 2 , / ' ( " f f i J ' Y
Thus, 4.22 v is the voltage reading that you should get on the meter. But the meter
reads 9.60 V instead.This value is incorrect, and, becauseit is higher than it should be,
R2 or R3 is probably open. why? Becauseif either of these two resistors is open, the
resistanceacrosswhich the meter is connectedis larger than expected.A higher resis-
tance will drop a higher voltage in this circuit, which is, in effect, a voltage divider.
Start by assuming that R2 is open. If it is, the voltage acrossR3 is
. =("+")* =(##)z+v
=se
v
TROUBLESHOOTINC. 241
Since the measuredvoltage is also 9.6 Y this calculation shows that the path through
R2 is open. Replace R2 with a new resistor.
Related Problem What would be the voltmeter reading if R3 were open? If R1 were
ooen?
7-19 Supposethat you measure24Y with the voltmeter in Figure 7-53. Determine if there
is a fault, and, if there is, isolate it.
Rl
3.3kO 2.2ko" 10ko

ys R, R6
24Y
..: 4.7 kQ 2.2ko.
I
I
I:
F I C U R E7 - 5 3
Solution There is no voltage drop acrossRi becauseboth sides of the resistor are at
+24Y. Either there is no current through R1 from the source, which tells you that the
path through R2 is open or R1 is shorted.
If R1 were open, the meter in Figure 7-53 would read 0 V. The most likely fail-
ure is an open path through Rz. If R2 is open, then there will be no current from the
sourceand thus no voltage is dropped acrossR1. To verify this, measureacrossR2 with
the voltmeteras shownin Figure l-54.If R2is open,the meter will indicate24Y.The
right side of R2 will be at zerc volts becausethere is no current through any of the
other resistors to causea voltage drop acrossthem.
Y S
24V
FIGURE7-54
Related Problem What would be the voltage across an open R5 in Figure 7-53,
assumins no other faults?
SERIES-PARALLEL
CIRCUITS
EXAMPTE
7_20 The two voltmeters in Figure 7-55 indicate the voltages shown. Determine if there are
any opens or shorts in the circuit and, if so, where they are located.
Rl
R3
FICURE7_55
Solution First, determine if the voltmeter readings are correct. Rr, Rz,and R3 act as
a voltage divider on the left side ofthe source.The voltage (V) acrossR3 is calculated
as follows:
' .= (=- * :)v. " = (*1,\9-\ro u = 3.67

v^ v
\ R ,+ R r + f t f \2t.6kO/
The voltmeterA readingis correct.
Now see if the voltmeter B reading is correct. The part of the circuit to the right
of the source also acts as a voltage divider. The series-parallelcombination of R5, R6,
and R7 is in serieswith Ro. The equivalentresistanceof the R5,R6, and R7 combination
is calculated as
Rs'o-t=*Hffi =6'32kdt
where R5 is in parallel with R6 and R7 in series.R5-6-7and Ra form a voltage divider.
voltmeter B is measuring the voltage acrossR5-6-7.Is it correct? check as follows:
,, =(=!i*-)u, =1,u,11
!t )rou = r3.8v
\Ro+Rr_6_7/" \llkO/
Thus, the actual measured voltage (6.65 v) at this point is incorrect. Some further
thought will help to isolate the problem.
Resistor Ra is not open, becauseif it were, the meter would read 0 V. If there
were a short acrossit, the meter would read 24 V. Since the actual voltage is much less
than it should be, R5-6-7must be less than the calculated value of 6.32 kQ. The most
likely problem is a short acrossR7. If there is a short from the top of R7 to ground, R6
is effectively in parallel with R5. In this case,R5_6is
or-u= i45 = {1! 3Q)9r toi 1'80ka

Rs + R6 12.2,li-:=:!:
Then V6 is
Rs-e \"
vu=l = (ffi,)24Y
(",. ^,--;/%
/l'8ot'ot = 6'6sv
This value for vs agrees with the voltmeter B reading. So there is a short across R7.
If this were an actual circuit, you would try to find the physical causeof the short.
Related Problem If R2 in Figure 7-55 were shorted instead of R7, what would volt-
meter A read?What would voltmeter B read?
TECHNOLOCY
THEORYINTO PRACTICE. 243
l. Name two types of common circuit faults.

2. In Figure 1-56, one of the resistorsin the circuit is open. Based on the meter read-
ing, determinewhich is the open resistor.
FICURE7-56
ys
12v
3. For the following faults in Figure '1-5i, what voltage would be measured
point A with respectto ground?
(a) No faults (b) R1 open (c) Short acrossR5 (d) R: and Ra open
(e) R2 open
F I C U R E7 _ 5 7
I TECHnology
Theory Into Practice
A voltage divider with three output voltages has been designed und constructed on a
PC board. The voltage divider is to be used us part of a portable power supply unit
for
supplying up to three dffirent reference voltages to measuring instruments in the
field. The power supply unit contains a battery pack combined with a voltage regula-
tor that produces & constsnt +12 V to the voltage-divider circuit bosrd. In this assign-
ment, you will apply your knowledge of loaded voltage dividers, Kirchhoff\ lnws, and
ohm's law to determine the operating parameters of the voltage divi.der in terms of
voltages and currents for all possible load configurations. You will also troubleshoot
the circuit for various malfunctions.
The Schematicof the VoltageDivider

r Draw the schematic and label the resistor values for the circuit board in Fisure 7-58.
The 12V PowerSupply

r Specify how to connect a I2Y power supply to the circuit board so that all resistors
are in seriesand pin 2 has the highest output voltage.
CIRCUITS
FIGURE7-58
Voltage-d.ividercircuit board.
The UnloadedOutputVoltages
r Calculate each of the output voltages with no loads connected.Add these voltage val-
ues to a copy of the table in Figure 7-59.
The LoadedOutput Voltages

The instruments to be connectedto the voltage divider each have a 10 MQ input resis-
taace. This means that when an instrument is connectedto a voltage-divider output there
is effectively a 10 MO resistor from that output to ground (negative side of source).
r Determine the output voltage acrossthe load for each of the following load configura-
tions and add these voltage values to a copy of the table in Figure 7-59.
1. A 10 MQ load connectedfrom pin 2 to ground.

2. A l0 MQ load connectedfrom pin 3 to ground.
FICURE7_59
Thble of operatingparametersfor 10 MO I-oad I/
vorrT (2) votn(r, vorn (+) % Deviation Loeo(4 ILoel rr) lromr+r:
the power supply vohagedividen
None
Pin 2 to ground
Pin 3 to ground
Pin 4 to ground
Pin 2 to eround 2
.lin 3 to ground. 3
Pin 2 to ground 2
Pin 4 to ground 4
Pin 3 to grouud 3
Pin4 to ground A
Pin 2 to ground 2
Pin J to ground J
Pin 4 to groUnd +
THEORYINTO PRACTICE.
TECHNOLOCY 245
3. A 10 MO load connectedfrom pin 4 to ground.

4. A 10 Mfl load connected from pin 2 to ground and another 10 MO load from
pin 3 to ground.
5. A 10 MQ load connectedfrom pin 2 to ground and another 10 MA load from pin
4 to ground.
6. A 10 Mf2 load connectedfrom pin 3 to ground and another 10 MO load from pin
4 to ground.
7. A 10 MQ load connectedfrom pin 2 to ground, another from pin 3 to ground, and
a third from pin 4 to ground.
PercentDeviationof the Output Voltages

I Calculate how much each loaded output voltage deviates from its unloaded value for
each ofthe load configurations listed above and expresseach as a percentageusing the
following formula:
- Voutrtoaaeor
Vourtu'lqaa"or
Percentdeviation- ( )tOOt,
\ Vorrt(unloaded) l
Add the values to a copy of the table of Figure 7-59.
The LoadCurrents
r Calculate the current to each 10 MO load for each of the load confisurations listed
above.Add these values to a copy of the table in Figure 7-59.
Troubleshooting
The voltage-divider circuit board is connectedto a 12 V power supply and to the three
instruments to which it provides referencevoltages, as shown in Figure 7-60. Voltages at
each of the numbered test points are measuredwith a voltmeter in each of eight different
cases.
r For each case in Figure 7-60, determine the fault indicated by the voltage measure-
ments.
CIRCUITS
To instrument 1
To instrument 2
To instrument 3
+12V
The following voltmeter readings are taken at test points 1 through 6

with respect to ground. The readings are in volts.
O 6\
I
(J,,
@ o @ @
Case 1
lrb lxt lil}
L# ."m
|- '-'1 f r - r t T--h
|ru | r H I r J [ ..w
I I-ltr
.ffiXH
l-o
ffi
Case 2 k l-- r_rh f- rrb T r-rk
f n hr_tn f l r |-|x
I
. . d L d | I L t [ -.m
I tjt I r-tH
'wffif,nil ..M
f nh Tr-r-rkf l-'k l- '-&

ffi
Case 3
ffi
t _ t H I.rd L r n I r-rH
I- f f i ' - ErfJi H I ...@
ffi
Case 4 fEht-ru T r-rk
l | - | nffi
t(tt:F I r - tI
lr I r-rl
I | | rI
L M . M '@f .ffi
Case 5
TFbIir.=rb
.M ERffi...m
I L r n ffi
l- nh f rrh
I.d L l n .".m
Case 6
uFh[rt E=hnr - r k
L d
ffi...@
| | | _ r i l I..rd r-t$
.M
m
Case 7
t|Fht'=.-=lh
ffi
[,Ih
Ld..d
l- rrl
I tlt
f
I
_ffi
lrh
Lrr
ffi
Case 8
FICURE7-60
mFLlhFEI r u- M
f- '-'h T - r r k
| 'rt | iln
...m ..M
ffi
sEcTtoN7-8 1. Ifthe portable unit coveredin this sectionis to supply referencevoltages to all three
REVIEW instruments,how many days can a 100 mAh batterybe usedas the power supply?
) Can VeW resistors be used on the voltage-divider board?
3. If 7sW resistorsare used,will an output shortedto ground causeany ofthe resis-
tors to overheatdue to excessivepower?
. 247
SELF-TEST
r A series-parallelcircuit is a combination ofboth series paths and parallel paths.

I To determine total resistance in a series-parallel circuit, identify the series and parallel relation-
ships, and then apply the formulas for series resistance and parallel resistance from Chapters 5
and 6.
I To find the total cunent, apply Ohm's law and divide the total voltage by the total resistance.
r To determine branch currents, apply the current-divider formula, Kirchhoff's current law, or
Ohm's law. Consider each circuit problem individually to determine the most appropriate
method.
r To determine voltage drops acrossany portion of a series-parallelcircuit, use the voltage-divider
formula, Kirchhoff's voltage law, or Ohm's law. Consider each circuit problem individually to
determine the most appropriate method.
r When a load resistor is connected acrossa voltage-divider output, the output voltage decreases.
r The load resistor should be large comparedto the resistanceacrosswhich it is connected,in order
that the loading effect may be minimized.
r To find total resistance of a ladder network, start at the point farthest from the source and reduce
the resistancein steps.
I A Wheatstonebridge can be used to measurean unknown resistance.
I A bridge is balanced when the output voltage is zero. The balanced condition produces zero cur-
rent through a load connected acrossthe output terminals of the bridge.
r Open circuits and short circuits are typical circuit faults.
r Resistors normally open when they burn out.
GLOSSARY These terms are also in the end-of-book glossary.
Bleeder current The current left after the total load current is subtracted from the total current
into the circuit.
Load An element (resistor or other component) connectedacrossthe output terminals of a circuit
that draws current from the circuit.
Sensitivity factor The ohms-per-volt rating of an electromagnetic voltmeter.
FORMUTA (7-r\ RuNr = ^,(*) Unknown resistancein a Wheatstonebridse
l. Which of the following statementsare true concerning Figve 747?

SEtF.TEST
(a) R1 and R2 are in series with R3, Ra, and R5
(b) R1 and R2 are in series
(c) R3. R4, and R5 are in parallel
(d) The series combination of R1 and R2 is in parallel with the series combination of R3, Ra,
and R5
(e) answers (b) and (d)
FIGURE7-61
CIRCUITS
2, Tl'rc total resistanceof Fisure 7-61 can be found with which of the followins formulas?
(a)R1+R2+R3llR+llRs (b) Rr ll R2+ R3llR+ll Rs
(c) (R1 + R) ll (Rs + R4 + Rs) (d) none of these answers
3. If all of the resistors in Figure 7-67 have the same value, when voltage is applied acrosster-
minals A and B, the current is
(a) greatestin R5 (b) greatestin R3, Ra, and R5
(c) greatestin R1 and R2 (d) the same in all the resistors
4. Two 1.0 kC) resistors are in series and this series combination is in parallel with a2.2k{l
resistor. The voltage across one of the 1.0 kQ resistors is 6 V. The voltage across the 2.2 kO
resistor is
(a) 6 V (b) 3 V (c) 12 V (d) 13.2V
The parallel combination of a 330 O resistor and a 470 O resistor is in series with the parallel
combination of four 1.0 kCl resistors.A 100 V sourceis connectedacrossthe circuit. The resis-
tor with the most current has a value of
(a) 1.0 kA G) 330 C, (c\ 470 A
6. In the circuit described in Question 5, the resistor(s) with the most voltage has (have) a
value of
(a) 1.0 ka (b) 470 O (c) 330 a
,f
In the circuit of Question 5, the percentageof the total current through any single 1.0 kO resis-
tor is
(a) 10OVo (b) 25Vo (c) 50Vo (d) 3l.3Vo
8. The output of a certain voltage divider is 9 V with no load. When a load is connected,the ou!
put voltage
(a) increases (b) decreases
(c) remains the same (d) becomes zero
9. A certain voltage divider consistsof two 10 kQ resistorsin series.Which of the following load
resistors will have the most effect on the output voltage?
(a) 1.0 Ma (b) 20 kO (c) 100 kA (d) 10 kO
10. When a load resistanceis connectedto the output of a voltage-divider circuit, the current drawn
from the source
(a) decreases (b) increases (c) remains the same (d) is cut off
1 1 . In a ladder network, simplification should begin at
(a) the source (b) the resistor farthest from the source
(c) the center (d) the resistor closest to the source
12. In a certain four-step R/2R ladder network, the smallest resistor value is 10 kO. The largest
value is
(a) indeterminable (b) 20 kO (c) 50 kA (d) 100 kC)
13. The output voltage of a balancedWheatstone bridge is
(a) equal to the source voltage
(b) equal to zero
(c) dependenton all of the resistor values in the bridge
(d) dependenton the value ofthe unknown resistor
t4. A certain Wheatstone bridge has the following resistor values: Ry = 8 kQ, Rz = 680 Q, and
Rq = 2.2 kO. The unknown resistanceis
(a) 2473 A (b) 2s.9 kO (c) 187 A (d) 2890 O
15. You are measuring the voltage at a given point in a circuit that has very high resistance values
and the measuredvoltage is a little lower than it should be. This is possibly becauseof
(a) one or more ofthe resistancevalues being off
(b) the loading effect of the voltmeter
(c) the source voltage is too low
(d) all the above
PROBLEMSA 249
PROBTEMS More dfficult problems are indicated by an asterisk (*).
SECTION7-1 ldentifyingSeries-Parallel
Relationships
1. Visualize and sketch the following series-parallelcombinations:
(a) R1 in series with the parallel combination of R2 and R3
(b) R1 in parallel with the series combination of R2 and R3
(c) R1 in parallel with a branch containing R2 in series with a parallel combination of four
other resistors
2. Visualize and sketch the following series-parallelcircuits:
(a) A parallel combination oftlree branches,each containing two series resistors
(b) A series combination of three parallel circuits, each containing two resistors
3. In each circuit of Figrne 7-62, identify the series and parallel relationships of the resistors
viewed from the source.
Rl
R3 1.0ko
100ct
R^
180 f,)
(b)
(c,
4. For each circuit in Figure 7-63, identify the series and parallel relationships of the resistors
viewed from the source.
1.0ko
R1
1.0ko
R2 l-
4.7ka 1.8ko 6.8kO

CIRCUITS
FIGURE7-64
Draw the schematic ofthe PC board layout in Figure 7-64 showing resistor values and iden-
tiff the series-parallel relationships.
*6. Develop a schematic for the double-sided PC board in Figure 7-65 and label the resistor
values.
Side 2
*7. Lay out a PC board for the circuit in Figure 7-63(c). The battery is to be connected external
to the board.
SECTION7-2 Analysisof Series-Parallel

Circuits
8. A certain circuit is composed of two parallel resistors. The total resistanceis 667 Ct. One of
the resistors is 1.0 kQ. What is the other resistor?
9. For each circuit in Figwe1-62, determine the total resistancepresentedto the source.
10. Repeat Problem 9 for each circuit in Figure 7-63.
11. Determine the current through each resistor in each circuit in FigreT-62; then calculate each
voltage drop.
12. Determine the current through each resistor in each circuit in Figure 7-63; then calculate each
voltage drop.
PROBLEMS. 251
13. Find R1 for all combinations of the switches in Fizure 7-66.
F I G U R E7 - 6 6
R3
2.2ko,
F
sw2(NOPB)
14. Determine the resistancebetween A and B in Figure 7-67 with the source removed.
15. Determine the voltage at each point with respect to ground inFigve 7_67.
16. Determine the voltage at each point with respect to ground in Figure 7-6g.
17. In Figure 7-68, how would you determine the voltage acrossR2 by measuring without con-
necting a meter directly acrossthe resistor?
4.7k{L
R4
1.0Mo
5.6kO R2
(,_ R s
100v t- 1.0MO
1.0ko R6
50v
100ko
1.0ko
FIGURE 7-67 FIGURE7-68
18. Determine the voltage, V*, inFigure 749.

19. Find the value ofR2 in Figure 7-70.
3300
R3 R6
4'70A 1.5kO
vs
100v
R4
560O p^
__a
FIGURE7-69 FIGURE7-70
CIRCUITS
F I G U R E7 - 7 1
1.0ko 2.2k4 1.0ko 2.2k4
*20. Find the resistancebetween point A and each of the other points (Rs, Rrc, Rm, Rau,R7', and
Ra6) in Figure 7-71.
*2L. Find the resistance between each of the following sets of points in Figure 7-:72: AB, BC,
and CD.
*22. Determine the value of each resistor in Fieure 7-73.
A P=20W P= 2 W
R1
3.3ko
4AI
t R,' l
1Al
R2 I Y
-1.-l ko
Rr = 3.3kO
40J R^
---14/!- bB
1A
3.3kO
FIGURE7-72 F I G U R E7 - 7 3
SECTION7-3 VoltageDividerswith ResistiveLoads

23. A voltage divider consists of two 56 k(l resistors and a 15 V source. Calculate the unloaded
output voltage. What will the output voltage be if a load resistor of 1.0 MQ is connectedto
the output?
24. A 12 V battery output is divided down to obtain two output voltages. Three 3.3 kC) resistors
are used to provide the two taps. Determine the output voltages. Ifa 10 kC, load is connected
to the higher of the two outputs, what will its loaded value be?
25. Which will cause a smaller decreasein output voltage for a given voltage divider, a 10 kO
load or a 47 kQ load?
26. In Figure 7--'74,determlnethe continuous current drain on the battery with no load acrossthe
output terminals. With a l0 kO load, what is the battery current?
FIGURE7_74
Rl
10ko
22Y
PROBLEMS r 253
*27, Determine the resistancevalues for a voltage divider that must meet the following speciflca,
tions: The current drain under unloaded condition is not to exceed 5 mA. The source voltage
is to be 10 V and the required outputs are to be 5 V and 2.5 V. Sketch the circuit. Determine
the effect on the output voltages if a 1.0 kQ load is connected to each tap one at a time.
28. The voltage divider in FigureT-75 has a switched load. Determine the voltage at each tap (V,,
V2, and V3) for each position of the switch.
F I G U R E7 - 7 5
RL
68 kO
*29. Figure 7-76 shows a dc biasing arrangementfor a field-effect transistor amplifier. Biasing is
a common method for setting up certain dc voltage levels required for proper amplifier oper-
ation. Although you are not expectedto be familiar with transistor amplifiers at this point, the
dc voltages and currents in the circuit can be determined using methods that you already
know.
(a) Find V6 and V5 (b) Determine Iy 12,Ie, and \ (c) Find Vps and Vp6
F I C U R E7 - 7 6
L
|,D
v
R1
2.2Mo,
YD
Field-effect
ffansistor symbol
1o= Is
x30. Design a voltage divider to provide a 6 V output with no load and a minimum of 5.5 V across
a 1.0 kO load. The source voltase is24Y. and the unloaded current drain is not to exceed
100 mA.
CIRCUITS
SECTION7-4 LoadingEffectof a Voltmeter

31. On which one of the following voltage range settings will a voltmeter present the minimum
load on a circuit?
(a) lV (b) 10V (c) 100V (d) 1000V
32. Determine the intemal resistance of a 20,000 C)/V voltmeter on each of the following range
settings.
(a)0.5V (b)lV (c)5V (d)50V (e)100V (f)1000V
33. The voltmeter described in Problem 32 is used to measure the voltage across Ra in Figure
742h\.
(a) What range should be used?
(b) How much less is the voltage measuredby the meter than the actual voltage?
34. Repeat Problem 33 if the voltmeter is used to measurethe voltage acrossRa in the circuit of
Figtre 7-62@).
SECTION7-5 ladder Networks

35. For the circuit shown in Figure 7-:71, calculate the following:
(a) Total resistanceacrossthe source (b) Total current from the source
(c) Cunent through the 910 C) resistor (d) Voltage from point A to point B
36. Determine the total resistance and the voltage at points A, B, and C in the ladder network of
Figure 7-78.
18V
TICURE 7.77 FICURE 7-78
*37. Determine the total resistance between terminals A and B of the ladder network in Fieure
7-79. Also calculate the current in each branch with 10 V between A and B.
38. What is the voltage acrosseach resistor in Fieure "l-79 with 10 V between A and B?
1., 22oa
Y
|4
Y
looo
B
I^f
100f,) 100c)
FIGURE 7-79
*39. Find ft and Vex"1in Figure 7-80.

P R O B L E M Sr 255
RI R5 Re
V Y V vvv
47o, 22o' 12a
R2 R6 Rro vour
Ala llA
47o. 224 t2a

R3 R^ R" Rs Rrr Rrz
21 A 2 7a 18c) 18f,) DA na
tr/s
30v
I
40. Determine V66 for the Rl2R ladder network in Figure 7-81 for the following conditions:
(a) Switch SW2 connectedto +12 V and the others connectedto ground
ft) Switch SWl connectedto +12 V and the others connectedto ground
F I G U R E7 - 8 1
sw1 24ko
R4
41. RepeatProblem40 for the following conditions:

(a) SW3 andSW4 to +12 Y SW1 andSW2 to ground
(b) SW3 andSWI to +12 Y SW2 and SW4 to ground
(c) All switchesto +12 V
SECTION 7-6 The Wheatstone Bridge

42. A resistorof unknownvalueis comectedto a Wheatstonebridgecircuit.The bridgeparame-
tersaresetas follows:Rv : 18 kC)and RzlR4= 0.02.What is R6q1?
43. A bridgenetworkis shownin Figure7-82. To whatvaluemustRu be setin orderto balance
the bridge?
FIGURE7-82
CIRCUITS
*44. The temperature-sensitivebridge circuit in Figure 7-50 is used to detect when the
ture in a chemical manufacturing process reaches 100'C. The resistance of the
drops from 5 kQ at a nominal 20oC to 100 O at 100"C. If Rr = 1.0 kQ and Rz = 2.2 kQ, n
what value must Ra be set to produce a balancedbridge when the temperaturereaches 100-C?
SECTION7-7 Troubleshooting
45. Is the voltmeter reading in Figure 7-83 correct?
46. Are the meter readings in Figure 7-84 correct?
YS
t2Y
FICURE7-83 FIGURE 7-84
47. There is one fault in Figure 7-85. Based on the meter indications, determine what the fault is.
48. Look at the meters in Fieure 7-86 and determine if there is a fault in the circuit. If there is a
fault, identify it.
FIGURE 7.85 R^
Ys
5V
FIGURE7_86
o -l Ys
.1,-^ :150V
ANSWERSTO SECTION REVIEWS I 257
49. Check the meter readings in Figure 7-87 and locate any fault that may exist.
50. If R2 in Figure 7-88 opens, what voltages will be read at points A, B, and C?
15V
c r.i lbr
7-87 FICURE
7-BB
EWBTroubleshooting
and Analysis
Theseproblems require your EWB compact disk.
51. Open file PRO07-51.EWB and measurethe total resistance.
52. Open file PRO07-52.EWB. Determine by measurementif there is an open resistor and, if so,
which one.
53. Open file PRO07-53.EWB and determine the unspecified resistancevalue.
54. Open file PRO07-54.EWB and determine how much the load resistance affects each of the
resistor voltages.
55. Open file PRO07-55.EWB and flnd the shorted resistor, if there is one.
56. Open file PRO07-56.EWB and adjust the value of R" until the bridge is approximately bal-
anced.
WERS Section7-1
SECTION 1. A series-parallelresistive circuit is a circuit consisting of both series and parallel connections.
EWS 2. See Figure 7-89.
3. ResistorsR1 and R2 are in series with the parallel combination of R3 and Ra.
4. R3, R4,and R5 are in parallel. Also the series-parallelcombination R2 + (R3 ll R+ ll Rs) is in par-
allel with R1.
5, ResistorsR1 and R2 are in parallel; R3 and Ra are in parallel.
6. Yes. the oarallel combinations are in series.
F I C U R E7 - 8 9
Section 7-2
1. Voltage-divider and current-divider formulas, Kirchhoff's laws, and Ohm's law can be used in
series-parallelanalysis.
2. h = Rt + Rzll R3 + R4 = 608 A
3. \= [R2/(R2 + R3)]1r= 11.1mA
4. V2 = I2Rt = 3.65 Y
5 . R r = 4 ' 7Q + 2 ' 7 Q + Q 7 A + n A ) 1 1 4 7A = 9 9 . 1 C , I; r = 1 Y / 9 9 . 1 O = 1 0 . 1 m A
CIRCUtTS
Section7-3
1. The load resistor decreasesthe output voltage.
2. True
= (100 kQll47 kO)30 V = 20.4Y; Vourcoaaea)
3. Vonr(u,roud"6; = (9.1 kO/56.1 kA)30 V = 4.g7 y
Section7-4
1. A voltmeter loads a circuit becausethe internal resistanceof the meter appearsin parallel with
the circuit resistance across which it is connected, reducing the resistance between those two
points of the circuit and drawing current from the circuit.
2. No, becausethe meter resistanceis much larger than 1.0 kO.
3. There is a decreasein measured voltage because Ry is smaller. You can read the scale more
accurately on the 3 V range.
4. RM = (30,000O/V)5 V = 1.5 MA
Section7-5
l. SeeFigure7-90.
2. Rr= l1.6kQ
3. 1, = 16V/I1.6 k(.2= 859pA
4. Ir=649 rg
5. Vo=1.41Y
FICURE7-90
Section7-6
1. See Figure 7-91.
2. The bridge is balanced when Vn= I/u.
3. RttNr = Ry(R2/Ra)
4. RuNr = 15 kA
FIGURE7-91
Section7-7
1. Common circuit faults are opens and shorts.
2. The l0 kO resisror(R3)is open.
3. (a) yA = 55 V (b) V, = 55 y (c) Vo= 54.2y (d) Y, = 166Y ( e )V r = g Y
Section7-8
1. Thebatterywill last386days.
2. Yes,%W resistors canbeused.
3. No, none of the resistors will overheat.
ANSWERSTO SELF-TESTt 259
7-l The new resistor is in parallel with Ro + R, ll R..

TED 7-2 The resistor has no effect becauseit is shorted.
EMS 7:3 The new resistor is in parallel with Rr.
74 A to gnd: Rr = R+ + R3 ll (Rr + R2)
B to gnd: Rr = R+ + R2 ll (R1 + R3)
C to gnd:Rr = R+
t-3 R3andR6arein series.
7-6 5 5 . 1Q
128.3Q
7-t 238m4
7-9 L = 35.7mA; 13= 23.4mA
7-to ve = 44.8Y;V, = 35.2y
7-tt 2.04Y
7-t2 Vep=5.48Y;Vu"= 1.66Y;V6p= 0.86V
7-L3 3 . 3 9V
7-14 5.48V
7-15 5 . 3 4V
7-16 L = 7.16mA; I, = 3.57mA; Iz = 3.57rnA; 1a= 1.14mA;Is = 1.85mA;16= 1.85mA;
Ve = 29.3Y; Vu= l7 .4 Y; V6 = 8.70V
7-17 321 O
7-18 5.73V; 0 V
7-19 9.46V
7-20 V e = 1 2V ; V u= 1 3 . 3Y
1. (e) 2.(c) 3. (c) 4. (c) s.o) 6. ( a ) 7.(b) 8. (b)

SELF.TEST (d)
e. 10. (b) 11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (b) t4. (a) ls. (d)

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r INTRODUCTION

In Chapters 5 and 6, seriescircuits and parallel cir-

7_1 T IDENTIFYING RELATIONSHIPS

Figure 7-1(a) shows an example of a simple series-parallel combination of reslstors.

When the circuit of Figure 7-l(a) is connectedto a voltagesourceas shown in Fig-

In Figure 7-3(a), R5 is connected in series with R2. The series combination of R2

In Figure 71(a), R6 is connectedin parallel with the series combination of R1 and

In summary,R1 and Ra are in series with the parallel combination of R2 and R3

EXAMPLE7-2 Identify the series-parallelrelationships in Figure 1-7.

Solution Sometimes it is easier to see a particular circuit arrangementif it is drawn

Describe the series-parallelcombination between points A and D in Figure 7-9.

R1 + R6ll (Rs+ (R+ll (Rz+ R:)))

R,ll (R, + Rr)

TION7-1 1. Define series-parallel resistive circuit.

Describe the parallel a.rrangements

EXAMPLE7-6 Determine R1 of the circuit in Figure 7-16 between points A and B.

Related Problem Determine R1 in Figure 7-16 if h is changedto 82 Q.

Solution In the upper branch, R2 is in serieswith R3. This seriescombination is des-

Figure7-18 shows the original circuit in a simplified equivalent form.

Rr = Rr * Rts = 100 O + 48.4O= 148.4O

Related Prohlem Determine R1 if a 68 Q resistor is added in parallel from point A

Solution First,you needto know how muchcunentis into thejunction (pointA) of

R' \/- - / 3'3ko\s.+s-a = 5.6emA

Related Problem A 4.7 kQ resistor is connectedin parallel with R. in Figure 7-19.

Use the cuffent-;der fbrmula to calculate 1,.

,^= (=!:=)r, = f*=)o: -o = 34.5mA

V1= IlRy = (688 pA)(1.0 kO; = 633 -Y

Determine the voltage drop acrosseach resistor in Figwe 7-24.

Since Ra is in parallel with the seriescombination of R5 and R6 between points C and

Refer to Figure l-24. VABequals the voltage acrossboth R1 and R2, so

v,' = (=i"=)v., ' " = (*9)t.t3 - V = 7r8mv

FIGURE7-26 F'CURE 7-27

After completing this section, you should be able to

(b) R; not significantly greater than R2 (c) Rl much greater than R2

RzllRr=of*; =gbuq =5ke

With the 100 kO load, the resistancefrom output to ground is

The smaller value of R, causesa greater reduction in v61ry (3.40 v - 2.5g v =

Solution A circuit as shown in Figure 1-32is required. In order to have an unloaded

To get exactly l2Y,

Rnez= R2 + REel = 6.2kQ + 5.84 kQ = 12.0 kf)

= =&rRs=qz- (100koxl2:Oko) = 10.7ke

u""=(&H;;)" =(ffi)z+v =11'3

After completing this section, you should be uble to

Why a VoltmeterCan Loada Circuit

resistanceis also typically at least l0 MO. The digital voltmeter

Solution The unloaded voltage acrossR2 in the voltage-divider circuit is

vo,=(=!l)u = /**9)'s u = s.36

= / f' ll? ) =l]g|.?l#@

The actual voltage measuredis

The actual voltage measuredis

,-" _ ( RzllRu \v = / 9.qsto \rs v = s.3sv

sEcTtoN7-4 l. What is meanl when you say a voltmeter loadsa circuit?

After completing this section, you shoald be able to

Rr = Rr + RA = 1.0 kO + 4.09 kQ = 5.09 kf2

To determine Vr, Va, and V6, apply Ohm's law.

Vt= IzRz= (4.42mAX8.2 kQ) = 36.2y

(c) (d) (e)

The total resistancefrom point A to ground is found by first combining R1 and R2

R6= (R7+ Rs)ll 2R--3Rll 2R= +

vn,.=/ R* \y" = f24\1lY\= -L

/-J 1. Sketch a basic four-step ladder network.

After completing this section, you should be able to

Substituting by Ohm's law yields