The Kinds and Types of Variables, And Level of Measurement

Variable

• Any factor that can change in a scientific investigation or Interval scale

experiment
- is a numeric scale in which the number are assigned to the objects
• Is a characteristic, number or quantity, that increase over in which a way that numerically equal distance on the scale represents
time, or takes different values in different situation the equal distance between the characteristics of the objects being
measured.
Types of variable
Ratio scale
• Continuous variable
- is the highest-level scale that allows the researcher to classify or
- are ones that have an infinite or uncountable number of
identify the objects, rank-order the objects and compare the interval
possible outcomes.
or differences.
- is a variable whose value is obtained by measuring
Kinds of variable
This variable can be categorized into either:
• Independent variable
 internal
- also known as manipulative variable
 ratio
- are those that the researcher has control over. This “control” may
 Discrete variable involve manipulating existing variable or introducing new variable in
the research setting.
- are ones that have a finite or countable number of possible
outcomes. • Dependent variable

- is variable whose value is obtained by counting - also known as responding variable

This variable can be categorized into either: - it shows the effect of manipulating or independent variable.

 nominal • Intervening variable

 Ordinal - refers to abstract processes that are not directly observable but that
link the independent and dependent variable.
Level of measurement
• Moderate variable
Nominal scale
- affect the relationship between the independent and dependent
- is a measurement scale, in which numbers sere as “tags” or “labels”
variables by modifying the effect of the intervening variables.
only, to identify o classify an object
- moderator variables are measured and taken into consideration.
- normally deals only with non-numeric variables or where numbers
have no value.  Control variable

Ordinal scale - also known as constant variable

- is the 2nd level of measurement that reports the ranking and ordering
of the data without actually establishing the degree of variation
between them.
- is a scale that uses labels to classify cases into ordered classes.
- is one which the researcher holds constant during an experiment.
 Extraneous variable - are those factors in the research
environment which may have an effect on the dependent
variables but which are not controlled
- extraneous variable are dangerous, they may damage a study’s
validity.
Types of extraneous variables
• Demand characteristics
• Experimenter/investigator effects
• Participant variables
• Situational variable
- Demand characteristics. Environmental clues which tell the
participant how to behave, like features in the surrounding
or researcher’s non-verbal behavior.
- Experimenter / investigator effects. Where the researcher
unintentionally affects the outcome by giving clues to the
participants about how they should behave.
- Participant variables. Like prior knowledge, health status or
any other individual characteristic that could affect the
outcome.
- Situational variables. Like noise, lighting or temperature in
the environment.
Nature and Inquiry of Quantitative Research and It’s Characteristics
Quantitative Research
Quantitative Research is an objective, systematic empirical
investigation of observable phenomena through the use of
computational techniques.
According to Huysamen (1997), "descriptions of quantitative research
typically discern a cycle of successive phases of hypothesis formulation,
data collection, analysis and interpretation.
Gay & Airasian (1999) Using a deductive approach, quantitative
research seeks to establish facts, make predictions, and test hypotheses
that have already been stated. A large part of the data analysis of
quantitative research is statistical, striving to show that the world can
be looked at in terms of one reality; this reality, when isolated in
context, can be measured and understood, a perspective known as
positivism.
Quantitative as Inquiry
Quantitative research is basically a hypothesis testing process. Based
on some theoretical foundations, hypotheses are formulated.
INQUIRY - a term synonymous with ‘investigation’. When we inquire
or investigate, we tend to ask questions to probe or examine
something. This examination is done through our HOTS (Higher-Order
Thinking Strategies), such as skills on inferential, analytical, critical,
creative, and appreciative thinking. The use of our HOTS leads to our
deeper understanding about the area of inquiry (topic).
Gall, Borg and Gall (1996) described the quantitative research as the
inquiry " that is grounded in the assumption that features of the social
environment constitute and objective reality that is relatively
constant across time and settings. The dominant methodology is to
describe and explain features of this reality by collecting numerical
data on observable behaviours of samples and by subjecting these
data to statistical analysis.
The major process of conducting a quantitative research is as follows:
1. Identify the Research Problem
2. Review of Research problem
3. State Research Questions and Hypotheses
4. Plan Research Design - whom to study, i.e. sampling and
human subject concerns; how study, i.e. instrumentation,
data collection, and data analysis.
5. Implementation of Research Study
6. Presentation and Explanation of Results
Characteristics of Quantitative Research
OBJECTIVE
 Seeks accurate measurement and analysis of target
concepts.
 It is not based on mere intuitions and guesses.
CLEARLY DEFINED RESEARCH QUESTIONS
 Researchers must know in advanced what they are looking
for.
 Research questions are well-defined for which objective
answers are sought.
STRUCTURED RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
 Tools (e.g. questionnaires) are being used to collect
measurable characteristics of population like age, socio-
economic status, number of children, etc.
NUMERICAL DATA  Numerical data can be quickly analyzed - By employing
statistically valid random models, finding can be
 Data are usually in the form of numbers. generalized to the population.

 Real and Unbiased - If the research is properly designed it

 These data can be presented using tables, charts, graphs
filters out external factors, and so can be seen as real and
and figures that consolidate large numbers to show trends, unbiased.
relationships or differences among variables.
 Quantitative researches are replicable - Standardized
approaches allow the study to be replicated in different
LARGE SAMPLE SIZE
areas or over time with the formulation of comparable
findings.
 To arrive at a more
 Quantitative experiments are useful for testing the result
 reliable data analysis, a normal population distribution
 Less time consuming
curve is preferred.
 Useful in large number of people
 “Random Sampling” is recommended in determining the
Weaknesses of Quantitative Research
sample size to researcher’s bias in interpreting the results.
 It requires large numbers of respondents - Quantitative
REPLICATION researches need large number of respondents because it is
assumed that the larger the sample is, the more
 Reliable studies can be repeated to verify or confirm statistically accurate the finding are.

correctness of results in another setting.  It is costly - Due to the need of having more respondents,
the expenses will be greater in reaching these people and
FUTURE OUTCOMES reproducing the questionnaires.

 Contextual factors are usually ignored - It does not

 If-then scenarios may be formulated thus predicting future.
consider the distinct capacity of the respondents to share
and elaborate further information.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Quantitative Research
 Many information are difficult to gather using structured
Difference of Quantitative to Qualitative research
research instruments/ tools
Quantitative Research
 If not done seriously, data from tools may be incomplete
 Theory testing and inaccurate

 Describing a research problem through description of  The respondents can easily skip the questions
trends or need for an explanation
 Contextual factors are usually ignored
 Collecting numeric data from a large number of people
 The respondents can easily skip the questions
using instruments with preset question and responses

 Using statistical techniques to make sense of the data

The Kinds of Quantitative Research And Its Importance Across
coming from a large number of people
Fields
Qualitative Research
What is Quantitative Research?
 Theory building
- Quantitative research is defined as the systematic
 Exploring a problem and developing a detailed investigation of phenomena by gathering quantifiable data and
understanding of a central phenomenon performing statistical, mathematical or computational techniques. It
measures the magnitude, size, extent of the phenomenon.
 Collecting the data based on words from a small number
of individuals so that the participants’ views are obtained

 Content analysis NON-EXPERIMENTAL

Strengths of Quantitative Research - this type of research lacks the manipulation of an

independent variable.
 It uses statistical techniques - It facilitates sophisticated
analyses and allows us to comprehend a huge amount of Kinds of NON-EXPERIMENTAL in quantitative research
vital characteristics of data.
DESCRIPTIVE - Descriptive research is defined as a research method
that describes the characteristics of the population or phenomenon
that is being studied.
SURVEY -Survey research is the collection of data attained by asking
individuals questions either in person, on paper, by phone or online.
Survey can be divided into two broad categories: the questionnaire
and the interview.
1. Questionnaires are usually paper-and-pencil instruments
that the respondents completes.
EXPERIMENTAL
- A collection of research design which use manipulation
and controlled testing to understand causal proce.
TRUE-EXPERIMENTAL - True-experiment is thought to be the most
accurate type of experimental research.
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL - Quasi-experimental research design- in
which a treatment or stimulus is administered to only one of two
groups whose members were randomly assigned.

TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRES PRE-EXPERIMENTAL -Pre-experimental are the simplest form of

research design. In a pre-experimental either a single group or
Multiple choice multiple groups are observed subsequent to some agent or
treatment presumed to cause change.
Dichotomous questionnaire
There are 3 types of Pre-experimental design:
Semantic differential questionnaire
The One-Shot Case Study Design
2. Interviews are completed by the interviewer based on the
respondents says. The One-Group Pretest- Posttest Design

CORRELATION - research is a type of non- experimental research The Static-Group Comparison

method, in which a researcher measures two-variables, understand
and assess the statistical relationship between them with no
influence from any extraneous variable.
Types of Correlational Research
Positive Correlation
Negative Correlation
No Correlation
CAUSI-COMPARATIVE OR EX-FACTO STUDIES - Used to identify
cause and effect relationships or to examine the consequence of
difference that already exist between two groups
Types of causi -comparative research
Retrospective causal comparative research - The researcher is
investigating research question after the effect have already
occurred
IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH ACROSS FIELD
- TESTING HYPOTHESIS AND DEVELOPING A THEORY
- USE STATISTICS TO GENERALISE FINDING
- MORE RELIABLE AND OBJECTIVE
ACCOUNTANCY, BUSINESS and MANAGEMENT - It can help an
organization to make plans on how to become a successful in its
field. It helps us in decision making.
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS - In
terms of MEDICAL EDUCATION, Quantitative Research is particularly
important as it gives rise to a new discovery concerning disease and
health conditions.
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES - Researchers in this field aims
to provide solution to the social problems directly felt by people
such as stress, anxiety and depression. It measures human behavior
and analyzes psychological processes.

Prospective casual comparative research – The Researchers using

this type of method begin by studying the causes and the
investigation the possible effect.

COMPARITIVE - Enable you to identify and explore the similarities

and differences between chosen phenomenon or group

DESCRIPTIVE COMPARSON - Aims at describing and perhaps also

exploring the invariance of the object

NORMATIVE COMPARISON -Special style of research is needed

when the aims is not just to detect and explain but also to improve
the present stare of the object

EVALUATION - Evaluative research provide a means to judge action

and activities in terms of values, criteria and standards.

METHODOLOGICAL - Methodological research aims at improving

research methodology and statistical methods in order to more
precisely answer research questions.