Complex Analysis

Introduction and the improved Cauchy integral formula

David Setiawan

Tuesday, August 27, 2019

Introduction I, Wedge Product/bivector
Given vector u, v 2 Rn , define the matrix u ^ v = 12 (uT v vT u)
The wedge operator is bilinear, asymmetric and u ^ v 2 ⇤2 (V )
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1 0
e.g. u = and v =
0 1
✓✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ◆
1 1 0
u^v= 0 1 1 0
2 0 1
✓✓ ◆ ✓ ◆◆ ✓ ◆
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
= =
2 0 0 1 0 2 1 0
Properties of wedge product
I v^v= u^v
I u^u=0
I u ^ v + u ^ w = u ^ (v + w)
I c(u ^ v) = (cu) ^ v = u ^ (cv)

Product u ^ v detemines the area of the parallelogram spanned by

u and v and the plane containing these vectors.
Introduction II, Complex variable
We know that

z = x + iy and z = x iy
dz = dx + idy and dz = dx idy
by substitution we get
1
dx = (dz + dz)
2
1
dy = (dz dz)
2i
1
dx ^ dy = (dz ^ dz dz ^ z + dz ^ dz dz ^ dz)
4i
1 i
= dz ^ dz = dz ^ dz
2i 2
Introduction III, Green Theorem in R2
Let P and Q are continuous and have continuous first partial
derivatives in R, let C is a simple closed piecewise smooth curve
and R is the bounded region enclosed by C, then
I ZZ ✓ ◆
@Q @P
Pdx + Qdy = dx ^ dy
C R @x @y

ZZ ✓ ◆
@Q @P
dx ^ dy
R @x @y
ZZ ✓ ◆
@Q @z @Q @z @P @z @P @z
= + dx ^ dy
R @z @x @z @x @z @y @z @y
ZZ ✓ ◆
i @Q @Q @P @P
= + i +i dz ^ dz
2 R @z @z @z @z
ZZ ✓ ✓ ◆◆
1 @P @Q @P @Q
= +i i dz ^ dz
2 R @z @z @z @z
Introduction VI
I I
1 1
Pdx + Qdy = P (dz + dz) + Q (dz dz)
C C 2 2i
I
1
= (P iQ)dz + (P + iQ)dz
2 C
then if substitute both equation, we get

I ZZ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1 1 @P @Q @P @Q
(P iQ)dz+(P+iQ)dz = +i i dz^dz
2 C 2 R @z @z @z @z
I ZZ ✓ ◆
@P @Q
(P iQ)dz = i dz ^ dz
C R @z @z
let f (z) = P iQ,
I ZZ
f (z)
f (z)dz = dz ^ dz
C R @z
Cauchy-Pompeiu’s Formula I
Let u be a function in C 1 , u continuous on cl(⌦)
Let A(⇣) = u(⇣)
⇣ z , ⌦✏ = ⌦ D✏, z 2 int ⌦

Figure: Illustration
Cauchy-Pompeiu’s Formula II

Z Z ZZ
@
A(⇣)d⇣ A(⇣)d⇣ = A(⇣)d⇣ ^ d⇣
b⌦ bD✏(z) ⌦✏ @⇣
Z Z ZZ
u(⇣) u(⇣) @u/@⇣
d⇣ d⇣ = d⇣ ^ d⇣
b⌦ ⇣ z bD✏(z) ⇣ z ⌦✏ ⇣ z
Let ✏ ! 0 and ⇣ = z + e i✓ , ✓ 2 [0, 2⇡]
Z Z 2⇡
u(⇣) u(z + e i✓ ) i✓
lim d⇣ = lim i✏e d✓
✏!0 bD✏(z) ⇣ z ✏!0 0 ✏e i✓
Z 2⇡ Z 2⇡
i✓
= i lim u(z + e )d✓ = i lim u(z + e i✓ )d✓
✏!0 0 0 ✏!0
Z 2⇡
=i u(z)d✓ = 2⇡iu(z)
0
Cauchy-Pompeiu’s Formula III

Z ZZ
u(⇣) @u/@⇣
d⇣ 2⇡iu(z) = lim d⇣ ^ d⇣
b⌦ ⇣ z ✏!0 ⌦✏ ⇣ z
✓Z ZZ ◆
1 u(⇣) @u/@⇣
u(z) = d⇣ lim d⇣ ^ d⇣
2⇡i b⌦ ⇣ z ✏!0 ⌦✏ ⇣ z
✓Z ZZ ◆
1 u(⇣) @u/@⇣
u(z) = d⇣ + lim d⇣ ^ d⇣
2⇡i b⌦ ⇣ z ✏!0 ⌦✏ ⇣ z
@u/@⇣
Since ⇣ z is in L1 (⌦)
✓Z ZZ ◆
1 u(⇣) @u/@⇣
u(z) = d⇣ + d⇣ ^ d⇣
2⇡i b⌦ ⇣ z ⌦ ⇣ z
Lemma 2.1. Suppose that v 2 C 1 (⌦). Then, for each positive
integer m, there exist a function m 2 C 1 (⌦) that vanishes on
the boundary of ⌦ such that @ m /@z and v agree to the order m
on b⌦.

Theorem 2.2. Suppose that v 2 C 1 (⌦). Then the function u

defined via ZZ
1 v (⇣)
u(z) = d⇣ ^ d⇣
2⇡i ⌦ ⇣ z
satisfies @u/@z = v and u 2 C 1 (⌦).
The Cauchy Transform

Let u is a C 1 function defined on b⌦ in the plane with C 1 smooth

boundary, then the Cauchy transform of u is a holomorphic function
Cu on ⌦ given by
Z
1 u(⇣)
(Cu)(z) = d⇣
2⇡i b⌦ ⇣ z
Let A1 (⌦) denote the space of holomorphic functions on ⌦ that
are in C 1 (⌦).
The Cauchy transform maps C 1 (b⌦) into A1 (⌦)
Proof
Let u 2 C 1 (b⌦) and let B be a function in C 1 (⌦) that is equal
to u on b⌦. [nb. Cu = CB on b⌦]
B 2 C 1 (⌦), by Cauchy Pompeiu’s Formula and Cauchy Transform
 ZZ B
1 ⇣(⇣)
B(z) = (Cu)(z) + d⇣ ^ d⇣ , z 2 ⌦
2⇡i ⌦ ⇣ z
The boundary values of Cu are given by
ZZ B
1 ⇣(⇣)
(Cu)(z) = B(z) d⇣ ^ d⇣. ,z 2 b⌦
2⇡i ⌦ ⇣ z

Both of the function on the right hand side extend to be

holomorphic in a neighborhood of b⌦, and hence the right hand
side defines a holomorphic extension of Cu to a neighborhood of
⌦. (Theorem 2.2)

Cauchy transform is an operator that could maps the space

C 1 (b⌦) into C 1 (⌦) or even from C 1 (b⌦) into itself.
Theorem 3.2.

Suppose that h is a holomorphic function on ⌦ that extends to

be a continuous function on ⌦. If the boundary values of h are in
C 1 (b⌦), then h 2 C 1 (⌦).
Suppose is an open arc in b⌦, h is a holomorphic function on ⌦
that extends continuously to ⌦.
Let z0 be a point in and let be a real valued function in
C 1 (b⌦) with compact support in that is equal to one on a small
neighborhood of z0 .

C(h) = C( h) + C[(1 )h]

Since h is in C 1 (b⌦, the term C( h) is in A1 (⌦).

Since (1 )h is a zero neighborhood of z0 , the term C[(1 )h]
extends holomorphically past the boundary near z0 .