History of Medieval India Paper-I, Set-2

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SINCE-1993
Study Material
Civil Services Main Examination
Optional Subject
Paper-I
HISTORY
PAPER-I: SET-2
HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA
P R E FAC E
The importance of Optionals cannot be overstated in the preparation of UPSC. History is one of the
most scoring Optional with significant overlapping with GS syllabus. The syllabus is vast but can be
managed by smart work. The present updated and revised module of History of Medieval India forms
an important part of History Optional Paper I and is in accordance with this spirit and the latest trends of
questions asked in UPSC Main Examination.
The latest trend signals towards more analytical approach in asking questions by the UPSC where rote
learning is of less importance and the acquaintance with the basic concepts seems to be of prime
importance. This module aims to incorporate this pattern by focusing more on the core aspects of events
related to Medieval Indian History. To increase the credibility and attractiveness of your answer, views of
various historians and debates concerning a particular event of medieval history has also been added.
The vastness of the syllabus and its monotonicity sometimes makes the reading of History boring. To
overcome this challenge, the present module incorporates number of images, tables, maps along with
point-wise description of many events so that the interest and enthusiasm of reader is maintained.
To further the readability experience, the font has been changed to make it more pleasing to the eyes.
The index has been thoroughly updated with sub-points to easily access individual topic.
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SYLLABUS
HISTORY PAPER - I
HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA

1. Early Medieval India, 750-1200: Polity: Major political developments in northern India and the
Peninsula, origin and the rise of Rajputs; The Cholas: administration, village economy and society;“Indian
Feudalism”; Agrarian economy and urban settlements; Trade and commerce; Society: the status of the
Brahman and the new social order; Condition of women; Indian science and technology.
2. Cultural Traditions in India, 750-1200: Philosophy: Shankaracharya and Vedanta, Ramanuja and
Vishishtadvaita, Madhva and Brahma-Mimansa; Religion: Forms and features of religion, Tamil devotional
cult, growth of Bhakti, Islam and its arrival in India, Sufism; Literature: Literature in Sanskrit, growth of
Tamil literature, literature in the newly developing languages, Kalhan’s Rajtarangini, Alberuni’s India;
Art and Architecture: Temple architecture, sculpture, painting.
3. The Thirteenth Century: Establishment of the Delhi Sultanate: The Ghurian invasions—factors behind
Ghurian success; Economic, social and cultural consequences; Foundation of Delhi Sultanate and early
Turkish Sultans; Consolidation: The rule of Iltutmish and Balban.
4. The Fourteenth Century: “The Khilji Revolution”; Alauddin Khilji: Conquests and territorial expansion,
agrarian and economic measures; Muhammad Tughluq: Major projects, agrarian measures, bureaucracy
of Muhammad Tughluq; Firuz Tughluq: Agrarian measures, achievements in civil engineering and public
works, decline of the Sultanate, foreign contacts and Ibn Battuta’s account.
5. Society, Culture and Economy in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries: Society: composition
of rural society, ruling classes, town dwellers, women, religious classes, caste and slavery under the
Sultanate, Bhakti movement, Sufi movement; Culture: Persian literature, literature in the regional
languages of north India, literature in the languages of north India, Sultanate architecture and new
structural forms, painting, evolution of a composite culture; Economy: Agricultural production, rise of
urban economy and non-agricultural production, trade and commerce.
6. The Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Centuries—Political Developments and Economy: Rise of
Provincial Dynasties: Bengal, Kashmir (Zainul Abedin), Gujarat, Malwa, Bahmanids; The Vijayanagra Empire;
Lodis; Mughal Empire, First phase: Babur and Humayun; The Sur Empire: Sher Shah’s administration;
Portuguese Colonial enterprise; Bhakti and Sufi Movements.
7. The Fifteenth and early Sixteenth Centuries—Society and Culture: Regional cultural specificities;
Literary traditions; Provincial architecture; Society, culture, literature and the arts in Vijayanagara Empire.
8. Akbar: Conquests and consolidation of the Empire; Establishment of Jagir and Mansab systems;
Rajput policy; Evolution of religious and social outlook, theory of Sulh-i-kul and religious policy; Court
patronage of art and technology.
9. Mughal Empire in the Seventeenth Century: Major administrative policies of Jahangir, Shahjahan and
Aurangzeb; The Empire and the Zamindars; Religious policies of Jahangir, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb;
Nature of the Mughal State; Late Seventeenth century crisis and the revolts; The Ahom Kingdom; Shivaji
and the early Maratha Kingdom.
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10. Economy and Society in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries: Population, agricultural production,
craft production; Towns, commerce with Europe through Dutch, English and French companies: a trade
revolution; Indian mercantile classes, banking, insurance and credit systems; Condition of peasants,
condition of women; Evolution of the Sikh community and the Khalsa Panth.
11. Culture in the Mughal Empire: Persian histories and other literature; Hindi and other religious literature;
Mughal architecture; Mughal painting; Provincial architecture and painting; Classical music; Science
and technology.
12. The Eighteenth Century: Factors for the decline of the Mughal Empire; The regional principalities:
Nizam’s Deccan, Bengal, Awadh; Maratha ascendancy under the Peshwas; The Maratha fiscal and financial
system; Emergence of Afghan Power, Battle of Panipat: 1761; State of politics, culture and economy on
the eve of the British conquest.
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER-1
EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA (750-1200) 11
l POLITY: MAJOR POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN NORTHERN INDIA AND THE PENINSULA
l RISE OF THE RAJPUTS
l FEUDALISM IN EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA
l THE ARAB CONQUEST
l THE CHOLAS: ADMINISTRATION, VILLAGE ECONOMY AND SOCIETY
l THE GHAZNAVID EMPIRE
l INDIAN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
CHAPTER-2
CULTURAL TRADITIONS IN INDIA (750-1200) 48
l PHILOSOPHY
l GROWTH OF BHAKTI
l ISLAM AND ITS ARRIVAL IN INDIA
l LITERATURE
l ART AND ARCHITECTURE OF EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA
l SUFISM
CHAPTER-3
THE 13TH CENTURY 72
l THE GHORIAN INVASIONS AND FACTORS BEHIND THE GHORIAN SUCCESS
l CAUSES OF TURKISH SUCCESS AGAINST RAJPUTS
l ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CONSEQUENCES
l QUTUBUDDIN AIBAK
l ILTUTMISH
l BALBAN
l IQTA SYSTEM
CHAPTER-4
THE 14TH CENTURY 95
l THE KHILJI REVOLUTION
l JALALUDDIN FIRUZ KHILJI (1290-1296)
l ALAUDDIN KHILJI (1296-1316)
l MONGOL INVASIONS
l CONQUEST AND TERRITORIAL EXPANSION
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l CONCEPTION OF KINGSHIP
l LAND REVENUE
l ECONOMIC REFORMS
l MUHAMMAD TUGHLUG
l POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONCEPTS OF THE SULTAN
l MUHAMMAD BIN TUGHLUQ AND HIS MAJOR PROJECTS
l CHARACTER AND ESTIMATE OF MUHAMMAD TUGHLUQ
l FIRUZ TUGHLUG
l DOMESTIC POLICY
l IRRIGATION
l PUBLIC WORKS
l RELIGIOUS POLICY
l FOREIGN POLICY
l DECLINE OF THE DELHI SULTANATE
l FOREIGN CONTACTS: IBN BATTUTA
CHAPTER-5
SOCIETY, CULTURE AND ECONOMY IN THE 13TH AND 14TH CENTURIES 147
l SOCIETY
l SUFI MOVEMENT
l SOCIAL ROLE OF THE SUFIS, THEIR ATTITUDE TOWARDS STATE, ULEMA, CONVERSIONS, SOCIETY, ECONOMY, ETC.
l LINGAYATS
l BHAKTI MOVEMENT
l LITERATURE
l INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
l SULTANATE ARCHITECTURE OR TURKISH ARCHITECTURE
l SULTANATE PAINTING
l TRADE AND COMMERCE
l CONDITION OF ARTISANS AND PEASANTRY
l SYSTEM OF TAXATION
l GROWTH OF URBAN CENTRES
CHAPTER-6
THE 15TH AND EARLY 16TH CENTURIES (POLITICAL HISTORY) 178
l RISE OF PROVINCIAL DYNASTIES
l THE LODIS (1451-1526 A.D.)
l THE MUGHAL EMPIRE—FIRST PHASE, BABUR AND HUMAYUN
l THE SUR EMPIRE—SHERSHAH’S ADMINISTRATION
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l THE PORTUGUESE COLONIAL ENTERPRISES
l BHAKTI AND SUFI MOVEMENT
l NATURE OF BHAKTI MOVEMENT
l IMPACT OF BHAKTI MOVEMENT
l WEAKNESS
l SUFISM IN ITS PANTHEISTIC PHASE
CHAPTER-7
THE 15TH AND EARLY 16TH CENTURIES (SOCIETY, ECONOMY AND CULTURE) 217
l REGIONAL CULTURES AND LITERATURES
l PROVINCIAL ARCHITECTURAL STYLES
l SOCIETY, CULTURE, LITERATURE AND THE ARTS IN VIJAYNAGAR EMPIRE
CHAPTER-8
AKBAR 226
l CONQUESTS AND CONSOLIDATION OF EMPIRE
l NEW CONCEPT OF MONARCHY
l ESTABLISHMENT OF JAGIRDARI AND MANSAB SYSTEMS
l RAJPUT POLICY
l EVOLUTION OF AKBAR’S RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL OUTLOOK
l THEORY OF SULH-I-KUL AND RELIGIOUS POLICY
l COMPOSITE NOBILITY UNDER AKBAR
l ABUL FAZL, THINKER AND HISTORIAN
l COURT PATRONAGE OF ART AND TECHNOLOGY
CHAPTER-9
MUGHAL EMPIRE IN 17TH CENTURY 243
l JAHANGIR’S ACCESSION—HIS EARLY DIFFICULTIES
l THE REBELLIONS OF SHAH JAHAN AND THE COUP DE MAIN AT MAHABAT KHAN
l STATE AND RELIGION IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE 17TH CENTURY
l SHAH JAHAN—CONSOLIDATION AND EXPANSION OF THE EMPIRE
l SHAH JAHAN’S RELIGIOUS POLICY
l AURANGZEB’S REIGN AND HIS RELIGIOUS POLICIES
l NATURE OF THE MUGHAL STATE
l LATE 17TH CENTURY CRISIS: REVOLTS
l EVOLUTION OF DECCAN POLICY OF MUGHAL RULERS
l AURANGZEB’S RAJPUT POLICY
l THE AHOM KINGDOM
l SHIVAJI AND THE EARLY MARATHA KINGDOM
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CHAPTER-10
ECONOMY AND SOCIETY, 16TH AND 17TH CENTURIES 283
l POPULATION OF MUGHAL INDIA
l AGRICULTURAL AND CRAFT PRODUCTION
l AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE
l TEXTILES
l MINERALS, MINING AND METALS
l ORGANISATION OF PRODUCTION
l COMPOSITION OF POPULATION (URBAN CLASSES)
l ADMINISTRATION OF THE EUROPEAN COMPANIES
l THE INDIAN RULERS AND THE EUROPEAN COMPANIES
l INDIAN MERCANTILE CLASSES—BANKING, INSURANCE AND CREDIT SYSTEMS
l COMMERCIAL PRACTICES
l EVOLUTION OF SIKH COMMUNITY
CHAPTER-11
CULTURE IN THE MUGHAL EMPIRE 323
l PERSIAN HISTORIES AND OTHER LITERATURE
l MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE
l INTERREGNUM: THE SUR ARCHITECTURE
l ARCHITECTURE UNDER AKBAR
l ARCHITECTURE UNDER JAHANGIR AND SHAH JAHAN
l BUILDINGS OF AURANGZEB
l MUGHAL PAINTING
l PROVINCIAL ARCHITECTURE AND PAINTING
l SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
l MYSTIC ECLECTICISM: DARA SIKOH
l VAISHNAV BHAKTI AND MAHARASHTRA DHARMA
CHAPTER-12
THE 18TH CENTURY 345
l FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE DECLINE OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
l THE REGIONAL PRINCIPALITIES
l RISE OF MARATHA ASCENDANCY UNDER THE PESHWAS
l BALAJI VISHWANATH (1713-20 A.D.)
l MARATHA ADMINISTRATION UNDER THE PESHWAS
l MARATHA FISCAL OR FINANCIAL SYSTEM
l EMERGENCE OF AFGHAN POWER
l STATE OF POLITICS, CULTURE AND ECONOMY ON EVE OF THE BRITISH CONQUEST
UPSC (MAIN) EXAMINATION, 2017 QUESTION PAPER I 377
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art of success
Mishra's
CHAPTER-1
EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA (750-1200)
Polity: Major Political Developments in of the latter till the final conquest of North India
CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY

Northern India and the Peninsula by Muhammad Ghori and the foundation of the
Turkish empire at the close of the twelfth century.
The Gupta empire disintegrated at the close
This period is also marked by the feudal
of the fifth or beginning of the sixth century. The
formations which transformed Indian history from
recurring invasions of the Hunas from abroad into ancient to early medieval phase. Since most of
the Gupta territory and internal disruption marked the ruling dynasties of North India in this period
by the independence of provincial Governors who were the Rajputs, the history of the period, in more
established numerous independent principalities conservative terms, is also known as the “history of
in different parts of Northern India were the main the Rajput period”.The origin of the Rajputs has been
cause of the eclipse of the Gupta empire. With the the subject of much discussion and speculation.
decline of the imperial Guptas, Magadha and its The time of their origin of the Rajputs has been the
capital Pataliputra, which since the sixth century subjects of much discussion and speculation. The
time of their origin and other factors point to their
B.C. had been the centre of political activity in
foreign origin. The traditional account of their origin
North India, lost their importance when Harsha
from a ‘firepil’ points to the assimilation of these
united his ancestral kingdom of Thansewar with foreign tribes into the Indian fold. Ultimately, these
the Maukhari kingdom of Kannauj and shifted his Rajputs won recognition as Kshatriyas. The history of
capital to Kannauj. From now (A.D. 606-7) onwards south India during the period was first dominated
till the Turkish conquests at the close of the twelfth by the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Rashtrakutas of
century, Kannauj remained the centre of political Manyakheta, and form the close of the ninth till the
activity in North India. close of the twelfth century by the Chalukyas of
Kalyani, the Chalukyas of Vengi and the Cholas of
Under Harsha, the political unity of Northern
Tanjavur. During these four centuries, there is a total
India was preserved to some extent, but it crumbled
lack of interaction between North and south India.
on his death and the process of emergence of
numerous centres of power started in different parts DYNASTIES OF NORTH INDIA
of North India which further led to the emergence
of the multi-state system. Due to this multi-state Kannauj
Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success
system, it is not possible to describe the unified Tripartite Struggle: Little is known of the
political conditions of the period under discussion. kingdom of Kannauj after the death of Harsha.
In the words of Prof. Ishwari Prasad, “India (during About A.D. 730, we find a famous monarch named
the period) was nations within the nation”. In the Yasovarman ruling there. His invasion of Gauda
following pages the history of some of the important (Bengal) formed the subject of the Prakrit poem
states of North India is described in the following Gaudvaho by Vakpat. After Yasovarman, three kings,
two well-marked phases: (a) From the tripartite namely Vijarayudha, Indrayudha and Chakrayudha,
struggle and ascendancy of the Gujara Prathiharas ruled over Kannauj between close of the eighth
till their final decline or beginning of the invasions century till the second decade of the ninth century.
of Mahmud of Ghazni; and (b) From the invasions Taking advantage of the weakness of these Ayudha
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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993

rulers and lured by the immense strategic and tripartite struggle continued for nearly a century and
economic potentialities of the kingdom of Kannauj, ultimately, ended in favour of the Gurjara-Pratihara
the Gurjara-Pratiharas of Bhinmal (Rajasthan), the ruler, Nagabhata II, who founded the Gurjara-
Palas of Bengal and the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta Pratihara kingdom at Kannauj, which survived for
(Maharashtra) fought against each other. This nearly two centuries.
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Mishra's

The Gurjara-Pratiharas: The Gurjara- imperial titles and calls himself “the protector of the
Pratiharas or simply Pratiharas, ruled from Kannauj holy places” of Kasi Varanasi, Uttarakosala (Faizabad
from the beginning of the ninth till the beginning district), Kusika (Kannauj), and Indrathana (Delhi).
of the eleventh century. They originally hailed from Thus, his jurisdiction extended almost over the
Rajputana. About A.D. 816 Nagabhata II (A.D. 805- whole length of the present U.P. In the east, he
33), after driving out Chakrayudha out of Kannauj, probably took part in repressing the aggressive
transferred his capital to that city. He defeated a activities of Vijayasena of Bengal. Chandradeva died
number of his contemporaries, including the Pala about A.D. 1100, his last known date being A.D. 1099.
king, Dharmapala, and made the Pratiharas, the most Hardly anything useful is known about
formidable power of North India. After a brief rule Chandradeva’s son and successor, Madanapala.
of his son, Rambhadra, the Pratihara glory reached Shortly before A.D. 1114, the latter was followed by
its zenith under Mihir Bhoja or Mihir (A.D. 836-85). his son, Govindachandra, who wielded substantial
He made extensive conquests and his dominions power even during his father’s lifetime. As crown
included Eastern Punjab, most of Rajputana, the prince, prior to A.D. 1109, he repulsed the Muslim
greater part of the present Uttar Pradesh, Malwa, expedition sent by the Gahznavid king, Mas’ud III
Saurashtra and the region of Gwalior. The Arab (A.D. 1098-1115), under Hajib Tughatigin.
traveller, Sulaiman, writing in A.D. 851, pays tribute Govindachandra expanded his kingdom
to the efficiency of Bhoja’s administration and the at the expense of the decadent Pala monarchy,
strength of his forces. Mihir Bhoja’s successor was his and annexed some portions of Magadha. This is
son, Mahendrapala I (A.D. 885-910), who conquered evident from two of his grants—one sanctioning
the greater part of Magadha and North Bengal. He the gift of a village in Patna district in A.D. 1126,
was also a liberal patron of letters and the greatest and the second that of another village when in
literary ornament of his court was Rajasekhara, residence at Mudgagiri (Monghyr) in A.D. 1146. He
the celebrated author of Karapuramanjari, also conquered Dasarna or eastern Malwa. He was
Kavyamimansa etc. But after Mahendrapala I, the on terms of friendship with Jayasimha of Kashmir
Gurjara-Pratihara kingdom tended to decline and (A.D. 1128-49) and Siddharaja Jayasimha of Gujarat
disintegrate. Taking advantage of this situation, a (c. A.D. 1095-1143), and perhaps even with the Cholas
number of independent principalities arose at the of the South. Govindachandra’s reign was marked by
close of the tenth century on the tottering remains the literary efforts of his minister for peace and war,
of the Pratihara empire, such as, the Kachhapaghatas Laksmidhara, who produced the Kritya-Kalpataru
of Gwalior, Chalukyas of Anhilwara, the Parmaras (Kalpadruma), one of the most important works on
of Dhara etc. One of the last Pratihara rulers was law, procedure, and other interesting topics.
Rajyapala, during whose reign Mahmud of Ghazni Govindachandra was succeeded by his son,
invadedasende in A.D. 1018. But Rajyapala, instead of Vijayachandra, shortly after A.D. 1154. The Prithviraja-
opposing the invader, deserted Kannauj and retired Raso credits him with extensive victories, but not
to a safer place. To punish him for such a cowardly much reliance can be placed on these bardic
act, the Chandella king Ganda or his son Vidyadhara tales. Like his father, Vijayachandra also stood as
attacked and killed him in the ensuing war. His a bulwark against the aggressions of the Muslims.
successors ruled over his diminished dominion, but He drove back the forces of Khusrau Malik, who
very little is known of them. had occupied Lahore after their expulsion from
The Gahadavalas: The Gahadavalas emerged Gahzni by Alauddin Ghori. In the east, Vijayachandra
so suddenly that it is difficult to determine precisely maintained the Gahadavala authority intact over
who they were. Some scholars think that they were South Bihar, but it appears from an inscription that
a branch of the famous Rashtrakutas or Rathors. It in the west, he must have come into conflict with
appears that Chandradeva founded the Gahadavala Vigraharaja Visaladeva, who wrested Delhi from
dynasty at Kannauj some time between A.D. 980 his hands.
and 1085 after defeating a chief named Gopala. Vijayachandra’s successor was his son,
In the inscriptions Chandradeva assumes the full Jaichandra, who ascended the throne in A.D. 1170.
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Probably in his attempt to extend the boundary of of the dynasty was Vigraharaja IV Visaladeva (1153-
his kingdom further east, Jaichandra was opposed 64). An inscription found at Bijolia (Mewar) specially
by Lakshmanasena of Bengal. The sena king claims credits him with the conquest of Delhi which he
to have defeated the king of Kashi, who was must have wrested from Vijayachandra Gahadavala
obviously Jaichandra. The bards narrate a romantic or Tomars. Besides being a successful military leader,
story about the swayamvara and the subsequent Vigraharaja Visaladeva was also an accomplished
marriage between Jaichandra’s daughter, Samyogita poet and a patron of letters. The Harakeli-nataka,
and the Chahamana Prithviraja III of Ajmer, but portions of which were recovered from an inscribed
its authenticity has rightly been doubted by the stone slab on the wall of a mosque named Adhai-
modern scholars. Jaichandra was a patron of poets, din-ka-jhopra, is supposed to be his composition;
and according to some scholars, Sriharsha, the while another play, Lalita Vigraharaja, similarly
author of Naishadha-charita, lived in his court. discovered, was written in his honour by Mahakavi
By far, the most important event of Jaichandra’s Somadeva.
reign was the invasion of Sihabuddin Ghori. In A.D. The greatest monarch of this house was Rai
1191, the latter was defeated by Prithviraja at Tarain Pithaura of the Muslim historians or Prithviraja
and this debacle rankled in the Sultan’s mind so III (1179-92). There is a strange halo of romance
much that the very next year he returned and round his personality, which has made him the
completely routed and killed the Chauhan king. hero of many popular songs in northern India.
Jaichandra kept himself in proud isolation, thinking He was not on friendly terms with Jaichandra of
that the annihilation of his great rival would clear the Kannauj and traditions affirm that when the latter
way for his own supremacy over northern India. Little held a svayamvara (selection of bridegroom) for his
did he know that his own doom was awaiting him. daughter, Samyogita, Prithviraja appeared just in the
In A.D. 1194, Sihabuddin marched towards midst of the ceremonies and daringly carried her
Kannauj and met Jaichandra on the plain between away. He also attacked the Chandella king, Paramardi
Chandawar and Etawah. The latter was defeated or Paramala (1165-1203), and occupied Mahoba
and other fortresses in Bundelkhand. Another
and slain, but the kingdom was not annexed. His
contemporary with whom Prithviraja probably
son, Harishchandra, was allowed, by Sihabuddin, to
came into warlike collision, was Bhima II Chalukya
rule on his behalf. We do not know when and how
of Gujarat (c. 1179-1240).
Harischandra met his end.
Prithviraja was next called upon—being
Ajmer and Delhi lord of the territories of Sambhar and Delhi—to
The Chahamans or Chauhans or Sakambhari resist the attacks of Sihabuddin Muhammad Ghori,
of Ajmer: They arose as vassals of the imperial who was gradually advancing into “the alluring
Pratiharas and ruled in different parts of Gujarat and plains of Hind”. In the first engagement at Tarain
Rajputana in the seventh and eight centuries. One in A.D. 1191, fortune favoured him and the Ghori
of their offshoots ruled at Sapadalaksha country troops were so completely overwhelmed that even
with its capital at Sakambhari (Modern Sambhar Sihabuddin was rescued with difficulty from the
in Ajmer district of Rajasthan). Durlabharaja of this furious charges of the Chauhans. This rout constantly
dynasty jointed his Pratihara overlord Vastsaraj in troubled the Sultan, and the very next year, in A.D.
the expedition against Gauda. His son Govindaraja 1192, he returned to Hindustan with a reorganised
(also called Guvaka), as a vassal of Nagabhata II, is force to avenge it. Prithviraja appealed for succour
stated in literary work to have repelled an attack of to the neighbouring potentates, who responded
Sultan Vega Varisha identified with Bashar, the Arab enthusiastically to the call of their compatriot. In
Governor of Sind under Caliph Al Mamen (817-33). the battle that ensued, the invaders carried “death
The Chahamanas of Sakambhari who came into and destruction” so desperately that by sunset
prominence in the early twelfth century, founded there was complete confusion in the Hindu ranks.
the city of Ajayameru or Ajmer, and beautified it Prithviraja fled from the field for, but was captured
with palaces and temples. Another famous member near the Sasuti (Saraswati). Ajmer was taken, and
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Mishra's

shortly after Delhi too fell into the hands of the Pratihara kings continued to be the greatest foes of
victors. The family was not exterminated and the the Arabs and this compelled the later to seek the
foresight of Sihabuddin “delivered” the country alliance of the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta. It is likely
of Ajmer to a son of Prithviraja “on a promise of that the Arabs would have achieved more successes
punctual payment of a large tribute”. But owing to in the interior of India if the Pratiharas had not
the activities of his uncle, Hariraja, this prince had offered them a determined opposition. In Sind, the
to retire to Ranthambhore where a branch of the conquerors followed a farsighted policy of toleration.
Chahamans ruled till its capture by Alauddin Khalji No doubt, Islam spread, but Hindu temples were
in A.D. 1301. considered inviolable. The Brahmins were even
permitted to build or repair the dilapidated temples.
Sind
While the Arab garrisons were stationed at strategic
Sind roughly denoted the lower Indus centres, the internal administration was mostly left
valley from Multan down to the sea; in the west it in the hands of the natives, who paid the land tax
sometimes included large portions of Baluchistan, (khiraj) and the poll tax (jeziya). The Arabs also in
and in the east it was bounded by the Indian desert. certain respects yielded to the subtle influences of
Our knowledge of its early history is extremely their Indian environments. For instance, they learnt
scanty, almost limited to what the Arab historians Astronomy and Mathematics from the Hindus, and
have written about it. We learn that at the time of translated into Arabic, the work of Charaka and the
the Arab invasions Sind was under the dynasty fables of the Panchatantra.
founded by the Brahman Chach. It was preceded by
In the eleventh century, the Ghaznavids
the Rai family comprising five kings, who are said gradually displaced the Arabs in Sind; but it appears
to have held power for 137 years with Alor (near that the conquests of Mahmud of Ghazni were not so
modern Rohri) as their capital. When Huen-tsang through in lower as in upper Sind. Accordingly, soon
was travelling in India (A.D. 629-45), Sind was ruled after his death the former region virtually asserted its
by a Buddhist monarch of the Shudra caste. After the independence under the Hindu Sumras, who ruled
death of the last ruler of this dynasty his Brahmin there for about three centuries, and were followed by
minister, Chach, married to widowed queen, and the Sammas in the middle of the fourteenth century.
himself assumed the crown. During his long reign
of forty years, the kingdom grew in extent and Bengal and Bihar
authority, and is described to have abutted upon The Palas of Bengal and Bihar: The history
the confines of Kashmir. of Bengal from the death of Harsha up to the
His son, Dahir, who succeeded Chandar or ascendancy of the Palas is shrouded in obscurity.
At this time, West Bengal was known as Gauda
Chandra (Chach’s brother) had to face a serious Arab
and East Bengal as Vanga. Bengal was subjected
invasion because he did not chastise the people
to internal disorder, what is called matsya nyaya (The
of Debal for having seised a vessel carrying rich
rule of strong devouring the weak), leading up to a
presents from the king of Sri Lanka to Hajjaj, governor
revolution by which a local chief Gopala was elected
of Iran. Muhammad bin Qasim led the expedition; he (Grahita) by the people. This is, however, to be taken
stormed Debal in A.D. 712, captured Bahmanabad, not in a strictly democratic or constitutional sense
and reduced Multan in A.D. 723, thus completing which was not possible in those days. Perhaps, the
the conquest of Sind. This was the culmination of election was nothing but his acceptance as a ruler
the Arab plundering raids, which began as early as by the people.
A.D. 636-37, during the Khilafat Omar.
Although, the details of Gopala’s career are
Having got control of Sind, the Arabs initiated not known, there is no doubt that he introduced
a vigorous policy of expansion and Junaid, who was peace in the kingdom and laid the foundations of
its governor under Khalifa Hisham (A.D. 724-43), was the future greatness of his family. According to the
particularly active. He conquered a number of areas Tibetan Lama, Tarantha, Gopala built the celebrated
in western India. In this direction, he was perhaps monastery at Odantapura and reigned for forty-five
repulsed by Nagabhata I. From his time onwards, the years.
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Gopala’s son and successor, Dharmapala, was Gauda monarch. It appears from a copper plate,
an energetic personality, and the task of internal discovered at Nalanda, that Devapala granted five
consolidation having already been accomplished by villages, for “various comforts” of the Bhikshus as
his father, he found himself in a position to undertake well as for writing the Dharmaratnas and for the
foreign expeditions. His most notable achievement upkeep of a Buddhist monastery built there by
was the defeat of Indrayudha, whom he deposed, Balaputradeva, king of Sumatra and Java.
raising Chakrayudha to the throne of Kannauj. Besides being a great conqueror, Devapala,
Dharmapala’s wars with other contemporaries, was a patron of Buddhism, and he constructed
however, appear to have been disastrous to his temples and monasteries in Magadha. Thus, art and
arms. Inscriptions record that both Vatsraja Pratihara architecture received a fresh impetus, and Nalanda
and Dhruva Rastrakuta (c. 779-94), who could not continued to flourish as the chief seat of Buddhist
tolerate the imperial pretensions of Dharmapala, learning. The limits of Devapala’s reign may be fixed
routed him separately. between c. A.D. 815 and 855.
The engagement with Dhruva perhaps The next monarch of note was Narayanapala,
took place in the Gangetic Doab, for we are told who ruled for at least fifty-four years (c. 858-912).
that he vanquished the Gauda ruler “as he was The Bhagalpuri inscription records that in the
fleeing between the Ganga and the Yamuna”. The seventeenth year of his reign he granted from
Sanjan plates further testify that “Dharmapala Mudgagiri (Monghyr) a village in Tira-Bhukti (Tirhut)
and Chakrayudha surrendered themselves” to to the shrine of Siva and built one thousand temples
Govinda III Rashtrakuta (c. 794-814). Finally, in honour of the same deity. During the earlier part
Dharmapala’s dreams of supremacy in the North of Narayanpala’s reign, Magadha remained under
came to an end when Nagabhata II Pratihara seised the Palas, but several inscriptions, dated in the regnal
Kannauj from Chakrayudha. Dharmapala was furious years of Mahendrapala I, prove that later it passed,
at the dethronement of his protege, but all was along with northern Bengal, onto the hands of the
in vain and he suffered a reverse in a sanguinary Pratiharas. Thus, Magadha and northern Bengal
contest with the Pratihara conqueror at Mudgagiri having come under the sway of the Pratiharas and
(Monghyr). Dharmapala was a Buddhist and he is said with eastern Bengal under the Chandras, the Pala
to have founded the famous Buddhist establishment authority was limited to western and southern
at Vikramashila (Patharghata, Bhagalpur district). Its Bengal.
splendid temples and monasteries bear eloquent Mahipala I, son of Vigrahapala II, was another
testimony to his liberality as well as to that of other powerful prince of the line. From the findspots of
donors. his inscriptions, it is clear that the Pala power had
After a long reign, Dharmapala was succeeded once more revived, and that his dominions included
by his son, Devapala, who is rightly reckoned the places so widely apart as Dinajpur and Muzzaffarpur,
most mightily Pala potentate. Epigraphic records Patna, Gaya and Tippera. After the death of
credit him with extensive conquest. The Badal pillar Mahipala I, the Pala power declined under his
inscription claims that Devapala “eradicated the successors on account of internal dissensions and
race of the Utkalas, humbled the pride of the Hunas external invasions. The first blow was delivered by
and scattered the conceit of the rulers of Dravida the Senas, who conquered east and west Bengal
and Gurjara”. We further learn from the Bhagalpur from the Palas. Finally the Pala power remained
inscription that Devapala’s cousin, Jayapala, was confined to a small part of South Bihar, where they
responsible for securing the submission of Utkala ruled till about A.D. 1175. The most important event
(Orissa) and also Pragjyotisha (Assam). The Gurjara of Mahipala’s reign was the northern incursion of
adversary of Devapala may be identified with Mihir Rajendra I Chola some time between A.D. 1021 and
Bhoja (836-85), who attempted to extend his power 1023. Passing through Orissa and Southern Kosala,
eastward. He met with some initial successes, but Rajendra Chola turned northwards and defeated
his further advance was effectively checked by the Mahipala I.
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Thus, having ruled Bihar and Bengal with many shows that Samantasena was a Brahmin but his
vicissitudes of fortune for over four centuries, the successors called themselves simply Kshatriyas. He
Palas disappeared from the stage of history. Scholars himself states that he fought the outlaws of Karnata
have not yet been able to locate their capital with and late turned as ascetic.
certainly, but it may have been Mudgagiri (Monghyr), His son Vijayasena succeeded him. Vijayasena
from where the Pala kings issued several grants. really built up the Sena power. In the Deopara
The most powerful members of the dynasty were inscription composed by the poet Dhoyi, he is
Dharmapala and Devapala; their spheres of activity stated to have defeated “Navya (king of Nepal
and influence were much wider than the limits of and Mithila) and Vira; attacked the king of Gauda;
their kingdom. The Palas were greatest patrons of humbled the king of Kamarupa; lent his support to
art and literature. Vincent Smith has mentioned the king of Kalinga; conquered many minor rulers
the names of two artists, Dhiman and his son and despatched his full fleet in his victorious career
Vitapala, who “acquired the highest fame for their along the course of the Ganga”.The inscription shows
skill as painters, sculptors and bronze-founders”. how the Pala power was weakened by the local
Unfortunately no building of that age is extent, chiefs of whom the Senas were one. His inscriptions
but a large number of tanks and channels dug show the wide extent of his territory. Vijayasena
during their rule bear witness to the interest the is said to have founded two capitals, Vijayapuri
Pala monarchs took in works of public utility. They in West Bengal and Vikramapura in East Bengal.
were the earnest followers of Buddhism which Vijayasena was succeeded by Ballalesena (1165-85)
developed newer Tantric forms and was revived the famous Ballal Sen of Bengali tradition. According
under their patronage. Monasteries were generously to the literary texts, Laghubharata and Ballalacharita,
endowed, being the most effective agencies for Mithila was included in Ballalasena’s kingdom as
the promotion of learning and religion. One of the his fifth province, the other four provinces being
monks, the famous Atisa, is known to have gone to Radha, Varendra, Vagdi, and Vanga. At that time,
Tibet on a Buddhist mission about the middle of the Pala power was weakened by the joint attacks
the eleventh century. The Palas were, however, by by the Senas from the East and the Gahadavalas
no means unfavourable towards Hinduism. They from the West.
freely made gifts to Brahmins, and even constructed Ballalasena is known as a man of letters
temples in honour of Hindu gods. an author of Danasagara, a work on Smriti and
The Palas made important contributions to Adbhutasagara, a work on Astronomy. Ballalasena
the development of India’s cultural links across the is credited with an important social movement
seas, of which the most striking evidence cited in known as Kulinism by which the nobility of birth
the endowment by a king of Suvarnabhumi (Java and purity of blood were carefully protected.
and Sumatra) was of a special college at Nalanda for Ballalasena was succeeded by Lakshmanasena
the foreign students from those regions. A Buddhist who was unable to offer any resistance to the Turkish
monk Srijnana in his later years went to Java and invader Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji and escaped
learnt Buddhist scriptures there, as mentioned in for his life by flight (1194). This cowardly surrender
the Tibetan work of Kalyana Mitra Phyag-sorpa. to the Turkish invader belies his previous history,
The Senas: The Pala power in Bengal was recording his conquests in different directions. The
replaced by the Senas whose first king, Vijayasena, Turkish invaders had an easy way to the Sena capital
conquered a large part of Pala territory, while earlier at Nadia (renamed Lakhnauti or Lakshamanavati).
it was threatened in the east by Samantasena. The The story, as told by Minhaj, goes that the capital fell
origin of this dynasty may be traced to the South, before an attack of only eighteen Turkish horsemen.
to the Chalukyas. Its founder was Samantasena who Lakshmanasena found his asylom at Vikrampura
described himself as a Kshatriya of Karnata and “born in East Bengal where his sons Visvarupasena and
in a family of Brahma-Kshatriyas”, at a place called Kesavasena continued to rule. The former ruled for
Radha in West Bengal. The title Brahma-Kshatriya fourteen years and the latter for three years.
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Though the reign of Lakshmansena was Kalachuris came into conflict with both Nayapala
politically disastrous, it was culturally very and his son Vigrahapala III, and the latter appears
prosperous. His court was adorned by a galaxy of to have got the upper hand in this trial of strength.
literary men of the first rank. At his court, flourished Next, Karna utterly routed Bhoja Paramara of
such literary celebrities as Jayadeva, the author of Dhara with the help of Bhima I Chalukya of Gujarat
Gitagovindam, Halayudha, the linguist, and Dhoyi, (c. 1022-64). But towards the close of his career,
the poet of Pavanadutam. Karna met with a series of disasters. Having broken
off alliance, Bhima I worsted him, and the Parmaras
Orissa
of Malawa also regained their independence under
Among the dynasties that ruled simultaneously Udayaditya. Karna suffered further reverses at the
over various parts of Orissa, the most important were hands of the Chalukya Somesvara I Ashvamalla
the Kesaris of Bhuvaneswar and the Eastern Gangas (c. 1042-68) and Kritivarman Chandella.
of Kalinganagara (Kalingapatam or Mukhalingam in
These repeated invasions shattered the
Ganjam district). The Kesaris were devout Shaivas,
Kalachuris so much that Kalachuri king Lakshmi-
and immortalised their sway by constructing
karna in his last days probably abdicated in favour of
the magnificent temples of Bhuvaneswar with a
Yasah-karna. But Yasah-karna too could not arrest the
“profusion of decorative motifs”.The great Lingaraja
steady decline of the family fortunes. Lakshmadeva
temple (c. eleventh century), which to this day
Paramara paid off old scores against the Kalachuris
stands as one of their noblest monuments, is truly
as inspired orgy of sculptural ornamentation almost by attacking and storming their capital Tripuri. In the
unique in the world. north, the Gahadavalas established their power in
Kannauj and Varanasi and aggrandised themselves
The Eastern Gangas: The Eastern Gangas
at the cost of the Kalachuris. Similarly, during the
established themselves in Kalinga about the
reign of Yasah-karna’s son and successor, Gaya-karna,
beginning of the eighth century. They originally
the Chandella Madanavarman (c. 1128-64) won
belonged to Kolahala (Kolar) and were, thus, a
some military successes, and the Ratnapura branch
branch of the Gangas of Mysore. Hardly anything
of the Kalachuris asserted its independence in South
is known of the earlier Gangas, during whose time
Kosala. In the time of the successors of Gaya-karna,
Kalinga suffered a good deal from foreign incursions.
who were weaklings, the Tripuri Kalachuris finally
Towards the last quarter of the eleventh century,
sank into insignificance.
however, the Ganga family rose to the zenith of its
power under Anantavarman Chodaganga. He was Bundelkhand
so called because he was the son of Rajaraja Ganga The Chandellas of Jejakabhukti or
by his Chola wife, Rajasundari, daughter of Rajendra Bundelkhand: The Chandellas, who ruled at
Chola. Chodaganga ruled for over seventy years, Jejakabhukti or modern Bundelkhand, are believed
the known limits of his reign being A.D. 1077-1147. to have been a clan of aboriginal chiefs related to
Tradition ascribes to him the building of the famous the Gonds or Bhars and promoted to the rank of
temple of Puri; and he considerably extended the Kshatriyas. The Chandellas came into prominence
bounds of his realm. Later on, it was again ravaged in the early ninth century. They were the feudatories
by Lakshmanasena. Early in the thirteenth century, of the Pratiharas of Kannauj. The name of their
the Eastern Gangas began to be harassed by the kingdom Jejakabhukti was given after the name
Turks who continued their depredations until of one of the early Chandella kings known as Jeja
“Jajnagar” or Orissa finally fell a prey to their arms or Jejjaka. It appears that sometime in the middle of
in the fourteenth century. the tenth century, the Chandellas threw off the yoke
The Kalachuris of Tripuri: The Kalachuris rose of Pratihara overlordship and became independent
into prominence under Kokalla of the Gahadavalas. under Dhanga (c. 950-1002). One of his inscriptions
The greatest rule of this dynasty was Karna, alleged that “he attained supreme lordship after
who defeated his contemporary, identified with inflicting defeat over the king of the Kanyakubja”.
Vijayapala or with Devavarman. In the east, the In A.D. 989 or 990 when Jayapala, the Shahi king of
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the Punjab, invited prominent northern states to the second half of the tenth century. Initially, their
help him in resisting the aggressions of Subuktigin, capital was at Ujjain, but they later transferred it to
Dhanga along with other potentates promptly Dhara (both in Madhya Pradesh).
responded with men and money and shared the The first great Paramara ruler was Vakpati Munja
disaster suffered by the confederate army. Dhanga’s (c. A.D. 974-997-8), who defeated the Kalachuris of
son, Ganda, too joined the coalition formed by Shahi Tripuri and the Chalukya King Tailapa II. But in one
king Anandapala in A.D. 1008 to repel the invasion
of the encounters with the Chalukyas, he was taken
of Mahmud. Ganda’s son Vidyadhara, who was the
prisoner and killed. He was a great patron of art and
greatest Chandella king, attacked and killed the
literature. He built many artificial lakes, one of which
Pratihara king Rajayapala in A.D. 1019 for having
surrendered before Mahmud Ghazni. Four years later, the Munjasagara, situated at Dhara, still preserves
however, when Mahmud Ghazni attacked Kalinjara, his name. He also built splendid temples in the
Vidyadhara could not defend Chandella territories; principal cities of his kingdom. He was also a gifted
but one of the later Chandella kings, Kirtivarman, poet and a liberal patron of men of letters. His court
resisted an invasion of his territory by a Ghazanvid was graced by Padmagupta, Dhananjaya (author of
army from the Punjab in A.D. 1090. Dasarupa), Dhanika, Halayudha and others. But the
Among later Chandella rulers, Madanavarman greatest ruler of the dynasty was Bhoja (c. 1010-
(c. 1129-63) and Parmardi or Parmal (c. 1165-1203) 55) who was a rare combination of military ability,
were the most notable figures. Madanavarman constructive statesmanship and literary genius. He
defeated the Chedi monarch of Tripuri, the Parmara fought against a number of his contemporaries,
king of Dhara and the Gahadavala king Vijayachandra. such as the Chalukyas of Kalyani, the Chalukya of
But during the reign of Parmardi, the fortunes of the Anhilwara etc. But during the last year of Bhoja, the
Chandellas declined. He faced his first serious reverse Chalukya King Bhima I entered into a coalition with
in 1182-83 at the hands of the Chahamana King the Kalachuri King Lakshmi-karna and the Paramara
Prithviraj III who occupied Mahoba. Subsequently kingdom was attacked from two sides by the allied
in 1203, he faced complete annihilation during an forces. During the progress of the war, Bhoja passed
invasion of Kalanjara by Qutbuddin-Aibak. Parmardi away and his death changed the situation entirely in
died in action and Qutbuddin occupied Mahoba. favour of the confederates who occupied the royal
The Chandellas were great builders and they city of Dhara and ravaged Malwa.
greatly beautified their kingdom by constructing Bhoja was the greatest scholar king of India.
a large number of exquisite religious edifices and
He is called Kaviraja in an inscription and is said
embanked lakes. Three most important cities in the
to have authored about two dozen works on a
Chandella dominion were Khajuraho (Chhatarpur
variety of subjects, such as medicine, astronomy,
district, M.P.), Kalanjar (Banda district, U.P.) and
religion, grammar, architecture etc. Among them,
Mahotsavanagar (Mahoba, Hamirpur district, U.P.).
Ayurvedasaravasva, a work on medicine and
About these Vincent Smith remarks:“the first-named
Samaranganasutradhara, a rare work on architecture,
town with its magnificent temples may be regarded
are the most noteworthy. He expanded Dhara and
as the religious, the second with its strong fortress

as the military and the third with its palace as the built the city of Bhojapur to the south of modern
civil capital”. Bhopal. He also founded a college known as
Bhojasala at Dhara. After this flicker of glory, the
Malwa Paramaras gradually lost their importance and
The Paramaras of Malwa: Malwa was under influence by the close of the twelfth century.
the Pratiharas; and the Paramaras must have been
the vassals of the Pratiharas or the Rashtrakutas, as Gujarat
they alternately gained ascendancy in Malwa. Taking The Chalukyas of Anhilwara: The Chalukya
advantage of the decline of the Pratihara power, or Solankis ruled in Gujarat and Kathiawar for nearly
the Paramaras became an independent power in three centuries and a half (c. 950-1300). One of
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the earliest kings of this line was Mularaja, who Avantivarman’s death was followed by a civil
consolidated the Chalukya authority in Gujarat. The war among rivals of whom Samkaravarman, the legal
next important king was Bhima (c. 1022-64), during heir, came out victorious. He is known to have waged
whose reign Mahmud Ghazni overran Gujarat and a number of wars. These wars were supported by
plundered the great temple of Somanath. When excessive taxation, affecting the economic condition
Mahmud appeared before the capital city Anhilwara, of his people. He also replenished the exhausted
Bhima I took refuge in Kutch. When the Sultan treasury by plundering the treasures of temples and
withdrew, Bhima I revived the Chalukya power and curtailing the royal patronage of learning.
formed a confederacy with Lakshmi-karna Kalachuri
against the Paramaras. His young son, Gopalavarman, succeeded him.
He was too critical of his minister who got him
Jayasimha Siddharaja was the greatest
Chalukya ruler who, in commemoration of his deposed and his mother Sugandha became the
victory against the Paramaras, adopted the title of virtual ruler. But the military (tantrins) getting the
Avantinatha. He also erected a number of religious upper hand in this chaos deposed the queen after
edifices in his kingdom and patronised learning. He two years. Her effort to regain the throne with the aid
was also the patron of the celebrated Jain scholar of her own military followers cost her life (A.D. 914).
Hemachandra. During the region of Bhima II (c. 1178- A boy king was placed on the throne as a puppet
1241), Muhammad Ghori made an unsuccessful by corrupt ministers in league with the military.
invasion of Gujarat (A.D. 1178) and Qutbuddin- He was Nirjitavarman, a cousin of Samkaravarman.
Aibak led two expeditions. Anhilwara was plundered Kashmir was then afflicted by a terrible famine
and temporarily occupied by the Turkish army. In which was exploited by corrupt officers who charged
the same period, the Vaghela chief carved out an exorbitant prices for food and other necessities. At
independent principality in Gujarat between the last, this rule of corruption was ended by the king’s
Sabarmati and the Narmada. brother named Chakravarman by his military and
Kashmir administrative ability, but unfortunately his own
Three dynasties, the Karkota, the Utpala and immorality rendered him unpopular and led to his
the Loharas, ruled over Kashmir during the period. murder (A.D. 937). His brother, who succeeded him,
Of the Karkota dynasty, Lalitaditya Muktapida (c. was more disappointing as a ruler by his cruelty and
724-760) and Jayapid Vinyaditya (779-810) were villainy which knew no bounds. With his death (A.D.
the two most illustrious rulers. The power of the 939), which was not mourned even by his queens,
Karkotas was supplanted by the Utpalas about the the Utpala dynasty came to an end.
middle of the ninth century. The first among Utpalas An assembly of Brahmins ushered in an era
was Avantivarman who reigned during A.D. 855-83, of prosperity by choosing a right ruler named
with his able minister—Sura. He devoted more time Yasaskara. Kashmir had not seen such good days
towards internal administration than to conquests. during the previous half century. Yasaskara died
New towns and irrigation works were constructed. in A.D. 948 and was succeeded by his minor son,
One of these towns was Suryapura (modern Sopar), Samgramadeva, with a regency of ministers, one
called after its builder Suryya who gave a further of whom, Pravaragupta, killed him and usurped his
impetus to the agriculture of Kashmir by draining throne. He was notorious for his exactions and had a
marshes and protecting the fields against the deluge short reign. He was succeeded by a more unworthy
of avalanches. Avantivarman founded a new city son Kshemagupta, whose queen Didda with her
Avantipur (Bantipur). He was a patron of learning. His Lohara relations set up a female government. Her
court was adorned by the two poets, Ratnakara and name appeared on coinage. After Kshemagupta’s
Anandavardhan. In his time, according to Kalhana, death in A.D. 958, Kashmir was ruled by Didda for
rice was sold for 36 dinaras per khari, as against 200 another fifty years. She ruled as a regent for her
dinaras earlier, showing the revival of the country’s young son, Abhimanyu, assisted by an able minister
prosperity. Naravahana who helped her to crush a rebellion
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led by her disloyal ministers. She continued her A new era of happiness dawned on Kashmir
beneficent administration by creating temples under Ananta, reigning from A.D. 1028. His
in memory of her son. The queen died in 1003, extravagance led him into debt from which he was
leaving the throne to her nephew, Samgramaraja, saved by his queen named Suryamati who appointed
with whom a new dynasty, the Loharas, began. His able ministers with whose help she improved the
failure emboldened his enemies to conspire against administration and the finances, which tempted
him and have him murdered. Samgramaraja then Ananta to launch out into military campaigns, most
came completely under the influence of his low- of which failed. He then abdicated in favour of his
caste favourites. son, Kalasa, while retaining in power his able minister,
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Haladhara. Kalasa proved disloyal to his parents descendants of foreign tribes. Their argument is as
but his designs against them were defeated by the follows. Foreign races like the Sakas, the Pallavas, the
military. The frustrated father committed suicide, Kushanas and the Hunas who had settled in India
and his faithful consort followed him to the pyre. following their invasions, gradually merged with the
This double tragedy at once reformed Kalasa who local people adopting their religion and manners.
now devoted himself to measures which made The intermingling of these foreign races with the
Kashmir famous. Kalasa was able to recover some native population ended up in the emergence of
of the lost prestige of Kashmir. He nominated his a new race. The people of this new race combined
second son, Utkarsha, as his successor. But his half- in themselves the war like qualities of the people
brother, Vijayamalla, revolted against him.Thereupon of Central Asia and a devotion and pride in Hindu
Kalasa released his brother Harhsa from captivity to religion and culture. A familiar legend appeared
help him against the rebellion but Harsha in turn, in Chand’s Hindi epic, Prithviraja Raso and other
imprisoned Kalasa, who committed suicide. great documents which grouped together four
Harsha retrieved the lost glory of Kashmir by Rajput Clans—Pratiharas, Paramaras, Chalukyas and
his able administration and patronage of culture Chhahamanas—as being Agnikula. The four Rajput
and learning, and art. He was also a leader of social clans mentioned above are said to have descended
reforms and fashions. But, unfortunately, like so from four heroes Pawar, Parihar, Solanki and Chauhan
many of Kashmir’s previous rulers, after a good who issued from the sacrificial fire-pit of Vasishta to
record both at home and abroad, he lapsed in Mt. Abu. This myth is said to express the historical
morals, and was in need to find money by looting truth that the four clans were related and that they
temples and desecrating shrines. His ambitious rose in Southern Rajputana. It represents, according
wars ended in reverses, which further worsened to Crooke, a rite of purification by fire by which the
his financial situation which he tried to save by impurity of the foreigner was removed and the
heavy taxation. This resulted in a rebellion led by people became qualified to enter the Hindu caste
Uchachhala, the exiled general. Harsha’s reign is system. The pastoral habits of the Rajputs, Bana’s
narrated in Rajatarangini of Kalhana who was the bracketing them with the Hunas, the absence of
son of Harsha’s friend and wrote from personal any references to them before the sixth century
knowledge. After Harsha’s death, Kashmir faced a and the resemblance of their coins with Huna coins
quick succession of weak Lohara rulers and finally are mentioned as further evidences of the foreign
the dynasty ended in A.D. 1172. origin of the Rajputs.
The next century saw more of civil wars and Some scholars, however, differ from the above
anarchy. The country fell prey to Muslim invasions mentioned theory of foreign origin of the Rajputs.
under Dulucha during the reign of Suhadeva (1301- Indian literature calls them Kshatriyas. Hiuen Tsang
20). The havoc of Muslim invasion was compounded refers to the Gurjara (Rajput) king as a Kshatriya.
by a Tibetan invasion in the north. The Tibetan chief Legendary accounts preserved in the Rajput families
Rinchana became king of Kashmir after Suhadeva connect them with the Solar and Lunar Kshatriyas
whose daughter, Kotadevi, he married. The foreigner of the Epic Age. C.V. Vaidya holds that they were
the most chivalrous representatives of the Vedic
ruled well but was murdered in A.D. 1323. Hindu rule

now virtually ended and was replaced by Muslim Aryans in India. He tries to support his theory with
rule till the kingdom was finally annexed by Akbar the help of ethnology inscriptions, traditions and
(A.D. 1586). probabilities. He holds that the theory of Agnikula
was only a product of a poet’s fancy and does not
Rise of the Rajputs attach any importance to it. The most powerful
The Rajputs dominated the history of northern argument against the theory of foreign origin is
India from the middle of the seventh to the close that the physical features of the Rajputs are not very
of the twelfth century. Their origin is still a matter different from those of the Aryan Hindus. H. Risley
of controversy. There are two views regarding their observes, “it is not probable that the form of their
origin. Some like Col. Todd hold that the Rajputs were heads, the most persistent of racial distinctions, was
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transformed from the extreme of one type to the and acquisition of several other rights related
extreme of another without leaving any transitional to land and several inhabitants.
forms involved in the process. Vaidya further argues - The superior rights accord the
that it is not likely that waves of foreign conquerors beneficiaries, the status of overlord and
entering India at a date when the Indo-Aryans had subordinate, the status of peasantry
long been an organised community should have hence develops a typical overlord
been absorbed by them so completely as to take subordinate relationship agrarian
rank among their most typical representatives. structure.
There are certain difficulties in accepting 3. The early medieval period was considered
the theory of indigenous origin. The connection synonymous with Indian feudalism. Indian
between the Rajputs and the Kshatriyas could not feudalism emerged as a separate school in
be established beyond doubt. The Agnikula theory 1970s. Its early proponents were Marxist
defies reconciliation with the theory of descent from historians like D.D. Kosambi and R.S. Sharma.
Solar and Lunar dynasties. - They envisaged the feudal formation
Whatever their origin, the term Rajput does in India in two stages: “Feudalism from
not refer to a race descent or relationship by blood. above” and “feudalism from below”.
It merely denotes a tribe or clan of warlike habits 4. “Feudalism from above” was the first stage
claiming aristocratic status. All clans following Hindu in which the direct relationship between
rituals and carrying on the work of government overlord and his tributary/autonomous vassals
formed the Rajput people. The clans acquired without the prevalence of an intermediary
certain homogeneity by constant intermarriages land-owning class.
and adoption of common customs. They were all 5. “Feudalism from below” was more complex,
distinguished by their clan feeling, their implicit witnessing the rise of rural landowners as
obedience to their chief while claming the equality powerful intermediaries between the ruler
of blood relations, their sense of communal property. and the peasantry which led to administrative
They had the same feeling regarding the honour of decentralisation and the conversion of the
their women; the same custom of widow-burning communal property into a feudal property.
and Jauhar. They all refused to take up the work of (a) The donees enjoyed the revenue right as
an agriculturist. It is this code of honour, and those well as administrative and judicial rights.
common customs which made them homogeneous (b) The grantees therefore derived many
and unique. It is their rare and noble traits of valour, material advantages at the cost of both,
fidelity and generosity that gave them the first place ruler and the actual peasantry.
in the history of Indian chivalry. The 10th, 11th and
12th centuries are often spoken of as the Golden (c) Expansion of agriculture was the only
positive feature of the early medieval
Age of the Rajputs.
times. Otherwise, there was broadening
FEUDALISM IN EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA of different castes, hierarchisation, social
1. The early medieval period shows transition, inequality, and peasant exploitation.
changes, and developments taking place in 6. Kosambi explained his theory taking into
society, economy, polity, and agriculture. The account both “feudalism from above” and
most significant change that can only be seen “feudalism from below”, whereas, Sharma was
in this period is the expansion of the land mainly interested in “feudalism from above”.
grants system which is often cited by Marxist 7. Earlier Sharma proposed that decline of
historians to propound the theory of ‘Indian foreign trade is the cause of feudalism. This
Feudalism’. led to a great uproar in the Marxist circles.
2. Feudalism refers to a practice of establishment - According to Marxism changes in a
of superior rights over land which becomes society comes from within not from
basis of appropriation of a part of produce outside. Changes in social, economic,
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and political structure originates from (c) In Europe, land and agricultural tools
internal contradictions. were given by the lord to the peasants.
8. Later in early 1970s, Sharma proposed the Peasants had to work on lord’s land
theory of urban decay. Urban decay resulted before tilling their own land.
indecline of trade, collapse of artisan activity, 12. Another big blow to feudalism theory came
disappearance of metallic money, and from Hermann Kulke and B. Chattopadhyaya
anoverall decline which reduced the power in 1980s and 1990s.
of the state. (a) Chattopadhyaya questioned the very
9. Later to counter his critics R.S. Sharma invented basis and thinking of feudalism school.
the kali age crisis theory to explain the cause (b) He argues that in the period before
land grants.
4th-5th century we see expansion
(a) He said that the Brahmanical system of trade, development of new towns
was threatened with the prosperity and cities,increase in metallic coins,
of Vaishyas and Shudras. They started expansion of artisan activity.
challenging the Brahmana-Kshatriya
(c) It is not possible that suddenly after 4-5
superiority.
century the situation became totally
(b) The Brahmanical order and Varna system opposite (as reconstructed by Sharma).
were questioned. This led to the kali age
crisis which is also prophesied in the (d) Chattopadhyaya says that history is a
Puranas and other texts. process and everything is connected.
Land grants were given by the state to
(c) To overcome the crisis rulers started
consolidate its power. Most of the lands
granting lands to Brahmanas so that
were granted in virgin territories to bring
they can bring order in the society.
agricultural activity in those areas.
Land grants resulted in dissemination
of Brahmanical ideology and expansion 13. Argument against “Urban decay” and “Collapse
of agriculture. of artisan activity”
10. In 1966, D.C. Sircar criticised the feudalism (a) B.D. Chattopadhyay has argued that the
model. But there was a difference in the style early medieval period saw the decline
of criticism before 1979 and after 1979. of urban centres but there were others
(a) Before 1979 scholars were criticising that continued to flourished, as well as
the feudalism school by using its own some new ones that emerged.
terminology (such as “decline of trade”, (b) Inferences about the continued vibrancy
“urban decay”, “loss of metallic money”, of city life can also be made on the basis
and “collapse of cities”). of the numerous literary works and the
(b) The critics were fighting on a battlefield sculpture and architecture which must
chosen and prepared by the Indian have been patronised by urban elites.
feudalism advocates. 14. Argument against “Decline of trade”

11. The intellectual arguments changed after (a) K.N. Chaudhury had shown that by the
1979 when new ideas came. eleventh century, the Indian Ocean trade
(a) In 1979, Harbans Mukhia wrote a paper was divided into smaller segments—the
titled,“Was There Feudalism in India?”He stretch from the Red Sea and Persian
discussed that there was no manorial Gulf to Gujarat and Malabar, from Indian
system in India like Europe. coast to Indonesian archipelago and
(b) The climatic conditions were better in from Southeast Asia to East Asia. Hence
India than Europe. Indian soil was more the nature of trade changed instead of
fertile. Indian peasants owned their lands. decline of trade.
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15. Argument against “Disappearance of metallic 18. Recent historical studies and writings have
money” raised several questions on the applicability
(a) John S. Deyell has argued that money of the term ‘Indian Feudalism’ to early
was not scarce in medieval India, nor medieval society. All in all, we should not
were the states of the time suffering restrict ourselves to rigid models but be open
from a financial crisis. to new ideas, interpretations, theories, and
connections while reconstructing the history.
(b) There was a reduction of coin types
and decline in the aesthetic quality of Difference between Indian and European
coins but not in the volume of coin in feudalism
circulation. 1. Feudal system was a worldwide phenomenon
16. Argument against “Reduced power of the during 800 A.D.-1200 A.D.because it was prevalent
state” in India as well as in Europe. In Indian literature
(a) Far from being symptom of the the system is referred as Samantha system.
disintegration of polities and Royal - Although the feudalism got integrated in
disempowerment, land grants too various spheres of lives there are certain
Brahmanas were one of the several differences among Indian version of
integrative and legitimising policies feudalism and European feudalism.
adopted by Kings. 2. Feudalism in India was far less developed
(b) The increase in the wealth and power of than European feudalism whereas the feudal
a section of Brahmanas and institutions elements were far strongly expressed in the
such as temples did not take place at the European feudalism.
expense of Royal power. - In India though the feudal lords owned
17. Argument against “the theory of kali age crisis” a large percentage of land but still
most of the land was owned by peasant
(a) In 1980s, Burton Stein proposed the proprietors. In Europe most land was
segmentary state theory which was owned by feudal lords and number of
another blow to the Indian feudalism independent peasant proprietors were
model. quite small.
(b) Stein talked about the Brahmana peasant 3. European feudalism shows the manor system
alliance in the Tamil Nadu region where as important feature. Manor was the palace or
the maximum number of land grant fort of feudal lord. Manor controlled politico-
inscriptions was found. administrative, socio-cultural and economic life.
(c) Yellava Subbarayalu says that at any time (a) In India manor system was absent.
in history not more than 20% of the total Serfdom was an essential feature of
land was given to Brahmanas as grants. feudalism in Europe.
Then how can we build a theory of kali (b) Agricultural activities on the land owned by
age crisis over whole of India based on feudal lords were performed by serfs.In India
20% of the total land. There is remarkable serfdom was absent. Agricultural activities
data collected from the Kaveri delta of were performed by tenant cultivators
pre-tenth century where hierarchy had and cultivator himself determined the
come in the Brahmanical settlements agricultural activities, where as in Europe
but there was communal ownership feudal lord determined agricultural
in non-Brahmanical settlements. This activities.
shows that developments were not same 4. In India, feudal lord received only small part
everywhere and all areas do not change of production, generally 25%. Most of the
simultaneously. harvest was retained by peasant cultivators.
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- In Europe most of agricultural production Hajjaj merely seised the opportunity as pretext to
was retained by feudal lord. The serfs defeat and conquer Sind.
or tenants received only small share to After making elaborate preparations,
survive. Muhammad bin Qasim, the son-in-law of Hajjaj
5. In India kings and feudal lords were mostly was sent with a well equipped army. He advanced
at loggerheads because the power of one is to Makran and laid seize to Debal on A.D. 711. The
threat to another, whereas in Europe the king capital was conquered then, Muhammad advanced
and feudal lords worked together as a unit. along the Indus to conquer the whole area. It appears
Their relations were harmonious. that very often treachery led to the Arab conquest
of Sind.
THE ARAB CONQUEST The triumph and career of Mohammad bin
The establishment of Arab rule in Sind in Qasim was suddenly cut short by political changes
A.D. 712 was preceded by a number of efforts to at home. Since the new Caliph was the sworn enemy
penetrate India. The Ist military expeditions were of Hajjaj, Mohammad bin Qasim was taken prisoner,
sent to Thana near Bombay in A.D. 637. More were insulted and tortured to death.
sent in the coming years against Broach and Debal. The development made Jaisimha, the son
The view that the Arabs indeed were not interested of Dahir, to reoccupy Bahamanba. Jundaid the
in territorial acquisition, till the ruler of Sind in A.D. governor of Sind, defeated Jaisimha and took him
700 provoked them, is not accepted by the book “A prisoner. Thus, ended the dynasty of Dahir and the
comprehensive History of India”. According to the independence of Sind.
book, the Arabs made systematic inroads on the The comparatively easy conquest of
three kingdoms of Kabul, Zabul and Sind. Baladhuri Muhammad, son of Kasim, should not make us forget
says that after 650 A.D., the Arabs entered India. One the long resistance offered by Sind to the Arabs.
more expedition was sent by the Caliphate of Ali to
Later, Junaid sent several expeditions to the
conquer Kabul but was frustrated. Another attempt interior of India. They were defeated by the Pratihara
was made in 698 A.D., which was still less successful. king, Nagabhatta I and Pulkesin, the Chalukya chief
The weakness of the Arabs was undoubtedly due to of Gujarat. These defeats forced the Arabs to confine
internal troubles and weaknesses of the caliphate themselves to Sind. The Arabs lost control of Sind
the earlier designs were repeated. Kabul was during the last years of Ummayids. The Abbasi
conquered but again escaped from the control of Caliphs once again started to re-establish their
the Caliphate. Zabul was conquered only in 870 A.D. power in Sind. But after the collapse of the Abbasid
Good number of details are found regarding power, Sind became virtually independent and was
the history of Sind in the 7th century A.D. in divided into two independent states. Neither of
Chachanama, a Persian translation of an old Arabic them could become powerful.
history of the conquest of Sind by the Arabs. An Significance
expeditions of the Arabs was sent against Debal
It is no longer believed that the Arab conquest
some time before A.D. 643 like this a series of
of Sind was a mere episode in the history of India.
expeditions were sent to conquer an outpost of

What this event reveals is the sea change that came
Sind, which all ended in failure. over Hindu civilisation by about A.D. 1000. A few
The Arabs resumed their aggression against Muslim traders earlier settled in the Malabar region.
Sind only after A.D. 705. An Arab ship fell in the hands But the might of Islam was experienced in Sind.
of pirates near Debal. A muslim governor demanded The challenge was met by rulers of the day. It is
their release and also arrest of the pirates. It appears, now well-known that the political ambitions of
Dahir refused to oblige. As a matter of fact, the the successors of Md. bin Kasim were checkmated
governor of Iraq was appointed for both the areas by Lalitaditya, Bhoja and a few other rulers. This
of Sindh and Hindi. For long time the Arabs chafed particular resistance bears testimony to the political
at their failure to conquer Sind. Thus, the governor consciousness of the day.
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The Arab rule in Sind led to interaction between history begins from the middle of the ninth century.
the two cultures. Sind was the birth place of later day The decline of the Pallavas in the ninth century
sufism which in turn occasioned the emergence of provides an excellent opportunity for the Cholas to
the famous bhakti culture in the middle ages. The stage a comeback. This re-emergence of the Cholas
Arab conquest of Sind also led to the transmission was Phoneix like.
of Indian culture-Panchtantra and scientific lore of To start with, the fallen fortunes of the Cholas
ancient India like the digital system and knowledge were restored by Vijayalaya (c. 846-871 A.D.), who
of medicine reached as far as west Asia. probably began his reign in the neighbourhood of
The significance of the Arab conquest lies in Uraiyur as a vassal of the Pallavas. Later, he captured
the tolerance that was shown to Hinduism by Islam. Tanjore from some subordinate allies of the Pandyas
Although jaziya was collected, the Arab governors and made it the capital of the Cholas.
chose to leave Hindu religion practices untouched. His son, Aditya I (circa 871-907 A.D.), was a very
In other words, what the history of Arabs in Sind powerful monarch. He defeated the Pallava king,
conveys the fact that persecution of other religion Aparajitavarman, and annexed Todamandalam. It
was not the avowed doctrines of Islam. is also said that he occupied Talkad, the capital of
the western Gangas. During the reign of Parataka I
THE CHOLAS: ADMINISTRATION, VILLAGE (c. 907-953), the Pandyan territories were annexed,
ECONOMY AND SOCIETY and the Pandyan king, Rajasimha, had to take refuge
The Cholas, the Pandyas and the Cheras were in Ceylon. The victorious Chola monarch invaded
indigenous to the far south. The traditional Chola Ceylon, but the expedition was unsuccessful.Then, he
country lies between the two rivers, Pennar and vanquished the Pallavas and extended his authority
Vellar, roughly including the modern districts of as far as Nellore in the north. The Rashtrakutas were
Tanjore and Trichinpoly and a portion of the former alarmed at the rapid expansion of the Chola power.
Pudukottai state. The earliest historical reference to Krishna III assisted by a Ganga king, defeated the
Cholas, and killed Parantaka’s eldest son, Rajaditya,
the Cholas as a ruling power occurs in the edicts
in the battle of Takkolam (North Arcot district) in
of Asoka.
949 A.D., and probably occupied Tanjore and Kanchi
About the middle of the second century B.C., as well. Thus the Cholas were temporarily crushed
a Chola prince, named Elara, conquered Ceylon by this terrible blow, and for about three decades
and ruled over it for a considerable period. Another they could not recover.
ruler, Karikala Chola (circa 190 A.D.) defeated the
Rajaraja I: It was Rajaraja I (c. 985-1016 A.D.)
Pandyas and the Cheras. He was a benevolent
who once more placed the Chola authority at the
ruler as evidenced by the reclamation of land and
top and almost earned for it the proud suzerainty
construction of irrigation tanks.
of the south. With him, began the history of the
And it was during the early centuries of the Great Cholas. He destroyed the naval power of the
Christian era that Tamil literature reached great Cheras and brought the Chera kingdom under his
heights. It is said that the first sangam or literary own suzerainty. Madura was occupied, and the
academy flourished during this period. Pandya king was made captive. An invasion of
During the third (or fourth) century A.D., the Ceylon resulted in the occupation of the northern
power of the Cholas declined because of the rise part of the island, which became a Chola province.
of the Pallavas and the aggressions of the Pandyas A large portion of Mysore was also conquered.
and the Cheras. Towards the middle of the seventh Rajaraja’s victories brought him into conflict with
century A.D., the famous Chinese pilgrim, Hiuen- the western Chalukyas. The Chola king overran the
Tsang, visited southern India. He found the Cholas Chalukya territory, but he was eventually repulsed
country “deserted and wild, a succession of marshes by Satyasraya. But soon Rajaraja invaded the eastern
and jungles”. He does not mention the ruler but Chalukya kingdom of Vengi. His overlordship was
says, “the population is very small, and troops and acknowledged by Vimaladitya (1011-1018 A.D.) of
brigands go through the country openly”.Their real Vengi, who gave his daughter in marriage to the
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conqueror. Further, Rajaraja is credited with the of Mahipal, the Pala king of Bengal and Bihar. This
conquest of Kalinga, and the occupation of ‘the expedition probably took place sometime between
old islands of the sea’, numbering 12,000 which 1021 and A.D. 1025. A Chola inscription tells us that
are usually identified as the Laccadive and Maldive Rajendra subjugated Orissa, southern Kisala (in
islands. His dominions included almost the whole modern Madhya Pradesh), some portions of western
of the modern Madras and Andhra states, parts Bengal (Balasore, Midnapur, Birbhum and Burdwan),
of the erstwhile estates of Mysore and Coorg, the and eastern Bengal. His troops probably raided
northern part of Ceylon, and other ‘islands of the these regions, but he definitely did not annex them.
sea’. He possessed a powerful fleet and with his help, The tangible results of his grand expedition
he laid the foundations for the maritime empire of were the settlement of some Carnatic chieftains
the Cholas. in western Bengal, and possibly, the importation
Rajendra I: The Chola power was raised of some saivas from the north to the south. In
to the summit of its glory by Rajendra Chola I commemoration of his victories in the Gangetic delta,
(c. 1016-1011 A.D.) Rajaraja’s able son and successor. Rajendra assumed the proud title of Gangaikond and
He had proved his worth as a conqueror during founded a new capital, Gangaikonda-Cholapuram.
the closing years of his father’s reign, when he A large tank was constructed near the city; it was
successfully raided and conquered the whole of filled with water by channels from the Kolerun and
Ceylon. He entrusted to his son the viceroyalty of the Vellar rivers. The proud city is now a heap of ruins and
Pandya and Kerala territories, thereby bringing the the bed of the magnificent tank, a thick forest. Just
regions under effective subjugation. The result of his like his father, Rajendra possessed a powerful fleet,
struggle with the western Chalukya king, Jayasimha which crossed the Bay of Bengal and conquered
II, cannot be precisely determined: for, the territory Pegu as well as the Andaman and Nicobar islands.
to the north of the Tungabhadra remained under The naval enterprises of the Cholas in the east
the control of the latter. were probably intended to promote commercial
It was after Rajendra I that the attention of intercourse between south India on the one hand,
the Chola rulers was drawn towards the Chalukyas and Burma and the Malayan peninsula, on the other.
for the possession of the province of Vengi. “The In the west, Rajendra maintained his hold on the ‘old
ghost of the old Pallava-Chalukya conflict over the islands of the sea’, conquered by his father.
rich province of Vengi reappeared in wars between Rajendra I attacked the Shrivijaya kingdom
the Cholas and the later Chalukyas over the same in south-east Asia because of his desire for an
area.”This conflict followed the same old pattern— overseas empire. On the other hand, Dr. Romila
raids into each other’s territories. Once the Cholas Thapar holds the view that the conflict was caused
snatched the capital of the Later Chalukya, Kalyani. by considerations of trade. The Shrivijaya kingdom
The Chalukyas, in return, avenged this defeat in 1015. lay between China and south India. Indian merchants
The conflict was less serious during the reign of in Shirivijaya territory were threatened by the
Kulottunga I (1070-1118), probably because of the rulers (something like the threat of nationalisation
fact that his mother was a Chalukya. As comparative today). As the interest of the Indian merchants
peace prevailed during his time, there was a spurt were involved, the Chola king decided to attack
in the commerce of the Chola empire including the Shrivijaya kingdom. The naval expedition of
the overseas trade. That is why Kulottunga sent a Rajendra I was a success. It led to the occupation
mission of merchants in 1077 to China. of a number of strategic place along the straits of
Rajendra Chola’s ambition was not confined Molucca.
within the narrow limits of southern India. Like the Rajadhiraja I (c. 1044-1055 A.D.), Rajendra
Rashtrakutas, he too, directed his armies towards Chola’s son and successor, was also an able ruler.
the north and won one of the most remarkable He suppressed rebellions in the Pandyan and Kerala
campaigns in Indian history. His army marched territories as well as in Ceylon, and celebrated his
as far as the Ganges and overran the dominions victory by performing an ashvamedha ceremony. But
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his hostility towards the western Chalukya monarch, Thus, it was during the third quarter of the
Someswara I Ahavamalla, ended in disaster: he 13th century, Chola power was on the decline.
lost his life in the battle of Koppam (A.D. 1052). His The neighbouring powers grew at the expense of
brother, Rajendra II (c. 1052-1064 A.D.) was crowned the Chola empire. When the Cholas destroyed the
on the battlefield. He continued the struggle against Chalukya power, it recoiled on them because the
Somesvara. The same story was repeated in the reign feudatories of the Chalukyas soon attacked the
of Vira Rajendra (c. 1064-1070 A.D.), who is said to Chola kingdom the Yadavas, the Hoyasalas and the
have severely defeated Somesvara in the battle of Kaktiyas. The Yadavas did not figure in the Chola
Kudal-Sangaman. He also defeated Vikramaditya II, history as their interest was confined to the north.
Somesvara’s younger son, and restored his obedient On the other hand, the two other powers took away
allay Vijayaditya II to the throne of Vengi. Then, he chunks of Chola territory. Out of these two, the
subdued a few rebellions in the Pandyan and Kerala Hoyasalas delivered deadly blows. Meantime, the
territories. Finally, the Chola monarch sent a naval Pandyas of Madurai rose in the south. That is how
expedition to the East Indies. the Chola power came to an end.
After Vira Rajendra’s death, there was confusion Administrative, Cultural and Colonial
in the Chola kingdom, resulting in the death of his Achievements of the Cholas
son, Adhirajendra, and usurpation of the throne
The four hundred years of Chola authority in
by Kulottunga I (c. 1070-1122 A.D.), who was a Southern India constitutes an extraordinary period
descendant of two great southern dynasties, the in the political, literary and cultural history of India.
Cholas and the Chalukyas. He united the Chola and And at one place, Nilakanta Sastri says, “The age
eastern Chalukya kingdoms under one scepter.Vengi of the Imperial Cholas (A.D. 850 to 1200) was the
became a province of the Chola kingdom, and it golden age of the Tamil literature”. Moreover, the
was henceforth usually governed by princes of the Cholas were the first Indian rulers to appreciate the
royal blood. Like his Chola predecessors, Kulottunga value of naval power and also undertake an oceanic
suppressed rebellions in the Pandya and Kerala policy which was both political and commercial.”
territories. He fought against the Paramaras of Malwa The first aspect to be taken up is the achievement
and twice overan Kalinga. But he failed to maintain of the Cholas in the field of colonisation.The authority
his hold on Gangavadi (southern Mysore) where of the Sailendras was disputed by the Cholas in the
the Hoysalas gradually attained prominence. It is eleventh century. Rajendra Cholas began a hundred-
years war with the Sailendras. The Chola empire was
probable that he lost the overseas possessions of
extended even to the Malayan peninsula. At one
the Cholas. Kulottunga is still remembered as an time, they established bases in Nicobar and acquired
administrative reformer. One of his most remarkable territory on the coast of Malaya. In the 13th century,
achievements was the excellent arrangement made the Sailendras even invaded Ceylon. Much cannot
by him for conducting a survey of the land for be said about the colonising activities of the Cholas,
taxation and revenue purposes. but it is matter of singular credit to have controlled
Kulottunga was followed by a succession of the territories which are separated by not less than a
thousand miles.
weak rulers who failed to keep intact the extensive

Chola empire. Ceylon, Kerala and the Pandya True, their warfare with the Sailendras, which
kingdom gradually shook off the authority of the drained the resources of the empire, was no doubt,
Cholas. In the reign of Rajaraja III (circa A.D. 1266), in part, responsible for the final breakdown of the
Chola power; but it is interesting to note that the
Tanjore itself was sacked by the Pandya king. As the
empire successfully carried on an oceanic policy
power of the Cholas began declining, the Hoysalas, and carried a war across the seas stretching over
the Kaktiyas and the Pandyas divided the territories thousands of miles (not a mere twenty-three miles
among themselves. During the reign of Rajendra IV of water between Dover and Calais), and that too,
(A.D. 1246-1279), Jatavarman Sundra Pandya overran for a considerable period, apart from extending its
the Chola territory and occupied Kanchi. rule over Ceylon.
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The second aspect to be considered is the enjoyed full powers in all the departments of local
administrative system of the Cholas. The inscriptions administration. They owned the village lands;
of the Cholas furnish valuable information about collected taxes; disposed of petty criminal cases;
their administration. The emperor was the pivot and looked after primary education. All members
on which the whole administration revolved. The were elected by lot, and held office for only one
emperor discharged his onerous responsibilities year. The meetings of the assembly were held in a
with the advice and help of his ministers. As the temple or in a public hall.
central government was powerful, the kings took The Chola villages enjoyed considerable
pompous titles like Chakravartigal or emperor. The autonomy. Although the Chola officials participated
statues of the deceased rulers were worshipped. in the affairs of the village, they were more like
The building of temples were regarded as tributes observer and counsellors rather than administrators.
to dead kings. The running of the royal household Generally speaking, each village was administered
was very elaborate. Equality lavish was the royal by an assembly of the villagers. In larger villages,
patronage. The counterpart of the purohit of the there was more than one assembly, while a villager
north in the Chola empire was the rajguru. He was could be a member of more than one assembly. At
both the confident and confessor of the royal family. times, villages were divided into wards and each
Nilakanta Sastri says, “The Chola kingship reached ward had its own assembly. Some of the assemblies
its gorgeousness equal to the Byzantine monarchs.” had representatives. Although the villages were
The empire, for the sake of convenience, self-sufficient entities both in economic and
was divided into provinces. The most important administrative matters, quite an amount of territory
of them were presided over by viceroys. To check was under the feudations. The feudatories collected
the disintegrating forces within the empire, some the revenue and paid a part of it to the king as share.
of the provinces were entrusted to princes of the These feudatories worked through the assemblies.
royal blood. There were principalities under vassal Large townships had their own autonomous
chiefs who paid tribute and rendered military service administration and they are designed as tarkurrams.
in time of war, just like the feudal subordinates in One such town was Uttaramerur. It was inscribed
Europe.The province was designated mandalam.The on the orders of one Raja-Malla-Mangala-Priyan. It
province was split into divisions known as Kottam or throws immense light on the working of the sabha.
Valanadu. They were further sub-divided and were This particular village had 30 wards. Each ward elected
known as districts or nadus, each district composed one person who was known for his knowledge of
of a group of villages called Kurram. At the base of mantras and brahamanas, owned a house, aged
the administrative system was the village. In this above 35 and paid land taxes. The inscription
administrative system, the most remarkable feature enumerates more number of qualifications for
was the popular assembly known as sabha. Different the selection of these persons. While laying down
types of assemblies existed in the various units of prohibitions, the inscriptions states that a person
nadu, kurram and grama. There are references to who was guilty of killing brahmins, drinking alcohol,
the assembly of the people of a whole province. theft, adultery and associated with the criminals,
Districts and towns (nagram) had their should not be chosen. Regarding the regular process
own assemblies. A little information is, however, of election, the inscription state that the name
available about the constitution and functions of should be written on tickets. After the tickets were
the assemblies. But the assemblies of the villages dropped, they should be put in a pot. After the tickets
were of various types. In the Ur variety, the local were drawn, a full meeting of the great assembly
people assembled to discuss important matters should be summoned including the young and the
without any formal rules or procedures to be old. The temple priests should be present. The tickets
adhered to. The Sabha or the mahasabha was an should be taken out by an arbitrator and it should
assembly of the brahmin villagers. It was assisted be read by all the priests present. Then each ticket
by a number of committees. Under the supervision should be chosen for the annual committees. Twelve
and general control of the royal officials the sabha of them should constitute the garden committees
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and remaining six form the tank committee. All these architecture also reached great heights. The best
men shall hold office for full one year. While holding example is furnished by the Siva temple at Tanjore,
the office of membership, they could be removed built by Rajaraja the Great. The great Sikhara (dome)
from office if found guilty of any offence. Accounts consisting of fourteen storeys, rises to a height of 190
were maintained by an arbitrator. Ultimately, the feet and is crowned by a massive dome consisting
inscription states that all these arrangements are of a single block of stone weighing eighty tons. The
made for the prosperity of the village in order that best examples of Chola architecture are the huge
wicked men might perish and the rest may prosper. temples of Tanjore, Chidambaram (famous for its
Some other inscriptions found in the Chola region massive gopuram) and Gangaikonda-Cholapuram
are almost the same except for small variations in (the new capital built by Rajendra Chola). The figure-
matters of qualifications and spending of money. sculptures in some of the temples are excellent.
With regard to the Chola taxation system, the The chief features of the temples are the vimanas
method was the traditional one. The major source of or towers, which were later eclipsed by the richly
revenue was the land-tax which consisted of one- ornamented gopurams or gateways. It is well said
sixth of the produce. Periodical surveys of the land that the Cholas perfected the Dravidian style of
were carried out. The other sources of revenue were architecture pioneered by the Pallavas. Fergusson
the various duties, taxes on animals, tanks oil-mills, says, “The Chola artist conceived like giants and
etc. “The cultivated lands were carefully surveyed finished like jewellers.”
and all holdings were properly registered at least They were also great builders of works of
a century before the famous Doomsday record of public utility. They undertook extensive and fruitful
William the Conqueror.” Land revenue was one-sixth irrigation works, built excellent road and cities. The
but petty imposts were great many. According to artificial lake by Rajendra Chola near Gangaikonda
K.N. Sastri, the levy could be as high as one-third in Cholapuram was sixteen miles in length, and with
reality. Payments could be made in gold currency stone sluices and channels. In the construction of
called Kasu, or in kind. The latter was preferred. dams, the Cholas used huge blocks of dressed stone,
Tenancy was of two kinds. In some villages which were thrown across the river, Kaveri, and
land was collectively owned by all the people. others. In all the cities built by them, the temple
Such villages paid revenue as corporate entities. was the focal point. Writing on these achievements,
Whenever land was held private property, the owner Panikkar says: “The great works of irrigation were
paid his tax to the King’s officers or the assembly. undertaken by successive kings which made the
The assessment was pre-fixed. It was mostly paid Cauvery delta a granary of the empire.”
in kind. In addition to the land-owners, there was a In the educational and literary field also, the
large number of working men. These working men Chola achievements are commendable. In addition
had no say in low castes; they were not permitted to colleges, mass education based on the epics and
to enter the temples. They were often employed for the Puranas was imparted through discourses in
the reclamation of waste land, clearing of forests and temples. Many inscriptions testify to the existence
the building of temples. The state’s major source of of institutions catering to higher education inclusive
revenue was the land tax. Apart from this, the state of medical science. Sibakasin damani, a great Tamil
secured some revenues from mines, forests, custom classic, was composed in this period. More than
duties, judicial fines and the equivalent in forced the growth of Tamil classics, the age witnessed the
labour. As the land-tax was pre-fixed, a survey of Ramayana of Kambar. Besides these, two books
the land was carried out. The average holding was were written on versification and grammar. Books
not very large. in Sanskrit were very few.
With regard to the Chola achievements With regard to religion, the Cholas were
in the field of arts, much can be said. The Chola brahminical Hindus and mostly devoted to the worship
bronsed are well-reputed. The Nataraja bronsed of Siva. Some of them, like Rajaraja, built temples
are masterpieces of this medium of art. Temple dedicated to Vishnu; but Kulottunga I’s hostility
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toward Vaishnavism compelled the celebrated of the towns that came to be founded in this period
vaishnava reformer, Ramanuja, to seek shelter in like Mahabalipuram, Javeripatnam, Shaliyur, and
the Hoysala territories. Jainism and Buddhism were on the east coast, Quilon, continued to play an
on the decline, but some Buddhist monasteries important role in future ages.
received gifts from the Chola kings. However, the Trade reached an unprecedented volume
royal gifts were normally monopolised by Brahmins. with regard to China. As the state became such an
Finally, there appears to be a peculiar slant in the important element in the relationship between India
Hinduism as professed and patronised by the and China, in the latter country it became a state
Cholas. Dr. Tripathi opines. “It is noteworthy that monopoly. It is also stated that an Indian settlement
there are scanty references (except in the poems came into existence in the mainland opposite to
of the Sangam period) to the performance of Vedic Formosa. The exports from south India were textiles,
sacrifices by Chola kings. Indeed, the solitary allusion spices, drugs, jewels, ivory and ebony. Almost the
to the Asvamedha occurs in the record of Rajadhiraja. same commodities were exported to the west. An
Perhaps greater stress was laid on Dana (gift) than interesting feature in the imports of India was the
on yajna or sacrifices.” horse. Apart from it, trade played an important part
In this manner, the Chola history is of in the Chola economy. In all probability the kings
extraordinary importance in the history of Southern and merchants invested money in it.
India. Their history brings out the truth that Indian The brisk increase in trade was facilitated by
civilisation was not confined to the Indian continent the developments in the economic organisation
alone but it spread to south-east Asia also. Their of the Chola kingdom. Merchant guilds controlled
architectural achievements are still a matter of the trade, which were known by the name of
wonder. Taking all these things into account, we manigraman and the valanjiyar. These were the
can say that the Chola history constitutes the last associations formed by merchants to look after
of the chapters in the history of Hindu India. their own interests. The guilds of local merchants
Life During the Times of the Cholas were known by the name of nagaram. Some of the
merchant guilds were so rich as to purchase entire
The territory that was under Chola rule
villages and donate them to temples. Although
(heartland being Tamil land) experienced such a
state of civilisation and culture that their standards there is no recorded evidence that the kings were
continued to government the succeeding responsible for looking after the interest of the
generations. In other words, the Chola history merchant guilds, it is almost certain that the kings
constitutes the classical age of south India. looked after the interests of them as borne out by
the war that was waged by Rajendra I against the
The life led by the people was simple. Although Sialendras of the Srivijya kingdom.
economic activity was brisk, the amenities of life
were a few. The brisk economic activity was felt As the economic activity was very brisk, the
in the overseas trade also. Apart from this, the institution of promissory notes came into vogue. The
requirements of the people were also a few. This use of coins also was very extensive and brisk. There
view of life (simple living) persisted through the was unrestricted circulation of gold coins. From the
coming ages as the standard or norm by which 11th century onwards these coins were debased.
the thinking and conduct of an individual is to be By the end of the Chola period, copper coins had
judged. greater circulation. Nevertheless, in the rural areas it
During the Chola period, the village was was barter that prevailed for acquiring articles, and
the focal point of both economy and political the unit of exchange was a measure of rice.
organisation. The village were self-sufficient in food Apart from this brisk economic activity, the
and clothing. They had their own craftsmen to cater temple was the centre of life. In spirit, the temple
to their daily needs. It was only by the end of the 11th still constitutes the focal point of Tamil culture and
century that towns grew because of developments life. The temple was either built by the king, or by
in industry, and thereby trade and commerce. Some the guilds of merchantmen, or by the villagers. The
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way in which the temples were maintained is worth temple priests. The scholars assembled in the
noting. In all probability, the temple at Tanjore was precincts of the temple to decide the point of
the richest because it had an income of 500 pounds controversy. To some extent the Buddhist and Jain
of gold, 250 pounds of precious stones and 600 monasteries also provided education carrier. Apart
pounds of silver. The rich wealth of this Tanjore from these three important centres, colleges were
temple was acquired through donations. The temple also there in the days of the Cholas. In the education
also had a large staff. It maintained 400 devadasis, of the day Sanskrit occupied the pride of place.
(women meant for entertaining), 57 musicians and The vernaculars were neglected. The knowledge
readers of scriptures and 212 attendants, apart of various professions was imparted through the
from hundreds of priests. The devadasi system guilds. However, the language of the land, Tamil, had
was prevalent in most of the temples of the Chola its own development without any royal patronage.
period. The talented amongst them were trained as Some of the writings in Tamil language like Kamban’s
the performers of Bharatanatyam dance. Soon, the Ramayana and the writings of the Pugalendi and
system was abused as the devadasis were treated Jayangondur are of considerable standing.
as prostitutes and their earnings were collected In matters of religion, brahminism was the
by the temple authorities. On the other hand, the chief belief of the people to start with. This religion
courtesans of the town had a more respectable came to be firmly established during the Pallava
position. They could defy the social conventions. period and it reached its climax during the Chola
However, the vast majority of women were nothing period. As expected the climax of brahminism led
but chattels. to the developments of various other sects during
The next important feature in the life of the later half of the Chola period. The mystical sects
the people was the caste system. The Brahmins like the tantric and the shakta cults appeared in the
stood apart from the rest of the community, while Chola territory. There were a few more other cults
occupying a vantage position both in economic and like Kapalikas, Kalamukhas and Pashupatas. Some
political field.The southern Brahmin was the religious of them performed sacrifices involving blood and
leader. He was very often exempt from taxes. In early sexual orgies. For example, the Kalamukhas carried
southern history, Brahmins represented an alien the skull of human beings from which they ate their
culture; but in the Chola period they constituted the food and along with it they carried a pot of wine
most privileged part of the community. Some of the and a club. Some of the people who joined the ranks
invested their money in trade and commerce of the of these religious sects did so as a mark of protest
day and some even journeyed to south-east Asia. against the domination of brahmins.
As the Brahmins constituted the most powerful Apart form these developments, the later
section of the community, the rest of the community period experienced the emergence of the Lingayats
(non-brahmins) occupied a lower status in society. It or Virashaivas. They became prominent in the 12th
is interesting to note that the mention of Kshatriyas, century. Their founder was one Basavaraya. The
Vaishyas and Sudras is very negligible in the available followers of this sect attacked religious hypocrisy;
record of Cholas. Amongst Sudras there was further and they worshipped Shiva in the form of lingam
sub-division, those whose touch was not polluting or phallic emblem. They encouraged some social
and those whose touch was polluting. practices which were disapproved of by brahmins,
Apart from the caste degradation, slavery such as post-puberty marriages and widow
was also present. It appears that both men and remarriages. The later Chola period also witnessed
women were sold as slaves. Some of them were the Vaishnava philosopher, Ramanuja. He disagreed
sold to the temples. Fortunately, this practice was with Sankara in so many ways. According to Sankara,
not institutionalised. Jana Marga was only one of the ways of attaining
Coming to education, we notice that the salvation. However, Ramanuja attributed love to
temple once again figures as an important aspect God. A devotee can reach Him. In emphasising on
of Chola life. It was common to be taught by the the individual’s relationship with God through love,
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he struck an entirely different note. In later ages the 3. Most of the features of the early chola
preachings of Ramanuja became the starting point architecture can be spotted in the later
for the bhakti movement. architectural monuments which were the
In the field of architecture, too, the Chola period temples only. The two temples of Tanjavur
witnessed a new development and perfection. The and Gangaikondacholapuram are evident
Chalukyas laid stress on hewing temples out of rocks of the maturity and splendor of the Chola
but the Cholas concentrated on free-standing stone architecture.
structures. The size of the temples grew under their 4. Improvements were made on the styles of
auspices. The gateways or gopurams of temples these temples later on like, the ‘torus moulding’
replaced the shikharas in ornamentation. As for in the basement, which was rounded and then
example, the Meenakashi temple at Madurai and had a smooth surface, though in a few cases
the Shirarangam temple. it is ornamented with vertical grooves or ribs.
More important that architecture was the 5. The ‘makaratoranas’ become tall with narrow
development of bronze sculpture. These are reverse curves on each side. Other features like
regarded as masterpieces in the field of sculpture. the ‘kumbhapanjaras’ were also developed and
These sculptural pieces are mostly kept in the inner carried on top over the abacus, the structure
shrine of the temple if they are those of donors of a ‘panjara’. The ‘phalaka’ also transformed to
and saints. thinner types and the padma below it, which
In this manner, life during the time of the Cholas was inverted and smooth in earlier, later had
was a watershed in the history of southern culture. petals.
True, classical age means the age that witnessed Village Communities in the South
standards in literature and art; but when we give a
The vast majority of the people lived in
liberal interpretation to the term, we should include
villages. Their main occupation was agriculture.
the whole way of life because culture is nowadays
Great prestige was attached to ownership of land.
described as the worthy part of the life of a people;
Everyone, irrespective of his occupation, aimed at
from this standpoint (liberal interpretation) the
having a small piece of land which he could call his
Chola period definitely constitutes the classical age
own. The village was, thus, essentially a settlement
of southern India because the standards set up in
of peasants and its assembly an association of
the social field (temple as the focus of attention and
landowners, big and small. Besides the landowners,
the superiority of brahmins), the development in
there was a fairly large class of landless labourers
architecture and sculpture, the literary traditions (the
who helped in the agricultural operations and
developments in Tamil language), the importance
shared the proceeds of agriculture. Some of them
of the village autonomy and the importance of the
were in a condition of serfdom. All of them had less
tanks, constitute the warp and woof of the culture
to do with the management of local affairs than
and civilisation of Tamil land till today.
the landowners.
Development of Architecture under Cholas The artisans of the village had shares from
1. The Cholas were great pioneers in temple the common land of the villages, which were of the
building; they incorporated characteristics nature of retainers of inducements to them to stay

of the Pallava temple-building traditions. A in the village and ready to take up work as it came
large number of temples were built al through to them. The wage for each work was a matter of
their kingdom, which carried the significance separate negotiation between the parties.
of the Dravidian temple design. There was also a staff of menial servants from
2. Architectural trend that followed during the the outcastes. These were also rewarded by shares in
Chola rule, consisted mostly of the temple the common land.
architecture. And it got hype from the Day labour was usually paid in grain. Even the
conquests and the genius of Rajaraja Chola small peasant was ready to hire himself out in his
and his son Rajendra Chola I. spare time.
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Tenancy cultivation was quite common the purpose was known but was not usual. Local
particularly on lands belonging to temples and other dues levied by assembly and temples was a strain
corporation institutions. The terms of tenancy were on the peasant.
fixed either by the terms on the original endowment Closely associated with agriculture was cattle-
or by separate negotiations in each case. Very often raising and dairy farming. Land was set apart for
such tenants had rights which made them more or pasture. The tendency to hoard wealth was not
less part-owners of the land they cultivated. a characteristic of this period. For most members
For taxation and other purposes a distinction of a village community there was little wealth to
was made between garden-land, including flower- hoard. The village was economically self-sufficient. It
gardens and orchards, in the neighbourhood of provided its own food and clothing and had enough
capital cities, wetland, dryland and forestland. craftsmen to attend to its needs.
Wetlands were further divided into several grades The most striking feature of the village
according to their natural fertility. Besides cultivating communities, was the efficient functioning of the
food grains and pulses on both wet and dry land, autonomous rural institutions. A highly developed
intensive flower and vegetable cultivation and committee system (Variyars) for the administration
the raising of commercial crops like cotton and of local affairs was evolved. The constitutional
sugarcane were widely practised. The Chalukya arrangements of the village communities were
records mention black land and red land in addition often revised to evolve improved methods of
to the usual wetland, garden land, and waste land. administration in the light of experience.
The importance of irrigation was well
Condition of Women
understood. Dams were erected across streams and
channels taken off from them wherever possible. As regards the position of the wife, the Smiriti
Large tanks were excavated to serve areas where Commentaries and digests of this period follow
there were no natural streams. Steps were taken to more or less the line laid down in the Smritis. “The
ensure their proper maintenance. Reclamation of husband and other male relations, to begin with,
waste land and the clearing of forest was a regular must so arrange things that the wife never becomes
part of the peasants and labourers work. This was independent”. The wife must also be guarded not
encouraged by the government since the increase of only against physical but also against mental
land under cultivation meant an increase in revenue. unchastity for the sake of her offspring.
Special facilities and tax concessions were offered The laws relating to the supersession and
for extension of agriculture for specified periods to abandonment of the wife are repeated in the Smiriti-
people who reclaimed land and brought it under Chandrika after the fashion of the old Smritis with a
cultivation for the first time. strong tendency to emphasise some points in her
The prosperity of the peasants depended not favour. The wife, we are told, may be superseded
only on seasons but also on the conditions of tenure on a number of specified grounds. Nevertheless,
and on the tax collecting agency. Tenant conditions the husband in some cases (as when the wife is
were probably easier on lands set apart for religious suffering from a chronic disease but is devoted to
and charitable uses and of which temples, maths her husband’s welfare) has to ask her permission, and
and Brahmanas were the landlords. But where in other cases (as when she is barren or produces
rights were assigned to high officials and nobles dead children or female children alone) he has to
or where the collection of tax was framed, both the wait for shorter or longer periods of time. Even if
rate of tax and the manner of collecting might have the superseded wife angrily leaves her husband
pressed hard on the peasants. Even under liberal and is accordingly made over to her relatives, she
administration of the Imperial Cholas, there were must be maintained by him.
complaints of tax-gather’s oppressive methods. If the rulers in the Smriti-Chandrika, thus,
Land tax was generally assessed at one-third of ensure the wife’s right to maintenance in case of
the produce. Permanent assessment of land for her supersession, they provide for her residence in
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her husband’s house as well as her maintenance temples, priests and religious functions. Numerous
even in the event of her committing adultery. When inscriptions refer to the grant of cash or goods by
the wife is guilty of slight adultery, she must be merchants for these purposes. Some merchants
maintained, though deprived of conjugal rights, till became very influential and joined the ranks of state
her performance of a penance. The commentaries officials and ministers. A tenth century inscription
and the digests repeat the old rules relating to the refers to a merchant of Modha caste who was the
religious and social inferiority of women. chief of Sanja (near Thane) in Maharashtra. In Gujarat,
The woman’s right to inherit the property the merchant family of Vimala played an important
of her male relations is emphatically maintained role in the political and cultural life of the region.
by Smirit-Chandrika. The widow, it is emphatically He and his descendants, Vastupala and Tajapala,
maintained, is entitles to succeed to the whole estate occupied important ministerial positions at the
of her sonless deceases husband provided she is court and are known for building the famous marble
chaste and the property was divided at the time of temples dedicated to Jaina gods at Mount Abu. A
his death. We have a number of instances showing thirteenth century inscription from central Gujarat
how queens and princesses, in the face of the Smriti reveals that many important merchants, traders
doctrine of the perpetual dependence of women, and artisans were a part of the local administrative
sometimes exercised a commanding influence upon bodies.
the administration of the state. In Kashmir, Suryamati, Character and Conduct of Traders: The foreign
queen of Ananta, rose to be the de facto ruler of authors and travellers such as Al-Idrisi (Twelfth
the kingdom and ended up by persuading the king century) and Marco Polo (thirteenth century) praise
against the judgement of his wisest counsellors to Indian traders for their truthfulness and honesty in
abidicate in favour of their unworthy son. business dealings. But in the contemporary Indian
The political influence of royal ladies can literature, we come across many instances of greedy
be traced during this period, especially in the and dishonest merchants. The Kashmiri author,
records of the Deccan and south India. Princesses Kshemendra, refers to a typically selfish merchant
became governors of provinces and held minor who used to feel overjoyed at the approach of a
administrative charges under the Western Chalukya famine or some other calamity because he could
dynasty of Kalyana. In the latter half of the thirteenth expect good money on his hoarded foodgrains. A
century, Queen Ballamahadevi of the Alupa dynasty text of the eleventh century from Western India,
(in Dakshina Kannada district) ruled for at least divides merchants in two main classes—on the basis
fourteen years (Saka 1201-14) with the masculine of their position and character—high and low. It
titles of Maharajadhiraja, Parabalasadhaka, and so points out that rich merchants who indulged in large
forth. The Kakatiya queen Rudramba, bearing the scale sea or land trade enjoyed great reputation
male name of Rudradevamaharaja, ruled the kakatiya while small merchants such as hawkers, retailers,
kingdom for nearly forty years, and her conspicuous etc. who cheated people by using false weights and
success won the admiration of the contemporary measures were looked down upon in society. It also
Venetain traveller Marco Polo. In the light of such includes artisans in the list of dishonest people. It
may, however, be noted that some of these views
evidence of the political influence of women in the

Deccan and south India, it is interesting to observe reflect the contemporary feudal tendency in which
that the advent of the Sena dynasty of Kannada persons working with their own hands and resources
origin into Bengal brought with it a significant were considered low in society.
change in the practice of royal land grants so as to The merchants derived their power and
include the queen in the list of the king’s informants. prestige not only from wealth but also from the
guilds or associations formed by them to protect
Trade and Commerce their interests. In the first phase, the decline of trade
As growth of trade brought economic weakened the corporate activity of merchants, and
prosperity to merchants, they sought to gain social many of the guilds were reduced to mere regional
prestige by participating in the maintenance of or occupational sub-castes. But as trade revived in
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the second phase, merchant guilds reappeared as his economic activities and was, thus, saved from
an important feature of the contemporary economic the harassment of local officials. Unlike a hawker
life. or vendor, he had greater credibility in the market
Guilds: What was a merchant guild? How did on account of his membership of the guild. Thus, in
it function? What were the benefits which accrued spite of the fact that guild-chiefs tended to be rude
to its members? These are important questions and authoritative at times, the merchants found
to be answered. Well the guilds were voluntary guilds an important means of seeking physical and
associations of merchants dealing in the same type economic protections.
of commodity such as grains, textiles, betel leaves, The digests and commentaries of the period
horses, perfumes, etc. They were formed by both refer to the corporate body of merchants by
local as well as itinerant merchants. The associations various terms, such as naigama, shreni, samuha,
of local merchants having permanent residence sartha, samgha, etc. The naigama is described as
in town was more permanent in nature than the an association of caravan merchants of different
association of itinerant merchants which was formed castes who travel together for the purpose of
only for a specific journey and was terminated at carrying on trade with other countries. Shreni,
the end of each venture. according to Medhatithi, was a group of people
The guilds framed their own rules and following the same profession such as that of traders,
regulations regarding the membership and the moneylenders, artisans, etc. thought some authors
code of conduct. They fixed the prices of their goods considered it to be a group of artisans alone. The
and could even decide that specific commodity was Lekhapaddhati indicates that a special department
not to be sold on a particular day by its members. called the Shreni-karana was constituted by the
They could refuse to trade on a particular day by its kings of western India to look after the activities
members. They could refuse to trade in a particular of the guilds of merchants and artisans in their
area, if they found the local authorities hostile or region. Another text, Manasollasa, reveals that many
uncooperative. The guild merchants also acted as merchants guilds maintained their own troops
the custodians of religious interests. The inscriptions (shrenibala) for personal safety. Inscriptions too refer
refer to numerous instances when they collectively of to the corporate activity of merchants. An inscription
religious interests. The inscriptions refer to numerous from western India refers to vanika-mandala which
instances when they collectively agreed to pay an was probably a guild of local merchants.
additional tax on the sale and purchase of their goods Guilds in south India: The expansion of
for the maintenance of temples or temple functions. agriculture and the growth of trade from tenth
The guild normally worked under the century led to the emergence of many merchant
leadership of a chief who was elected by its members. guilds or organisations in south India too. The
He performed the functions of a magistrate in inscriptions refer to these organisation often as
deciding the economic affairs of the guild. He could samaya, i.e. an organisation born out of an agreement
punish, condemn or even expel those members who or contract among its members to follow a set of
violated the guild rules. One of his main duties was rules and regulations.
to deal directly with the King, and settle the market The two most important merchant guilds
tolls and taxes on behalf of his fellow merchants. of south India were known as the Ayyavole and
The growth of corporate activity enable guild-chiefs the Manigraman. Geographically, the area of their
to consolidate their power and position in society, operation corresponded to the present day state
and many of them acted as the representative of of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and South
their members on the local administrative councils. Andhra Pradesh. The Chola kings from the tenth
A member of the guild worked under a strict century onwards made a concerted effort to trade
code of discipline and was also robbed of some and commerce through trade missions, maritime
initiative or action but still he enjoyed numerous expeditions, abolition of tolls etc. It greatly increased
benefits. He received full backing of the guild in all the activities of these guilds which were involved in
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not only inter-regional but also inter-oceanic trade A ninth century Tamil inscription found at Takua Pa
across the Bay of Bengal. on the West coast of Malaya, indicates that it was
The merchant guild called Ayyavole was also engaged in the long distance sea trade from the
known as the guild of “the 500 Swami of Aihole” very beginning.
nanadeshi. While some have argued that such Anjuvannam was another body of merchants
organisations were primarily traders in various in south India, which probably represented an
types of merchandise and not a single unified association of foreign merchants, and not a group
corporation of merchants, a detailed study of of five communities or castes as some scholars
Kannada Ayyavole shows that the association believe. Like the Manigramam, it also began its
formed small and workable federations extending commercial activity along the Kerala coast in the
over a district or two. The organisation might have eight or ninth century, and gradually spread out to
had an initial membership of 500. But there is no other coastal areas of south India by the eleventh
denying the fact that with the growth of trade and century. It interacted both with local merchants as
commerce, the Vira Banajas (representing the trading well as the Ayyvole and Manigramam organisations.
guild of Ayyavole) operated on a trans-regional The importance acquired by trading guilds is
plane and had developed deep socio-economic apparent in the conscious attempt to trace exalted
interests between the ninth and fifteenth centuries. genealogies of traders of various corporations. The
They spread from bhalvani (in Sangli district in Vira Bangajas of the Ayyvole, for instance, are said
Maharashtra) in the north to Kayalpattinam (in Tamil to have been born in the race of Vasudeva and their
Nadu) in the South. The number “five hundred”, also qualities are compared with those of various epic
became conventional as the guild became a much heroes. A typical prashasti (panegyric) of the Vira
larger body and drew its members from various Bananjas may be seen in the following description
regions, religious and castes. It is in this context
found in the Kolhapur stone inscription of the
that the term nandeshi came to be used for this
Shilahar King Gandarditya dated in A.D. 130:
organisation.
“Hail! They who are adored by a multitude
In course of outward expansion, the members
of numerous virtues obtained by following the
of the Ayyavole guild interacted with the local religion of the five hundred Heroic Men renowed
markets called nagaram, and promoted commercial in the whole world; who are virtuous by reason
activity by collecting agricultural goods from the of the maintenance of the code of the heroic.
hinterland and distributing the goods brought from Bananjas consisting of truthfulness, pure conduct,
elsewhere. The commercial influence of Ayyavole agreeable behaviour, political wisdom, courtesy and
spread even beyond south India. It is indicated mercantile knowledge ...... who are exalted with their
by the inscriptions found at Burma, Java, Sumatra unfailing adventurous spirit who are born in the
and Sri Lanka. As the mercantile activities of race of Vasudeva, Khandali and Mulabhadra who
Ayyavole increased, some of its members became are invincible when they fight; who are like Brahma
quite rich and powerful, and acquired the title of in respect of proficiency of the sixty four arts; like
samaya chakravarti, i.e. the emperor of the trading Narayana in the possession of Chakra; like Rudra,
organisation. It may suggest that as in the North, who is the fire of the world destruction in slaying
certain individual merchants in South too were their opponents by their gaze who are like Rama
trying to establish their control on the working of in perseverance; like Arjuna in valour; like Bhisma
guilds. in purity of conduct; like Bhima in adventurous
Another important merchant guilds of south spirit; like Yudhishitira in righteousness like Karna
India was the Manigraman. It first appeared along in charity and like the sun in brilliance”.
the Kerala coast in the ninth century A.D. However, In short, the vast trading network in south
as it gradually came into close contact with the India was controlled by a number of merchant
Ayyavole, it greatly improved upon its inter-regional organisations which worked in close cooperation
activities and covered a large part of the peninsula. and harmony with one another. The guild-chiefs,
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on account of their control on trade and trading gold coins was revived by Gangeyadera (A.D.
organisations, established close links with the royal 1019-1040); the Kalacuri King of Tripuri (in Madhya
houses and enjoyed great name and fame in the Pradesh) after a gap of more than four centuries.
society. Govindachandra, the Gahadavala king near Varanasi
in Uttar Pradesh, the Chandella rulers Kirttivarman
Problem of Coinage
and Madanavarman in Central India, King Harsha
The revival of trade received considerable of Kashmir and some Chola Kings in Tamil Nadu
help from the re-emergence of metal money during also issued gold coins. Reference has already been
the centuries under discussion. There is, however, made above to certain early medieval coin types
substantial discussion about the degree and level in Western and North-western India. According to
of monetisation. Very often the contenders of one estimate, about nine mints were founded in
the penetration of money in the market invoke different parts of Karnataka during the twelfth and
literary and inscriptional references to numerous thirteenth century. An important mint functioned
terms purporting to described various types of at Shrimol (near Jodhpur) in Rajasthan.
coins of early medieval India. Thus texts such as As far as the actual role of metal money is
Prabandhachintamani, Lilavati, Dravyapariksha, concerned, the little work that has been done on a
Lakhapaddhati, etc. mention bhagaka, rupaka, regional basis, does not help us to prove the deep
vimshatika, karshapana, dinar, dramma, nishka, penetration of money. Despite the plethora of
gadhaiya-mudra, gadyanaka, tanka, and may references to coins, the evidence of overall volume
other coins with their multiples. No less prolific of money in circulation is almost negligible. Nor
are inscriptional references. For example, the can one overlook the poor purchasing power of
Siyadoni inscription alone refers to varieties of the early medieval coins, irrespective of the metal
drammas in the mid-tenth century. The Paramara, used. All coins of the period were highly debased
Chalukya, Chahmana, Pratihara, Pala, Candella and and reduced in weight. Also, in terms of the rising
Chola inscriptions corroborate most of the terms population and expanding area of settlement, the
found in contemporary literature. There has also use of money seems to have been highly restricted.
been considerable speculation about the value The case study of early medieval Rajasthan shows
of the these coins, their metal content and their that the revival of trade, multiplication of exchange
relationship with one another. Nothing could be centres and markets and prosperity of merchant
more simplistic than to suggest the penetration families took place only with the help of “partial
of money in the market; simply on the basis of monetisation”.
listing of numismatic gleanings from a mixed bag Similarly, the cash nexus on the Western coast
of inscriptions and literature. We need to scrutinize (Konkan area), under the Shilaharas (c. A.D. 850-
the contexts of such references. Aspects requiring 1250), was also marketed by limited use of money.
detailed exploration are: The types and dominations of coins remained not
1. Whether references to coins are in the context only extremely localised but could not penetrate
of exchanges in the rural area or in the urban deep into the economic ethos. Masses were far
setting; away from handling of coins. The currency system
2. The types of exchange centres and the nature of south India, during A.D. 950-1330, also shows that
of “market” where such transactions take the transactions at all levels of the society were not
place; equally affected by coined money. For example, the
fabulous expenses reported to have been incurred
3. The personal involved in these transactions;
by the Pandyas as regular buyers of imported horses
and
cannot be thought in terms of what we know as
4. How far are the inscriptional references to very poor Pandyan currency. Barter was still an
coins only notional? important means of exchange in local inter-regional
As far as the actual specimens of coins are and perhaps even in inter-national commerce.
concerned, one can say that the practice of minting There are references which indicate the carvanas
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of merchants exchanged their commodities with These nobles had their and vices. They
those of other regions. According to one account, were magnanimous towards their enemies. They
horses imported from abroad were paid for not in respected women. They were generous towards
cash but in Indian goods which may have been silk, bards and beggars. They were reckless in gallantry.
spices or ivory. These Indian goods enjoyed constant They were so brave that they did not bother for their
demand in the markets all over the world. lives while fighting. However, they did not possess a
Though the revival of even “partial cool and calculating spirit. They desperately fought
monetisation” was contributing to economic growth, on battle-fields and wasted their time in their harems.
yet no less significant was the parallel development They were indulgent and indolent. They took pride
of credit instrument by which debits and credits in love-making and indulged in intrigues. Their forts
could be transferred without the handling of cash were the centres of life and culture.
money. In the texts of the period, we find references They cared very much for their dresses and
to a device called hundika or the bill of exchange liked ostentatious living. They filled their harems
which might have been used by merchants for with women from different regions and countries,
commercial transactions. Through this device, and they were very particular about the charms and
credit could be extended by one merchant to pleasures at their harems. The nobles enjoyed the
another and, thus, the obstacle to commerce due to company of their women in their private apartments,
shortage of coined money could be overcome. The retreats and swimming pools. They even visited the
Lakhapaddhati, a text which throws light on the life houses of the prostitutes. There are many books
of Gujarat in the twelfth-thirteenth centuries, refers in Sanskrit which deal with the life in taverns and
to various means of raising loan for consumption as brothels. Nobles could not live without women
well as commercial ventures through the mortgage and no wonder, they carried them even when they
of land, house and cattle. went to the front, Hemachandra has described a
military camp in these words: “The camp, in which
Society people slept with a longing go auspicious dreams,
It is rightly pointed out that regionalism, in which men, in whom sex passion was instantly
instability and chaos in the political and aroused, were keeping vigils, in which their fatigued
administrative structure of India were mainly by excessive sexual intercourse and their eyes sunk
due to the land system at that time. Land was by the exhaustion caused thereby, in which women
granted to military or administrative officers in caused an atmosphere of beauty by their sports, in
lieu of their service. The king granted land and which markets were open, in which warriors were
in return the recipient was required to provide free from the considerations of good and bad sleeps,
the king with troops and money. He was given was pleasant like the city of the Gandharvas.” Nobles
complete autonomy in the administration of his lives a life of luxury.
affairs. Those who received lands were independent Their halls were decorated with gold, jewels
in the administration of their affairs. They got the and embroideries. They collected a large number of
land cultivated from slaves, serfs and forced labour. dancers, musicians, bards, poets and dwarfs and wasted
All that they were required to do was to render a lot of their time in their company. Every noble had
military service and also pay a fixed amount. The the ambition to conquer the enemies, or rivals of his
Mahasamantas and Samantas were the mainstay of country. That resulted in regional rivalries and wards
the Government. That made the Government weak. which crippled the morale and strength of the country.
In the words of Arnold Hauser, “The King waged Every war brought a lot of havoc. The practice was to
war, but did not rule; the great land-owners ruled set fire to towns and villages and the result was that all
but no longer as officials and mercenaries, but as things except stones and pebbles were consumed by
independent lords. They constituted the master class fire.The Earth was strewn with fleshless skeletons and
claiming for itself all the prerogatives of Government, broken skulls. Darkened and emaciated by heat and
the whole administrative machine and all important hunder, people looked like burnt trunks of trees and
positions in the Army.” walked about with acute trouble. Every state was a war
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state and all the energies and resources of the people to put up with the pangs of hunger. They wore out
were directly towards war. The people were trained by degrees. Babbar, a poet of the 11th century A.D.,
for warfare from the beginning and no wonder, a sort of tells us that the cold winds and rains of winter sent
war-mania was created among the people. Everything a shudder through the frail limbs of the poor. They
led to a flight or war. Even a marriage procession was suffered not only from biting cold, but also from
turned into a battle-field. Common talks and jokes starvation. With empty bellies and sad hearts, they
resulted in duels and death and there could be no coiled their hands and feet and lapsed into silence.
political stability in such an atmosphere. On account Puspandanta, another poet, tells us that the pleasure
of their mutual jealousies, rivalries and conflicts, the or anger of death did not mean anything to the
nobles robbed the temples and fleeced the people. poor because their masters were mostly harsh and
They plundered the country. They showed utmost cruel to them. Maladhari Hemachandrasuri, who
brutality and boorishness in their actions. wrote in A.D. 1123, described the condition of the
The bureaucrats were head-strong, despotic poor in these words: “I have no money with me,
and corrupt as all the energy of the Government was whereas the people are making merry. My children
centred on wars and diplomacy. The civil servants weep. What should I give my wife? I have nothing
got full freedom to do whatever they pleased. Kalhan to offer (to the officials). My relatives are drunk
tells us that the civil servants were given to vice and with their riches; other rich men look down upon
behaved like demons. They cared more for acquiring me and do not even offer me a seat. Today there
wealth than for the good of the people. Kshmendra is nothing, not even ghee, oil, salt, fuel, cloth in my
refers to the tyranny, treachery and exactions of civil house. The earthen pot is empty. What will happen
to the family tomorrow? The daughter is aging! The
servants. The people groaned under the tyranny of
son is too young and cannot make money. The family
the civil servants and they were “swallowed by the
members are ill and I have no money for medicine.
office rather than death.”
The housewife is angry, many guests have come. The
The traders and merchants behaved in a very house is old and leaks, my wife quarrels, the king is
objectional manner. The only motive before them perverse, it is not possible to live any longer in this
was profit and the acquisition of more wealth. Kalhan country. May I go elsewhere? What should I blow?
refers to their sandal-covered fore-heads, eyelids, Which spell or cult should I practise? Or which God
ear-lobes and breasts, their needle-like narrow should I adore? My enemy is still alive, my God in
mouths, their methods adopted by them to exploit against me, the rich want their debts back, where
people, such as false weights and measures and should I go?”
balances, high rates of interest, etc. He refers to them Towards the end of the 8th century, a new
as the thieves of the day. They posed as religious religious movement was started by Rahulabhadra,
people, listened to lectures on religion, took long a Buddhist monk. Later on, he came to be known
bath on the occasion of eclipses and on other holy as Sarahapada. He was against the distinctions
days, but gave nothing by way of charity. There are between the high and the low people. His view was
references to merchants storing cereals, cotton, that the depressed and the degraded classes had a
salt and wood and charging high prices from their much sanctity as the privileged and high class. He
customers and also cheating them by using false advocated the cause of the poor and put emphasis
weights and measures. on their spiritual potentially and equality with other
The condition of the poor people was simply people. The movement started by Sarahapada
deplorable. Their income was very little and they appealed to the common people. A large number
were exploited by everybody. It was difficult for them of teachers and saints called Siddhas came to the
to make their both ends meet. The traders fleeced forefront. Some of them were prolific writers and
them and the officers got money out of them by versatile scholars. People of all the castes, creeds
beating them. Kshmendra tells us that the poor and professions became followers of the Siddhas.
people slept on the bare ground and were exposed However, they were more popular with the people
to the inclemencies of wind and weather. They had of the lower castes.
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Siddha Sarahapada or Sarouhavajra was the He always lived with a Kapala-woman and considered
founder of the Sahajayana school in Buddhism. wine as the remover of the meshes of the soul.
According to him, it was not necessary to renounce About the Natha-Yogins, Puspadanta says that
the world and one could lead a married life. they had multi-coloured caps on their heads. They
Perfection in life could be attained even while eating, had large drilled in their ears and ivory or metal
drinking and merry-making. Man should heartily rings dangled in them. They had long wands in their
dance, sing and enjoy. To quote Sarahapada, “O! hands. They had sheets of clothes of different colours
man, don’t leave the straight path and don’t take hanging in their necks. They put on wooden sandals.
to the curved way. The enlightenment is near at They went from door to door, blowing horns and
hand. Don’t be take yourself to the distant Lanka”. trumpets. Among them, the use of intoxicants like
According to Tadakapada, “O Yogin! act as you wine, Ganja and Dhatura was common.
believe and do not harbour any illusion about the
easy path.”The view of Laksminakara was:“There is There was a sect of Nilapata or Blue-clothes.
no need of undergoing suffering, observing fasts They always lived in embrace with women and
and performing rites or bathing or purification and publicly indulged in intercourse with them. If they
other rules of Society. Nor do you need to bow down were asked whether they were hale an hearty,
before the images of god which are prepared of their reply was: “How can a wearer of Blue-clothes
wood, stone or mud. But with concentration offer (Nilapata) be happy unless all the inmates of the
worship only to your body where all the gods reside.” world are turned into women, all the mountains
The Siddhas advocated a married life which was are turned into heaps of meat and all the rivers are
full of enjoyment and pleasure and did not believe turned into currents of wine.”
in the ideas of penance, austerity of renunciation. There was laxity of morals in the Vaisnava
They were also opposed to religious formalities and circles. The love affairs of Radha and Krishna were
pretensions. Their contention was that salvation was described in the most objectionable forms. Jayadeva
rather an inner discipline of the mind. The Siddhas described in detail the sexual love and erotic sports
did not believe in distinctions of castes and creeds. of Radha and Krishna in his Gitagovinda. It was
They considered the Brahmanas and Chandalas maintained that love with another woman was
as equals. They also made no distinction between better than love with one’s legally-wedded wife.
the learned and the illiterate. They stood for a life
The craze for sensual indulgence dominated
devoid of all the formalities. They did not believe in
the art. The view of Bhoja was that architects and
the extreme restraint of senses. According to them,
sculptors should decorate the monuments by figures
one could indulge in sensual pleasures without
of women engaged in sexual intercourse and that
being attached to them. The Buddhist Shahajiyas
of the heroes desirous of sex-play with slim damsels.
exercised a deep influence on the Vaisnava Sahajiya
U.N. Ghoshal tells us that the four thousand temples
movement of eastern India.
of Gujarat contained more than twenty thousand
In the Karpurmanjari of Rajasekhara, who dancing girls. Alberuni tells us that income from
flourished in the 10th century, we get an account prostitutes was enough to meet the expenses of
of the doctrines of Bhairavananda, a Saiva ascetic. the armies of the kings. Goetz says, “The life of the
The followers of the Kaula cult believed in courts, however, was luxurious, and this is shown in
the enjoyment of meat, drink and damsels without the different fashions. Like the courts, the temples
any restraint. Somasiddhanta put emphasis on the too had to be fashionable. If the great gods and
pleasure of intercourse with women and he called goddess loomed in inaccessible holiness, the host
that as eternal pleasure which was not alleviated by of heavenly nymphs (Apsaras, Surasundaris) and
any suffering. He wore a garment of human bones and minor deities (Gandharvas), accompying them, could
took his food in a human skull. He worshipped the god be shaped to the image of the court ladies and
Bhairava by offering oblations of human flesh with gentlemen. As the official religion became more
fat, intestine and cerebrum and pouring libations of superficial in the later middle ages, so did beautiful
human blood, gushing from the newly-severed head. young prostitutes (Vesya kumari) became the
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fashion as temple-dancers (Devadasi) and partners The people of India were living in isolation
in secret Tantrika rituals, and so also were statues of from the rest of the world. They were so much
fashionable sexy females used to adorn the walls, contented with themselves that they did not bother
columns and ceilings of the temples. During the about what was happening beyond their frontiers.
last centuries before the Muslim invasion, many Their ignorance of the developments outside their
of these figures were portraits (in a few cases they country placed them in a very weak position. That
can even be identified), and in the last stage even also created a sense of stagnation among them.
frankly obscene groups were not rare.” There was decay on all sides. Architecture, painting
What was true of the higher classes was also and fine arts were adversely affected. Indian society
true of the lower classes. It is stated that on the became static and caste-system became rigid. There
occasion of the Udakasevamahotsava, the people was no re-marriage of widows. Restrictions with
besmeared their bodies with mud and roamed regard to food and drink became very rigid. The
about from house to house. Men, women and untouchables were forced to live outside the towns.
children drank a lot and indulged in obscene plays. The Mathas which were formerly the seats of
The chief of the festival dressed himself as a Bhairava learning, now became centres of luxury and idleness.
and roamed about on an ass. The others put on Most of the monks lived a life of licence.The Devadasi
the guise of sweepers, cowherds, barbers, etc., and system prevailed in the temples. A large number
followed him. It was believed that he who did not of unmarried girls were dedicated to the service
participate was to incur the wrath of ghosts and of the deity in big temples. That led to corruption
goblins. On the occasion of Savarotsava, held on and prostitution in temples. Great writers did not
the day of Vijayadasami, the people covered their hesitate to write obscene books. A minister of one
bodies with leaves and mud like the aboriginals. of the kings of Kashmir wrote a book named Kuttini
They sang all kinds of dirty songs about women. Matam or “Opinions of a go-between.” Kshemendra
Dr. R.K. Mukherjee says,“Not only did salvation, wine (990-1965 A.D.) wrote a book called ‘Samaya Matrak’
and sex enter into an unholy combination in the or “The Biography of a Prostitute”. In this book “the
Kaula religion, but the public swing festival of the heroine describes her adventures in every sphere
Devi (Gauri or Lakshmi), which lasted for a month of society as a courtesan, as the mistress of a noble,
and was common from the tenth to the thirteenth as a street walker, as a go-between, as a false nun,
century, became the occasion from amorous as a corrupter of the youth and a frequenter of
dalliances and escapades. Like the jewelled roof religious places.”
terraces and the picture galleries, even the public
The majority of the Hindus believed in eight
gardens, where the religious swing before the image
of the Goddess, with waving chowries, raised aloft, classes of spiritual beings, viz., the Devas or angels,
with showy rows of banners, dazzling white, and Daily Danava, Gandharvas and Apsaras, Yakshas,
with bells, ascending and descending.” Rakshasas, Kinaras, Nagas and Vidyadharas. The
beliefs of the educated and uneducated were
As there had been no invasion of India for
different. The former believed in abstract ideas and
a few centuries, the people were suffering from
general principles while the latter were contented
a false sense of security. The result was that no
provision was made for the defence of the country with derived rules, without caring for details.
from foreign dangers. The materials prosperity of Uneducated people worshipped images. “This is
the country also weakened the people. Armies the cause which leads to the manufacture of idols,
were neglected and no forts were constructed for monuments in honour of certain much venerated
defence. The people suffered from a false sense of persons, priests, sages, angels, destined to keep alive
pride. Alberuni tells us that “The Hindus believed their memory when they are absent or dead, to
that there is no country like theirs, no nation like create for them a lasting place of grateful veneration
theirs, no king like theirs, no religion like theirs, no in the hearts of men when they die.”
science like theirs”. Such an attitude was bound to Pilgrimages formed a part of Hindu religious
result in the defeat of the Hindus. beliefs. They were not obligatory but were
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considered to bring merit. In every place to which and enlightened view of national interest yield to
some holiness was ascribed, the Hindus constructed personal vanity; keen sense of honour and respect
ponds intended for ablutions. In this, they had for family contrasts with supreme callousness, which
attained a high degree of art. nothing could move-not even dishnour of women
Sati was prevalent in those days. “When a Raja and indignities heaped upon dearest relations;
dies, all wives burn themselves on his pyre.”The view heroic souls, who preferred death to dishonour,
of Alberuni is that Sati was performed only by the move side by side with abject renegades, who
Vaishyas and Sudras, especially at those times which lick the very feet that trod them down; wonderful
were prised as the most suitable for man to acquire spirit of cooperation involving extreme self-sacrifice
in them, for a future repetition of life, a better form for the safety of the motherland is followed by
and condition than that in which he happens to have petty internal squabbles that sap the vitality and
been born and live. Burning oneself was forbidden integrity of the nation at the very moment, when its
to Brahmanas and Kshatriyas by a special law. If they freedom is at stake; heroic, almost suicidal, sacrifice
wanted to kill themselves, they did so at the time of an of thousands for saving the purity of a single temple
eclipse or they hired somebody to drown them in the sadly contrasts with the supreme indifference to the
Ganges, keeping them under water till they were dead. defilement of hundreds of sanctuaries, and even the
most cherished sentiments of the honour of women
“The disposal of the dead was in one of the
and sanctity of religion are most violently outraged
three ways: by fire, or by floating the body into a
without provoking a national outcry.”
stream, by being cast away to fed wild animals.
The Brahmanas wailed aloud for their dead but About the general picture of India towards
not so the Buddhists.” “Regarding the return of the end of the tenth century, Dr. Panikkar says
the immortal soul (to God), the Hindus think that that the Hindu social structure was firm and was
partly it is effected by the rays of the Sun, the soul capable of resisting external pressure. Hinduism
attaching itself to them, partly by the flame of the had received a new and vigorous impetus with the
fire which raises it (to God).” gradual absorption of Buddhism, with new popular
forms which satisfied the religious aspirations of the
The idea of reward or punishment for the soul
masses and with a philosophical background which
also prevailed among the Hindus. They believed that
satisfied the more intelligent minds and united
there were three worlds where the soul stayed.“The
the different sects into one faith. The people were
Hindus called the world ‘Lok’. Its division consists of
prosperous. A lot of wealth had accumulated on
the upper, lower and the middle. The upper one is
account of peace, commerce and colonisation for
called Svargloka, i.e., Paradise, the lower Narakloka,
a few centuries. However, the political structure
i.e., the world of the serpents, the middle world, that
was weak. There was no sense of unity. The ideal of
one in which we live is called Madhyaloka, i.e., the
Bharat Varsha was completely forgotten. Partition
world of men. In the Madhyaloka, man has to earn,
was absent. There was no determination to resist
in the upper to receive his reward, in the lower to
the foreigner. There was a corrupt bureaucracy. It is
receive punishment.......... but in either of them there
only the dynastic interests that united the people
is the soul, the soul free from the body.”
and that was not enough to enable the people of
It is pointed out that the Indian society on India to check the Muslim invaders. The condition
the eve of the Muslim invasion of India presented in the South was different. There were the national
striking contrasts of chivalry and instability, heroism monarchies of the Cholas, Pallavas and Pandyas. On
and anarchy, richness and poverty, indulgence and the whole, India was not ready to meet successfully
disillusionment and licentiousness and abnegation. the Muslim invaders.
Dr. R.C. Majumdar says, “Scenes of brave resistance
and heroic self-sacrifices alternate with abject The Ghaznavid Empire
surrender; patriotic fervour and wild enthusiasm for It is true that the Arabs were the first Muslim
national cause give place to narrow selfish interest; conquerors to invade India but their invasion was
anxious thoughts for the safety of the motherland merely an episode in the history of India. However,
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the work started by the Arabs was completed by led as many as seventeen expeditions. However,
the Turks. In the eighth and ninth centuries, the some historians given the number as 12. It appears
Turks got the upper hand over the Khalifas of that the number 17 is more correct.
Baghdad. The Turks were different from the Arabs. Al-Beruni also belonged to the court of
They were more aggressive than the Arabs and Mahmud. This versatile genius was born in A.D.
they spread Islam at the point of the sword. They 973 in the territory of modern Khiva. When Khiva
were brave and full of boundless energy. They were was conquered by Mahmud in A.D. 1017. Al-Beruni
thoroughly materialistic in their outlook. They were was also captured. He came to India along with
full of ambition. They were eminently fitted for Mahmud and stayed here for some time. He was a
establishing a military empire in the East. Dr Lane- great mathematician, philosopher, astronomer and
Poole describes the expansion of the Turks as “the Sanskrit scholar. He has given a full account of the
master movement in the Mohammadan Empire in social and political condition of India. He was very
the tenth and eleventh centuries”. much impressed by the learning of the Hindus. He
Mahmud Ghazni (997-1030): Mahmud, son criticised the Hindus for their isolation from the
of Subuktgin, was born in A.D. 971. His mother was nations of the world and their want of sympathy
the daughter of a noble of Zabulistan, district round and communication with peoples of other countries
Ghazni. It is for his reason that Mahmud is sometimes whom he called Mlechchhas. Early marriage was
called Mahmud Zbuli. Very little is known about the common but there was no custom of widow re-
early career of Mahmud but all contemporaries tell marriage. Marriages were arranged by the parents
us that Subuktgin took a lot of interest in giving all of children. The Hindus worshipped a large number
kinds of training to Mahmud. He was not only given of gods. The educated Hindus believed in God
training in the arts of warfare and administration, but who was one, eternal, without beginning and end,
was also made an expert in the science of statecraft. acting by free will, almighty, all-wise, living, giving
He was given a responsible position in the battle life etc. The administration of justice was liberal
of Lamghan. The whole of Khorasan was put under and humane. Written complaints were filed and
his charge. sometimes even oral complaints were entertained.
Cases were decided on the testimony of witnesses.
The relations between Subuktgin and Mahmud Criminal law was comparatively mild. There was no
were not cordial at the time of the death of Subuktgin principle of equality of law among the Hindus; the
and consequently the latter nominated his younger Brahmans were exempted from capital punishment.
son Ismail as his successor. The result was that Ismail The punishment for theft varied in accordance with
was put on the throne by the nobles. Mahmud was the value of the property stolen.
not prepared to tolerate this. He asked his brother,
The share of the state was 1/6th of the
Ismail, to divide the kingdom and keep Balkh for
produce and Brahmans were completely ignoring
himself and give Ghazni to him. The suggestion was the interests of the country. The word “national”
not accepted by Ismail and consequently Mahmud had no meaning for them. There was a rigid caste
marched against him, defeated and imprisoned system and that made the task of the unification of
him. After that, he asked the Samanid ruler of the country difficult. The country was divided into
Bokhara to confirm him in the dominion of Balkh a large number of small states. Al-Beruni refers to
and Ghazni. Khalifa Al-Qadir-Billah gave Mahmud a the States of Kashmir, Sindh, Malwa, Gujarat, Bengal
robe of honour and also conferred on him the title and Kannauj. He has also referred to the effects of
of Yamun-ud-Daulah (the right hand of the empire) the invasions of Mahmud on India in these words:
and Amin-ul-Militant (Custodian of Faith). “Mahmud utterly ruined the prosperity of the
It is stated that when the Khalifa appointed country and performed those wonderful exploits
Mahmud as his Lieutenant, he asked him to lead every by which the Hindus became like atoms of dust
year an-expedition against India and no wonder scattered in all directions and like a tale of old in
Mahmud led a very large number of expeditions the mouths of the people. Their scattered remains
against India. According to Sir Henry Elliot, Mahmud cherish of course, the most inveterate aversion
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towards all Muslim. This is the reason, too, why Hindu But the most important treatises on
sciences have retired far away from those parts of the mathematics are the two chapters entitled the
country conquered by us and have fled to placed Lilavati and the Bijaganita mentioned in the
which our hand cannot yet reach, to Kashmir, Banaras Siddhartasiromani of Bhaskaracharya II. The Lilavati
and other places.” and Bijaganita have been used very widely since
their composition. No scholar contributed anything
INDIAN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY of importance to Mathematics and Astronomy after
Mathematics, Astronomy and Astrology Bhaskara II. Bhaskara described the solution of the
first degree equation in terms of the pulverizer
In mathematics, welcome across the name
(kuttaka), a quantity such that, when it is multiplied by
of Sridhara. Sridhara had written a work similar to
the Lilavati of Bhaskaracharya. He is perhaps the a given number, and the product added algebraically
same as the author of the Gautasastra. Mahavira in, to a given quantity, the sum or difference is divisible
his Sarasamgraha refers to this author. The date of without a remainder by a given divisor. That is, he
Mahavira is fixed at about A.D. 850. Mahavira appears obtained the whole number values of x and y which
to have enjoyed the patronage of the Rashtrakuta satisfy the equation. Indeterminate equations of the
king, Amogavarsha II. The Brihanamansa of Manu second degree in the forms and have been already
is ascribed to the last quarter of the 9th century. investigated by Brahmagupta. But the solution of
Munjala composed, about A.D. 932, the Laghumanasa the general equation by cyclic method (Chakravala)
based on the Brihanmanasa. Balabhadra, a was effected by Bhaskara II in a manner which has
resident of Kannauj wrote several independent perpetuated his name for all time in the history of
works on all branches of Jyotihsastra and also the theory of numbers.
many commentaries on several works including The Bijaganita contains a demonstration of
the Yoganitra of Patanjali. Vatesvara (Vittesvara the theorem of Pythagoras, which is distinct from
of Alberuni) probably belonged to Kashmir. that of Euclid 1.47. The deductive proof in Euclid
Aryabhata II wrote the Aryasiddhanta. He cannot represents the squares drawn externally upon the
be much earlier than A.D. 966 because Bhattotpala three sides of a right angled triangle, whereas the
does not cite any passage from this Aryasiddhanta. figure in Bhaskara is not a part of a deductive system
Pritusvami, Bhattotpala and Vijayanandi, the author but is simply a practical demonstration which shows
of Kranatilaka belong to the 10th century. how two given squares may be so cut that the parts
Alberuni refers to all these in his writings. fit together again to form a third square.
Of these, Bhattotpala made a deep and accurate The Grihaganita and the Gola, the two chapters
study of his predecessors in the field. He wrote from the Siddhantasiromani of Bhaskara are the most
commentaries on many works. He was probably valuable writings on astronomy. Karanakutubalu was
the author of Ganita Skandha. His commentaries are also written by Bhaskara. Rajanigriganka ascribed
learned. They bear proof of the author’s accuracy. to Bhoja and Bhasvati of Satananda are works on
The Brihat Samhita gives its reader a good idea of Astronomy.
the history of this science in India in the earliest
stages. It was composed in A.D. 966. The Saravali Medicine
written by Kalyanavarman, since this, Kalyanavarman Though the principal samhitas on medicine
is the same as the one referred to by Bhattotpala, had already been composed, it was left to this period
he is assigned to a period earlier than the 10th to bring perfection to the branch of pathology
century. On the strength of the fact that he calls in the great masterpiece called Ruguvinischaya,
himself Vatesvara, he is said to have lived in the known also as after its author or simply nidana.
last quarter of the ninth century A.D. But from Madhavakara treats in this work for the first time
internal evidence of Saravali itself, it appears that in the history of Indian medicine of all diseases
in A.D. 966, Bhattotpala revised the original work together. Its popularity is borne cut by the number
of Kalyanavarman, which at that time was about of commentaries that appeared on this work. He is
300 years old. generally assigned to the ninth century A.D. Vrinda,
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the author of Vridamadhana closely followed the stagnation of Indian science during the period.
order of diseases and treatment as found in the The Indian society was becoming increasingly rigid
Nidana. He is placed about A.D. 1000. The Nighantu and narrow in character. There was a setback in the
of Dhanvantri about which a reference has already growth of urban life.
been made is the oldest medico-botanical dictionary The development of communications was
available to us. It is found in two recensions. Amara affected by growing religious orthodox. It is needless
is said to have used this work in his Kosa. to say that science can grow only along with the
Chakrapanidatta of Bengal wrote commentaries growth of society. Another reason was the tendency
under the name Ayurvedidipika and Bhanumati for the Indians to isolate themselves from the main
respectively on Charaka and Susruta. currents of scientific thought outside India. Alberuni
On the whole, the growth of Indian Science makes a special mention of this fact in his work.
He says, “They (the Brahmanas who formed the
in this period started slowing down so much that
learned people of India) are haughty, foolish, vain,
in course of time, it was no longer regarded as a
self-conceited, solid. They are, by nature, niggardly
leading country in the field of science. Surgery
in communicating that which they know, and they
declined because the dissection of dead bodies was take the greatest possible care to withhold it from
regarded as the work of people of low castes only. men of another caste among their own people, still
In fact, surgery became the profession of barbers. much more of course, from any forienger. According
Astronomy was slowly pushed into the background to their belief, no other created beings besides them
by astrology. There were many reasons for the have any knowledge of science whatsoever.
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CHAPTER-2
CULTURAL TRADITIONS IN INDIA (750-1200)

PHILOSOPHY Buddhism with Vedantic thought and evolved his
Shankaracharya's Vedanta: What is known philosophy of Vedanta known as Advaita or non-
as Hinduism is a labyrinthine puzzle. It can mean dualist Vedanata.
anything to anyone, atheism and agnosticism being Shankara is not absolutely original in the
no exceptions. Despite the perplexing complexity philosophy of Vedanta. But the most striking
of Hinduism, there is hard core to Hinduism. The features of his philosophy is his extreme monism
place of Shankara lies here. which makes Brahman i.e. the absolute soul the
one ultimate reality in the metaphysical sense and
Born in Kaladi in Kerala, Shankara came to
world around as Maya, an illusion of the finite mind
Northern India after his completion of education.
in its state of ignorance.
Shankara was influenced by his upbringing in the
South. He composed devotional hymns addressed to However, each individual is endowed with
Shiva, Vishnu and the Devi. This clearly illustrates that the potential to realize his Brahman or the absolute
soul, since the individual soul is not a separate
the philosophy of Advaita conceded the great value
entity and it itself, though limited in some ways, is
of devotion in religion. He propounded his doctrine
the absolute soul logically, it is within the reach of
of Advaita Vedanta by tracing it to the ancient
each individual to realize the absolute soul that is,
Upanishads. In his commentary of the Bhagavad
the individual soul, which with realisation merges
Gita, he reveals the essence of the Advaita. Armed with the absolute soul. Shankaracharya maintains
with a philosophy of his own, Shankara debated that out of the three yogas, Jnana yoga can lead
with the scholastic teachers of the age, both the the individual to liberation from his own mortal
doctors of Mimamsa and the acharyas of Buddhism. coils so that the individual soul merges with the
Tradition states that he came out victorious in all absolute soul. In other words, through knowledge
these religious debates. one can perceive the Maya around and then seek
In particular, Shankara purged the the liberation of the individual soul merging with
objectionable features in the worship of the Devi the absolute soul.
which had crept into it from the practices of the Apart from this hard core in his philosophy,
tantrics. The Samayachara form of worship of the Shankaracharya approved the brahminical
goddess claims Shankara as it orginator. The most organisation of social life based on caste. The
familiar hymn of this forms of worship is ‘Saundarya argument that he advances here is that the
Lahari’ or the waves of beauty, composed by brahminical organisation and the caste system
Shankara. represent the collective experience and wisdom
In his short life (died in his 32nd year), Shankara of the race. Nevertheless, he maintains that any
revolutionised the spiritual outlook of men in India. person belonging to any caste could attain the
In the South, Saivism received a great impetus from highest knowledge i.e. liberation of the soul.
him. Several of his hymns glorify Siva as the God This view, along with his opinion that individual
of gods. He was a great synthesiser in the Indian soul is an imperfect manifestation of the absolute
tradition. Shankara’s contribution to Hinduism soul, makes him at once an idealist and a realist.
is primarily philosophical. He unified Mahayana One might argue that Shankaracharya’s attitude
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and philosophy called for negation of the world mind, and a passion for the ancient traditions of
and withdrawal from the normal activities of life. India or Sanatan Dharma, Shankaracharya was able
It also means that self-sacrifice and detachment to show clearly that Buddhist metaphysical was
should constitute the principal value of human life. only a poor imitation of Sanatan Dharma. Indeed,
Such an interpretation of Shankaracharya’s Buddhism, by then, was already on the decline, and
philosophy could amount to belittling his the defeat that was inflicted by Shankaracharya by
contribution. The fact is that his philosophy his debates, discussions and arguments spelt the
pulsates through Hinduism, even till today. He intellectual death of Buddhism. In fact, Shankara
travelled incessantly all over India preaching his did not banish Buddhism: he assimilated it into the
new philosophy and his passion for reaching the Vedic tradition. He applied the Maya of Buddhism to
ultimate. Instinctively, he perceived the fundamental Vedanta. Some of his Brahmin opponents equated
unity of India. Befittingly, after his death, the four his concept of absolute soul with the Nirvana or void
math of Shankaracharya came to be located in of Buddhism. It is because of these reasons he was
the four corner of India—Shringeri in Karnataka, called a Prachanna Buddha i.e. a disguised Buddhist.
Dwarka in Gujarat, Puri in Orissa, and Badrinath in Apart from the service mentioned above,
the Himalayas. An unspelt design of his travels was Shankaracharya wrote commentaries on the
to bring the whole country under one philosophical Upanishads, the Bhagavata Gita and Brahma Sutras
umbrella. In the language of Nehru: “In a brief life (sacred scriptures of India), and these commentaries
of 32 years, he did the work of many long lives and are still regarded as the masterpieces of Indian
left such an impress of his powerful mind and rich religious and philosophical speculations.
personality on India that it is even evidenced today.” In the later years, some saints and philosophers
The long and arduous journeys that Shankaracharya did not follow the philosophies and deviated from
made all through the length and breadth of the spiritual contribution of Shankaracharya, but they
India are still followed by ordinary people. Even kept alive the spiritual and philosophical traditions
today pilgrims trek from one end of the country of India. The Vaishnava saints who appeared in
to the other seeking divine blessings or spiritual the 12th century preached loving adultation of
satisfaction. People loving in northern India go on Vishnu as the means of salvation. The other group,
a pilgrimage to Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh, Madurai Vaishnava saints, preached its intellectual aspect.
and Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu. Sabarmala in Kerala The former are known as Alvars, and the latter are
and Bhubaneshwar and Puri in Orissa. People of known as Acharyas. Their combined contribution
the Deccan and Southern India go on a Pilgrimage is that doctrine of Vishishtadvaita or qualified non-
mostly to Badrinath and Banaras and some to them dualism, as opposed to Shankaracharya’s doctrine.
to Vaishno Devi in Jammu. Later, Madhavacharya of Karnataka also preached
Although these pilgrims might not be dualism. In his commentary on the Vedanta Sutras
genuinely motivated by spiritual or philosophical and other works, he opposed the monism and the
considerations, such travels spread over centuries Maya of Shankaracharya. After a few centuries, once
have built subtle and intangible bonds between again the Vedantic philosophy of Shankaracharya
region and region. Nehru writes: “Whatever the was revived by Vivekananda in the second half of the
religious significance of these pilgrimages in the 19th century. The spirit and philosophical content
minds of the people might have been, they were of Vivekananda did influence a great number of
looked upon also, as they are today, as a holiday time reformers, including Mahatma Gandhi and Pt. Nehru.
and opportunities for merry-making and seeing The latter at one time claimed that ‘each individual
different parts of the country. is endowed with a part of truth which is the ultimate
An important intellectual achievement of god’.
Shankaracharya during his travels in India was In brief, the contribution of Shankaracharya
the defeat of the Buddhist scholars in arguments. consists in providing a unifying factor to the
Endowed with a powerful intellect, and incisive apparently complex and baffling Hindu religion,
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and the central tradition of Hinduism as asserted the various religions of the world makes it obvious
by Shankaracharya is not lost till today. that any religion attempts to provide some answer
‘Shankara’ claim to a permanent place in history to the gnawing anxiety of each individual. Man’s
lies in the fact he created an extraordinary position lot being what it is, the question of “why” in life
for Vedanta. This is evident from the fact that he was can never be satisfactorily explained by logic
followed by a number of able and distinguished alone. Ever since man has developed the talent
writers in Vedanta; and gradually, several different for conceptualisation logic has become his faculty.
schools of Advaita Vedanta arose. What is more Such being the evolution of man, an answer which
important is that writers belonging to the established satisfies the imponderables of life is a must for man.
sects of religion, such as Vaishnavism and Shaivism, As stated by a modern writer: religion is what one
began to utilize the Vedanta as the philosophical does with his solitude.
basis and background of their respective creeds. By A.D. 1000, something had gone wrong
This is done by a subtle identification of the god with Hindu religion as it was understood and
of their creed with the Brahman of Vedanta. Thus a esteemed. All the things associated with religion
Vaishnava like Ramanuja would say that Brahman had lost their human touch. In the North, Hindu
is no other than Vishnu of his worship. Some like religion degenerated into empty ritualism
Vallabhas would go so far say that Brahman is no (Meemamsa), adventurist attitude (Tantricism),
other than Krishna of Vrindavan. And a Saiva like highly intellectualised stance (the philosophy of
Srikantha would say that Brahman is identical with Vedanta) and a some perverse forms (like Kapalikas).
Siva of his worship, who is called by other names In the South, too, the affliction was the same. In the
also, such as Pasupati, Rudra etc. 8th century Shankara preached Advaita. He was
To conclude, Shankara is an austere and lofty a great logician. He dismissed the earthly world
figure with his rigorous system and uncompromising as Maya or illusion. His preaching was primarily
logic. But stories are told to reveal what in modern intellectual. In other words, Shankara’s approach
parlance would be called his human character. was akin to that of the dry Vedantic philosophy of
Sometimes, he was prepared to go against the the North, although he was given some credit for
tradition. He could be called a rebel because he defeating the Buddhist scholars in arguments and
defied the accepted practices and became almost thereby, completing the cenotaph of Buddhism in
a child sanyasin. He was deeply attached to his India.
mother and he returned to his birth place on her
As already argued above, no religion can
death and performed his funeral rites. This also
survive if it fails to give a due place to the human
went against the Shashtras. But the story reveals
the importance of the mother in the larger cultural aspect of it. It was the gap that was partly filled by
context of India. Is it not significant that a father is Ramanuja of the 11th century. He was born in a
expected to fall at the feet of his sanyasin-son but town close to the modern city of Madras in 1027.
not the mother? The mother is revered even by a He studied Vedanta at Kanchi or Conjeevaram.
jagadguru (world teacher). Frustrated with married life, he renounced family
bonds and took to Sanyasas by settling down at
We, thus, see Shankara in many roles: teacher,
Srirangam. Partly, he devoted his life to study and

philosopher, reformer, synthesizer. A point that is
partly, he toured Southern India. During the progress
often emphasised is that he saw India as one country
of his tours he converted a large number of people to
and it is for this reason that he established ‘mathas’
Vaishnavism and restored many Vaishnava temples.
in different parts of the country. He recognised the
various traditions and harmonised them. Above all, Credit must be given to Ramanuja for bringing
he was an inquirer who had hardly any equal. human element to philosophy or religion. Ramanuja
relied on intuition while Shankra on logic; the former
Ramanuja stressed on the theistic aspect of Upanishads, while
Religion basically is a personal affair because the latter on the intellectual. The philosophy of
each individual needs a spiritual vision. One look at Ramanuja is called Vishishtadvaita or qualified non-
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dualism. He concedes that the Ultimate Principle to the observance of religious rituals—rights as
is real and exists. This he qualifies by arguing that sanctioned by the tradition and the rules of caste.
human souls are real although they are dependent The official language of Ramanuja and his followers
on the Ultimate Principle. He also insists on the was Sanskrit. The teachings were strictly confined
continued existence of the individual soul after his to the higher classes of society while the Sudras
release from the worldly chains. Finally, he agrees had no access to it. These points show that the
with Shankara’s thesis that there is nothing but the preachings of Ramanuja were not as egalitarian as
Ultimate Principle and maintains that the world and those of Kabir and Bhakti savants.
the human souls are separate in order to serve the To conclude, the contribution of Ramanuja
Ultimate Principle. consists in emphasising on the human element in
This philosophy of Ramanuja clearly shows religion. This aspect of his preaching was further
that the Ultimate Principle is not free from earthly broadened by the later-day Bhakti savants like Kabir,
realities. In other words, he attributes qualities Nanak and Chaitanya, who extended their appeal
to God. The world around is treated as an aspect to the lower castes or classes of society. In the end,
(Prakara) of God, but not as Maya or illusion as in we have to mention that Ramanuja contributed
Shankara’s philosophy. In this contribution the most some religious works to the evolution of religious
important aspect is the stress on theism, that is consciousness in India—Sri Basya, a commentary
God would reveal himself to a devotee who loves on Vedanta Sutra (a classic text of the Vaisnavas),
and adores him. The other name for this doctrine is Vedantasara and a commentary on the Bhagvad Gita.
Bhakti. This attitude towards religion is very ancient Religion
and hence Ramanuja belongs to the mainstream
During A.D. 750-1200, Indian religious scene
of Hindu philosophy without being a heretic or an
became mostly Dionysian. Some mystical cults also
innovator. Epigraphic evidence shows that the word made their appearance like Tantricism and the cult
“Bhakti” (synonymous with “theism”) existed at the of Kapalikas. The one striking feature of this period
commencement of the 2nd century before Christ. was the decline of Buddhism, except for its way is
This attitude belongs to both Aryan thought Bengal.
as well as to Semitic thought. This idea became The Palas were, of course, patrons of Buddhism
prominent in India from the days of the Bhagvat and they generously owed Buddhist monasteries in
Gita. This portion of Ramanuja’s teachings is treated Bengal & Magdha. But here, Buddhism had moved
as Shri Sampradya (the second part of the word far away from its original moorings. The new tantric
meaning “school”), one of the facets of Bhakti Marga. forms, which it had developed had transformed
This part of Ramanuja’s philosophy is supposed it almost beyond recognition. The monks were,
to have influenced the later-day Bhakti savants of however, still fired with missionary zeal. It is the
India, like Madhava (12th century), Vallabha (15th famous Buddhist monk Dipankara called by Tibetans.
century), Chaitanya (15th century), Ramananda Atisa, who went beyond the frontiers of India
(13th century), Kabir (14th century) and Nanak (15th to Tibet about the middle of the eleventh century
century). Since Ramanuja stressed on devotion or to spread the light of his faith. The decline of the
love towards God as salvation, he laid stress on the Pala power after the tenth century was a blow to
central teachings of the Upanishads, Bhagvat Gita Buddhism. But even more serious were the internal
and Vedanta Sutra, unlike the singular emphasis on developments in Buddhism. The Buddha had
the Upanishads by Shankara. preached a practical philosophy with minimum of
Although Ramanuja is the pioneer of Bhakti priesthood and speculation about God. With the
or theistic movement in India, he was unlike rise of the Mahayana school of Buddhism in the
some of the exponents of the movement in the early centuries of the Christian era, the Buddha
14th century. For example, Kabir disregarded the had begun to be worshipped as God. This worship
authority of the Vedas and the Brahmanic traditions. now became more elaborate. The belief grew that a
Besides, Ramanuja attaches much importance worshipper could attain what he desired by uttering
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magical words (Mantra and making all kinds of of the latter’s preaching and encyclopedic learning,
mystic gestures). They also believed that by these Jainism rapidly spread in Gujarat, Kathiawad, Kaccha,
practices and by various kinds of austerities and Rajputana and Malwa. In the North, however, its
secret rites, they could attain supernatural powers, influence remained very limited for lack of royal
such as the power to fly in the air, to became invisible patronage.
to see things at a distance etc. Here as well as in south India, the dominant
Many Hindu Yogis also adopted these practices. faith was Brahimism or Pauranic Hinduism and
The most famous among them was Gorakhnath. The princes and the common people alike venerated
followers of Gorakhnath were called Nath-Panthis the Brahminical gods. Among these, the most
and at one time they were popular all over North prominent were Vishnu and Shiva, who were known
India. Many of these yogis belonged to lower castes. by a number of other names also. The pantheon
They denounced caste system and the privileges further included Brahma, Surya, Vinayaka Kumara,
claimed by Brahmins. The path they preached was Skanda, Kartikeya, Indra, Agni, Yama, Varuna, Marut
called tantra which was open to all, irrespective of and goddesses like the divine, goddesses (Bhagvati
caste distinctions. or Durga, Sri Lakshmi), besides, a host of minor
Thus, Buddhism did not so much decline, as deities. Many of them still command the popular
it assumed forms which became indistinguishable allegiance and thus, modern Hinduism may be said
from Hinduism. to have taken shape by the end of this period. As
now, there was no exclusiveness in worship.
Unlike Buddhism, the Jain religion appears to
have gained strength in some part of India. From This must have doubtless by promoted a
the sixth to the tenth century in the coastal regions spirit of toleration and concord among the votaries
for the most part in the ports, it was Jainism that of competing sects. Persecution and sectarian
became the mass religion. The most famous of all animosity were, therefore, not much in evidence then.
the Jaina temples were that of Aihole (Aivalle), built An instance to the contrary is, of course, furnished by
in the seventh century. The Jaina enjoyed special Kulottunga I, whose disfavour compelled the great
influence among the Tamil population. However, Vaishnava reformer, Ramanuja to leave Srirangam
between the sixth and 8th centuries, the Bhaktas and retire to the Hoysala dominions. Generally,
waged a fierce struggle against Jainism and the however, the Cholas and other rulers of the South
latter began to yield its ground to Hinduism. By were tolerant of all creeds and Vaishnav Alvars and
the 15th century, Jainism had only succeeded in Saiva Nayanars were free to preach and propagate
retaining some influence in Gujarat, although small their doctrines. These religious teachers infused new
Jain communities for the most part those of the life and vitality in the current beliefs and practices
merchants and moneylenders, remained in many by their precept and example.
Indian towns. south India also produced, during this period,
In the Deccan, it was honoured by certain such towering personalities in Philosophy was
early Chalukya kings and by Rashtrakuta rulers Kumarila Bhatta, Shankaracharya, Ramanujacharya
like Amoghavarsha I, Indra IV, Krishna II and Indra and Madhvacharya, who have left an indelible
III. Many of the Western Ganga kings also were impress on Hindu religion and Philosophy by their
favourably disposed towards it. Chamundaraya, a moral favour and intellectual grandeur.
devout Jain and a minister of the Ganga king, erected Lastly, it may noted that Vedic sacrifices do not
the deliberated image of Gomateswara at Sravana appear to have been in vogue then. In the inscriptions
Belgola in about A.D. 983. Under the Cholas, who of the Rashtrakutas, however, there are references
were staunch Shaivas, the Jain continued to pursue to the performance of Hiranyagarbha ceremony
their tenets in peace. But Jainism had its most notable and Tuladanas. A Chola inscription of the time of
triumphs under the Kumarapala chalukya, in the Rajadhiraja I also contains a solitary allusion to the
12th century, who drew inspiration from the great asvamedha. Probably, greater stress now began to
acharya Hemachandra. It is believed that as result be laid on dana (gifts) than on Yajnas (sacrifices)
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with their intricate and cumbersome details. On Thus, both in South and North India, the revival
the other hand, the great Muslim scholar, Alberuni and expansion of Hinduism took two forms—a
writings in A.D. 1030 explain their discontinuance renewed emphasis on the Vedas and Vedic worship,
as follows: “The sacrifices differ in duration so that on the one hand, accompanied by a powerful literary
only he could perform certain of them who lives and intellectual movement, and on the other, a
a very long life and such long lives do no longer popular movement based in North India on Tantra
occur in this our age. Therefore, most of them have and in south India, on Bhakti. Both Tantra and Bhakti
been abolished and only few of them remain and disregarded caste inequalities and were open to all.
are practiced now a days.
In Eastern India, a new form of worship arose.
As said above a series of popular movements This was the worship of Shakti, or the worship of the
arose in south India during the period which female principle as the cause of creation. Thus, the
popularised the worship of Shiva and Vishnu and Buddhists began to worship Tara as the consort of
turned people away from Jainism. This was the one of the earlier Buddhas: and the Hindus, Durga,
Shakti movement. The Bhakti movement was led Saraswati, Kali etc. who were associated with Shiva.
by a series of popular saints called Nayanars and
Alvars. The saints rejected austerities. They looked This change in religion did not lead to a
upon religion not as a matter of cold, formal worship different role of life. In Hindustan, there are a large
but a living bond based on love between the God number of sects and trends, which differ as regards
and the worshipper. They spoke and wrote in Tamil both the God selected from the extensive Hindu
and Telugu, the languages which everyone could pantheon that the faithful might Venerate, as well
understand. These saints went from place to place as the religious rites and customs to be observed.
carrying their message of love and devotion. Most However, certain customs and ideas are common
of them belonged to the lower classes and few to all the Hindus. They attack great importance to
were Brahmanas. There were also a few women. the concept of virtue or duty (Dharma) that consists
Almost all of them, disregarded the inequalities of in the steadfast and unwerving execution of caste
caste, though they did not try to oppose the caste obligations. Thus, for the higher castes, Dharma
system as such. The path of Bhakti advocated by involves just admiration or courageous behaviour on
these saints was open to all, irrespective of caste. the battlefield, and for the lower ones conscientious
The bhakti movement not only won into fold of execution of their traditional occupation and respect
Hinduism many adherents of Buddhism and Jainism, to be shown to persons of elevated origin. Hinduism
it also won over many tribes which had previously instills the idea that the division of society into castes
remained outside the fold of organised religion. has been predestined, that all castes are essential
Many tribals were Hinduised by fitting them into the and that the position of each individual in caste
caste system. Generally, they continued to worship structure has been determined by his behaviour
their old tribal gods and goddesses who were made in the life that preceded his current one. Man’s
companions or consorts of the chief gods, Shiva soul does not die but after the death of his body, it
and Vishnu. Legends played an important part in transmigrates to another being: if a man has led a
this process of cultural assimilation. virtuous life, then after his rebirth, his caste status
Another popular movement which arose will have been enhanced. If on the other hand, he
during the twelfth century was the Lingayat had led a corrupt life, then he might be reborn
movement. Its founder was Basava and his nephew, as an untouchable or even as some loathsome
Channabasava, who lived at the court of the Kalachuri animal. Hence everything appears just, for even
kings of Karnataka. They established their faith after if a good man suffers all kinds of misfortune, this
bitter disputes with the Jains. The Lingayats are is seen as punishment for misdemeanours in the
worshippers of Shiva. They strongly opposed the past existence.
caste system and rejected fasts, feasts, pilgrimages Common to all Hindus was the concept of
and sacrifices. In the social spheres, they opposed ahimsa namely, the idea that one should avoid
child marriage and allowed remarriage of widows. inflicting harm on any living creature, and also the
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homage paid to a number of animals—in particular, purity. He built four monasteries and introduced
the cow that is worshipped by all Hindus. The rituals reform in the community of sanyasi ascetics.
performed at various occasions through man’s life, However, in the eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth
from the cradle to the grave, were also a shared centuries, Shankara’s ideas, comprehensible only
tradition even though the details of these rituals to the chosen few, began to lose their popularity.
might vary. All Hindus had to make sacrifices— Ramanuja (eleventh century) simplifies the concepts
some, animal sacrifices but mostly, just offerings of the Vedanta school making them accessible to the
of flowers and incency; all were called upon to people at large. According to his the people at large.
make offerings within their particular means to According to his theory God created the world from
the Brahmans and the temples; and all revered matter, time and soul—three substances separate
holy men various hermits, ascetics, wandering from himself. In order to comprehend God there was
preachers, etc. All Hindus also viewed as obligatory no need to have extensive knowledge of the sacred
the performance of caste rituals and the observance texts. Far more important was man’s love for God
of caste prohibitions, and indeed these were seen as which alone could bring him to a true understanding
no less important than the worship of the divinities. of God. Love for a devotion to God were not effected
It was in this period that the six classical by the caste of the believer. In the teaching of
systems of Indian philosophy which originated Ramanuja God is presented not as an indifferent
in the Gupta period took definitive shape: Nyaya, creator of the world, but as a creator interested
Vaisheshika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta. in the destiny of each individual, he responds to
These systems were regarded as orthodox in so far as man’s prayers and can bring about changes in man’s
they accepted the authority of the Vedas, and each of destiny. The philosophy of Ramanuja constituted the
them made its own particular contribution to man’s fundamental belief for many Vedanta sects.
knowledge of the worlds, and the laws of thought, Growth of Bhakti
although the ideas were presented in a religious-
Bhakti was a new attitude to God, emotional,
cum-mystical form. Apart from these official systems, passionate bhakti, which replaced the old
there were also the Buddhist philosophical schools approaches of sacrificial and monistic meditation.
of the Madhymikas and Vijnanavadas, who rejected As a result of this development, forms of religious
the reality of the world. The Madhyamika school expression changes. Love-songs to God were sung
asserted:“If God has no beginning then he himself and group singing created a new popular cultural
does not exist”. All they recognised as real was pure form, the kirtan. Besides pushing aside old gods, old
consciousness, viewed as cosmic essence. On the attitudes, old cultural forces, the Bhakti movement
other hand, the Charvaka sect spread a materialist also drove the sacred language, Sanskrit back into
teaching rejecting the existence of the soul, In so far the memories of the Pandits and the precincts of
as it is impossible to prove it exists independently temples and mathas, and helped the growth of
of the body. For the same reason the Charvakas also modern Indian vernacular literatures moulded by
rejected the existence of an absolute soul or God. this religious movement. While the dominance of
From the late eight and the early ninth century brahmanas over the socio-ritualistic order was not
onwards, the Advaita-Vedanta school founded by destroyed, they lost much of their spiritual authority
Shankara (788-820) became even more popular. This which now passed in to the saints and gurus. While
school spoke out in favour of reviving the ancient the Hindu social framework was not destroyed, the
teaching of the Upanishads, declaring that God ideas of brotherhood and equality of all before the
should be accepted as the sole reality while the loving god predominated. Its saints drawn from
world should be viewed as no more than an illusion different levels of society proclaimed that caste had
and be aware of their oneness with Brahman (with no meaning in bhakti.
God). Shankara was not only a philosopher but Earlier it was believed that the bhakti, whether
also a religious reformer, striving to strip Hinduism it was in the north or the south originated under the
of latter-day additions detracting from its original impact of Islam. This theory is negated by the simple
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fact that the earliest genuine devotional bhakti could not have been the vehicle helping its spread.
poetry of Tamil Nadu precedes the advent of Islam. It must have happened through the Sanskritisation
It was only at a later date that Islamic, particularly of the new spirit. The Vaishnavite Brahman scholars
Sufi influences, were felt. infused this new spirit into the Bhagavata Purana
We may distinguish two types of bhakti—a (ninth century) which travelled the highroads of
personal devotion, contemplative and sober, to Sanskrit tradition and soon became the main text of
a personal loving good. Such a type is very well Vaishnavism all over India, marking a turning point
explained in the Bhagavad-Gita. The second type is in the history of Vaishnavism.
found expressed in the new literature of Puranas. The The tenth book of this work erupts in a
Krishna myth had undergone a great transformation. magnificent expose of the bhakti centred around
The Krishna of Bhagavad-Gita receded into the Krishna’s childhood and youth. The figure of Krishna
background. The focus of attention shifted to the holds the stage, as child or love; hero or trickster. He
marvels of his birth and childhood, and to his was marvellous and entrancing even in his most
heroic and amorous exploits as a youth among the daring exploits. This puranic development of new
cowherds and cowherdesses of Gokula. While, it is bhakti was paralleled by its growth in the work of
true that there is a connection between this change great theologians, both Saivite and Vaishnavite. They
on the Krishna myth and the slow transformation formed religious orders and their monks carried
of bhakti itself, generally it is accepted that the first their messages all over India. The first and greatest
clear manifestation of the new Bhakti, emotional, among them was Ramanuja, the founder of the
ardent, ecstatic often using erotic imagery; has Srivaishnava sect.
appeared first in the Tamil country, in the early In the Bhakti movement in Bengal, two distinct
seventh century, in the hymns of Nayanmars and religions determined its growth. The first was the
Alvars collectively known as the Pannirutirumurai influence of the Vaishnava tradition. The Vaishnava
and in the Tamil, Vaishnavite hymns collectively impetus came first all through the Bhagavata Purana
known as the Nalayira divyaprapandham. The most with its glorification of the Krishna-lila. This had
famous portion of the Tirumurai is the Tevaram (the taken place when Bengal was under the rule of
Garland of God). While Hinduism is one of the most the Palas. The movement found its typically Bengal
metaphysical of religions, it is also cone that can be literary transformation in Jayadeva’s Gita-Govinda,
felt and lived by the poor and the ignorant. Salvation towards the close of the 12th century. The Gita-
can be attained not only through jnana (spiritual Govinda brings, into Bengali Vaishnavism, a new
wisdom, no intellectual knowledge) but also through aspect which was driven from a source other than
bhakti. The devotees who require a concrete support the Bhagavata Purana.
to their worship believe in a personal god. Bhakti is
This new aspect was the prominence given to
not the love which expects to be reciprocated. Such
Radha, who was given the centre of the stage in this
a love is a human affection and nothing more than
form of bhakti. The non-Vaishnava influence itself
prayer become meditation, the worshipful loyalty came from two sources. Though distinct, they are
of will which identifies itself with the good of the interrelated. The first one is the Buddhism which
world. A true devotee becomes a knowing as well was decaying. In its decadence it produced forms
as a virtuous soul. He knows how to identify himself which affected the development of Vaishnavism.
completely with the object of devotion by a process Both those Buddhist and Vaishnava forms influenced
of self surrender. The distinction between god and the Bengali deviationism. Their emphasis was on the
worshipper is only relative. Love and knowledge female principle of the universe and they exalted
have the same end. They can only be conceived as the religious value of sexual passion. They preached
perfected when there is an identity between lover the doctrine of naturalism while reacting against
and beloved, knower and the known. the rigours of the Mahayana disciple. In this way,
From Tamil Nadu, it spread into Maharashtra, they idealised the sensuous and showed a new
Bengal and the northern plains. Obviously, Tamil path to salvation in and through the senses. Intense
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emotionalism and eroticism pervaded their rites and when he started attaching belief in the gods of their
mystical teachings. Thus, developed an erotically forefathers, they turned hostile. When the situation
inspired Krishna bhakti of Bengal after A.D. 1200. became very serious, Muhammad decided to leave
Mecca for Madina. This event which took place in A.D.
Islam and its Arrival in India
622 is known as Hijira emigration and the Hijira era
Islam was founded by prophet Muhammad, is associated with this event. At Madina Muhammad
who was born in c. 571 A.D., in Mecca—a holy city in acquired a large following.
Arabia. His father, Abudullah, is said to have died two
This had made him lead military campaign
months after his birth and his mother died when he
against Mecca, which was captured in A.D. 630. A
was only six years of age. He was brought up by his
large number of the people of Mecca accepted his
uncle Abu Talib, who was a merchant. He helped his
uncle in his business and soon acquired a capacity faith in the ninth year of the Hijira, the deputies of
for business. When he was twenty-five, a rich widow all the tribes of Arabia swore obedience to him.
by name Khadija, employed him as her trade agent. Muhammad now became the ruler of Arabia. The
In her service, he seems to have visited a number triumph of his mission was now assured. Sooner
of places while accompanying caravans. Later he after this, he passes away in A.D. 632. It has been
married her and had by her, four daughters and rightly said the prophet Muhammad found the Arabs
two sons. One of his daughters, Fatima, married Ali, sunk in a degrading and sanguinary superstition.
his uncle’s son. Later, Ali became the fourth Khalifa He inspired them with the belief in one sole god of
of Islam. truth and love, he gave them rallying point in the
From his early days, Muhammad was of new religion; and he supplied them a bond which
contemplative nature. He spent whole night in was more permanent than a dynasty.
contemplation at Mt. Hira near Mecca. He dwelt Islam means to make peace and it implied
more and more on the mysteries of life. His own the making of peace with God by paying homage
spiritual and moral promptings made him feel to his oneness. It is based on an uncompromising
every kind of religious experience. He believed that monotheism. Muhammad taught that there is no
God revealed himself to other people through his God but Allah and Muhammad is the prophet of
prophets. Soon the thought that he himself had Allah. He asked his followers to have faith in angels
been called to the mission of a prophet began to who brought messages from God. His followers
ripen. For a long time his shyness prevented him were asked to have faith in a final resurrection and
from appearing as a prophet in public until at last were told of a Day of Judgement when everyone
an extraordinary experience which he underwent on would be punished or rewarded according to his
Mt. Hira dispelled that shyness. At forty years of age, deeds. Muhammad condemned idolatry. Islam does
he announced his prophetic mission. An expectation not believe in priesthood and monasticism. It place
of a judgement day for each individual formed the reason and common sense above obscurantism
core of his oldest revelations. He himself stood in and mysteries. It insists on the direct responsibility
fear of it. It was only later that he spoke of a great
of man’s spirit to God, his maker.
judgement on his entire people which would wipe
off Allah’s enemies and his own from the face of the The prophet enjoined five duties upon his
Earth. In sharp contrast to these visions of error, he followers—Kalmia (profession of faith) Namaz
next described the joys of paradise in glowing terms. (prayer), Zakat (alms), Rozas (fast), ushering the
Muhammad’s first followers were his wife and month of Ramzan and Haj (pilgrimage to the sacred
his daughters. They were followed by his cousin, Ali, shrine at Mecca). These duties constitute the five
his slave, Zayd and his friends Abu Bakr and Sa’d “Pillars of the Faith”. The Holy Quran is declared
Ibn-Waqqas. His other followers were of humble to be a revealed book and its authority is not be
origin. In the beginning, Muhammad was on good questioned by any Muslim.
terms with the ruling classes. He shared with them The successors of Muhammad are called the
their pride in the famous sanctuary of Mecca. But Khalifas. The first to succeed him was his father-
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in-law, Abu Bakr, who was followed by Omar, then LITERATURE
Osman and then Ali. These are called the pious Many dramatical works were produced in
Khalifas. During their regime, Islam began to spread this period. Bhima or Bhimata who lived in the
into various parts of the world. It is to be noted ninth century wrote five dramas. Of these, Svapna
here that Quran enjoins the Believers to fight in Dasanana had won him chief fame. His Pratibha-
the way of God (jihad). It says that those who have Chanakya is modelled after Mudrarakshasa. He is
fought in the way of God are the blessed and they
connected with the Chandella king, Harsha. Murari
shall be admitted to the Garden of Paradise, while
lived to the end of the eighth or the beginning of
the unbelievers will be cast into the fire forever. In
the ninth century. His work Anargha-raghava reveals
view of the long distance of Madina from the most
his linguistic abilities. To the same period belongs
prosperous parts of the empire, the capital was first
Saktibhadra, the author of Chudamani. Hastimalla,
shifted to Kufa. In 661, Ali was dead.
a Jain author has given us no less than eight plays
The pious caliphs were now replaced by including Vikrantakaurana, the Subhadraharaha
the umayyads. With the rise of the umayyads the and the Maithilikalyana, Rajasekhara composed
dynastic monarchs of Islam was established. Within, four dramas—the Balaramayana, the Balabharta,
a hundred years of the death of the prophet, the the Viddhasalabhanjika and Karpuramanjari, a
Muslims overthrew two mighty empires, the Sassarid sattaka wholly in Prakrit. He was also the author
and the Byzantine empires. They overran the whole of Bhuvanakosa, Kavyamimsa (a work on poetics),
of Syria, Iran and Mesopotamia. The Khalifas became Harivalasa (a mahaprabandha) Kshemisvara wrote
the most poter and absolute monarchs. Their empire his Chandakausika for Mahipala, Naishadhananda
had grown fast that they had to shift their capital was also another work by him. The Mahanataka,
from Madina to Damascus. (Hanumannataka), which holds a unique position
A revolution in A.D. 750 led to the establishment in Sanskrit literature in many respects belongs to
of the Abbasid Khalifate. In A.D. 762, the Abbasid’s the 10th century. It is not a nataka in the strict sense
shifted their capital to Baghdad. At Mansur and of the term but something between an epic and a
Harpur, Rashids were the most important of the dramatic composition.
Abbasid Khalifas. Jayadeva has given us the Prasanna-
In course of time, the Muslims were divided raghava. Umapatidhasa wrote Parijatavarna.
into a number of sects of which the Sunnis and the Ramachandra wrote two dramas, Nalavilasa and
Shiahs are the most important. Nirbhijayabhima. The Kerala king, Kulasekhara, treats
of the Mahabharata stories in his two plays Tapati-
The two sects diffused on political as well as
Samvarana and Subhadra-Dhananjaya. Vijayapala
religious grounds. The religious difference centred
wrote the Draupadisvyamvara. The Chahamana
around the interpretation of verses of the Quran and king Visaladeva was the author of Harakelinataka.
over the Hadis (corpus of tradition about the sayings
A few natakas deal with stories of court life
and doings of Muhammad). The political difference
based on legendary, semi-historical or fictious
was related to the succession of Muhammad. The
themes.The Karna Sundari of Bhilhana, belongs to this
Sunnis believe the Muhammad appointed no

category. It belongs to the irregular type of dramas
successor and left the matter to the discretion of which are outwardly dramatic in form but devoid
the elite of the Umma (community of believers). The of any dramatic action, being merely a collection of
Shias asserts that, even after Muhammad, the last poetical stanzas. Dutangada of Subhata also belongs
of the prophets, people still require intermediaries to this kind. Four monolouge plays (bhanas) written
between themselves and God. They call such by Varauchi Sundraka, Isvaradatta and Syamilaka
intermediaries the Imams and regard Ali, the cousin under various titles were published under the
and son-in-law of Muhammad as their first imam. title Chaturbhani. Knapuracharita of Vatsarja also
Their jurisprudence and religious practices are based belongs to this category. Among the Prakarnas
on the teaching of their imams. and semi-historical plays was kaumudi-mitrananda
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by Ramachandra. The Prabodhachandrodaya of Among the historical kavyas produced
Krishna misra is an example of the allegorical dramas during this period is the Navasabasankacharita
produced in this period. of Padmagupta. Bilhana, a Kashmirian wrote the
In the field of the Kavya, notable contributions Vikramankadeva-Charit, glorifying the life of his
were made by the Buddhist and Jaina authors. patron king Vikramaditya VI, the Chalukya king of
The Buddhist Sivasvamin has given us an Kalyana.
epic, the Kapphanabhyudaya. He wrote under After him, comes the celebrated Kashmirian,
Avantivarman of Kashmir. Jinasena has given us Kalhana, who flourished in the middle of the twelfth
the Parsvabhyudayakanya. Another Jaina, Asaga, century.
has given us the Vardhamanacharita. Kanakasena Historical Works: Ramacharita of
Vadiraja wrote the Yasodharacharits. Rajanka Sandhyakaranandini deals with the history of
Ratnakara, who flourished under Jayapida and Ramapala. This is the first sustained instance of a
Avantivarman of Kashmir wrote a long epic narrating sleshkavya. Among the minor historical works of
the story of Siva killing the demon Andhaka under the period are Atula’s Mushikavamsa, Sambhu’s
the title Haravijaya. Abhinands (Son of Jayanta), Rajendrakarnapura, Jalhana’s Sornapalavilasa,
another Kashmirian poet, wrote the Kadambari- Hemachandra’s Kumarapala-charita (which is also
Kathasara which is an epitome of Bana’s Kadambari a Dvyasraya-kavya, either because it is written both
in an epic form. Another poet by name Abhinanda in Sanskrit and Prakrit or because the work besides
(Son of Jayanta), another Kashmirian poet, wrote being a history also serves the purpose of illustrating
the Kadabari-Kathasara which is an epitome of the rules of grammar) and Prithviraja-vijaya of an
Bana’s Kadambari in an epic form. Another poet unknown authorship.
by name Abhinanda (Son of Satananda) has given Poetry and Phrase: Different types of shorter
us the Ramacharita. One more Abhinanda, also poems were produced during this period. As regards
styled Gauda, has given us an epitome of the lyrics, Bilhana’s Chaura-Panchasika and Jayadeva’s
Yogavasishtha in forty-eight cantos. Vasudeva has Gitagovinda belong to the category of lyric poetry.
given us three long epics— the Yuthishthiravijaya, Arya-aaptanati by Govardhana is a collection of
the Saurikathodaya and Tiripuradahana. 700 erotic stanzas in the Arya metro. Among the
duta-kavyas produced in this period was Dhoyi’s
Sriharsha’s Naishadhacharita is regarded as
Pavahaduta. Sambhu’s Anyoktoamktalatasataka and
the last masterpiece exhibiting the industry and Silhana’s (identified with Bilhana) Santisataka belong
ingenuity that a mahakavi is capable of Sriharsha to the category of didactic poetry. Kahamendra has
is also credited with the authorship of some other written on several subjects. His Samaya matrika deals
works. One of them is a philosophical treatise under with snares and trickeries of harlots. His Kalavilasa
the title Kaudana-khandakhadya. This was written in speaks of numerous occupations and tricks and
support of the standpoint of Sankara. Kshemendra, follies of wandering singers, doctors, goldsmiths
the court-poet of king Ananta of Kashmir, has and astrologers.
given us the epitomes of the two great epics in Literacy form called anthology originated
his Bharata-manjari and Ramayana-manjari. His shortly before A.D. 1000. The earliest anthology
Padya-Kadambari is the metrical rendering of Bana’s was Subhashitavali of Vallabhadeva.
masterpiece. His Dasavatarucharita, though not Up to the 10th century, compositions were
strictly a mahakavya, described the ten incarnations either in prose or in verse almost exclusively and even
of Vishnu. Mankha was another Kashmirian poet of when they were in pause and verse intermingled,
the twelfth century. His Srikanta-charita narrates the latter was used only occasionally and for some
the destruction of Tripura in epic style. Jayadratha’s definite purposes. But the yearning of poets to
Haracharitachintamani was not really a mahakavya display their mastery over both simultaneously,
but a mahatmya. Kaviraja’s Parijntavarna came out led to the use of a new form of Sanskrit literature
in the eleventh century. called Champu. The earliest work of this class is the
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Negacharpu (Damayantikatha) of Trivikramabhatta. named Purmabhadra, prepared another version
The Madalasachampu is also ascribed to him. under the title Panchakhyayika.
Somadova (a Jaina) is the author of Yasatlakachampu Scientific Literature: The period witnessed
composed in A.D. 959. The Udayasunderkatha the production of a number of scientific literature. Of
composed by Siddhala is sometimes regarded as a the lexicons, the Dhanvantari Nighantu, the earliest
Champu. A part of the Ramayana-champu is ascribed medical lexicon in its present form belong to this
to Bhoja (11th century) and the remaining was period. Of the ordinary dictionaries (kosa), only
furnished later by one Lakshmana Kavi. one can be assigned to this period and that is the
In the fold of romance, there are the Abhidhans-ratnamala of Halayudha.Yadavaprakasa’s
Madhavanala-Kamakaudala-Katha and the Vaijayanti, the Namamalika of Bhoja, the three
Tilakamanjari. The former is the well-known love lexical works of Purushottamadeva, a Buddhist viz.
story of the Brahmana Madhavanula. It is written by Trikandasesha, Haravali and Varnadesana, Visvapraka
Ananda. Dharmapala is the author of Tilakamanjari, composed by Mahesvara, Anakarthucsa written by
composed in imitation of Bana’s Kadambari, Sodhala Maukha and the four lexical works of Hemachandra
(11th century) wrote the Udayasundarikatha. A viz., Abhidhanachintamani, Anekarthasamgraha,
Digambara Jain by name Odeyadeva (12th century) Nighantusesha and Desinamamala—all belong to
closely imitates the Kadambari of Bana in his his period.
Gadyachintamani. Rugvinischaya, also known as Madhava-
As regards the story literature, though we are nidana, written by Madhanakara is a masterly
not fortunate in having with us the Brihatkathas of work on medicine. This work treats of all diseases
Ganadhya, we can form some idea of the original together for the first time in the history of Indian
form from the three versions—two Kashmirian and medicine. Vrindamadhama (Siddhiyoga) of Vrinda
one Nepalese—that are available today. One of the closely follows the order of diseases and treatment
three versions is the Brihatkathaslokasamgraha of as found in the Madhava-nidana. Chakrapanidatta
Buddhasvamin. The manuscripts of this version wrote commentaries called Ayurvedadipika and
are from Nepal. It may be dated in the 8th century Bhanumati respectively on Charaka and Susruta.
A.D. The Brihatkathamanjari of Kshemendra (11th His Chikitsasara Samgraha is important in the
century) is one of the two Kashmirian versions. The history of Indian medicine for making an advance
Kathasaritasagara is the other Kashmirian version. in the direction of metallic preparations which
Its author is Samadeva (11th century). It is more had been introduced since the time of Vaghbhata
important than the other Kashmirian version. and Vrinda. He also wrote Sabdachandrika, a
The Vetalapanchavimsika has come down to vocabulary of vegetable and mineral substances and
us in three versions. Of these, the one of Sivadasa Dravyagunasamgraha a work on deities. Suresvara
belongs to the 12th century. The Sukasaptati has wrote Sabdapratipa and Vrikshayurveda on medical
come down to us in two recensions of uncertain botanical terms and Lohapaddhati on the medical
date. The Simhasaradvatrimsika is available in three use and preparation of iron. Vangasena wrote Bhoja
important versions. The work is placed between gives information about the horses, their diseases
the 11th and 13th centuries A.D. These and the and remedies.
anonymous Vikramodaya and Viracharita of Ananta In Mathematics, we have a number of works.
belong to the category of romantic tales. Aryabhata II, the author of Aryasiddhanta, was the
We have also a few didactic tales belonging most important author of this age. Prithusvami
to this period. The most important is the Bhattatpala and Vijayanadi, the author of Karanlika
Parisishtaparvan of Hemachandran, an appendix are noted by Alberuni.
to his Trihashtisabakapurushacharits. Alberuni refers to Balabhadra as the author
A few derivatives from the original of several independent works on all the branches
Panchatantra took shape in this period. These are of Jyotihsastra and also several commentaries on
a Jaina version prepared in 1100. Another Jaina, several works including the Yogasutra of Patanjali.
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The Sangita Makaranda attributed to More fruitful activity was evinced in the
Narada perhaps belongs to the eleventh century. field of poetics in this period. Great rhetoricians
It deals with dance and music in two separate like Udbhatavarmana, Rudrata, Anandavardhana,
parts. Jagadekamalla Pratapachakravartin’s Abhinavagupta, and Kuntaka flourished in this period.
Sangitachudamani, belongs to the 12th century. It is this ago that various theories of poetics emerged.
It also deals with both music and dance. The Udhbata wrote the Alamkara sarasamgraha. Rudrats
encyclopedic Manosollasa of Somesvara devotes was the author of Kavyalmkara. Vamana is known
2500 verses to music and musical instrument. for his Kavyalamkara-sutravritti. Anandavardhana’s
The Panchasayaka of Jyotirisvara and the Dhvanyaloka and settled all the important problems
Ratirahasya of Kokkha are works on the science of of the poetics. Abhinavagupta has several works
love produced in this period. to his credit such as the Lochana Kuntaka. He was
the founder of a new theory called Vakrokti which
On the subject of omens, we have the
is explained in his Vakroktijiva. The Kavyamimsa
Samudratilaka begun by Durlabharaja in A.D. 1160
of Rajasekhara treats of various topics which are
and completed by his son Jayaddeva who also wrote
useful to the poet. This book may be said to be a
an independent work on the dreams; under the
practical handbook of a poet. Mukulabhata in his
name Svapnachintamani.The Abbutasangara, began
Abhidhavritti matrika discusses the two powers of
by Ballalasena was completed by Lakshmanadeva.
words, viz., abhidha and lakshana.
The Narapatijayacharya Svarodaya of Narahari (12th
century) describes how the results of war and of Rajanaka Mahimabhatta in his Vyaktiviveka
other adventures can be prognosticated with the accepts only two senses of Sabda viz., the vachya
help of diagrams. (actually expressed) and the anumeya (inferable).
The avowed object of this work is polemical.
Grammar: In grammar, we come across the
It was forgotten in the later times. Bhoja’s
name of Maitreyarakshita, a Buddhist, the author
Sarasvatikanthavarans is a voluminous work on
of Tantrapradipa, a commentary on the Nyasa
this subject. His Sringaraprakasa is the largest
and Dhatupradipa, based on the Dhatupaths of
known work in Sanskrit poetics. Kshemndra’s
Panini. The Anuyasa by Indumitra and Bhagavritti
Anchityavicharacharoha is yet another work on
by Vimalamati are works on grammar belonging to
poetics. The Kavyaprakasa of Mammata occupies a
the ninth century A.D. Sakataya, the founder of a new
unique position in the Alamkara literature. Rajanka
school, also belongs to the ninth century A.D. His
Ruyyaka’s Alamkarasarvasva shows a remarkable
main work is the Sabdanusana. Durgasimha is the
degree of insight and independence of judgement.
oldest known commentator on Katantra grammar
Hemachandra’s Kavyanusara constitutes a complete
or Kalapa. He probably lived about A.D. 800. New
manual of poetics.
and popular schools of grammar came into being
after 1000 A.D., intended to simplify grammar for On dramturgy, we have Dasarupaka by
the enlightenment of layman. There are also many Dhananjaya and Natakaranakasa by Sagaranandin
recasts of Panni’s Asntadhyayi. Among the works of who seem to have written another work, a play,
the Panini school were Kashirasvamin’s Dhatuvrithi, named Janakiharan Natyadarpana, by Ramachadra
Kaiyata’s Pradipa on the Mahabhashya of Patanjali which deals with the science of dramaturgy in four
and Haradatta’s Padmamanjari. Vardhamana’s sections. Bhana prakasana of Saradetanaya describes
Canaratnamahodadhi is the only complete work ten types of drama and twenty types of Nritya.
on Paniniya Ganapatha. Durghavritti written by Utpala was a noted writer in Sanskrit metres.
Sarnadeva, a Buddhist, deals with the difficult Kashmendra composed a work on Sanskrit metres
passages of Panini’s text. Among the non-Panini under the title Suvrittatilaka. Hemanchandra wrote
systems, the Chandra school disappeared from the Chhandonusana, a very exhaustive work on
India during this period. The Jainendra school was Sanskrit, Prakrit and Apabhavamsa metres. Jayakriti
represented by a few works. also wrote a work on metrics under the same title.
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Hemachandra’s Laghu-Arhanniti deals with eminent writers of Dharmasastra. He is probably
such topics as war, punishments, law and penances. identical with the guru of Ballalasena. Ballalasena
Yuktikalpataru of Bhoja and the Nitiratnakara of composed at least five works. Of these, only
Chandesvara also deal with politics. Some scholars Danasagra and Adbhuasagara alone are known to
believe that the original text of Sukranitisars was exist. Halayudha’s Brahmanssarvasva is a guide for
composed in this age. the Kanva Sakha Brahmans of the Sukla Yajurveda
Other: Many religious works appeared in this to the Vedic mantras employed in the daily rites
period. The two great epics had now practically and periodical ceremonies.
reached their final form. Large additions were made The greatest name in philosophy is that
to the Puranas. Two compilations of Dharmassastras, of Vachaspati Misra, to whom the epithet
Chaturvimsatimata and the Shattrimsanmata Sarvatantravantatra or Sarvadarsanavallabha is
probably belong to this age. On the whole, however, generally applied. He wrote commentaries such as
it may be said that the age of original literature in Vyasabhashya on Patanjali’s yogasutra and some
Dharmasastra is over, and that commentators and Nyaya works such as Nyayasuchini bandha. His
writers of digests (nibandhas) have taken up the field. Tattvabindu is an independent work on the Bhatta
Visvarupa wrote his Balakrida on the Yagnavalkya- Mimamsa. Bhamati on Sankara’s Bashya on the
Smriti. The digests contained a synthesis of all the Brahmasutras is too well-known.
dicta of the ancient Smritikaras on various topics Udayana, the author of the Tattvasuddhi, a
of Dharma. The general tendency from the twelfth commentary on the Nyayavarthikatatparyatika,
century onwards was to compose digests than Buddhadhikkara, Nyayaparisishta, stands next to
commentaries. We do not know whether Bhoja’s Vachaspati. Two more authors on the Nyaya School
work on Dharmasastra was a commentary or a digest. who deserve to be mentioned are Jayata, the author
Jitendriya wrote an extensive work on Dharmasastra. of Nyayamanjair and Bhasarajna,’ the author of
Balaka wrote on several branches of Dharmasastra. Nyaysara. Gangesa’s Tattvachintamani which
Bhavadevabhatta composed several valuable works appeared in the last quarter of the twelfth century
on Dharmasastra such as Vyavaharatilaka (hitherto is a standard text of the Modern Nyaya School. In
undiscovered). Govindaraja wrote a commentary on yoga we have the Rajamartands, the Yogavrittika,
the Manusmriti and Smritimanjari dealing with all and the Yogasarasamgraha.The first is a commentary
principle topics of Dharmasastra. The Krityakalpataru on Patanjali’s Yogasutra composed by Bhoja.
of Bhatta Lakshmidhara is unique among the digests.
The literary activity of the Vaiseshikas is
No other digest has attempted such a logical and
restricted mainly to the commentaries.The earliest of
comprehensive presentation of the Smriti matter
these is Lakshanavali by Udayana, whose Kiranavali
as this one. Vijnanesvara’s Mitakshara represents
is a sort of commentary on Prasastpada’s Bhashya
the quintessence of Dharmasastra speculation
on the Vaiseshikasutra.
that preceded it. It is no mere commentary on the
Yagnavalkya-Smriti. It is in the nature of a digest of In Vedanta, besides Vachaspati, we have
Smriti materials. It is necessary to note here that Sarvajnatmamuni, the author of Samkshepasariraka,
in several matters of Hindu law Mitakshara is of Nathamuni, the author of Nyayatattva and the
supreme importance in modern law courts in all parts Yogarahasya and Yamunacharya who gave us several
of India except Bengal (where Dayabhaga prevails) works such as Agamapramanya.
and Maharasthra (where Mayukha prevails). Aparaka Saivism too, like Vaishnavism were also
wrote a commentary on the Yagnavalkya-Smriti. It is developing systematic schools in great affinity with
also in the nature of a digest more extensive than the the Vedanta. In Kashmir, there were two schools. One
Mitakshara. Jimutavahana who probably flourished of them was Spandasastra, founded by Vasugupta.
in the first half of the 12th century is known for his God Siva is said to have revealed to him the Sivasutra.
work Dayabhaga. Sridhara’s Smrityarthasara deals Kallata’s Spamdakarika is equally important work of
with the usual Dharmasastra topics. Aniruddha, this school. The important works of the other school
the author of Pitridayita and Haralata is one of the called the Pratyabhinjasastra, are the Sivadrishti and
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the Pratyabhinjnasutra composed by Somanada was produced in this period by Hemachandra.
and Utpala respectively. The latter of these is more His Siddahemachandra deals with various Prakrit
important. Abhinavagupta has also given us two languages.
more works of this schools—the Tantralok and the
Paramarthasara. GROWTH OF TAMIL LITERATURE
Prakrit: There was a growing tendency among This period, being the golden age of Tamil
the Jains to neglect Prakrit and to adopt Sanskrit culture, was naturally marked by the widespread
for their literary works. Siddhasena Divakara was practice of Tamil literature. In general literature,
probably the first among the Jain pandits who an anonymous work. Nandikalambakam, a quasi-
turned to Sanskrit for the propagation of his faith historical work, dealing with the events of the reign
and philosophy. Another notable figure turning to of the last great Pallava monarch, Nandivarman III
Sanskrit was Haribhadra. The tendency found its (826-849) made its appearance. Perundevanar, the
culmination in the great Hemachandra who lived in author of the Bharatam, of which only a small part
has survived, appears to have been a contemporary
the court of Kumarapa’s in the twelfth century AD.
of Nandivarman III. The Jivakachintamani of the Jaina
Still the period saw the production of a number of
ascetic and poet, Tiruttakkadevar, was composed
Prakrit works. Haribhadra wrote Samaraditya-katha
early in the 10th century. The poem has another
and the Dhurtakhyana. The other Prakrit works
name, Mana-nul (The Book of Marriages) on account
composed earlier than the 11th century which
of each of the hero, Jivaka’s early adventures
may be mentioned here are the Upadesamala
culminated in a happy marriage. Another Jaina
of Dharmadasagani, the Jnanapanchamikatha
writer, Tolamoli, wrote the Sulamnai, a Jaina puranic
of Mahesvarasuri, the Bhuvavasundarikatha of
theme in mellifluous verse. It is counted as one of
Vijayasinha, the Ajita-Sati-Stava of Nandishena.
the five minor kavyas of Tamil literature. Kallandam,
The eleventh and twelfth centuries saw written by Kalladanar, contains 100 pieces each
the production of narrative Prakrit literature. The purporting to depict a particular mood of love. The
Surasundarichariya of Dhanesvara was composed in Kalingattupparani of Jayangondar is the earliest
A.D. 1038. The Mahaviracharita of Gunachandru was and best of the Paranis (war poems) available.
written in A.D. 1082. The Adinathacharita, Santi Suri’s Kuttan or Ottakkuttan sang Ulas of each of the
Prithvichandracharita belongs to the 12th century. Chola kings who patronised him. He was given
The greatest Jain writer of the 12th century was the title Kaviccakravarti. Besides the three Ulas, he
Hemachandra who bore the title Kaliala-Sarvajan. composed a Parani on the Kalinga war of Vikrama
The last two cantos of the Kumarapalacharita were Chola and in Pillaittamil on Kulottunga II. Other
written in various Prakrit dialects. poems attributed to him are Takkayagapparani,
The Neminatha charita composed by another Sarasvatiandadi, Arumbattollayiram, Ittiyelupsdu
Hemachandra, the Munisuvratasvamicharita and Elupplupadu. A greater poet than Kuttan was
by Srichandra, the Supa Banthachariya of Kamban, the author of Ramayanam, the greatest epic
Lakshmanagani, the Sanatkumaracharita by another in Tamil literature. Two mediocre poems, Erelupadu
Srichandra are among the other biographies of and Satakoparandadi are ascribed to him.
the twelfth century. There are also some Prakrit The impulse to produce devotional literature
works of the types of life stories. Haribhadra wrote of the earlier period continued unabated in this
the Mllinathacharita and Chandraprabhacharita. period. It was in this period that the Saiva Caoon
Somaprabha wrote Kumarapala-pratibodha in was arranged into eleven books (Tirumural) by
prose and verse. Some Prakrit stotras were also Nambi Andar Nambi. Nambi himself wrote six
composed. Ullasikkama-thaya of Jinavallabha is prabandhas on Gnanasambandar and one on Appar
one among them. A few didactic poems were besides Tiruttodar tinvandadi which gives a brief
also composed Silovaesamala by Jaykirti and account of the lives of the sixty-three saints. All
Gathakosa by Munichandra belong to this category. these and the poems he wrote in praise of Vinayaka
The most complete grammar of Prakrit languages and Chidambaram are included in the eleventh
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book of the canon. Nambi’s senior contemporary of Saiva-Siddhanta had its beginnings late in this
was Pattinattu-pillaiyar whose five compositions period. Two works Tiruvundiyar by Tiruviyahur-
celebrating the Saiva shrines of Chidambaram, Uyyavanda-devar and Tirukkaliruuppadiyar
Kalumalam (Sirkali). Tiruvidaimarudur; Kanchipuram, Tirukkadavur-Uyyavanda-deva belong to this period.
and Orriyur are included in the eleventh book. They are the only ones among the fourteen works
The Tiruvisaippa, forming the ninth book of the comprising the siddhanta-sastra that precede Siva-
canon, was composed by nine people including Gnana Bodam of Keykaodar.
Gangaraditya, the son of Parantaka I and a Karuvur
Literature in the Newly Developing
Devan who has hymns on the three famous Chola
temples newly built in his day the Adityesvara Languages
at Kalavidai, the Rajarajesvara at Thanjavur and Kannada: The earliest extant work on rhetoric
Gangaikondasolesvara at Gangaikoodssolapuram. in Kannada is the Kavirajamarga, written by Ripatmga
The Tiruttondarpunarm or Periyapuraman was Amoghavaraha I, the Rashtrakuta emperor. But the
composed by Sekkilar in the reign of Kulotunga first extant work of all literature is Sivako’s (900 A.D.)
II (1133-50). It was hailed universally as a veritable Vaddaradhane, a prose work on the lives of Jaina
fifth Veda in Tamil. It forms the twelfth book in Saiva units. This work was written in Purvahala-Kannada.
Canon. It is considered to be one of the masterpieces Then comes Pama who punished in the court of
of Tamil literature. Arikesari II of Vemulavada, a feudatory of Rashtrakuta
Vaishnava religions literature in Tamil Krishna III. His adipurana describes the life story of
belonging to this period comprises the works of the first Jaina Thrthankara. In his other work, the
alvars and acharyas. It is possible that Tirmangaialwar Vikramarjuna Vijaya, he gives his own version of the
lived in the reign of Nandivarman II (A.D. 710- Mahabharata story. For this reason, it is called Pampa-
775). Kulasekhara is said to be a contemporary of Bharata. Ponna wrote Santipurana, the legendary
Tirumangaisalwar. history of the sixteenth Tirthankara. The authorship
of two other works the Bhuvanai-Karamabhyudaya
Nammalvar and Madhuarakavi lived far into and Jinaksharmale—is ascribed to him. Krishna III
this period. Ramanjarandadi of Tiruvarangattu conferred on him the title of Ubhayak vicakravari
Amudanar is held in great esteem to this day. (Supreme poet in two languages—Sanskrit and
Jivasambodini of Devendra munivar is a Jaina Kannada).
work expounding the twelve modes of meditation Ranna was the court poet of Chalukya Taila II
in the form of an address to the soul. and his successor. His Ajitapurana is a Champu on
In the field of grammar, we have two the life of the second Tirthankara. His Sahasabhims-
authoritative works on prosody, the Yapparugalam vijaya or Gadayuddha is also a Champu. Two
and the Yapparungalakkarigai composed by a other works of Ranna—Parasurama-charita and
Jaina ascetic, Amitasagara. Buddhamitru wrote the Cakresvaru-charita—are not extant. Ranna Kauda,
Virasoliyam. The Dendiyalamgaram is modelled a lexion, may well be his work Pampa, Ponna and
on the Kavyadarsa of Dandin. The name of the Ranna are said to form the Three Gems.
author is lost. The Neminadam of Gunavirapandita Chavundaraya-Purana or Trishastilakshana-
is a short treatise on the arthographs and parts of mahapurana, one of the earliest extant prose works
speech of the Tamil language. Its author is a Jaina. in Kannada, describing the legends of twenty-four
He also wrote the vaccanndi-malai (The Garland of Tirthankaras, twelve Chakravartis, nine Balabhadras,
Vaccanandi), named after his guru. It is also known nine Narayanas and nine Pratinarayanas, was
as Venbapattiyal, Pavanandi wrote his Nannul (The composed in 978 A.D., by Chavundaraya, the man
Good Book) in this period. He was also a Jaina. who set up the colossus Gommatesvara at Sravana-
Another Jain, Aiyamaridanar wrote the Purupporul Belgola.
venbamalai. Chandombudhi (ocean of prosody) is the
In Jericography, we have the Pingalam. Little earliest work on the subject in Kannada. It was
known of the author. The philosophical literature written by Nagavarma I.
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The next important piece of literature is the Vemula Bhimakavi, associated with
Pancatantra of Durgasimha. It is Champu based Anantavarman Chodaganga (A.D. 1078-1148),
on the Brihatkatha. Among the contemporaries wrote the Kavijanasraya, a Telugu grammar and the
of Durgasimha was Chandaraja, the author of Bhimesvara Purana, relating to legends connected
Madantilaka, a Champu on erotics in the form of a with the shrine of Bhimsesvara at Daksharama. He
dialogue between the author’s patron and his wife. is said to have written also Raghava-Pandaviya,
The author claims that he had used the most modern giving the story of both the Ramayana and the
language of his time (posa-kannada). Lokopakara, Mahabharata together. This is not available to us.
written by a portage of Jayasimha II Jagadekamalla When Virasaivism became an important factor
by name Chavundaraya, is a cyclopedic miscellany in in the religious life of the Telugus from the twelfth
good verse on various subjects such as astronomy century A.D. onwards, some of the poets started
and astrology, sculpture, construction of buildings, developing a sectarian outlook and writing to
omens, divination of water, medicinal herbs and their propagate their faith. Famous among them was
uses scents, cookery and toxicology. Sirdharacharya Mallikarjuna Pandita. His Siva-tativa-saram expounds
wrote the earliest work on astrology in Kannada the principles of Virasaivism. Nanne Choda, a Telugu-
under the title, Jataka-tilaka. Candracudamani- Choda prince, wrote the Kumarasambhava, based on
sataka, dealing with the ethics of pronunciation, the Sanskrit works on the same theme by Kalidasa
was written by Nagavarmacarya, patronised by a and Udbhata. He employed Kannada and Tamil
feudatory of Soma vara II at Banaasi by name Ganga works in his work which was not received well by
Udayaditya. every one.
Nagachandra (c. 1105 A.D.), a Jaina, wrote the Malayalam:Ramacaritram, said to have been
Mallinathapurana, a Champu. But he is best known written by an ancient ruler of Travancore sometime
for his Ramachandra-caritapurana. In this work, between the 10th and 13th centuries A.D., may
he gives the Jaina version of the Rama legend in be regarded as a work very much nearer to being
a Champu. Brahmasiva wrote a Jaina polemic, the called true literature. Somewhat later is the work, the
Samayaprikshe, in order to establish the superiority of
Ramakathappattu of Ayyipillai Asan. Bhashakautilya
Jainism over all other creeds. Kirttivarma’s Govaidya
a Malayalam commentary on Kautilya’s Arthasastra,
is a work on veterinary science, half-medicine and
may be assigned to the same period as the two
half-magic. About 1145 A.D., Karnaparya wrote
works mentioned above. The author of this work
the Neminathapurana dealing with the life of
is not known. A strong impetus to literature came
the twenty-second Tirthankara. About that time,
only from about the 13th century A.D., mainly due
Nagavarma II wrote an important work on the
to the development of Chakkiyar-kuttu, a dance
grammar and rhetoric of Kannada under the title
recital of literary work.
the Kavyavalokana. He also wrote another work
on grammar, the Karnataka bhasha bhushana. His Kalhana’s Rajatarangini
Vastrukosa is a short lexicon. A Chola prince seems He has given us in his Rajatarangini, the
to have written a short work on the art of poetry chronicles of the kings of Kashmir right from the
under the name Udayadityalankara. This work was beginning to his own days. The historical kavyas
based on Dandin’s Kavyadarsa. reached the high water mark in Rajatarangini. The
Telugu: Telugu literature, as we know, may work was completed in 1150. This great Indian
be said to begin with Nannaya’s translation of the historian lived in an unfortunate period of Kashmir
Mahabharata undertaken in the reign of Rajaraja history, his father being a minister of Harsha, ‘the
Narendra (1019-61 A.D.). The translation was not Nero of Kashmir’, yet he had certain advantages. He
literal. The poet, exercise his powers of imaginative knew his country and its public affairs quite well
creation freely. Nannaya was perhaps also the and had opportunities for studying its geography
author of Andhra-sabha-cintamani, the first Telugu and topography. He understood the inwardness of
grammar. This work had earned for its author the the contemporary history of Kashmir. His interest
title Vaganusansana, the law-giver of the language. in antiquarian remains was great. A Brahmana by
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birth and devoted to Siva, he was free from sectarian observing intently the process of current events in
outlook. He seemed to have carefully studied the lieu of becoming a mere book-worm, and trying
epics, the works of classical authors and earlier to find satisfaction for a keen intellect in recording
historians and many other sciences. His historical the events around him and those of earlier days in
studies commenced with Bilhana’s Vikramankadeva lieu of the participation in affairs traditional in his
charita, Bana’s Harshacharita and the numerous family and congenial to his tastes.
chronicles of Kashmir, abridged and unabridged,
Alberuni’s India
whose many discrepancies and errors are deplored
by him. He went through various eulogies and family Alberuni (c. 972-1048), the first prominent
records then available to him. He went further and Muslim Indologist, was one of the greatest
explored the archaeological remains with such intellectuals of the eleventh century. He was born
great care that his description of them had served of ‘Iranian stock’ in the territory of Khiva, then
as guide to modern explorer and researcher. He called Khwarizm. He was a man of ‘encyclopedic
deciphered the inscriptions and studied the copper- learning’ who distinguished himself in the
plates available to him and did not neglect even the multifarious disciplines of ‘science and literature’
old coins of Kashmir. of his day; he was a theologian, philosopher, logician,
mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer
One may note certain blemishes in this work.
and physician—all rolled into one. He was a man
As one writer puts it, “manifest impossibilities and
of studious habits who remained constantly busy
exaggerations and superstitious beliefs such as
in reading and writing. Though brought up in the
abhichara or magical operations are reproduced
school of adversity, Alberuni exhibited no weakness
without a mark of doubt or critical misgiving”. For
for material acquisitions and comforts of life. He
example, one Ramaditya is said to have ruled for
was the political counsellor of the Khwarizm Shah
300 years. For the early period the popular legends
of the Mamuni dynasty, in 1017, when his native
are given without any comment. In some respects
country was invaded and conquered by Mahmud
Kalhana was extremely credulous and we may
of Ghazni, Alberuni being one of them. He had
suppose that he was led away by the legendary
already acquired fame as munijjim—‘astrologer
character of the early records of Kashmir. But cum astronomer’, well-versed in Greek as well as
from the 7th century his account becomes sober, India systems; therefore, on his arrival in Ghazni,
though it is occasionally vitiated by overstatements he was released immediately and allowed to lead
and his chronology becomes tenable. From 837 his life as a free man. Mahmud’s invasion of Khiva
we get correct dates in the years of the Laukika seems, however, to have had a deep impact on the
era and from 855 the year, month and day of the mind of Alberuni.
beginning and end of each reign are given and the
Once deprived of his native hearth and home,
narrative is completely reliable. The contemporary
he refused to set up a new one in Ghazni. He did not
part of Kalhana’s history is based on his own direct
enter the service of the state nor sought patronage
knowledge and on that of his acquaintances.
of Sultan Mahmud albeit he had a causal contact
On the whole, Kalhana exhibits an impartial with his court in the capacity of a munijjim and
and independent outlook. We see him making hones a learned sage. Alberuni built no material assets
criticism of even his patron. He is fair even to Harsha. during the lifetime of Mahmud of Gahzni though he
Further, he does not tell a vanished tale but could have amassed wealth simply by accepting the
dwells on the merits and defects of the makers offerings and gifts from his admirers and the nobility
of history and their coadjutors. His honesty is of Ghazni. In his old age, however, he accepted the
beyond doubt. His general accuracy is equally grant of a pension from Sultan Masud, the successor
unquestionable. He was no mere analyst or chronicler. of Mahmud, so that he might continue to devote
He is a true historian, though he may fail to conform himself to literary pursuits. Alberuni did not stay in
to modern standards in some respects. His work Ghazni for long; in 1018-19, he accompanied the
points to a mind very busily in contact with reality, invading hordes of Mahmud to the Indo-Gangetic
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valley as a freelance observer. The invaders fought seen across at extremely wide chronological and
battles and indulged in loot and plunder but geographical horizon. From the simple beginnings
Alberuni just wandered about as a forlorn individual; at Sanchi, in the fifth century of the Christian era, to
in deep anguish and disgust, he simply observed the the great edifices at Kanchi, Jhanjavur and Madurai
wanton destruction of Indian towns and temples, is a story of more than a millennium.
and the grievous injuries inflicted by man upon The prominent Shilpashastras that deal with
his own species in the satisfaction of his lust for the subject of temple architecture are; Mayamata,
power and wealth. Mahmud’s armies returned to Manasara, Shilparatna, Kamikagama, Kashyapashilpa
Ghazni and showed their appearance in India, in and Ishanaguru devapaddati.
the same fiery mood, a couple of times again, but The geographical distribution
Alberuni stayed behind for a number of years. He
1. Their differentiation from the point of view
travelled extensively in various parts of the country,
of shapes, and
studies the language, religion and philosophy of the
Hindus (Alberuni learned Sanskrit so that he might 2. Their presiding deities and castes.
go to the sources of Hindu Thought; he read with All these topics, however, are not mentioned
delight the Bhagavad Gita; he studied Samkhya of in all these works. Since later texts as the
Kapila, the book of Patanjali and acquainted himself Kamikagama and Kashyapashilpa show that the
somewhat with the Purana;... For a Muslim living in nature of ornamentation, number of storeys, the
the days of Sultan Mahmud, almost under his roof, size of prasadas etc. also constituted the bases of
to study Sanskrit and things related to Hindus was differentiation.
no mean achievement; it demanded an exceptional Major Styles: The ancient texts on Indian
spirit of determination and perseverance and not a temple architecture broadly classify them into
little audacity.) and wrote the classic account of the three orders. The terms Nagara, Dravida and Vesara
country and its people in Arabic, entitled Tarikh ul indicate a tendency to highlight typological features
Hind; it was translated later into Persian. of temples and their geographical distribution.These
It is an authentic primary source of information terms describe respectively temples that primarily
about the socio-religious condition of India of employ square, octagonal and apsidal ground
Mahmud of Ghazni’s times. It gives a scholarly plans which also regulate the vertical profile of the
analysis of the social and religious institutions of structure. Nagara and Dravida temples are generally
the Hindus and throws light on their rich cultural identified with the northern and southern temple
heritage, including science and literature. The book styles respectively. All of northern India, from the
presents a deep sociological study, characterised by foothills of the Himalayas to the central plateau of
the Deccan is furnished with temples in the northern
a rare spirit of enquiry, modern scientific attitude
style. There are, of course, certain regional variations
and sympathetic insight. It also gives a dispassionate
in the great expanse of this area. A work entitled
account of the weaknesses of the Indian character
Aparajitapriccha confines the Ngari (Nagara) style
and the shortcomings of their socio-political order, to the Madhyadesha (roughly the Ganga-Yamuna
which led to their defeat and humiliation at the plains) and further mentions Lati and Vairati (Gujarat
hands of the invaders. Alberuni made extensive and Rajasthan respectively) as separate styles. The
use of the Sanskrit literature from which he quotes local manuscripts of Orissa recognize four main
chapter and verse in support of his contentions. He types of Orissa style temples, viz., the Rekha, Bhadra,
died in Ghazni at the age of seventy-seven. Kharkhara and Gaudiya.
ART AND ARCHITECTURE The Dravida or southern style, comparatively
speaking, followed a more consistent development
Temple Architecture track and was confined to the most southernly,
Indian temples have symbolised the very ethos portions of the sub-continent, specially between the
of lifestyle of the people through the millennia. The Krishna river and Kanyakumari. The term Vesara is
panorama of Indian temple architecture may be not free from vagueness. Some of the texts ascribe
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the Vesara style to the country between the Vindhyas The Dravida style has a polygonal, often
and the river Krishna but there are texts placing it octagonal shikhara and a pyramidal vimana, which
between the Vindhyas and the Agastya, the location is rectangular in plan. A temple of the Dravide
of which is uncertain. Since the temples of the type is also notable for the towering gopurams or
Nagara type are found as far south as Dharwad gatetowers of the additional mandapas. From the
(in Karnataka) and those of the Dravidan type as days of Ganesh ratha of the Pallava times (seventh
far north as Ellora (in Maharashtra), a narrow and century) at Mahabalipuram (near Madras) to the
compartmentalised geographical classification gigantic Brihadishyara temple (c. 985-1012 A.D.)
is misleading. At certain periods, there occurred of the Cholas at Thanjavur, the Dravida style took
striking overlapping of major styles as influences many strides.
from different regions confronted each other, e.g., Sculpture: Temples were dedicated not only
the temples of the early Chalukyas whose kingdom to two great gods of the Brahmanical pantheon, viz.,
was strategically positioned in the middle of the Shiva and Vishnu but to the Great Mother Goddess as
peninsula in the seventh and eighth centuries. The well. In fact, consecration and depiction of divinities—
Kandariya Mahadeva temple in Khajuraho is another big and small, benevolent and malevolent, celestial
striking example where the various architectural and terrestrial, atmospheric and heavenly, devas and
elements combined into an integrated whole. asuras and countless folk deities such as vakshas,
Similarly, the Kerala temples display variety in vakshis, apsaras and kinnaras represent a world
their plan types. Square, circular or apsidal-ended of their own. It is indeed fascinating to see that
buildings are utilised. The earliest examples in Kerala even animal or bird ‘vehicles’ (vahanas) of these
go back to the twelfth century. divinities shed their muteness and become eloquent
Shapes, Plans and Language of Temples: carriers of meaningful symbolism. Thus, Nandi, the
Each temple style has its own technical language, agricultural bull of Shiva is fully expressive of the
though some terms are common but applied to god’s sexuality; Tiger, the mount of Durga embodies
different parts of the building in each style. The here fierce strength and aggressiveness. The river
sanctuary, which is the main part is called the goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna are identified by
vimana where the garbhagriha or the inner sanctum their vahanas, viz. crocodile and tortoise respectively.
containing the main presiding deity is located. Lakshmi’s association with elephants, lotus flowers
and water not only symbolize her popularity as
The part surmounting the vimana is known as the
the goddess of fortune but more importantly as a
Shikhara.
divinity conveying the magical power of agricultural
The other lements of ground plan are: fertility—an aspect that goes back to the days of
mandapa or pavilion for the assembly of devotees; the Rigveda. Swan carrying Saraswati typified not
antarala, which is a vestibule connecting the only her grace and elegance but classic Kshira-nira
vimana and mandapa and the pradakshinapath, viveka—the tremendous intellectual discerning
i.e. circumambulatory passage surrounding these. capacity which is an integral element of this goddess
The natmandir or dance hall and bhogamandapa of learning. The Kashyapa Shilpa Shastra a chapter
were evolved subsequently in the Orissan temples on the deities to be enshrined in the principal styles
such as the famous Sun temple at Konarka, to add
mentioned above. Thus, the Shantamurtis (peaceful,

to the dignity and magnificence of the deities who calm and serene deities) are to be installed in Nagara;
were honoured in them. The exterior of the Nagara couples or moving deities in vesara shrines; and
type is characterised by horizontal tiers, as in the heroic, dancing or enjoying deities in the Dravida
jagamohan or porch in front of sanctum of the structures. However, these injunctions about
Lingaraj temple at Bhubaneswar and the vimana is presiding deities, like the basic styles, ought not to
usually circular in plan. Fundamentally, there is no be taken in a compartmentalised sense. Similarly,
structural similarity between the Brahmanical and textural prescriptions about the Nagara, Dravida
the Jain temples in the North except that the need and Vesara styles being associated with brahmana,
for housing the various Tirthankaras dominates the Kshatriya and Vaishya varnas respectively cannot
disposition of space in the latter. be taken literally.
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ART AND ARCHITECTURE OF EARLY Central Indian school of architecture (Khajuraho)
MEDIEVAL INDIA 1. Constructed under the patronage of the
Chandella rulers between the tenth and the
Western Indian school of Architecture twelfth century, the temples of Khajuraho
1. Grand temples were created in Gujarat and represent the epitome of Nagara style of
Rajasthan in the early medieval period under architecture.
the patronage of various Rajput dynasties
2. Chandellas were originally feudatories
that emerged in the western Indian from the
of the Gurjara-Pratihara rulers and by the
seventh century CE.
ninth century CE they had established their
2. Both the Brahmanical and the Jaina temples independent rule in the Bundelkhand region.
were constructed under the patronage of the
3. The Chandellas traced their lineage to the
Guhilas of Mewar, the Gurjara-Pratiharas and
Moon god and claimed a Kshatriya-Rajput
the Solanki (Chalukyas of Gujarat).
status. According to the oral tradition eighty-
3. Undertaking projects of temple construction five temples stood at Khajuraho, but today
was not limited to kings, Jaina merchants got only twenty-five survive.
several temples constructed in western India.
4. The Chandella temples stood on large
(a) Jaina merchant brothers Tejapala and platforms and the school of architecture
Vastupala patronised the famous marble developed most remarkable style of Nagara
temples of Mount Abu in Rajasthan. shikharas composed of several miniature
(b) Samar Shah, a Jaina merchant from Patan shikharas.
is also credited with construction and 5. They are smaller than Orissa temple and
repair of several Jaina temples. only have the Garbhagriha, Mandapa and
4. The Sun temple at Modhera was constructed in Ardhamandapa, which are treated as a whole,
the eleventh century CE under the patronage while Orissa treated them as separate entities
of Solanki ruler Bhima I (1022-63). joined by vestibules.
(a) The temple faces east, where lies a large 6. The Shikara also are curved for the whole
kunda or water tank. length, dotted by miniature shikaras, like a
(b) On the western end of the tank stands an high pak surrounded by miniature mountains,
ornamented freestanding torana, which giving the effect of organic natural growth.
acts as a transition between the tank and 7. The kalinga roof is pyramidal, while Khajuraho’s
the temple. was corbelled roof which looks like a flat
(c) The temple itself consists of a dome. It has pillared windows and small
porch followed by an assembly hall transepts to the assembly hall.
(gudhamandapa), a grabhagriha and a 8. Unlike Orissa the interior is also carved, along
pradakshinapath. with the ceiling. Sculptures lack solidity and
vigour of Orissa e.g., Parsvanatha, Visvanath
and Kandariya temples of Khajuraho.

9. Presence of erotic sculpture on some of the
temple walls is one the characteristic feature
of the Khajuraho temple.
10. The Khajuraho temples are generally dedicated
to two religions—Hinduism and Jainism.
11. Important temples at Khajuraho—Kandariya
Mahadeva Temple, Lakhsmana Temple,
Chaturbhuja Temple, Vishwanatha Temple,
Sun Temple Modhera (Gujarat)
Chausath Yogini Temple.
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12. The eleventh century Kandariya Mahadev
temple is dedicated to Brahmanical lord Shiva.
(a) The temple stands on a high platform
and consists of a porch, a mandapa, a
maha-mandapa, a grabhagriha and a
pradakshinapath.
(b) The shikhara of the temple symbolised
Mount Kailash, abode of Shiva and
consists of eighty-four smaller shikharas.
kalinga architecture
2. The Shikara is on top of the Deul, with vertical
inlets, was crowned by the Amalakha and
Kalassa (final).
3. The exteriors are lavishly decorated, but
interiors are unadorned. Roofs are corbelled
and rested on four large pilasters, often
supported by iron girders.
4. Rekha Deula Temples
(a) Shikhara of the Lingraja Temple in
Bhubneshwar.
(b) Shikhara of the Jagannath Temple in Puri.
Kandariya Mahadev Temple, Khajuraho (Madhya Pradesh) 5. Pidha Deula is a square building with a
pyramid shaped roof.
(a) Jagmohan of the Sun temple of konark.
(b) Digambar Jain Temple of the Khandagiri
in Bhubneshwar.
6. Khakhara deula is a rectangular building with
a truncated pyramid shaped roof. The temples
of female deities are generally of this type.
(a) Baitala Deula, Bhubneshwar.
(b) Durga Temple, Banki.
7. The Kalinga school of architecture developed
between the seventh and thirteenth centuries
in Orissa.
8. The temple construction in Orissa began
under the Shailodbhavas, who ruled till the
BASIC ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN OF second half of the eighth century, later the
KHAJURAHO TEMPLES patronage was primarily provided by the
Somavamsi and the Ganga rulers.
Kalinga Style of Architecture (Orissa)
9. The early temples of Kalinga style had simple
1. The temple consists of the Bhog Mandir (hall for curvilinear tower over a square garbha griha
offerings), Nat Mandir (for dancing), Jagmohan and a mandapa called the jagamohan with
(for assembly) and Deula (Garbagriha or flat roof, the best example of early Kalinga
sanctuary) connected by the Autarala. style architecture is the seventh century
- There are three types of deulas- Rekha Parashurameshvaram temple in Bhubanshwar
Deula, Pidha Deula and KhakhraDeula. (Orissa).
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- Dedicated to Shiva, the temple consists The pious and sincere followers of Islam had to
of a mandapa (jagmohan) and a reprieve the profane desires and ambitious policy
garbhagriha, topped by a curvilinear of the Muslims, whose number increased day by day
shikhara (know as rekha deul), with an as new countries were brought into the fold of Islam
amlaka on top. and material prosperity seemed to make them forget
10. The Mukteshvara temple in Bhubaneshwara, God. Those who regarded all outward splendour
constructed in the tenth century under and wealth as an infraction of the principles which
patronage of Somavamshi dynasty marks governed the true Islamic life, retired from the world
the transition between early and late Orissan to lead a life of abstinence and renunciation.
style architecture and beginning of mature The name of sufi was first applied to Abu
phase of temple architecture in Orissa Hashim of Kufa who died in A.D. 778. The Sufis
of the (roughly 7th and 8th centuries A.D.) were
- The temple faces west and is enclosed
ascetics. Since the early Muslim ascetics wore cloths
within a short wall. The entrance is
of rough wool, they came to be called sufis. They
through a free standing beautifully
were men of deep religious feeling. They laid great
carved torana (arched gateway). The plan
stress on the principles of repentance (Tauba) and
of the temple consists of a jagmohana
trust in God (Tawakkul). They were inspired by the
with a phamsana roof and a garbhagriha
Quranic conception of a transcendent God. Their
with a rekha deul.
meditation was confined within the limits of the
11. The best-known example of the later style Quran and the practice of the prophet. By the end
of Kalinga school is the eleventh century of this period, sufism had become a monotheistic
Lingaraja temple at Bhubaneshwara and theosophy. Fear of God and the Day of judgement
thirteenth century Sun temple at Konark. were the prominent features of this theosophy. At
the same time, the element of loving adoration was
not altogether absent. Rabia, a woman mystic of
the second century Hegira, says “Love of God hath
so absorbed me that neither love nor hate of any
other remains in my heart”.
It was she who began the popular practice
of using the symbolical language of human love
to describe the relations between the mystic and
his divine beloved. Dhul Nun Misri has used in his
verses the Gotic imagery which is full of passionate
devotion to the Divine Being. In fact the nature of
love is such that it tends to resolve all differences
The Mukteshvara Temple, Bhubaneshwara (Orissa)
between the lover and the beloved into one simple
Sufism unity. In later centuries, the allegory of love became
The term Sufism is derived from the Arabic an important, feature of Sufi literature.
word sufi, meaning wool. Sufism is the name given to In the third century of the Hegira (roughly
mysticism born in the bosom of Islam. It is as old as 9th century A.D.), the asceticism of the early sufis
Islam. Muhammad, the prophet was himself a mystic. gave birth to the regular government of Tasawauf.
The mystical notes sounds clearly in the utterances The chief aims of the movement were the loving
of Quran. Among the Suhabah (the companions of devotion to God and a discipline of the individual
Muhammad, the prophet), there were some people soul. Under the Abbanils, the sufi theosophy attained
who despised the world and led on austere life. This its perfection. That was the time when the influence
tendency affirmed itself among the Muslims during of Greek thought had shaken the very foundations
the rapid expansion of Islam, in the 7th century A.D. of Islam and scepticism had become the order of the
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day. To meet this situation, the Muslim theologians Abdul Kasim al-jili had expounded the cardinal
had to justify their faith and doctrines by logical doctrines of sufism. He has said that man attains
arguments. This was a very congenial atmosphere spiritual perfection passing through four stages—
for the incubation of mystical doctrines, which were complete surrender to the will of God, destruction
likely to give a spiritual satisfaction to troubled souls of the individual, acquisition of miraculous power
who cared more for the inner light than for external and divine attributes and entrance into Essence
rituals, however, ingeniously sought to be justified becoming perfect (Insan-i-Kamil) God mans. He
by argumentation. preached that all faiths were thoughts about one
The person who played an important role in reality, God and all ways of worship express the same
the further development of sufism was Bayazid aspects of that reality and in the end all together
Bustanil. It was he who gave a definite turn to contribute to perfection of the whole. The aim of
Tasawwauf by introducing the element of ecstasy every sufi is total absorption in God for which there
into the mystic doctrine of the Imminence of God. are three stages. The first stage consists of good
He was the first in Islamic mysticism to employ the actions, surrender of will to the commands of God,
word fana, the annihilation of the self which later repentance for sins, acquisition of faith, maintenance
became the basis of sufi theosophy. It implies that of cleanliness, performance of prayers, pilgrimage
human attributes are annihilated through union and fast, giving alms and suppression of passion by
with God, a state in which the mystic finds eternal ascetic practices, silence and solitude and curbing
life (leaga). The school of Bayazid took the name of evil propensities of self such as pride, envy, anger,
of Taifurian. narrow-mindedness etc. The second stage is that
Husain Ibn Mansur Al Hallaj, developed still of attainment of divine and spiritual knowledge,
further the method of Bayazid. He coined the and acquisition of detached view of life. The third
mystical formula Anal Haq (I am God). He has stage is the complete union with divinity and the
affirmed the idea of the transcendence of God. It attainment of the unitive state. Every sufi who
was the manifestation of love in the Divine Absolute seeks absorption with God always needs a spiritual
that determined the multiplicity of his attribute guide (pir or shiekh) who regulates his disciple’s
and his name. (murids) conduct and enables him to pass through
The natural reaction of the monistic doctrines all the stages leading to the essential unity with
of Bayazid and Hallaj was to reinforce orthodox Islam God. The link between a pir and his disciples was
by re-establishing the principle of unity on the basis vital part of the sufi system. Every pir nominated a
of the mystical experience and thereby, effect a successor to carry on his work (wali). The sufis were
rapprochement between the Shariat and the Tariqat. organised in orders called Silsilahs which were led
This position was taken up by Ghazzali, Sheik Abdul by at prominent mystic who lived in a khangah or
Qadir Jilani and Sheik Shihbuddne Suhrawardy, who hispice along with his disciples. The sufi orders are
not only reconciled divergent tendencies of Islamic broadly divided into two groups—Ba-shara; that is,
mysticism in one consolidated unity but also won those which followed the Islamic law and Be-shara,
recognition for sufism of the sober type in orthodox those who were not bound by it, the later being
theology and religious law. They asked the devotees followed more by wandering saints. Both types
to practice self discipline which prepares the heart prevailed in India.
for the intuitive knowledge of God. We may conclude by quoting Tarachand,
His doctrine of unity of Being is known as “sufism, indeed, was a religion of intense devotion,
Tauhid-i-majud (unity of Being). It was the main love was its passion, poetry, song and dance its
basis of the sufi thought before the time of Akbar. worship, and passing away in God its ideal”.
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CHAPTER-3
THE 13TH CENTURY

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DELHI in turn was succeeded by Ghiyasuddin recovered
SULTANATE Ghazni and put it in the charge of his brother
Muhammad Ghori. The latter enjoyed practically
The Ghorian Invasions and Factors Behind complete independence in Ghazni and also treated
the Ghorian Success him as his suzerain.
The real founder of the Muslim Empire in India Many reasons have been given for the invasion
was Muizuddin Muhammad bin Sam, popularly of India by Muhammad Ghori. It is pointed out that
known as Shihabuddin Muhamamd Ghori or he was a very ambitious and enterprising prince.
Muhamamd of Ghur. It is true that Muhammad bin He considered himself to be the heir to the Punjab,
Qasim was the first Mulsim invader of India but which belonged to the empire of Ghazni. Reasons
he failed to carve out a Muslim empire in India on of security also demanded that he must defeat
account of his premature death. Mahmud of Ghazni Khusrau Malik, the ruler of the Punjab and the
also failed to set up a Muslim empire in India and Karmathians of Multan. He was an age of military
the only permanent effects of his invasions was the glory and Muhammad Ghori was fired with the
annexation of the Punjab. It was left to Muhammad love of conquest and power. He would like to have
Ghori to build up a Muslim empire in India on a prestige and wealth. Being a Muslim, he would like
secure footing. to conquer the Hindus of India and spread Islam
The district of Ghur is situated in hills between in that country.
Ghazni and Herat. It was an independent state in Dr. Tarachand says that the Ghurid conquest
the 10th century but its ruler, Muhammad-bin Suri, was not impelled by religious zeal. It was the
was defeated by Mahmud of Ghazni, in A.D. 1009 consequence of political developments in the
after that, the rulers of Ghur continued to be the Islamic world. From central Asia to Mesopotamia, the
vassals of the rulers of Ghazni. However, they took newly formed Muslim states were locked in mortal
advantage of the falling fortunes of the house of combat against one another; the Buwaihids against
Mahmud after A.D. 1030. There were other things the Salijuqs, the Salijuqs against the Khwarizmians,
which complicated matters. Under the orders of the Ghaznavids, Ghuzz and Ghurids were involved
King Bahram of Ghazni, Malik Qutubuddin Hasan, a in this maelstrom and all were trembling for their
prince of Ghur, was put to death. The result was that very existence from the threat gathering in the East
Saifuddin Suri, the brother of the deceased, invaded from the Qara Khatais and the Mangols who soon
Ghazni and defeated Bahram. Bahram also retaliated erupted into Central Asia and swept all of them away.
and put to death Saifuddin. The result was that Religion had failed to bind the Muslim Sultanates
Aluddin Hussain, the younger brother of Saifuddin, together. The Ghurids under Alauddin seised Ghazni
completely destroyed the city of Ghazni, in A.D. 1155. and sacked it. They killed all the Muslims and burned
Alauddin also conquered Bemain, Turkistan, Jerun, the city of Mahmud. Occupation of territory in the
Bast, Gharjistan and Heart. It is true that towards the north-west made the Ghurids turn to India where
end of his reign he lost Balkh, Turkistan and Heart, the Punjab was under Ghaznavids and Multan under
but he maintained his hold over other part of his the Carmathians. They attacked them both and took
dominions. He was succeeded by Saifuddin, who possession of the Punjab, and then only turned
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THE 13TH CENTURY

their attention to their Rajput neighbours whose Khusrau Malik found that Muhammad Ghori was
mutual jealousies opened the gates wide in front of determined to oust him from Punjab, he entered
them. Neither the Ghurds, nor their successors, the into an alliance with the Khokhars. With their help,
Mamluk Sultans, paid much attention to theological Khusrau Malik besieged Sialkot but he was unable
principles or legal codes of Islam in extending their to capture the same. In 1186 A.D., Muhammad Ghori
dominion into India, or in organising their system once again came to Punjab and besieged Lahore.
of administration. Not the propagation of faith, but He had been invited by Raja Chakra Deo of Jammu
vaulting ambition, hunger for land, riches and power who was not on good terms with Khusrau Malik.
were the motives which actuated them. When Muhammad Ghori failed to defeat Khusrau
Multan and Sindh: The first invasion of Malik in a pitched battle, he resorted to a stratagem.
Muhammad Ghori was directed against Multan, He persuaded Khusrau Malik to pay him a visit and
in A.D. 1175. The heretics were easily defeated and guaranteed him safe conduct. Muhammad Ghori
Multan was captured. An orthodox governor was also released the son of Khusrau Malik and when
appointed for Multan. From Multan, he marched to the latter came out to meet his son, he was made
Uch in upper Sindh. The relations between the ruler a prisoner and later on, put to death.
of Bhatti and his wife were strained. Muhammad First Battle of Tarain (1191)
Ghori took advantage of them and promised to It is true that Muhammad Ghori had become
marry the daughter of that lady if she finished her the master of Punjab, Multan and Sindh, but he was
husband. The Queen poisoned her husband but far from being the master of Hindustan. There were
her daughter was not made the chief lady of the many wealthy and powerful Rajput kingdoms in the
harem of Muhammad Ghori. Scholars doubt the heart of India which were ready to check his further
genuineness of the story and point out that the advance in case he dared to invade their territories.
Bhatti Rajputs did not hold any part of Sindh and The Rajputs were proud of their pedigrees and
the ruler of Uch at that time was most probably a jealous of their honour. Fighting was their hobby
Muslim. In 1182 A.D., Muhammad Ghori invaded and they could never think of surrender. Prithvi Raj
Lower Sindh and compelled its ruler to submit. Chauhan or Rai Pithora, the ruler of Delhi and Ajmer,
Anhilwara: Muhammad Ghori also invaded decided to check the advance of Muhammad Ghori.
Anhilwara or Patan, capital of Bhima II, the Vaghela He marched against the Ghori chief at the head of a
ruler of Gujarat. However, he was defeated by its large army which, according to Firishta, included 2
ruler. He had to retrace his steps. According to Sir lakh horses and 3,000 elephants. He was also helped
Wolseley Haig, “The sufferings of the retreat far by his fellow Rajput princes. Jai Chandra, the Rathor
exceeded those of the advance and it was but a Raja of Kannauj was the only Rajput prince who kept
miserable remnant of the army that reached Ghazni.” aloof from the war as Prithvi Raj had insulted him
Habibullah says that Muhammad Ghori was lucky by carrying away his daughter by force.
to escape with his beaten army. The armies met at Tarain, a village 14 miles
Punjab: Muhammad Ghori realised that it was away from Thanesar in A.D. 1191. Muhammad Ghori
not possible to conquer India through Sindh and followed the tactics of the right, left and center and
Multan, and the key to Hindustan lay through Punjab. himself occupied a position in the middle of his
No wonder, he decided to conquer Punjab. In 1179 army. The Rajputs attacked both the wings of the
A.D., he attacked and captured Peshawar which was Muslim army, which was scattered in all directions.
under the ruler of Punjab. In 1181 A.D., Muhammad Muhammad Ghori attacked Govind Rai, the brother
Ghroi proceeded against Khusrau Malik. Instead of of Prithvi Raj, on the mouth with his sword and
fighting, Khusrau Malik sent to Muhammad Ghori knocked out his teeth. Govind Rai returned the
costly presents and his own son as a hostage. In 1185 blow and struck Muhammad Ghori in the arm
A.D., he attacked Punjab once again and plundered and gave a severe wound. Stunned by his blow,
the countryside. He also captured the fortress of Muhammad Ghori turned back and began to bleed.
Sialkot and garrisoned it with his own troops. When His strength was exhausted and he was about to
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fall down from his horse. However, a Khilji soldier the Sultan assembled another army and advanced
helped Muhammad Ghori and carried him off the to Hindustan, to avenge his defeat. A trustworthy
field of battle. The Muslim army dispersed in all person named Muizuddin, one of the principal men
directions. It was pursued for 40 miles and after that of the hills of Tolakm, informed me that he was in
the chase was given up. Muhammad Ghori went this army, and that its force amounted to 1,20,000
back to Ghazni. The Rajputs besieged Sarhind but horsemen bearing armour. Before the Sultan could
were not able to capture it easily. arrive, the fort of Sarhind had capitulated, and the
enemy was encamped in the vicinity of Narain
Second Battle of Tarain (1192)
(Tarain). The Sultan drew up in battle array, leaving
When Muhammad Ghori reached Ghazni, he his main body in the rear with the banners, canopies
punished Ghazni, he punished all those officers and elephants to the number of several divisions. His
and soldiers who had run away from the battlefield. plan of attack being formed, he advanced quietly.The
They were publicly disgraced and paraded in the light unarmoured horsemen were made into four
city. It is stated that after the first battle of Tarain in divisions of 10,000 and were directed to advance
1191 A.D., Muhammad Ghori never slumbered in and harass the enemy on all sides, on the right
ease nor waked but in sorrow and anxiety.” In 1192 and one the left, in the front and in the rear, with
A.D., he marched from Ghazni at the head of a large their arrows. When the enemy collected his forces
army consisting of 1,20,000 men. He encamped to attack, they were to support each other, and to
once again near Tarain. There was a bloody battle. charge at full speed. By these tactics the infidels
As many as 150 Rajput princes fought on the side were worsted, the Almighty gave us the victory over
of Prithvi Raj. To begin with, the Hindu cavalry was them, and they fled.”
able to check the advance of the Muslims. The
The account given by Firishta is in these words:
battle continued from morning till sunset. However,
“Inspired by their first victory with arrogance and
towards the end, Muhammad Ghori with the help
pride, they (the rais) sent a haughty letter to the
of 12,000 horsemen made a desperate charge and
Sultan: ‘The strength and numbers of our army
“carried death and destruction throughout the
will be soon known to you, and reinforcements
Hindu Camp.” The Rajputs were not able to stand
are coming to us from all parts of Hindustan. Be
the charge and were defeated. According to Firishta,
merciful, if not to yourself, at least to the misguided
“Like a great building, this prodigious concourse men you have brought hither. If you repent of your
of the Rajputs, once shaken, tottered to its fall and venture and go back, we swear by our idols that
was lost in its ruins.” Govind Rai was killed in the we will not harass your retreat; otherwise we will
battlefield. Likewise, Khande Rai who had wounded attack and crush you tomorrow with more than
Muhammad Ghori in 1191 A.D., was killed. Prithvi three hundred thousand horsemen, archers beyond
Raj got disheartened, got down from his elephant all computation and an army which the field of
and tried to escape but was captured near the town imagination is not wide enough to contain. Your
of Sirsuti. message is wonderfully affectionate and kind’,
There are many versions about the death of Mu’izzuddin replied,‘but I have not a freehand in the
Prithvi Raj. According to Minhaj-us-Siraj, Prithvi Raj matter. It is by my brother’s order that I have come
was captured and sent to hell. According to Hassan here and undertaken the hardships of the campaign.
Nizami, Prithivi Raj was taken to Ajmer and later on, If you will give me sufficient time, I will send some
was put to death as he was found to be guilty of messengers to inform him of your overpowering
treason. The view of Chand Bardai is that Prithvi Raj strength and obtain his permission to conclude
was taken to Ghazni and there put to death. The view peace on the terms that Sirhand, Multan and Sindh
that he was taken to Ajmer is preferred as certain belong to me and the rest of Hindustan remains
coins of Prithvi Raj with the Sanskrit superscription under your sway.
“Hammira” have been found. “The Rajput leaders thought that the humility
Minhaj-us-Siraj has given the following of the reply was due to the weakness of the Muslim
account of the second battle of Tarain: “Next year army and went to sleep. But Mu’izzuddin spent the
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night in preparing for the battle; and when in the the originator. Mahmud’s brilliant campaigns had
morning, the Rajputs came out of their entrenched shown the way, and the Ghaznavide governors of
positions to satisfy the call of nature and wash their Punjab, although serving a fast-declining empire,
hands and faces, he fell upon them with his lines yet maintained pressure on the Hindu states of the
drawn in order. The Hindus were taken aback by Gangetic valley.”
the unexpected attack, but somehow or other, they Prof. K.A. Nizami says, “Tarain was a major
hurriedly took up their arms and came to the field. disaster for the Rajputs. Rajput political prestige, in
The Sultan knew the fearless courage of the Hindu general, and the Chauhana ascendancy, in particular,
forces and had divided his army into four divisions, suffered a serious setback. The whole Chauhana
which came forward to fight the enemy by turns. kingdom now lay at the feet of the invader. As Tarain
When the Hindu elephants and horses attacked was a concerted action on the part of a very large
Mu’izzuddin’s army, it fled away; but when the enemy, number of Rajput princes, its repercussions were also
deceived by the trick, followed in pursuit, it turned felt on a very extensive scale and demoralisation
back and with the blows of its axes relieved the
became widespread.”
bodies of the enemy of the weight of their heads.
Thus, the battle raged from forenoon to afternoon, There was a general demoralisation in the
when Mu’izzuddin put on his helmet and armour, country and there was none among the Rajputs
and charged the enemy at the head of twelve who could bring under his banner all his fellow
thousand men with drawn swords and lances. The princes to stop the further advance of the Muslims
blood of brave warriors was mingled with the Earth, in India. The result was that the Muslims were able
and in the twinkling of an eye the Hindu lines began to capture Samana, Kuhram and Hansi without
to break. At the same time, Kharmil and the other much difficulty. Ajmer was captured and plundered.
Amirs attacked the Rajputs on all sides and drove Thousands of people were put to the sword. The
them away from the field.” Sultan also “destroyed the pillars and foundations
The second battle of Tarain is a landmark of idol temples and built in their stead mosques and
colleges and the percepts of Islam and the customs
in the history of India. It ensured the ultimate
of the law were divulged and established.” A son
success of Muhammad Ghroi against the Indian
of Prithvi Raj was put in charge of Ajmer and he
states. According to V.A. Smith, “The second battle
promised to pay tribute. Leaving Qutbuddin Aibak, in
of Tarain, in 1192, may be regarded as the decisive
charge of his Indian possessions, Muhammad Ghori
contest which ensured the ultimate success of the
went back to Ghazni. In a short time, Qutbuddin
Mohammadan attack of Hindustan. All the numerous
conquered Merrut, Kol and Delhi and made Delhi
subsequent attacks were merely consequences of
the seat of his government.
the overwhelming defeat of the Hindu league on
the historic plain to the north to Delhi.” Kannauj
Dr. Habibullah Says, “Muizzuddin’s victory It is true that when Prithvi Raj was defeated in
on the plains of Tarain was not, as is generally 1192, Jai Chandra of Kannauj felt happy but he did
supposed, an isolated personal triumph, nor was it not know that he would meet a similar fate before
an accident. It was, on the one hand, the execution long. Muhammad Ghori realised the significance
of a deliberate plan by a resolute conqueror and, of Kannauj in India. Its ruler was considered to
on the other the consummation of a process which be the greatest king of India, having the largest
extended over the whole of the 12th century. His territory. Such a ruler could not be allowed to remain
was only the most successful of the many attempts independent. No doubt, Muhammad Ghori marched
made by the Turks from the northwest to otabin a against Kannauj in 1194 A.D., and the Rathor ruler
foothold in Hindustan all of which may therefore be fell. “When the two armies met, there was a great
regarded as preliminaries to Tarain. The Shansabani carnage: the infidels sustained by their number
conqueror thus perhaps, unwillingly, brought to a and the Muslims by their courage; but in the end
successful end a century of reconnoitering activity, infidels fled and the faithful were victorious. The
a programme of military action of which he was not slaughter of the Hindus was immense. None was
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spared, except women and children, and the carnage were made to come to terms as the water supply
of the men went on until the Earth was weary.” In of the fort was cut-off. Thus, Kalinjar, Mahoba and
the battle of Chandwara, Jai Chandra was struck Khajuraho were occupied.
in the eye by a fatal arrow and he fell down from
Conquest of Bihar
the elephant. The Rajputs were demoralised and
they ran away from the battlefield. Muhammad While Qutbuddin Aibak was busy, one of his
Ghori proceeded to the fortress of the Asni where commanders named Ikhtiyaruddin Muhammad bin
Jai Chandra had stored his treasure. Asni was Bakhtiyar Khliji was planning the conquest of Bihar
captured and the treasure was plundered. From and Bengal. The commander was a curious specimen
Asni, Muhammad Ghori proceeded toward Banaras. of the genus homo with his arms reaching up to the
About 1,000 temples were destroyed in Banaras and calves of his legs while standing erect. With these
mosques were raised on their sites. Muhammad long arms, he reached the easternmost parts of
Ghori carried away treasure to Ghazni upon 14,000 Northern India. In 1197 A.D., he organised an attack
camels. According to Prof. S.R. Sharma,“The fall of Jai against Bihar with 200 horsemen. Odantapuri, the
Chandra at Chandwar made Muhammad the master capital of Bihar, was looted and plundered. Raja
of the political as well as the religious capitals of Indruman was coward and without giving a fight,
Hindustan, Kannauj and Banaras.” he ran away. The Buddhist monasteries in Bihar
The descendants of Jai Chandra continued were destroyed. Thousands of monks were put to
to rule over a fraction of their kingdom which the sword.
Muhammad Ghori was not able to occupy. Even Minhaj tells us that Ikhtiyaruddin attacked
Kannauj was recovered by the Gahadwaras a few Bihar suddenly and captured the fortress.“The great
years after its conquest. number of inhabitants of that place were Brahmans,
and all of them had shaved heads. They were all
In 1195-96, Muhammad Ghori invaded India
slain. There was a large stock of books there. When
and defeated Jadon Bhatti Rajputs. He also advanced
these books came under the observation of the
to Bihar and occupied a portion of it.
Musalmans, they summoned a number of Hindus
For the next few years, Muhammad Ghori was who might give them information regarding the
busy fighting the Turks in Central Asia. In his absence, purport of those books; but all the (literate) Hindus
the affairs of India were managed by Qutbuddin had been killed. On becoming acquainted (with
Aibak. The latter consolidated the Muslim position the contents of those books), it was found that the
in Ajmer. He also waged war against Raja Bhim Deva whole of that fortress and city was a college, and in
of Anhilwara who had defeated even Muhammad Hindivi tongue, they call a college vihar.”
Ghori. Kanwar Pal, the general of Bhim Deva, was
Conquest of Bengal
defeated and killed. Huge booty fell into the hands
of the Muslims. Ikhtiyaruddin was so much emboldened by
his success in Bihar that he planned the conquest
Bundelkhand of Bengal which was ruled by Lakshmansena of the
In 1197-98 A.D., Aibak conquered Badaun Sena dynasty. It is true that the ruler was not an old
from a Rashtrakuta Rajput. He reoccupied Banaras man but he was absolutely lethargic and negligent
which had been lost after its first conquest. He also of his duties. Although the invaders were in Bihar,
reoccupied Chandwara and Kannauj. He overran a he did nothing to protect his territory. No wonder,
part of Malwa. In 1202-3 A.D., Aibaq invaded Kalinjar Ikhtiyaruddin took advantage of this state of affairs
which was the military capital of Paramardi Deva, in Bengal. Sometime in 1204-5 A.D., he started at
the Chandela ruler of Bundelkhand. The Chandelas the head of his army and suddenly appeared at
fought with courage and bravery. The fort of Kalinjar Nadia-which was one of the two capitals of Bengal
was besieged. The ruler was willing to make peace and the residence of its kings. It is stated that only
but he died before he could do so. The resistance was 18 horsemen had accompanied him to Nadia and
continued after his death. Ultimately, the Chandelas the rest of the army was left behind. The people
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thought that he was a merchant who had brought flights have been the lot of even great men and
horses for sale. In this manner, he reached the gate admittedly heroic peoples. Rajputs recklessness has
of the palace of the Raja. He drew his sword and an element of romance in it but of little practical
commenced the attack. The Raja was at his dinner. wisdom. It is impossible to reject the story altogether.
All of a sudden, a cry was raised at the gate of his To dismiss it on the ground, as Mr. Banerji did, the
palace and in the city. Before the Raja could ascertain Hindu accounts never speak of Nadia or Navadwip
what had occurred, Ikhtiyaruddin rushed into the as a Sena capital or that ‘Raj Lakhamania’ cannot be
palace and put a number of men to the sword. identical with Lakshmanasena who, in Mr. Banerji’s
The Raja fled bare-footed by the back door of view had long been dead, is to base positive history
the palace and his whole tresure and all his wives, on negative argument. For Bakhtiyar’s occupation
maid-servants, attendants and women fell into the of a portion of the Sena kingdom following his raid
hands of the invader. When his main army arrived, on Nadia is an undisputed fact.
the whole city was brought under subjection. It is true that one cannot claim a literal
Ikhtiyaruddin moved towards North and established accuracy for Minhaj’s account, but the results of
himself at Lakhnauti. Lakshman Sena took shelter recent research certainly do not strengthen Mr.
in Eastern Bengal, where he continued to rule for Banerji arguments. There is, on the other hand,
sometime. No attempt was made by Ikhtiyaruddin to little improbability in the story, for Bengal from all
conquer the whole of Bengal. (According to Stanley accounts presented not many elements of strength.
Lane-Poole,“Compared with Mahmud, the name of A Brahmin-ridden, disintegrated society, with a king
Muhammad Ghori has remained almost obscure. He whose youthful valour and military energy had
was no patron of letters, and no poets or historians given way to a supine addiction to religion and
vied with one another to praise his munificence poetry, a top-heavy, hollow administration, and with
and power. Yet his conquests in Hindustan were vassals finding strength to declare independence,
wider and far more permanent than Mahmud’s, Lakshmanasena’s kingdom was anything but a force
a large part of those conquests were of course that could put up sustained frontal resistance. The
partial, and there were still revolts to be crushed Turushka had become a bogey and everywhere
and chiefs to be subdued: India was not to be inspired a paralysing fear.
subjugated in generation. But the conquest was The superstitious ‘prophecy’ about the ‘long
real and permanent, and though Muhammad was armed Turushka’ eventually destroying the Sena
no Indian sovereign, but still king of Gahzni with kingdom is perhaps an overstatement; the king’s
eyes turned towards Persia and the Oxus, he left a refusal to fly with his frightened courtiers from the
viceroy in Hindustan who began the famous Slave threatened zone shows that rational courage had
dynasty, the first of the many Muslim kings that not entirely taken leave of him. But the apprehension
have ruled India.) of an impending catastrophe was undoubtedly felt:
According to Dr. Habibullah, “The ease with for, epigraphic evidence shows that the king in his
which the king was put to flight and the city occupied, 25th year (1203 A.D.) performed a great sacrifice
must have surprised even Bakhtiyar himself. The to propitiate the Gods for help in averting it. Every
story of the 18 horsemen defeating a great king fresh advance of the Turk only deepened this fear
has, at any rate, evoked skeptical comments from and destroyed self-confidence. The easy success of
a number of Hindu scholars. Minhaj’s veracity Bakhtiyar’s noon-day attack, thus, needs no other
has been questioned and arguments have been explanation. Boldly led surprise attacks can paralyse
advanced to reduce the account to sheer myth. even more courageous and well-prepared forces. It
There is, however, little need to feel apologetic for is worthy of note that the city of Nadia was occupied
the supposed cowardice of the Sena king; even were only after the main force had arrived.”
he really so, to consider his conduct as typical of the Ikhtiyaruddin began to dream of carrying his
Bengali people would be historically incorrect. Haty, arms beyond the Himalayas. About the middle of
and what ungenerous critics would call, shameful the year 1205, he set out with an army of 10,000
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horses on his new adventure. He entered into a blocked the strategic road between the Punjab
treaty with the Raja of Kamrup who agreed not to and Ghazni. As Aibak failed to handle the situation,
molest him and to assist him, at least with advice. Muhammad Ghori found it necessary to come
On the way, there was a river which was spanned by to India in person. At the close of 1205 A.D., the
a stone bridge. Leaving a force to hold the bridge, combined forces of Muhammad Ghori and Aibak
Ikhtiyaruddin set out for Tibet. It is not certain in inflicted a crushing defeat on the Khokhars, between
what direction he marched or what part of Tibet was the Jhelum and the Chenab. A large number of
his objective. After 15 days of marching, he reached Khokhars were slaughtered and a still larger number
a strong fortress standing in the open country which was captured, and enslaved. The number of slaves
was well cultivated and thickly populated. was so large that five Khokhar slaves were sold for
The inhabitants joined the garrison of the a Dinar in the camp.
fortress in opposing the invaders and though About the fate of the retreating army, Minhaj
Ikhtiyaruddin held his ground throughout the writes, “When they retreated, not a blade of grass
day, his losses were very heavy and ultimately he or a stick of firewood was to be found throughout
decided to retreat. During his retreat, he found that the whole route. The inhabitants had burnt it all, and
the natives had destroyed or obstructed the roads those who lived in the defiles and passes had moved
and burnt all vegetation. There was neither fodder off from the line of route. During these fifteen days,
nor fuel and the army was forced to live on the flesh the cattle and the horses did get into a sir of food or
of its horses. The bridge had been destroyed and a blade of grass. The soldiers had to kill their horses
no boats were available. The Raja of Kamrup also and eat them till they came out from the mountains
attacked the retreating army and drove it into the into the country of Kamrup and reached the head
river. Ikhtiyaruddin managed to reach Deokot with of that bridge. They found two arches of the bridge
about hundred horsemen. According to Sir Wolseley destroyed. The reason was that enmity had arisen
Haig, That was the greatest disaster which had yet between the two amirs (who were left to guard the
befallen the Muslim arms in India. Armies had been bridge) and, in their discord, they had neglected
defeated but Ikhtiyaruddin’s force had been all but to watch the bridge and protect the road, and had
annihilated and it would have been well for him to gone off. The Hindus of the Kamrup country came
have perished with it, for he could not show his face and destroyed the bridge.”
in the streets of Lakhnauti without encountering the Muhammad Ghori reached Lahore in February,
gibes and reproaches of the wives and families of A.D. 1206 and made arrangements for going back
those whom he had led to their death.” to Ghazni in order to carry on his struggle against
the Turks. Unfortunately, when he was on his way
The disaster broke the nerves of Ikhtiyaruddin
back to Ghazni, he was assassinated on the banks
and he fell seriously ill. On hearing this, Ali Mardan,
of the river Indus on 15th March, 1206 by some Shia
one of his Armirs, came to Deokot. Ikhtiyaruddin
rebels and Hindu Khokhars. The body of the Sultan
was confined to bed and nobody had seen him for was carried to Ghazni and buried in his capital.
the past three days. Ali Mardan reached his bed,
According to Dr. Habibullah, with the death
drew the sheet from his face and thrust a dagger

of Muhammad Ghori died his empire across the
into his breast.
Hindu Kush. Within a few years, Mahmood, his
While this was what was happening in India, nephew and successor at Ghor, was compelled to
Muhammad Ghori was routed by the Turks at acknowledge the suzerainty of Khwarizm Shah. After
Andhkhud, in 1204 A.D.,“a defeat which dealt a fatal his death, the Shansabani Kingdom was practically
blow at his military reputation in India.” Rumours absorbed within the suzerainty of Khwarizm Shah.
even spread in India that Muhammad Ghori was The dissolution of Ghor was complete when in 1215
killed. The result was that the Khokhars revolted A.D., Yalduz, Muhammad Ghori’s viceroy, was driven
under their leader, Rai Sal, and defeated the Deputy out and Ghazni was attached to the appanage of
Governor of Multan. They plundered Lahore and Allauddin’s crown prince.
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Estimate his Central Asian empire, it is true, could have had
It cannot be denied that Muhammad Ghori only an ephemeral existence. But as in the case of
was not so great a general as Mahmud of Ghazni. Babar, his Indian conquest survived. If he failed to
Unlike Mahmud, he suffered a number of defeats at find a dynasty, he yet trained up a band of men who
the hands of Indian rulers. He did not possess the were to prove more loyal to his ideals and better
grandeur of Mahmud. However, he was superior fitted to maintain his empire. In choice of men he
to him as a constructive statesman. Mahmud kept displayed a singular talent, for to slaves like Aibak,
himself busy in conquering and collecting riches Yalduz and Tughril he owed most of his success.
but Muhammad Ghori was able to build up an His almost annual campaigns from the Jaxartes
empire which lasted for centuries. According to Dr. to the Jumna display a military talent of no mean
Ishwari Prasad,“Wealth, not territory, the extirpation order. His military preoccupations probably left
of idolatry and not conquest, were the objects him little leisure for aesthetic recreations, but he
of his (Mahmud’s) raids; and when these were was not indifferent to learning and scholarship. The
accomplished, he cared nothing for the myriad celebrated philosopher and savant, Fakhruddin Razi
people of India.” However, Muhammad Ghori made and the famous classical poet Nizami Uruzi adorned
up his mind from the very beginning to build up the Ghoride court and have paid deserving tributes
an empire in India and succeeded in planting the to the mental qualities of their friend and patron.”
banner of the Crescent permanently on the Indian About Muhammad Ghori, Prof. K.A. Nizami
soil. Muhammad Ghori was not so fanatical as says that his contribution to the establishment of
Mahmud but he was certainly more political than Turkish rule in India cannot be over emphasised.
his great predecessor. He decided to take advantage Only a military leader of great vision and tact could
organize military campaigns over an area stretching
of the rotten political condition of India and build
from the Oxus to the Jamuna and only a careful,
up a Muslim empire in India.
cautious and bold planning could hold this structure
Muhammad Ghori was a shrewd diplomat in tact. The conquest of northern India was not an
who could deal with every type of friend or foe. He easy walk-over. It was stoutly resisted by the Rajput
saw the weakness of his enemies and did all that he governing classes. Muhammad Ghori met all the
could to exploit them to his own benefit. It is true challenges of the situation with perseverance and
that he was cruel at times but it cannot be denied courage. Prof. Nizami particularly puts emphasis on
that he was also kind and generous. He was not an two features of Muhammad Ghori’s character: his
idealist and no wonder his approach to political dogged tenacity of purpose and his grim political
matters was practical, well calculated and realistic. realism. He was defeated at Anhilwara and at Tarain,
but no defeat could dampen his spirits.
According to Sir W.V. Hunter,“He (Muhammad
Ghori) was no religious knight-errant of Islam like A general of smaller stature and inferior
Mahmud of Ghazni but a practical conqueror. The mettle would have succumbed to these defeats,
objects of his distant expeditions were not temples but Muhammad Ghori refused to take any reversal
as final. He reorganised his forces and came again
but provinces.”
determined to achieve the objective he had set
Dr. Habibullah says: “There could be no two before himself. He analysed the causes of his defeats
opinion as to the place Muizzuddin should occupy in dispassionately and changed his policies as times
history. Unlike Mahmud of Ghazni, he was a practical and circumstances demanded. When thrust into
statesman; of the rotten political structure of India the country from Rajputana proved abortive, he
he took the fullest advantage. As in the founder of did not hesitate to change his plan. He did not
the Mughal empire, his sovereign quality lay in the plunge into political uncertainties, but proceeded
steadfast determination with which he pursued his cautiously and carefully consolidating his power
objective and in his refusal to accept a defeat as final. and taking all factors into consideration. At a time
Against his far more gifted rival, the Khwarism Shah, when he had to deal with many hostile powers
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nearer home, he never ignored the problems of his religion. The same view was shared by Muhammad
Indian possessions. His contribution to the cultural Ghori. Political sagacity and not religious fanaticism
development of Ghur was not negligible. In fact, it and fervour guided their steps, Ibn-i-Asir tells us
was he and his brother, Ghiyasuddin, who brought that even Anhilwara was restored to the Hindu
about a transformation in the cultural pattern of rules. The Ghurid soldiers were not followed by
Ghur. He provided facilities to Scholars like Maulana any vindictive measures inspired by religious zeal
Fakhruddin Razi, to spread religious education in or fanaticism. They handled every situation in the
those backward areas and helped in the emergence light of experience and entered into a series of
of Ghur as a center of culture and learning. He also compromises without any religious partiality or
made his contribution in the sphere of architectural prejudice. After conquering Ajmer, Muhammad
traditions.
Ghori did not take over the administration, but gave
“Of the two tides of Mohammedan invasion the same to the son of Prithviraj. When Delhi was
that surged into India, Mahmud’s had left little conquered, Khanday Rai’s successor was allowed
trace. It had been but a series of triumphant raids, to rule over the territory. When the Chauhans gave
and when its violence was spent scarcely enough trouble to the son of Prithiviraj, Aibak decided on
strength remained to hold a single province. That direct annexation but compensated the prince by
province however, had been held, not without a placing him in charge of Ranthambhor.
struggle, and in the Punjab Muhammad Ghori
found the base, the necessary leverage, whence to Ghorian Invasion—Factors responsible for
bear upon a wider territory than his precursor. He Success
rose from even smaller beginnings than Mahmud, Muizzuddin Muhammad Bin Sam, the governor
but his followers possessed the same hardihood of Ghazni, laid the foundation of Delhi Sultunate in
and power of endurance as the earlier invaders North India. The reasons for the advent of Turks in
from the same mountain valleys, and they carried India can be sought in the fluid political conditions
their arms further and left surer footprints. The that obtained in central Asia at that time. The
dynasty of Ghor relapsed into the insignificance of Ghurids bid for power in central Asia was seriously
a highland chiefdom after its great Sultan’s death; undermined by the rising power of the Khwariznis
but the dominion it had conquered in India was empire. Khorasan, which was the bout of contention
not lost to Islam. It was consolidated under other between the two, was soon conquered by Khwarzni
rulers, and from the days of Muhammad Ghori to the Shah. This left no option for the Ghurid but to look
catastrophe of the Indian mutiny there was always
for expansion towards India.
a Mohammadan king upon the throne of Delhi.”
Moreover, possession of Punjab which was
Motives of Ghurid Campaigns noted for its fertility could provide the sinews of war
Very often religious motives are read in the against the Khwarijni rulers. The unstable political
campaigns of the Ghurids. However, the view of condition of India during the period only convinced
Prof. K.A. Nizami is that although Ghrid soldiers were Muizzuddin of the expediency of his move. Besides,
Musalmans, they were not the representatives of the Ghurids did not want to have an enemy in the
Islam. While eligious sentiments may have motivated rear while fighting against the Khwarazini rulers.
their actions, they were largely inspired by political Thus, Central Asian politics exercised a termendous
objectives. The Ghurid employed the same tactics in influences on Muhammad military designs in the
India which they had applied in Persia and Central east. This is attested by Ata Malik Juwayni’s account
Aasi. They fought the Hindus and Muslims alike. of Muhammad’s last Indian campaign:‘He undertook
Most probably, the Ghurid armies were made up his Indian expedition, so that the might fully equip
of mercenaries. The view of Poet Saadi was that the his army; for his activities in Khorrsan during the
Lashkari or professional soldier fought for the wages last few years had cost him almost everything to
he got and he did not fight for the king, country or had. When he reached India, one victory that God
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granted him was sufficient to repair his finance and were ruled by individual rulers. There
set right the affairs of the army. were mutual jealousies and dissensions
Ghurid campaign are sometimes attributed to among the Rajput Chiefs. It is true that
religious motives. But, a scrutiny of available sources the Rajputs were good warriors but there
shows that Islam was not the guiding factor. Ghurid was too much of a clannish spirit among
armies were composed of mercenaries of variegated them.
faiths who fought for material rewards than for (b) The Rajput soldiers owed their allegiance
religion. They had fought the Hindus and Muslims to their petty chief and were prepared to
alike. Once a ruler submitted, he was allowed to fight against other Rajput soldiers under
rules over his territories (e.g. administration of Ajmer another Rajput Chief. It was in this way
entrusted to Prithviraj’s son) unless for some other that they frittered away their energy.
reasons, it was necessary to annex his kingdom in (c) There was no national consciousness
part or whole. Hindu officers and soldiers were used among them. The various Rajput princes
by Mahmud as well as Muhammad. Aibak posted could not and did not think in terms of
Ranas for administrative posts in outlying areas of India as a whole. They were not prepared
his domain. If, on occasion they raised the battle cry to sink their differences in the higher
of Islam, it was used an expedient to rally forces and interests of the country and put up a
to justify their plunder of Indian cities and temples. united front against the Muslim invaders.
But on the whole, Ghurids were not motivated by (d) The result was that they were defeated
any sense of vindication inspired by religious zeal one by one and all their bravery was of
or fanaticism. no avail.
Causes of Turkish success against Rajputs 2. The military organisation of the Rajputs was
Considering the fact that the Rajputs were defective and could not succeed against the
great warriors, it seems a little strange that they were Muslims. The Rajput armies were ill-organised
defeated by the Muslims. Habibullah admits that in and ill-equipped.
individal fighting, the Rajput surpassed the Turks. (a) The trouble with the Hindus was that
The view of Elphinstone, Lane-Poole and V. A. Smith they were satisfied with what they had.
was that the success of the Muslims was due to the They did not try to keep themselves in
fact that they came from cold climate and were non touch with the latest developments in
vegetarians. That view is no longer accepted. military organisation and methods of
The soldierly qualities of the Hindus are fighting. The result was that they were
admitted even by their enemies and consequently defeated by the Muslims who were
that could not be a factor responsible for their failure. ahead of them in these matters.
It is also not true that non-vegetarians are better (b) Moreover, the Hindus put too much
fighters than the vegetarians. Moreover, there were a reliance on elephants. These “mountain-
large number of Hindus who were non-vegetarians like elephants” could not stand against
at the time when the Hindus and Muslims fought the mobile Turkish cavalry.
against one another. The real causes must be found (c) Once the elephants were frightened,
somewhere else. they trampled their own men under their
1. A very important cause of Muslim success and feet and thus proved themselves to be
Hindu failure was the lack of political unity a greater than an asset.
in the country. There was no one paramount (d) The Rajputs fought mainly with their
power in the country at that time which could swords while the Muslims were good
fight against the Muslims. archers. The Muslims archers from their
(a) India at that time was a congeries of horses were more than a match for the
states. Various parts of the country Rajputs who fought with their swords.
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(e) Prof. K. A. Nizami rightly points out that (c) They were always ready to resort
mobility was the key-note of Turkish to shock-tactics to dishearten and
military organisation at that time. It was demoralize their enemies. With lightning
the age of the horse. A well-equipped speed, they fell upon the people and
cavalry with tremendous mobility was destroyed them with fire and sword.They
the great need of the time. did this so often that an impression was
(f ) Indian military strategy gave greater created that it was impossible to face the
importance to weight than to mobility. Muslims successfully.
The Rajputs believed in crushing rather 4. Habibullah points out that one great defect
than moving rapidly and striking. When of the Rajput military system was that they
the Indian armies headed by elephants staked everything on the issue of a single
came into the battle-field, they were battle. They did not make any distinction
bound to be defeated by swift and easy- between a battle and a war.
moving cavalry of the Muslims. (a) Lloyd George used to say that while
(g) Sir Jadunath Sarkar also points out that others won battles, he won the war.
the element of mobility was totally Unfortunately, the Rajputs could not
absent from the Indian armies. To quote think in terms of a defeat. If it was a
him,“The arms and horses of these trans- question of defending a fort, they were
border invaders gave them indisputable prepared to ruin themselves while
military superiority over the Indians. defending it.
Their provisions also were carried by fast
(b) If they failed to defend it, they died
trotting camels which required no fodder
fighting to a man and their women burnt
for themselves but fed on the roots and
themselves to death. The result was that
leaves of the way-side, while the Banjara
after one defeat, nothing was left.
pack-oxen of the Hindu commissariat
were slow and burdensome.” (c) It has rightly been said that the Rajputs
were notorious for turning a single
3. The Rajputs looked upon a battle as a
military defeat in a catastrophe. They
tournament in which they tried to show skill,
should have known that in a war it is
bravery and chivalry. That was not the case
sometimes politic to retreat and attack
with their enemies.
the enemy when the other party is weak.
(a) Turks did not find themselves fettered by
5. Another defect in the Rajput military system
any rules of the game. They believed that
was that they did not take the offensive
all was fair in war. They were prepared
to adopt any tactics which could bring against their enemies.
them victory. They believed that end (a) To quote Habibullah, “Rarely did the
justifies the means and they did not care Hindu princes take the offensive, but
for the consequences of their actions. they bestirred themselves only when
(b) They were prepared to defile a tank or a the enemy appeared before the strong-
river from which their enemies got their hold.” Obviously, this is not the way of
water-supply. They were prepared to winning victory.
divert the course of a channel to stop the (b) A policy of defense alone does not help.
water-supply to the enemy and thereby A defensive policy has to be coupled
bring about their surrender. They were with an offensive policy. As that was
prepared to destroy the whole of the not done by the Rajputs, their people
neighbouring territory so that the enemy suffered terribly on account of the
may be starved to submission. Muslim invasions.
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6. Dr. Iswari Prasad maintains that the wars 7. Another cause was the failure on the part
between the Rajputs and the Muslims were “a of the Hindus to realise the implications of
struggle between two different social systems, the invasions of the Muslims. Their view was
the one old and decadent and the other full that the Turks were like the Sakas, Kushanas
of youthful vigor and enterprise.” and the Hunas. They believed that the Turks
(a) The Hindus were divided into many would be contented with extending their
castes. These castes created pride and control over the Punjab alone and not carry
prejudices. They also created inequality their power into the very heart of India.
in society. The result was that all the - It was this misunderstanding or wrong
Hindus could not pool their resources conclusion which was responsible for
against the foreigners. their not taking the Muslim invasions
(b) Moreover, out of the four castes the work seriously. They ought to have realised the
of fighting was left to only one caste. The gravity of the situation and marshalled
people of the three other castes thought all their resources to meet the enemy. As
that they had nothing to do with the they did not do so, their failure could be
defense of the country and they seemed anticipated.
to be indifferent towards the same. 8. Another cause of the failure of the Hinuds
(c) The result was that about three-fourths of was their general attitude towards others and
the people of India did not fight against their own lives.
the foreigners. Obviously, the rest of the (a) Alberuni tells us that “the Indians believe
one-fourth of the population could not that there is no country but theirs, no
be expected to fight against the enemy nation like theirs, no king like theirs,
successfully. no religion liek theirs, no science like
(d) Islam is a great brotherhood and this theirs.... They are by nature niggardly in
equality among the Muslims was a great communicating what they know and
asset in their fight against the Hindus. they take the greatest possible care to
Equality among Muslims brought unity withhold it from men of another caste,
among them and they fought shoulder from among their own people, still more
to shoulder against their enemies. of course from any foreigner.”
(e) Prof. K. A. Nizami also holds a similar (b) This wrong estimate of themselves
view. According to him, the real causes blinded the Hindus and they assumed
of the defeat of the Indians lay in their a false sense of superiority which
social system and the invidious caste ultimately proved their ruin.
distinctions which rendered the whole (c) Alberuni also tells us that “they (the
military organisation rickety and weak. Hindus) are in a state of confusion,
(f ) The caste taboos and discriminations devoid in logical order and in the last
killed all sense of unity. Even religion instance always mixed up with silly
was the monopoly of a particular section notions of the crowd. I can only compare
and a majority of the Indians were not their mathematical and astronomical
allowed to see the inside of a high-caste knowledge to a mixture of pearls and
Indian temple. sour dates, or of pearls and dung, or of
(g) For the bulk of the people of India, there costly crystals and common pebbles.
was hardly anything which could evoke 9. Another cause of Muslim success was their
patriotic responses in them when face slave system. Lane-Poole observes: “While
to face with the Ghurid invaders. They a brilliant father’s son is apt to be a failure,
watched with indifference the fate of the slaves of a real leader of men have often
the Indian governing classes. proved the equals of their master.”
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(a) The Muslim rulers had a large number Economic, Social and Cultural Consequences
of slaves and they were given high The Turkish conquest of India had its impact
positions on the basis of their merit. in various fields. It paved the way for the liquidation
(b) The result was that these slaves helped of the multi-state system in India. The political ideal
their masters to build up an empire in of the Turkish Sultan was a centralised political
this country. It is these slaves who were organisation controlled by a monarch with unlimited
responsible for conquering various parts powers and there was no place for feudalism in
of this country while their masters were it. The institution of Iqtas was employed for the
busy otherwise. purpose of breaking the feudal traditions of the
various areas and for linking up the various parts
(c) Examples of such slaves were Qutbuddin of the empire of one center. The Turkish Sultans
Aibak, Iltutmish and Balban. gave India a Capital in the very heart of Northern
10. Dr. Tarachand points out that an interval of India. They also gave her a skeleton of an all India
175 years separated the sack of Somnath administration by bringing the chief cities and the
by Mahmud and the battle of Tarain which great roads under the control of the Government
sealed the fate of Hindu India, but the doom of Delhi.
was self-inflicted. As a result of the centralised monarchy in
(a) There were warnings of the impending Northern India, there was a marked change in the
crisis and the Indians had enough time political horizon. The political outlook became
in which they could have set their house broader and the areas of isolation began to shrink.
Sir Jadunath Sarkar says: “The intimate contact
in order.
between India and the outer Asiatic world, which
(b) However, the rulers did not bother had been established in the early Buddhist age, was
and they continued the merry game lost, when the new Hindu society was reorganised
of toppling one another showing utter and set in rigidity like a concrete structure about the
unconcern about the happenings in the Eighth century A.D., with the result that India again
Punjab and beyond. became self-centred and isolated from the moving
(c) Their lack of intelligence was abysmal. On world beyond her natural barriers. This touch with
the eve of the Muhammadan conquest, the rest of Asia and the nearest parts of Africa was
the Hindu principalities were divided, restored by the Muslim conquest at the end of the
engaged in never-ending feuds and 12th century.”
suicidal wars among themselves. Another effect of the Turkish conquest of
(d) In Western India, the Chalukyas, the Northern India was what is described by Prof.
Mohd. Habib as the “urban revolution”.The old “caste
Paramars and Chauhans fought with one
cities” of the Rajput period were thrown open to all
another and also with their neighbours
types of people. The Turkish Government refused to
to the East and to the South.
recognize caste as the basis of social demarcation
(e) In Central India, the Gohadvadas, or as the principle of civic life. The working classes,
Chandellas, Kalachuris with some others labourers, artisans and the non-caste people of the
thrown in, competed for supremacy. In unprivileged classes joined hands with the new
eastern India, Palas and Senas of Bihar Government in building new cities. As a matter of
and Bengal were constantly under fire fact, the main strength of the early Turkish Sultans lay
from Gahadvadas of Kanauj and of in these cities which placed the entire surplus of their
Gangas of Orissa. The result was that working classes at the disposal of the government.
when the Ghurid hammer fell, they were The Turkish conquest also had its effect in the
struck down one after another like nine- military field. There was a change in the character
pins. and composition of the Indian armies and the
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methods of their recruitment and maintenance. conquest many dialects and languages were used
Fighting was not to be the monopoly of any one for administrative purposes. The Turks introduced
caste or group. Recruitment was thrown open to all Persian at the higher level of administration
properly trained soldiers. throughout their territories in India. This brought
The soldiers in future came from all the sources- about uniformity in the language of administration.
irrespective of their caste, creed or colour. The feudal To quote Amir Khusrau, but the Persian speech
levies gave place to strong standing armies, centrally (Gufuar) uniform in Hindustan from the banks of
recruited, centrally paid and centrally administered. the river Sind to the shores of the sea. Such a great
The foot soldiers in the Indian armies were replaced language is our medium of expression….. and this
by the mounted fighting men (Sawaran-i-muqatala). Persian of ours is the original Persian.
More emphasis was put on mobility and striking The Indian dialects different at every hundred
force of the army, and not its heaviness of crushing Karohs but the Persian language is the same over
strength. It is these armies which were able to check an area of our thousand Farsangs…….. Here is the
the Mongolian invasions. Persian language in which pronunciation of words
Trade received a new impetus. The uniformity is in complete agreement with their orthography.”
of the legal system, the tariff regulations and the The Turkish conquest gave a rude shock to
currency widened the activities of merchants and the caste system and the idea of physical pollution
facilitated their movement from one place to another. among the people of India. The result was that those
The Turkish conquest had also its effect people of India who suffered under the caste system,
on the language of administration. Before this became the supporters of the new rulers.
Foundation of Delhi Sultanate

Mamluks or Slave
Khaljis Tuqhlaq's Sayyids
Dynasty
(1290-1320) (1320-1412) (1412-1451)
(1206-1290)
Qutubuddin Aibak Jalaluddin Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq (1321–1325) Khizr Khan
(1206-1210) Khalji Muhammad bin Tughluq (1325–1351) (1414–1421)
Iltutmish (1210-1236) (1290-96) Mahmud Ibn Muhammad (1351) Mubarak Shah
Ruknuddin Firoz (1236) Alauddin Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388) (1421–1434)
Khalji
Raziya Sultana Ghiyasuddin Tughluq II Muhammad
(1236-40) (1296-1316) (1388–1389) Shah
Muizuddin Bahram Mubarak Shah Abu Bakr Shah (1389–1390) (1434–1445)
(1240-42) (1316-1320) Nasir ud din Muhammad Shah III Alam Shah
Alauddin Masud (1390–1393)
(1445–1451)
(1242-46) Alauddin Sikandar Shah I (1393)
Nasiruddin Mahmud Mahmud Nasir ud din (1393–1394)
(1246-66) Nusrat Shah (1394–1399)
Ghiyasuddin Balban Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah (1399–
(1266-1286) 1413)
Muizuddin Kaiqabad
(1286-1290)
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The Slave Dynasty: The period constitutes already been deputed as the viceroy of Ghori and
the formative and the most challenging period. overall commander of the army in India. The title
In the history of Delhi Sultanate, it was marked of Sultan was conferred upon him, though he was
by a prolonged multi-cornered conflict within the technically still a slave. Aibak’s assumption of power
Ghorian ruling class as well as against the renewed in Delhi severed links with Central Asia which was
Rajput resistance and foreign invasion. formative for the sultanate.The formal establishment
Ghori’s death, in 1206 A.D., resulted in tussle for of the Delhi Sultanate, as an entity in its own rights, is
supremacy among his three important generals— traced back to this event. Subsequent development
Yalduz (Ghazni), Qubacha (Uch) and Aibak; who had made this a reality.
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Qutubuddin Aibak (a) He decided to keep himself free from the
1. Qutbuddin ascended the throne of Delhi in policies of Central Asia. He had to move
A.D. 1206 and became the first Turkish Sultan with caution.
of Delhi. But, the throne of Delhi was not a bed (b) He first strengthened his position in
of roses for him. Delhi and Lahore. He tried to persuade
2. He had to face many challenges from in and some Turkish nobles to accept his
outside the country. He could not depend subordination.
on the loyalty of all his Turkish officers who (c) He gave his sister in marriage to Qabacha
were jealous of him. The Rajput’s, on the other and his daughter to Iltutmish and
hand though vanquished in north India were secured their support.
eagerly waiting for a possible opportunity to
strike. (d) Yeldoz who was his father-in-law did not
accept his claim over Delhi.
3. Moreover, he had to face strongest opposition
from Tajuddin Yeldoz and Nasiruddin Qubacha, 7. In the meanwhile an interesting situation
the two more contenders for the throne of arose which went in favour of Qutbuddin.
Delhi. 8. Yeldoz who was the ruler of Ghazni, was
(a) Yeldoz was the ruler of Ghazni and pressurised by Khwarizm Shah to leave the
Qubacha was of Uch and both had throne of Ghazni. Yeldoz had no way out. He
matrimonial relations with Qutbuddin. left Ghazni and proceeded towards Punjab.
(b) Yeldoz was his father-in-law and Qubacha - Qutbuddin faced him and forced him to
was his brother-in-law as he had married return back. Qutbuddin even occupied
one sister of Qutbuddin. Ghazni but was forced to leave it after
4. Besides, there were two more contenders also forty days when Yeldoz reached back
for the throne of Delhi. They were nobles like there. But he did not allow Yeldoz to
Bahauddin Tughril Khan and Bakhtiyar Khalji occupy any Indian territories further.
but to the good fortune of Qutbuddin they 9. Qutbuddin had to face some internal problems
were dead by then.
as well. Ali Mardan Khan, the ruler of Bengal
5. According to historians like Professor K.A. and Bihar was dethroned and imprisoned
Nizami, this was due to the weak position by some Khalji nobles and they had offered
of Qutbuddin over the throne of Delhi as the throne to Muhammad Sheran who had
Muhammad of Ghur did not decide anything
promised to rule Bengal independently.
about his succession in India before his
death; therefore each of his governors and (a) However, Ali Mardan escaped from
lieutenants was left free to decide his own prison, reached Delhi and requested
course of action. Qutbuddin to interfere in the affairs of
(a) This may be a fact but as the struggle for Bengal.
supremacy was the order of the time, the (b) Qutbuddin accepted his prayer and
question of legal sanction behind the deputed Qaiwaz Rumi Khan, a noble to
throne of Delhi has nothing to do with settle the matter. Rumi Khan used both
that. force and diplomacy to win over the
(b) Besides, there was another great danger Khalji nobles of Bengal.
for him from outside. Khwarizm Shah (c) He convinced them to accept Ali Mardan
Alauddin Muhammad, the ruler of persia as the governor of Bengal under the
had desired to capture Ghazni and Delhi. Suzerainty of Delhi. Thus, finally, Ali
6. In the face of these difficulties, Qutbuddin Mardan became the governor of Bengal
stood with determination. After all he himself and agreed to pay annual tribute to
was a gifted soldier and a great military leader. Qutbuddin.
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10. However Qutbuddin could not pursue the His death saw ore sharpened factionalism and
policy of extension of his kingdom. intrigue, among the Turks. It surfaced boldly during
(a) He remained busy in defending his the brief interregum of Razia whose accession to
independent position. The affairs in the power was challenged by a faction of the Turkish
north-west and Bengal in the east were mobility. The most prominent group to decide
his primary concerns. the course of high politics during these years was
(b) That is why mostly he remained at Lahore the Chahalgani (the 40 slave officers of Iltutmish).
instead of Delhi. But he could not live Between 1235-1265, political development revolved
long. While playing polo, he fell from his around a conflict between the crown and the nobility,
horse and shortly died in 1210 A.D. determined to retain its privileged position with a
balance often increasingly tilted in favours of the
ILTUTMISH latter. The very survival of the sultanate was under
Aibak as succeeded by his son-in-law, Iltutmish, question, political instability was exacerated by the
who had to contend with Aibak’s sons. He checked recalcitrance of smaller Rajput chiefs. Moreover the
the principle of heredity in the very outset. From now onslaughts of Mongols also pressed on the frontiers.
onwards, force was a determinant of accession and The accession of Balban, in 1265, provided the
not heredity. Illtutmish must be regarded as the real Sultanate with an iron willed ruler. He addressed
consolidator of Turkish conquests in North India. himself to two major objectives: to raise the prestige
Large portions of territory conquered by the Turks of crown through elaborate court ceremonials and
had slipped out of control and Rajput chieftains inculcation of Sassanian traditions that distanced
had withheld tribute and repudiated allegiance. the ruler from ordinary folks, converting him in to
Ilutmish reign was marked by a concerted drive to a symbol of awe.
reestablish Sultanate authority on areas that had In Consolidating Turkish power, rebellions were
been lost. Yalduz was defeated in A.D. 1225 and in put down with determination and administrative
A.D. 1227. Iltutmish wrested Lahore from Qubacha. procedures were streamlined.
Within three years of this event, Mongols Balban’s incompetent successors were
reached upto the bank of Indus. Henceforth, the overthrown by Jalaluddin Khalji—a non Turk.
mongols remained a constant factor among the Balban’s death had resurfaced the same tussle
concerns of Delhi Sultans. Though the Mongol between the crown and nobility which threatened
presence had upset Ilutmish plan of consolidation the sultanate but Jalaluddin Khalji resurrected its
on the northwest it also created conditions for the fortunes. Rise of Khaljis to power brought an end to
destruction of Qubacha who held Uech. As a result, Turkish monopoly of high officer. Jalluddin’s reign
Iltutmish was able to seize Bhatinda, Khuram and was a further step towards consolidation as he
Sarsuti. About 1228, he humbled Qubacha and reversed some of the harsh aspects of Balban’s rule.
seised Multan and Uch. Unified control over North- He was the first sultan “to assert that the state should
West now became possible for the Delhi Sultanate. In be based on the willing support of the governed”.
Rajputana, Turks were able to reclaim Ranthambhor, The tasks and travails of there above
Mandor, Jalor, Bayana etc. After A.D. 1225, Iltutmish mentioned sultans placed the sultanate on a firm
turned towards the east. Apart from sporadic military ground which became a basic for further expansion
successes, however, Lakhanauti and Bihar continued under Alauddin Khalji.
to evade the Sultanate.“To him the sultanate owed
the first outline of its administrative system. He Iltutmish (1211-1235) as the Consolidator
laid the foundation of an absolutist monarchy that of the Delhi-Sultanate
was to serve later as the instrument of a military Iltutmish, a “slave of a slave” is regarded
imperialism under the Khaljis. Aibak outlined the by several historians as the real founder and
Delhi Sultanate and its sovereign status; Iltutmish consolidator of the slave Dynasty and the Delhi
was unquestionably its first king.” Sultanate. According to them, Aibak was the ruler for
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four years only. There was so much anarchy after his Important difficulties facing Iltutmish are
death that the Sultanate of Delhi seemed slipping mentioned here in brief:
and a powerful ruler was needed to control the 1. Iltutmish had no hereditary claim to the
situation and Iltutmish rose equal to the occasion.
throne.
When we peruse the history we find that
2. Iltutmish was slave of a slave (Aibak) and
Mohammad- bin-Qasim was the first Muslim invader
according to Muslim law no slave could ever
who came to India but he conquered only Sindh
occupy the throne.
and Multan. In the words of Lane-poole “it was
a mere episode in the history of India”. Mahmud 3. There were several equally powerful nobles
Ghaznavi was the second great Muslim invader but who would not tolerate the rise of an equal
his seventeen successful expeditions were primarily to the position of a Sultan.
meant for plunder. His invasions did not lead to the 4. Nasiruddin Qubachah, the governor of Sindh
establishment of any Muslim Kingdom in India. and Multan and Taj-ud-din Yalduz, the ruler of
For about 150 years there was no attempt to Ghazni refused to recognise Iltutmish as the
found any Muslim empire in India. Mohammad Ghori rightful successor to the throne of Delhi.
conquered the bulk of Hindustan but most of his 5. Some of the Muslim generals asserted their
time was spent in Ghazni-out of India. He himself independence taking advantage of the
did not rule over India but left to his viceroy Aibak. confusion.
Aibak extended his kingdom and formed an 6. Rajput rulers of Jalaun, Kalinjar, Ranthambhore
independent Muslim state in India. Since his rule and Gwalior declared their independence.
was very short-lived, he could not consolidate the
Sultanate. But the credit of founding the Sultanate 7. The Mongol invasion posed a great threat to
must go to him. Of course, Iltutmish strengthened the Sultan.
the foundation and saved the infant Muslim empire Steps by Iltutmish
from collapsing.
Iltutmish exhibited remarkable energy and
On account of Iltutmish’s achievements in patience in solving the difficulties. Some of his
bringing about political consolidation out of turmoil, achievements were as under:
Dr. R.P. Tripathi has observed, “Qutubuddin cannot
1. He quelled the nobles who opposed him in
be regarded ever as sovereign ruler of Muslim India
becoming the Sultan. He defeated Aram Shah,
because no coins of his name are available and his
the son of Qutubuddin who had declared
name is conspicuous by its absence in the list of
himself as the Sultan.
kings prepared by Ibn Batuta and in that prepared
by Firoz Shah Tughlaq for Khutba.” He has further 2. He defeated Yalduz, made him prisoner and
observed,“The history of Muslim sovereignty in India executed him.
begins properly starting with Iltutmish.” 3. Qubachah was defeated and he lost his life
In the words of Dr. A.L. Srivastva, “Iltutmish while crossing the river Indus.
was a brave but cautious soldier. He was also a
4. Iltutmish suppressed the revolt in Bengal.

successful general. He laid the foundation of a 5. Iltutmish conquered the Rajput states of
military monarchy that was to serve later as the Gwalior, Malwa, Ujjain and Ranthambore.
instrument of a military imperialism under the
6. Iltutmish got recognition as the Muslim Sultan
Khaljis”.
of India by the Khalifa of Baghdad, Iltutmish,
Difficulties of Iltutmish thereafter assumed the title of ‘‘Amir-ul-
With a view to appreciate the role of Iltutmish, it Mommin or ‘Commander of the Faithfuls’ and
is very necessary to know the difficult circumstances had the name of Khalifa inscribed on his coins.
under which he acceded to the throne. The newly As a result of recognition by Khalifa, Iltutmish’s
Muslim empire was threatened with disintegration. power and status were enhanced.
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According to Prof. S.R. Sharma, “It is for this and scuttland the pretension of the Turkish nobility,
reason that Iltutmish has been considered as established government institutions on a firm
the real founder of the Muslim Kingdom of basis and laid grounds for further expansion of
Delhi, though it is too much an exaggeration the sultanate under the Khaljis.
to call him the greatest of all slave kings.” At his accession, Balban was confronted with
7. Iltutmish with great diplomatic skill prevented many problems. The most pressing of these was
the Mongols from invading India. He very the ubiquitous struggle for supremacy between
politely put off the king of Khwarizm who the crown and nobility. The latter group comprising
sought refuge in India from the Mongols. mainly of the Turkish group of ‘Chahalgani’ always
8. One of the momentous measures of Iltutmish strove to make the Sultans a puppet in their hands.
was that he changed his capital from Lahore So, Balban constantly sought to increase the power
to Delhi, and it for the first time became the and prestige of the monarchy, because he was
capital of Hindustan. convinced that, that was the only way to face both
9. With the help of Fakhuddin Ismani, an internal and external danger. In this endeavour, he
experienced Wazir of Baghdad, Iltutmish developed a new theory of kingship to assert his
organised his administrative set up and supremacy (i.e. of the crown) vis-à-vis the mobility.
provided a benign and sound administration to This new theory was also essential to assume royalty
the hitherto, disorganised and dismembered and to dismantle the notions of equality inherent
empire. in the ‘Bandagan’ system which continued from the
days of Muizzuddin.
10. According to Thomas, “Iltutmish instituted
the veritable commencement of the silver The main features of his theory of kingship are
coinage of the Delhi Sultanate.” found in his advice to his sons. They were mostly
drawn from Sassanian traditions which regarded
11. Iltutmish created a ‘Corps of Forty’ slave who
monarchy as a divine institution. Balban was God’s
were very loyal to him and kept a watch on
representative on Earth and hence his actions could
the activities of nobles.
not be reviewed either by the nobles or by the
From the above account it is clear that people. To show his noble pedigree, he claimed
Iltutmish was undoubtedly a successful decent from the legendary Iranian king Afrasiyab
ruler. His greatness lay not only in saving
and followed the court practice of the Sassanians.
the infant Muslim empire in India but also in
Contrary to Iltutmish he sat on the throne amidst
organising the scattered conquered territories
a magnificent court surrounded by men of nobel
of Ghori and Aibak into a well-organised and
lineage. To emphasize that the nobles were not his
well-administered empire. Besides being a
equals, he insisted on the ceremony of ‘sijda and
conqueror, he was a good administrator. He
paibos’. These measures alongside a host of other
provided a systematic administrative set-up.
outer paraphernalia created a sense of awe, fear and
By dint of his dauntless bravery and wisdom he respect among the nobility and the common people
transformed a weak and vulnerable kingdom into a alike. This exaltation of the monarchy established
stable empire in India. He freed the Delhi Sultanate the principle that sultan and the nobles were not
from the claim of suzerainty by the rulers of Ghazni. equal. In this respect, he was a trendsetter in his
On account of these features, Iltutmish is often called
theory of kingship as all along it was thought that
the real founder of the Muslim empire in India.
the sultan was one among the equals or at best first
Balban among the equals.
Balban was one of the main architects of The second problem was restoring law and
Delhi Sultanate, part of its form of government and orders in the country, particularly in the core areas
institution. He introduced a semblance of order in around Delhi and the doab. This area was infested
the sultanate after a long period. Of instability and with robber that hindered communication and trade
squabbles, he raised the prestige of the monarchy with the eastern areas. Many Rajput Jamindars had
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put up forts and defied the government. (Mewatis in Who was the greatest of the early sultans?
particular).To deal with these elements, he adopted a Balban or Iltutmish? Votaries of both advance
policy of ‘blood and iron’. Robbers were put to death. their arguments and counter arguments. To the
In the area around Badayun, Rajput strongholds credit of Balban goes:
were destroyed and colonies of Afghan soldiers
1. Sultanate enjoyed order and stability in a
were settled to crush the recalcitrant Zamindars.
measure not known before.
The next problem was the one relating to the 2. Prestige of sultan raised and destroyed the
reestablishing of the authority of the state. Rajput forty.
Zamindars and the Mongols threatened the stability
3. Strengthened many government institutions:
of the sultanate. Thus, Balban realised that the army
army, iqta, provincial government etc.
alone could form the chief prop of the government.
To that end, he reorganised the military department 4. Created ideal conditions for expansion of the
(dewan-i-arj) and pensioned off those soldiers who sultanate under Alauddin.
were no longer fit for service. He increased salary of To his discredit
the soldiers and stressed upon proper training; kept 1. Not so great solider as Iltutmish. It took him
the army in good trim by making it march over long 6 years to crush the rebellion of one Turkish
distances on the pretext of hunting expeditions. slave officer.
Finding that the iqta system had developed many 2. Mongols defeated Delhi forces on many
faults, he ordered an inquiry into the iqta system occasions.
of the doab. Since many of the iqtadars had either
3. Exclusion of non Turks (Indian Muslims) from
died or become infirm, they were unfit for military
positions of authority Barami, Quotes him
service, hence Balban thought of resuming those
saying “Whenever I see a base born ignoble
iqtas. But in the face of strong opposition, he had
man, my eyes burn and I react in anger for my
to abandon his move.
sword.”
He took steps to establish a centralised 4. His policy created disturbances after his death
empire, replete with a large standing army and resulting in the end of the Turkish rule and
spies. Provincial governors were required to send ushering in the Khalji era.
their reports periodically and a system of audit was
devised to check their accounts. Wazir was stripped Credits of Iltutmish
of his powers and the office of the naib-i-mamlakat 1. Made Delhi as the paramount power amidst
was allowed to lapse. He also instituted a system the contesting of sovereignty by Yaldug and
of dispensing impartial justice and not even the Qubacha. Laid the real formulation of Delhi
highest of the land were immune from punishment, Sultanate and was its first king.
if they transgressed his authority. 2. Created a committed cadre of slaves which
Balban, to a great extent, was successful in was instrumental in the foundation and
solving these pressing problems and is rightly consolidation of the sultanate (Shamsi
bandagan).
regarded as one of the main architects of the

sultanate. By augmenting the power of monarchy, 3. Laid the foundation of many institutions and
he strengthened the sultanate and its institutions. administration forms.
But his success was not comprehensive. He could 4. Consolidated the sultanate and crushed many
not defend Northern India against Mongol inroads. rebellions.
Finally by excluding non-turks from positions of 5. Put up a strong line of defence against
power and by trying to base the government Mongols and extended unified control over
on a very narrow group, he, unwillingly, created the north west.
disaffection among many people. This led to fresh A modern historian assesses his achievements
disturbances after his death. in the following words.
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“Aibak outlined the Delhi Sultanate and its (a) The sultan of Delhi sought investiture
sovereign status: Iltutmish was unquestionably its from Caliph and claimed themselves as
first king”. deputy of caliph. The name of caliph was
Impact on the Indian Society inscribed on coins.
1. Resulted in the growth of the Muslim society, (b) The khutba was read in the name of
upper class of muslim society was formed by Caliph also the holy robe sent by caliph
Turks Persians, Afghans with a sprinkling of was put on by sultan while sitting on the
Arabs. Growth of a Muslim aristocracy. throne.
2. Intermixture of different races leading to the (c) The supporters of theocratic character
growth of a homogeneous Muslim society. also emphasize that Islam was dominant
Indian Muslims as well as Mongols mixed religion and propagated by sultan by
with the new Turkish/Persian aristocracy. using authority of state.
3. Percolation of Islamic mystic faiths in India i.e. (d) The evidences of breaking temples
Sufis whose unassuming piety made them very by rulers and imposition of Jaziya and
popular even among non Muslims. Created forceful conversions show theocratic
grounds for a fruitful cultural intercourse
elements.
between the two communities.
(e) The Ulemas enjoyed great political
4. In manners and customs of upper class
Muslims, we find a raped de-Turkinisation. influence in Delhi sultanate. The sultan
They adopted Persian as well as Indian followed their advice. The supporters
mannerism. Caste prejudices tended to find of theocratic state also emphasize on
new applications among the converts from Shariat being the law of Delhi Sultanate.
Hinduism. 5. The closer examination of nature of relation
5. Bulk of the Indigenous population were between caliph and Delhi Sultanate reveals
‘Zimmis’ who were largely unaffected and that it was just a formal ceremonial relation.
enjoyed socio cultural and religious freedom. (a) Its political significance was negligible.
Was Delhi Sultanate a Theocratic State? None of the sultans of Delhi got on the
1. The character of Delhi sultanate was throne because of recognition from
interpreted by different historians differently. Caliph and none lost crown because of
Some scholars try to portrait the sultanate as not recognition from caliph.
a theocracy. (b) No Delhi sultan sought prior permission
2. Theocracy refers to state in which the head before issuing any order. The sultan of
of religion is also head of state. The political Delhi was an independent sovereign
and regional power was exercised by single entity. The sultan ruled on the basis of
person institution. In theocracy the king is his strength. The recognition of caliph
guided by religious law as interpreted by was not the decisive factor.
priestly class. The king cannot exercise his
judgement independently. 6. The examination of status of Islam under Delhi

sultanate does not support the theocratic
3. A theocratic state exists for religious cause.
character of state. Islam was the religion of
The political authority is dedicated to religious
cause. Spread of religion is the most important sultan and ruling class but it was not imposed
duty of king. Also the religious class enjoys on the entire population by sultans of Delhi.
political status.The status of king is below them. (a) In fact, no sultan ever attempted it.
4. The sultanate was considered as theocratic Iltutmish was suggested by Ulemas
state because the Caliph was the real head to convert India in Islam but he flatly
of state and sultan used to recognize his rejected suggestion stating conditions
supremacy. of India are different from Central Asia.
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(b) The examples of forceful conversions are governors, who had some administrative
also very few. The destruction of temples responsibilities also.
was not associated with promotion of (b) On the other hand, the holders of
Islam. They were carried out to either the small Iqtas were the small troops
meet the need of mosque or to shatter holders who had no administrative
the morale of people so that they remain responsibilities.
subjected to authority of Sultan. 2. Iqta system was one of the most important
(c) Jaziya was also not the tool for religion features of Turko-afgan political system
conversion because majority of witnessed during period of Delhi Sultunate.
population was free from Jaziya e.g. - It was originally an Arabian practice.
women, unemployed, beggars and Turks adopted it and it came to india
disables were free from Jaziya. with them. For the first time Iqtas were
7. Islam was religion of state but no restrictions distributed in Punjab by Mohd. Ghuri and
were placed on other religions whatsoever. gradually the practice was extended to
other territories.
8. The political influence of Ulemas was indirectly
proportional to strength of Sultan. Only in 3. The Iqta system was reorganised properly by
reign of weak sultans, Ulemas did influenced Iltutmish for the first time. He defined duties
the state. and responsibilities of Iqtedar for the first time.
9. Islamic law was followed by Sultan only in - Under the reorganised system Iqtedars
were responsible for the maintenance
general. It wasn’t rigidly imposed by anybody
of fixed number of troops, looking after
in the entire history of Delhi Sultanate.
the administration of area under control,
- The sultans of Delhi issued secular orders collection of revenue and depositing
i.e. Zawabit on situations demanding it. Fawazil in central treasury.
10. The status of Muslims and Hindu in Delhi 4. Sultan Balban imposed greater central
sultanate also does not support the theocratic control over Iqtedars. He appointed an
character of it. Hindus were also allowed to live accountant Khwaja with every Iqtedar to
normal life. There was no state policy outlined check authentication of records maintained
expressively against Hinduism. by them.
- Throughout sultanate period most of - Balban transferred Iqtedar from one Iqta
the land was owned by Hindus. Most of to another so that they couldn’t develop
the villagers were also Hindus. The state any bond with people.
had nothing to do in depriving Hindus 5. Sultan Aluddin Khilji abolished number
of their resources. of small Iqtas in doab region to carry out
Thus the sultanate could not be considered expansion of Khalisa land. He increased the
as theocratic state, at most it was an Islamic state revenue demands from Iqtedars.
in formal sense. (a) A new department i.e. diwan-i-

mushtkahraj was created for collection of
Iqta System arrears of revenue with Iqtedars. Mohd.
1. Literally, Iqta means land or land revenue bin Tughlaq increased the central control
assigned to an individual on certain on Iqtedars further.
conditions. The holders of these Iqtas were (b) He separated the income and expenditure
the trustful agents of the Sultan. of Iqtedars. They were ordered to deposit
(a) There were two kinds of Iqtas viz. Large entire revenue in central treasury and
Iqtas and Small Iqtas. The holders from there they were paid for salaries
of large Iqta were the provincial and other expenditures.
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6. During the reign of Firoz Shah Tughlaq Iqta tended to cause trouble. After the death
system was declared hereditary. After the of powerful rulers many Iqtedarsused
death of Iqtedar his son or son in law or slave to declare their independence. New
or widow was allowed to succeed. sultan had to struggle hard to regain
7. During Lodhi period, the concept of Fawazil the control.
was abolished. Iqtedar was allowed to retain (b) Iqtedars always had immense resources
the revenue collected from Iqta. This was an both financial and military. They were
expression of Afgan kingship in Lodhi period always in position to defy the orders of
in which sultan was considered as first among weak ruler.
the equals. (c) When Iqta system got hereditary under
- Smaller Iqta came to be known as Firoz shah Tughlaq the centrifugal force
Pargana and bigger as Sarkar. got dominant and it contributed majorly
to decline of Tughlaq dynasty.
8. Although the Iqta system was an important
(d) Under Lodi’s, Iqta system became cause
feature of Sultanate and helped its
of further trouble as the practice of
continuation for centuries but the system
depositing Fawazil was abolished. Some
was not without limitations. of the Lodhi Iqtedars conspired with
(a) Iqta system functions perfectly under Babur to gain power and ended up in
strong sultan but a weak ruler on throne destroying Delhi Sultanate.
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CHAPTER-4
THE 14TH CENTURY
THE KHILJI REVOLUTION blueblood’s and shocked to their marrow many a

highbrowed Turk to whom other Musalmans, India
Jalaluddin Firuz Khilji (1290-1296) born or otherwise, were made of a stuff inferior to
Jalaluddin Khilji was the founder of the Khilji their own.”
dynasty. He came to power after the overthrow of
The assumption of royal power by Jalaluddin
the so-called Slave Dynasty. This event has been
Khilji was not universally accepted. The leading
described by Dr. R.P. Tripathi as the Khilji Revolution.
Turkish Amirs hated the Khiljis who were considered
Dr. Tripathi is one of the opinions that “One of
to be low-born Afghans. Some of the relatives of
the most significant consequences of the Khilji
Balban, like Malik Chhajju, were still alive and they
Revolution was that it gave a heavy blow to the
would like to overthrow Jalaluddin. The people of
growing sentiment of loyalty that was gathering
Delhi were also not happy over his accession to the
round the throne of Delhi and was likely to bear
throne and consequently, Jalaluddin had to remain
good results. If the Khilji had not nipped in the bud
at Kilokhri for a year before he could shift to Delhi.
the traditions of dignity and loyalty and had allowed
Kilokhri was a new city which had been built by
them to grow up and reach full stature, the element
Kaiqubad, a few miles away from Delhi. The new
of militarism would have been minimised, and new
traditions of rights and duties of command and Sultan entered Delhi only when he felt that he had
obedience would have properly crystallised as in won over the people by his acts of generosity. Malik
some other countries of the world. Unfortunately, Chhajju was allowed to retain the governorship of
Khilji Revolution threw into shade the civil side of the Kara. Malik Fakhruddin was confirmed as the Kotwal
government, and accentuating the military aspects of Delhi. The Sultan confirmed the Turkish nobles
established a dangerous precedent that continued in the officers they held during the previous reign.
to sap the vitality of the Delhi Sultanate.” Malik Ahmad Chap was appointed Amir-i-Hajib or
Master of Ceremonies. Alauddin and Almas Beg
Dr. K.S. Lal says: “The Khilji Revolution was
were also rewarded.
fraught with far-reached consequences. It is not only
heralded the advent of a new dynasty: it ushered in It is true that before becoming king, Jalaluddin
an era of ceaseless conquests, of unique experiment had won many battles and was known to be the
in statecraft, and of incomparable literary activity. most experienced and powerful Turkish nobleman,
In the veins of the Khiljis, did not flow the royal but after becoming king, he decided to follow a
blood. They belonged to the proletariate and their policy of peace. He refused to shed the blood of any
accession to power dealt a death-blow to the Muslim for political or territorial gains. He was not
pseudo-belief that sovereignty was a monopoly prepared to use his sword even to punish rebels,
of the privileged. The Khilji revolt is essentially a thieves or thugs. No wonder, Professor S.R. Sharma
rovolt of the Indian Muslims against the Turkish calls him “Clemency King Firuz”. He further observes
hegemony, of those who looked to Delhi, against that Firuz was too kind to be a king in an age when
those who sought inspiration from Ghaur and blood and iron alone could tell. His mild policy
Ghazna. The revolution resulted in the supersession was resented by his followers and the same were
of a commoner’s government over that of the attributed to his old age and cowardice.
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Revolt of Malik Chhajju He threw his sword before them and challenged any
During the second year of his reign, Jalaluddin one of them to have the courage to use the same
had to face the revolt of Malik Chhajju. The original against him. That had the desired effect. After a stern
name of Chhajju was Kshlu Khan. He was a nephew of warning, the sultan pardoned the Amirs.
Balban and would like to put himself on the throne, Siddi Maula
if possible. He opposed Jalaluddin before he became
However, there was one departure from his
king but after his accession, he submitted and was
policy of leniency in the case of Siddi Maula. The
given the Jagir of Kara. In spite of this, Chhajju entered
Maula was a disciple of Shaikh Fariduddin Ganj-
into an alliance with Hatim, Governor of Avadh, and
raised the standard of revolt. At the head of his i-Shakar of Pak-Pattan. The Maula had built a very
followers, Chhajju marched towards Delhi. Arkali big Khankah. He fed thousands of poor people
Khan, son of Jalaluddin, was sent against Chhajju, daily. The big nobles of the kingdom also went to
Chhajju was defeated and he and his followers were the Maula for religious instructions. The allegation
captured and brought before the Sultan. Instead was that a plot had been formed by a number of
of punishing them, the Sultan pardoned them and Amirs to murder the Sultan and put Siddi Maula
fed them from the royal kitchen. Chhajju was sent on the throne. The plot was unearthed, and Siddi
to Multan and arrangements were made for his Maula and his principal followers were arrested.
comforts. The Sultan also praised the loyalty of the While arguing with Siddi Maula, Jalaluddin lost his
followers of Chhajju to their master. The young temper and had him put to death by an elephant.
Khiljis, led by Ahmad Chap, protested against this A Muslim fanatic who was opposed to Siddi Maula,
policy and warned the Sultan of the consequences slashed the Maula several times with a razor and
of such a weak policy. However, the Sultan did not stabbed him with a packing needle. The Sultan
pay any heed. Kara was given to Alauddin, his own who had pardoned rebels, traitors and thieves was
son-in-law. responsible for the death of a man of peace whose
fault had yet to be established. It is said that at the
Thugs and Thieves
time of the death of the saint, there was a huge storm
A similar policy was followed by Jalaluddin and the people attributed it to the great injustice
while dealing with thieves and robbers. It is pointed done to the Darvaish.
out that thefts and robberies had become common
on account of the general confusion prevailing in Ranthambor
the country. Once upon a time, a number of thieves As regards his foreign policy, he led his first
were arrested and brought before the Sultan. Instead expedition against Ranthambor in 1290. The ruler
of punishing them, he gave them a lecture on the offered stiff resistance. The result was that the Sultan
evils of stealing. gave up the campaign and came back to Delhi. The
On another occasion, thousands of thugs and plea put forward by the Sultan was that “he did not
murderers, who had made the lives of the people value the fort so much as the heir of one Mussalman.”
of Delhi intolerable, were captured. Instead of Ahmad Chap tried to impress upon the Sultan the
dangers of such a policy but that had absolutely
punishing them, the Sultan sent them to Bengal in

boats down the Ganges and there, they were set free. no effect on him.
The Amirs Alauddin’s Exploits
Some Amirs were so disgusted with the mild Another expedition was undertaken against
policy of the Sultan that they began to discuss Mandawar which was captured in 1292. In the same
openly plans to overthrow him. In one of the social year, Alauddin invaded Malwa and captured the
gatherings, plans were drawn to depose and murder town of Bhilsa. On his return, Alauddin was made
Jalaluddin and put Tajuddin Kuchi or Ahmad Chap the Governor of Avadh in addition to that of Kara.
on the throne. However, the Sultan came to know of In 1294, Alauddin defeated Chandra Deva, the ruler
those plans and rebuked the Amirs for their conduct. of Devgiri. He brought from there a lot of wealth.
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The Mongols of his advisers, Jalaluddin decided to go to Kara to
India was attacked by the Mongols during meet his son-in-law there. The Sultan left Delhi for
the reign of Jalaluddin. Abdullah, grandson of Kara. Alauddin crossed the Ganges to Manikpur.
Halaku, attacked India in 1292. In spite of his old While keeping his army in readiness, he sent his
age, Jalaluddin went in person to oppose them brother, Ulugh Khan, to persuade the Sultan and
and was successful in defeating them. However, persuaded him not to allow his army to cross the
the Sultan allowed some of the Mongols to settle eastern bank of the river Ganges as Alauddin was
in India. The descendants of those Mongols came still afraid of the Sultan and might either commit
to be known as New Mussalmans. suicide or take refuge by flight. The Sultan acted
accordingly in spite of the protests of his followers.
Devagiri Jalaluddin went to meet his son-in-law with a few
Alauddin was the nephew and son-in-law of unarmed attendants. Jalaluddin embraced Alauddin
Jalaluddin. He was a very ambitious man. He had tried to escape crying “ Alauddin, wretch! What
heard of the wealth of the Deccan and decided to have you done?” It was then that another follower
have the same. He started for the Deccan at the head of Alauddin cut the head of the Sultan from his
of 18,000 horseman. While proceeding towards the body. The other followers of the Sultan were also
Deccan, he gave out that he was dissatisfied with his put to death. The head of Jalaluddin was put on a
uncle and was going to the South to have service spear and paraded through the provinces of Kara,
under some Hindu ruler. The result was that no Manikpur and Avadh. It was in this way that “one
resistance was offered to him on the way. However, of the basest murders in history” was perpetrated.
when he entered the boundaries of Devagiri, Raja According to Dr. A.C. Banerjee, “So far as the
Ram Chandra decided to give battle to Alauddin case of the Muslim rulers of India is concerned,
Khilji but he was defeated. At that time, a large military force proved to be a more potent source
number of soldiers of Devagiri had gone to the of sovereignty than the doctrines of the Ulama.
South to fight against a fellow Hindu Raja. It was Theoretical speculations had very little influence on
due to this reason that the ruler of Devagiri was the rough Turkish soldiers who made themselves
defeated and he was made to pay a heavy tribute. master of India.They conquered the country by force,
When the son of Ram Chandra came back from the they maintained their authority by force and they
South with his troops, he refused to pay tribute as lost their position when they failed to command
promised and decided to fight. It is true that from adequate force. All their followers-soldiers, poets and
sometime the Hindu armies had the upper hand Ulama alike—understood the situation thoroughly
but ultimately they were defeated. Alauddin came well, and never cared or dared to investigate the legal
back to Kara after getting a lot of riches. claims of their de facto master. When Alauddin Khilji
Murder of Jalaluddin treacherously murdered his uncle and occupied the
throne to which he had not a shadow of claim either
It is contended that when Alauddin had gone
by divine or by human law, not only the ‘unthinking
to Devagiri, the advisers of the Sultan tried to impress
upon him that Alauddin was a very ambitious person rabbel’, but the best minds of the day—the great
and had his eye on the throne and timely action poet, Amir Khusrau, for instance—bowed down
should be taken against him. The only reply of before the realities of the situation. And while we
Jalaluddin was that he loved Alauddin as his son shed our tears for the old Sultan who was so basely
and was prepared to do anything for him. Ulugh struck by one whom he loved so much it is necessary
Khan, brother of Alauddin, tried to impress upon to remember that he himself had assassinated his
the Sultan that Alauddin was anxious to present master to seize the throne.”
to the Sultan the wealth he had got from Devagiri As regards as estimate of Jalaluddin, he was a
but he was afraid of coming to Delhi as he had successful general before becoming king but gave up
undertaken the expedition to Devagiri without the the policy of aggression after becoming the Sultan.
consent of the Sultan. Disregarding the warnings He followed a policy of peace and reconciliation
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towards all. He was very modest. It is stated that he of sharing this wealth with Sultan Jalaluddin and
did not ride in the courtyard of the palace of Balban through cleverness was able to bring about his
and also refused to sit upon it on the ground that murder. On 19 July, 1296, Alauddin was proclaimed
he used to stand before it as a servant. The Mongols Sultan in his camp. Barani rightly points out that
were successfully repulsed by the Sultan. However, Alauddin also “did not escape retributions of the
the Sultan was intolerant towards the Hindus. He blood of his patron. Fate at length placed a betrayer
destroyed and desecrated their temples and broke in his path (Malik Kafur) by whom his family was
their images. He was responsible for the death of destroyed…. and the retribution which befell upon
Siddi Maula. it never had a parallel even in any infidel land.”
Dr. K.S. Lal gives his estimate of Jalaluddin in
these words: “Failure as a king, Firuz was a perfect
gentleman and one of the most pious Musalmans
of his times. Fortune as well as merit had raised
him to the highest pinnacle of greatness, still his
elevation had not made him proud. God-fearing and
indulgent, affectionate to his family and kind to all,
he behaved with his nobles not as a king but as a
friend. Jalal’s span of kingship was short but he ruled
over his subjects as a father in a family. He declared
himself incapable of tyranny. If his simplicity and his
kindness were ridiculed by the wordly people, his
age and benevolence were revered by all.”
ALAUDDIN KHILJI (1296-1316)

Conquests, Agrarian and Economic
Measures
Accession
Alauddin Khilji was the nephew of Jalaluddin
Firuz. As Alauddin was fatherless, he was brought
up by Jalaluddin with affection and care, and also
made his son-in-law. When Jalaluddin became the
Sultan, he gave Alauddin the fief of Kara in the Rival on Throne
district of Allahabad. It was here that Alauddin The murder of Jalaluddin did not put Alauddin
became ambitious. Barani tells us that “carefully on the throne of Delhi. As soon as Malika Jahan
suggestions of the Kara rebels made a lodgement learnt about the murder of her husband, she put her
in his brain and from the very first year of his younger son Qadir Khan Rukumuddin (Ibrahim) on
occupation of that territory, he began to follow up the throne and called for her elder son Arkali Khan
his design of proceeding to some distant quarter and from Multan. Without wasting any time, Alauddin
amassing money.” Due to the intrigues of Malika- marched towards Delhi from Kara. On his way to
Jahan, his mother-in-law and his wife which made Delhi, he scattered small gold and silver coins among
him unhappy, Alauddin decided to make himself the people. The distribution of the gold brought
independent of Delhi. In 1292, he successfully by Alauddin from the South won for him a large
invaded Malwa and captured the town of Bhilsa. number of followers. He was also able to win over
He was also given the fief of Avadh. Alauddin also the bulk of the army by fair or foul means. When
invaded Devagiri and defeated its ruler. He came Ibrahim found that resistance was impossible, he
back to Kara with a lot of booty in gold, silver, silk fled towards Multan with his mother and Ahmad
pearls and precious stones. He had no intention Chap. Alauddin entered Delhi and occupied the
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palace of Balban. On 3rd October, 1296 A.D., he was his command. The Mongols had come to India. This
proclaimed the Sultan of Delhi. time not to plunder but to conquer the territory.
It is true that Alauddin was on the throne Consequently, they did not plunder the people
of Delhi but he knew that his position was still on the way to Delhi and after reaching the capital,
insecure. No wonder, he sent a large army under they besieged the same. The situation was so grave
his brother Ulugh Khan to capture his rivals. Ulgh that Alauddin consulted his friend Ala-ud-Malik,
Khan captured Multan and blinded Ibrahim, Arkali the Kotwal, regarding the course of action to be
Khan and Ahmed Chap. Malika Jahan, widow of adopted. The Kotwal advised Alauddin not to fight
Jalaluddin, was imprisoned. against the Mongols but to come to terms with them.
However, Alauddin rejected his advice and attacked
Destruction of Jalali Nobles the Mongols. The advance guard of the army was
Alauddin also had to deal with the Jalali nobles led by Zafar Khan who defeated the Mongols and
who were not loyal to him. Nusrat Khan was deputed pursued them relentlessly. However, Zafar Khan
to take strong measures against them. Their Jagirs was surrounded by the Mongols and killed in the
were confiscated. Those nobles who had been won battlefield. This did not improve matters and after
over by Alauddin with the help of money were also sometime, the Mongols lost heart and retreated.
punished. The contention of Alauddin was that The terror created by Zafar Khan in the minds of the
those nobles who had not been faithful to his uncle Mongols was so great that whenever their horses
and could be bought with gold by him, could also did not drink water, the Mongol soldiers urged them
betray him if an opportunity arose. The result was “by asking whether they had seen Zafar Khan that
that some of those nobles were blinded, some were they feared to slake their thirst.” Alauddin did not
thrown into prison and some were put to death. mind the death of Zafar Khan, as he considered him
Their Jagirs were incorporated in the Khalsa land. to be dangerous to his own position.
The wealth confiscated from them was put in the
The fourth Mongol invasion took place, in 1303,
state treasury. It is estimated that Nusrat Khan added
when Alauddin was busy with the siege of Chittor. A
about a crore to the royal treasury.
Mongol army 12,000 strong under Targhi, its leader,
Mongol Invasions reached Delhi by forced marches. The movement
Alauddin had to face more than a dozen of the Mongols were so quick that the governors
Mongol invasions. These invasions started from the were not able to send their contingents to Delhi.
end of A.D. 1296 and continued up to A.D. 1308. The Alauddin was forced to take shelter in the fort of
Mongols threatened not only the Punjab, Multan and Siri which was besieged by the Mongols for two
Sindh but even Delhi and the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. months. During this interval, the Mongols plundered
not only the surrounding territory but also Delhi
The first Mongol invasion took place at the
itself. Minor skirmishes were fought on two or three
end of A.D. 1296. Zafar Khan was dispatched against
occasions but neither party was able to gain any
them. He defeated the Mongols near Jullundur and
decisive advantage. The patience of Targhi, who had
a large number of them were killed.
come prepared only for a victory, was exhausted
The second invasions took place in A.D. 1297. and he retired after a stay of a couple of months,
The Mongols had become so bold that they were as he found the lines of Alauddin entrenchment
able to capture the fort of Siri near Delhi. However, impenetrable. The retreat of the Mongols seemed
Zafar Khan who was responsible for the defence of to be miraculous. To quote Barani,“This occasion on
the north-western frontier, defeated the Mongols which the army of Islam had received no injury from
and recaptured the fort of Siri. The Mongol leaders the Mongol force and the city of Delhi had escaped
along with 1,700 followers was captured and unharmed, appeared one of the miracles of the
brought to Delhi. age to all intelligent persons; for the Mongols had
The third Mongol invasion took place, in 1299 arrived in great force early in the season and had
A.D., under their leader Qutlugh Khwaja. The Mongol blocked the roads against the entry of reinforcement
leader had an army of more than two lakh under or supplies and the royal army was suffering under
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the want of proper equipment, while they (the The last Mongol invasion took place in 1307-
Mongols) were in the most flourishing and hearty 8 under their leader Iqbalmand. It is true that he
condition.” Although Barani attributes the retreat crossed the Indus but he could not make any
of the Mongols to the supplications of the poor headway after that. He was defeated along with
and the prayers of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya, his followers and also killed. A large number of
yet the real reason of the Mongol retreat lies in Mongols were made prisoners and sent to Delhi
something else. According to Dr. K.S. Lal, it lies in where they were all put to death. The Mongols did
the prompt action of Alauddin who would not not dare to attack India after 1308. Alauddin was
yield to the enemy on any ground whatsoever able to reign in peace.
and who undertook such defensive measures as Alauddin followed the frontier policy of
even to baffle the Mongol veteran. It also lies in Balban. He strengthened the defences of the frontier.
the fact that on account of their pre-occupation in The most capable and trust officers were put in
Central Asia, the Mongols could permit themselves charge of that area. Ghazi Malik was appointed
to stay in Hindustan for long. Hence, if they could the Governor of Punjab, in 1305 and he was able
not overcome the armies of Hindustan within a to check the Mongol invasions. All important
short time, they would surely and suddenly return forts on the route of the Mongols were repaired.
to their homeland in Central Asia. New workshops to manufacture improved types
The seriousness of the Mongolian invasions of weapons were set up. Powerful armies were
forced Alauddin to take effective measures. Not stationed at Dipalpur Samana and Multan. The
only the old forts in the Punjab, Multan and Sindh Mongols who had embraced Islam and settle in India
were repaired, new ones were also built. Those forts were massacred. Even their wives and children were
were garrisoned with troops. An additional army brutally murdered. However, these harsh measures
was created for the purpose of guarding the frontier frightened the Mongols to such an extent that they
and a special governor known as the Warden of gave up the idea of conquering India.
the Marches was appointed to protect the frontier. The Mongol Policy of Alauddin was very
However, in spite of these measures, a Mongol army successful. Alauddin had to keep a large standing
under the leadership of Ali Beg and Tartaq invaded army ready to meet the danger from the Mongols.
the Punjab and appeared in the neighbourhood However, when as a result of the successful frontier
of Amroha. The Mongols plundered and burnt the policy, the danger from the Mongols disappeared,
territory on the way. Ghazni Malik and Malik Kafar the same army was utilised in the conquest of
were sent against them. They overtook the Mongols Southern India. Khilji militarism was also due to the
when they were going back with their plunder. The fact that Alauddin had to maintain a large army to
Mongols were defeated and their leaders were check the Mongol invasions. Most of the economic
made prisoners. The top-most Mongol leaders were measures of Alauddin were adopted to meet the
trampled to death by elephants. The other prisoners expenses of the huge army, which had to be set up
were also put to death and their heads put in the to meet the Mongol danger.
walls of the fort of Siri. About the measure of success achieved by
Alauddin against the Mongols, Dr. K.S. Lal observes

The Mongols appeared once again in 1306.
that the Mongal menace which had made his
They crossed the Indus near Multan and proceeded
predecessors tremble on their throne was put to an
towards the Himalays. Ghazni Malik who had been end by him. His reformative measures, his huge army
appointed the Governor of the Punjab in 1305, and above all his generalship relieved the Empire
intercepted the Mongols and a large number of of a menace that was continually haunting the
them were killed 50,000 Mongols were made rulers and people of India. Not only did the Mongols
prisoners including Kubak, their leader. They were cease their aggression against India but according
put to death and their children and wives were to Barani and Ferishta, Ghazni Tughlug who was
sold as slaves. appointed at Deopalpur with a strong force “every
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year led expeditions to Kabul, Ghazni, Quandhar and Another factor which helped was the policy
Garmsir, plundered and ravaged those regions and of offensive followed by Alauddin Khilji. As a true
levied tribute from their inhabitants. The Mongols military strategist, Alauddin came to the conclusion
had not the courage to come and defend their own that the best way to deal with the Mongols was to
frontiers against him.” strike at their own bases. In pursuance of this policy,
Dr. K.S. Lal attributes the defeat of the Mongols he sent his armies across the mountain passes to
to many causes. He points out that the idea of a attack the Mongols’ bases at Kabul, Ghazni and
world conquest, which had been the driving Quandhar. This strategy paralysed the Mongols.
force of the Mongol Empire, was lost in the wars Dr. K.S. Lal points out that the main cause of the
among the various descendants of Chingiz Khan. Mongol was that they had to fight against Alauddin
The Mongols who invaded India were sent by the who himself was a war-lord. Alauddin considered it
Khans of Transoxiana. They had rebelled against the his duty to defend his Empire against the Mongols
Great Khans of China and were mostly busy with and this he did with all the resources at his command.
their internal problems in Central Asia. Dava Khan He carried out various reforms, he raised a huge army
fought some 40 battles in Central Asia and hence, and through studied determination, repulsed the
was not left with enough of energy and time which Mongol inroads until they stopped altogether.
he could devote to the conquest of India. Prof. Habib Dreams of Alauddin
is also of the view that it was the discord among the Alauddin achieved great success during the
Mongols and their own internecine warfare which first three years of his reign. Sons were born to him.
saved the kingdom of Delhi. Victories were won by his generals and a lot of
Dr. Lal also points out that the number of wealth was brought by them. He had no enemy or
Mongols who invaded India has been unduly rival to fear. According to Ziauddin Barani, “All this
exaggerated. The Mongols who attacked India prosperity intoxicated him. Vast desires and great
included among them women, children and old aims far beyond him formed their germs in his
men. This may have added to their total number brain and he entertained fancies which had never
but that could not added to their military strength. occurred to any king before him. In his exaltation,
The Mongols were also joined by adventures ignorance and folly, he quite lost his head, forming
from the Afghans and the Khokhars with the sole the most impossible schemes and cherishing the
object of plunder. They were neither interested in most extravagant desires. He was bad-tempered,
the conquest of India nor in helping the Mongols obstinate, hard-hearted, but the world smiled upon
to defeat the Sultan. Such an army could not be him, fortune befriended him and his schemes
were generally successful, so he only became the
expected succeed. Moreover, the qualities of the
more reckless and arrogant.” The Sultan began to
early Mongols disappeared with the passage of
cherish the dream of founding a new religion and
time and as they no longer possessed the qualities
conquering the world like Alexander the Great.
of patience and endurance. Alauddin was able to
Alauddin began to dream like this: “God Almighty
exhaust their patience on the occasion of the two gave the blessed prophet four friends, through
sieges of Delhi in 1300 and 1303. The Mongols had whose energy and power the law and religion were
also lost their former agility and mobility and no established and through this establishment of law
wonder they were defeated by Alauddin. Another and religion, the name of the Prophet will endure
cause of their failure was that Dava Khan died in to the Day of Judgement. God has given me also
1306 and there was disorder in Transoxiana after four friends, Ulugh Khan, Zafar Khan, Nusrat Khan
his death. Within a period of 2/3 years, three Khans, and Alap Khan who through my prosperity have
Kuyuk, Kubak and Taliku ascended the throne. Things attained to the princely power and dignity. If I am
were so unsettled that Kubak was forced to abdicate. so inclined, I can, with the help of these four friends,
Although he was reinstated in 1321, he was not able establish a new religion and creed; and my sword
to reorganize the Mongols and send them to India. and the swords of my friends will bring all men to
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adopt it. Through this religion, my name and those attacked and wounded by his nephew, Akat Khan,
of my friends will remain among men to the last in correct with some New Muslims. However, Akat
day, like names of the Prophet and his friends. I have Khan was captured and put to death along with his
wealth and elephants and forces beyond all the associates. As regards the capture of Ranthambor,
calculations. My wish is to place Delhi in charge of Alauddin resorted to treachery. He seduced Ram
a vicegerent and then, I will go out myself into the Mal, the Prime Minister of Hamir Deva. It was with
world, like Alexander, in pursuit of conquest, and the help given by Ram Mal that the besiegers were
subdue the whole habitable world.” able to climb up the walls of the fortress and take
Alauddin consulted Malik Ala-ul-Mulk, possession of it in July, 1301.
uncle of Ziauddinj Barani, and the latter gave the Hamir Deva and the New Muslims who had
following advice: “Religion and law spring from taken shelter with him, were put to death. Amir
heavenly revelation; they are never established Khusro tells us that “one night the Rai lit a fire at
by the plans and designs of men. From the days the top of the hill, and threw his women and family
of Adam till now, they have been the mission of into the flames and rushed toward the enemy with
Prophets and Apostles, as rule and government a few devoted adherents, they sacrificed their lives
have been the duty of kings. The prophetic office in despair.”The author of Hammir Mahakavya gives
has never appertained to kings, and never will so a different account of the death of Hamir Deva. It
long as the world lasts, though some prophets have is stated there that the defeat of Hamir Deva was
discharged the functions of royalty. My advice is that due to the defection of his two generals, Ratipal
your Majesty should never talk about these matters. and Krishnapal. Hamir Deva was severely wounded
Your Majesty knows what rivers of blood Chingiz and when he felt that his end was near, he cut off
Khan made to flow in the Muhammadan cities, but his head with his own sword instead of submitting
he never was able to establish the Mughal religion or to the Muslims. Ram Mal was also not spared by
institutions among Muhammadans. Many Mughals Alauddin. It was felt that if he could be faithless to
have turned Mussalmans but no Mussalman has his master, nothing could be expected of him in
ever become a Mughal.”The Sultan agreed to accept future. No wonder, he was also put to death by the
the advice of Malik Ala-ul-Mulk and took the task order of Alauddin.
of conquering the whole of India.
CONQUEST AND TERRITORIAL EXPANSION
Although Ranthambor had been conquered
by Qutbuddin and Iltutmish, it had become Gujarat (1299 A.D.)
independent. At the time of Alauddin, it was being After the first Mongol invasion, Alauddin sent
ruled by Hamir Deva, a Rajput chief. Two reasons Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan to conquer Gujarat in
have been given for the invasion of Ranthambor. 1299. Although it had been occasionally conquered,
The first reason was that Hamir Deva had given it had remained unsubdued. At that time, it was
shelter to some New Muslims and this offended being ruled by Rai Karan Deva II, a Bagela Rajput
Alauddin. He would like to punish Hamir Deva for Prince. The Delhi army besieged Anhilwara and
his audacity. Another reason was that Alauddin captured it. Kamala Devi, the beautiful queen of
considered it as his pious duty to recover a fortress Karan Deva II, fell into the hands of the invaders and
that had once formed a part of the Sultanate of she was taken away to Delhi, where she was made
Delhi. In 1299, he sent an expedition under Ulugh the favourite queen by Alauddin. However, Karan
Khan and Nusrat Khan. They reduced Jhain and Deva and his daughter, Deval Devi, took refuge with
encamped before Ranthambor. However, they were king Ram Chandra Deva of Devagiri. The Delhi army
beaten by the Rajputs. Nusrat Khan was killed by a plundered the rich ports of Gujarat and took away a
stone discharged from a catapult, Jhain was also large amount of booty and a eunuch named Kafar.
recovered by the Rajputs. When Alauddin heard of This Kafur ultimately rose to be the most influential
this, he personally proceeded against Ranthambor. person in the state. He became virtually the mater
When he was on his way to Ranthambor, he was for sometime before and after the death of Alauddin.
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There was some trouble with regard to the division greater and he made Ratan Singh a prisoner. A
of the spoils and the new Mussalmans revolted message was sent to Padmani that her husband
but they were ruthlessly put down and practically would be released if she agreed to come into the
exterminated. harem of Alauddin. Padmani sent the reply that she
was coming with her attendants. 700 litters said to
Mewar (1303 A.D.)
be carrying her attendants, but actually carrying
The next expedition was sent by Alauddin brave Rajput warriors, entered the camp of Alauddin
against Mewar, the land of the brave Guhila and rescured Rana Ratan Singh. Thus, Alauddin was
Rajputs. This expedition was the outcome of the outwitted. Althought Gora and Badal resisted the
ambitions of Alauddin for territorial expansion. invaders at the outer gate of the fort of Chittor, they
There is a tradition that the immediate cause of could not stand against the Delhi Army for long
the expedition against Mewar was the desire and thus, Chittor was captured but before its fall,
of Alauddin to marry Padmani, the wife of Rana Padmani burnt herself and refused to fall into the
Ratan Singh of Chittor. The siege lasted for about hands of the Muslims.
5 months and all attempts to capture it failed. The
About the story of Padmani, Gauri Shankar
brave Rajputs put up such a stiff resistance that even
Ojha observes: “Col. Tod has written this story on
their enemy admired their bravery. However, when
the authority of Bhatts of Mewar, and the Bhats
further resistance became impossible, the Rajputs
performed “that horrible rite, the Jauhar where have taken it from Padmavat such being the cases.
the females are immolated to preserve them from Tod’s statement lacks conviction. If there is any basic
pollution or captivity. The funeral pyre was lighted fact (lit. root; jad) behind the statement of Tarikhi-
within the ’great subterranean retreat’, in chambers Ferishta. Tod and Padmavat, it is this that Alauddin
impervious to the light of the day, and the defenders captured Chittor after a siege of six months, that
of Chittor beheld in procession the queens, their its ruler Ratan Singh was killed in this fight with
own wives and daughters, to the number of several Lakshman Singh, and that his queen Padmani died
thousands…. They were conveyed to the cavern, and in the fire of Jauhar with several other ladies.” Again,
the opening closed upon them, leaving them to find “……..In the absence of history people accepted
security from dishonour in the devouring element.” Padmavat as history. But in truth, it is only a story in
The fort of Chittor was captured by Alauddin on 26 verse, like a modern historical novel, the structure
August, 1303. The government of Chittor was put in of which rests upon these historical facts that Ratan
the hands of Khizr khan, the eldest son of Alauddin. Sen was the ruler of Chittor, Padmani was his queen,
Chittor was also named as Khrizrabad, after the and Alauddin was the Sultan of Delhi, who wrested
name of Khizr Khan. On account of the pressure of the fort of Chittor from Ratan Sen (Ratan Sing) by
Rajputs, Khirzr Khan was forced to leave Chittor in fighting……” However, Dr. K.R. Qanungo points
1311, when this happened. Chittor under given by out in “Studies in Rajput History” that Ojha is not
Alauddin to Maldeva, the chief of Jalor. Chittor was clear on the point that Ratan Singh or Ratan Sen
again recovered by the Rajputs under Hamir or his was killed in this fight not with Lakshman Singh
son and it once again became the capital of Mewar. but before Alauddin wrested the fort of Chittor not
from Ratan Sen but from Lakshman Singh.“Padmani
Story of Padmani was his (Ratan Sen’s) queen” has not been proved by
A reference may be made to the story of Ojha to be a historical fact and in spite of that Ojha
Padmani. It is stated when the siege of Chittor was speaks in the indicative mood about the so-called
going on and a critical situation arose, Alauddin Padmani palace and Padmani tank of Chittor. Dr.
offered to go away capturing Chittor if he was shown Qanungo rejects the story of Padmani as completely
the face of Padmani through a mirror. Rana Patan unhistorical. However, Dr. A.L. Srivastava points out
Singh accepted this suggestion and arrangements that those writers who regard the story of Padmani
were made to show Padmani in the mirror. After as unhistorical base their arguments on a superficial
seeing Padmani through a mirror, the determination study of the writings of Amir Khusro. Amir Khusro
of Alauddin to have Padmani became all the more does make a reference of the story of Padmani
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when he compares Alauddin with Solomon. He altogether. The Mewar tradition which accepts the
refers to his Seba as being in the fort of Chittor. Amir story is a very old one, handed down from generation
Khusro described himself as Hud-Hud which was the to generation and if Padmani’s episode was a mere
bird which brought the news of Bilquis, the queen literary concoction, it should not have gained so
of Seba, to Solomon. It is true that Malik Khusro wide a currency in Rajputana. However, the answer
has omitted many things which might have been of Dr. K.S. Lal is that tradition is not a very authentic
disliked by his master Alauddin such as the murder of source of history and it is not easy to say how old
Jalaluddin by Alauddin but it is too much to believe the Mewar tradition is, and whether it is older than
that the whole story of Padmani was concocted by the Padmavat of Jaisi. The bardic chronicles were
Jayasi. It cannot be denied that Jayasi derived the written long after the completion of the Padmavat
main story of his Padmavat from Khazain-ul-Futuh and even Ferishta’s Tarikh, and it cannot be said with
of Amir Khusro. The details of romance of Jayasi’s certainty whether the bards based their accounts
Padmavat may be imaginary but the main plot is of Padmani or oral tradition or on the Padmavat
most probably based on historical truth. Had there itself. It is probable that Jaisi may have struck at the
been no truth in the story, the Rajput bards would plot of Padmavat from the terrible battle of Chittor
never have included it in their traditional songs, just as Charles Dickens struck at the plot of ‘A Tale
particularly when the whole story is a slur on the of Two Cities’ from the extraordinary times of the
honor of the Rajputs. French Revolution. Regarding the wide currency it
The view of Dr. K.S. Lal is that the stories gained in Rajputana, the answer is that once such
of Ferishta, Hajiuddabir and other later Persian stories are in the air they are repeated everywhere
historians and the bards of Rajputana, except in with added incidents and suggestions.
certain monor variations, closely resemble one The romantic story of Padmani got so
another and seem to have been drawn upon the much currency in India but not only Ferishta and
Padmavat of Jaisi. However, it is doubtful whether Hajiuddabir but even Manucci related it incidents
even Jaisi, while writing the Padmavat, ever meant in connection with Akbar’s invasion of Chittor
to write about the life story of a princess of Chittor. and says that Padmani was the queen of Raja
At the end of his epic, Jaisi says: “In this epic, Jaimal who was rescued from royal imprisonment
Chittor stands for the body, the raja for the mind, through the stratagem of litters. Against these
Singhaldvip (Ceylon) for the heart, Padmani for confused and varied accounts in the testimony of
wisdom and Sultan Alauddin for lust (Maya).The wise the contemporary historians, poets and travellers,
can understand what is meant by this love story.” who never alluded to Padmani affair at all. All these
From this remark of Jaisi, Dr. K.S. Lal has come to the historians and chroniclers cannot be accused of
conclusion that Jaisi was writing an allegory and not deliberately entering into a conspiracy of silence on
narrating a true historical event. It may be that the the Chittor episode. Amir Khusru who accompanied
selection of this particular theme have been inspired the Sultan to Chittor has very fearlessly and even
by the tragic Jauhar of Chittor in Jaisi’s own times exaggeratingly given the details relating to the siege.
when Bahadur Shah of Gujarat invaded Chittor in How can it be said that such an incident as that of
the year 1534. Once Jaisi had written the romantic Padmani, if it really happened, escaped mention
story, the Mohammadan historians of India who from his pen? The story of Padmani is to be found
not infrequently copied verbatim from the Persina in Jaisi’s Padmavat, in traditional lore, and in those
histories also, adopted this story in extenso. The chronicles the accounts of which have borrowed it
Padmavat was completed 224 years after the death from the Padmavat and the traditions. Tradition is no
of Alauddin and 237 years after the eventful siege doubt a source of history but it is surely the weakest
of Chittor, and not a single historian or chronicler, one and until it is corroborated by contemporary
Persian or Rajasthani, ever wrote about Padmani evidence—literary, historical, epigraphical and
before the Padmavat of Jaisi. numismatical—it cannot be accepted as true history.
Dr. K.S. Lal points out that there is one fact In the case of Padmani, the antiquity of the tradition
which causes some hesitation in rejecting the story which furnishes the story is not known, while the
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story itself is a long and for so long a time. To say was cut-off from the plains and provisions could not
that where so much is alleged, something must be reach it. Sanitary conditions inside the forts were not
true is not the historian’s habit. satisfactory. That was particularly so during a siege
when forts became over-crowded and epidemics
Malwa (1305 A.D.)
often took a heavy toll of life.
In 1305, Alauddin sent an army to Malwa under
Another cause of their failure was that they
Ain-ul-Mulk Multani. Rai Mhalak Deva of Malwa
continued to follow the age-old traditions of warfare.
and his Pradhan, Koka, opposed the army but they
They did not bother about the new techniques
defeated and slain in November or December,
of fighting evolved in other parts of the world.
1305. The victory helped the Muslims to occupy
The Sultans possessed engines of war like Arrada,
Ujjain, Mandu, Dhar and Chanderi. Ain-ul-Mulk was
Gargach, etc. (i.e., stone-throwing machines). They
appointed the Governor of Malwa.
also knew the art of constructing pashibs for
Jalor escalading the fort walls. The Rajputs fought with
Raja Kanera Deva of Jalor also submitted and elephants in open engagements. They thought
acknowledged the suzerainty of Alauddin. In spite it below their dignity to resort to ambuscade,
of this submission, Kanera Deva boasted that he camouflage and feigning retreats in which the Turks
was prepared to meet Alauddin in the battlefield at were experts.
any time. When this fact was brought to the notice Another cause of their defeat was that their
of Gul-i-Bihisht, a female servant of his palace Jalor resources were limited. Their country was hilly and
was besieged and when Kanera Deva was about to barren. Crops and water were scarce. They could not
surrender, she died. Her son was defeated and killed fight successfully against the Sultans of Delhi who
by the Rajputs. When fresh troops came from Delhi, had at their command the resources of the Punjab
Kanera Deva was defeated and he and his relations and Avadh which were the most fertile regions of the
were put to death and Jalor was annexed. country and thus, could depend upon an unlimited
supply of provisions and reinforcements.
In 1308, Alauddin himself left with a large army
to attack Sevana in Rajputana. Its ruler, Sital Deva, Conquest of the Deccan
put up a stiff resistance but was defeated, captured By the end of 1305, practically, the whole of
and killed. His kingdom was placed under the charge Northern India fell into the hands of Alauddin and
of Malik Kamaluddin Gurg. he could very easily afford to direct his attention
Causes of Rajput Failure towards the conquest of the Deccan.There must have
been both political and economic motives behind
Almost all the important states of Rajputana
the campaigns of Alauddin and his lieutenants in the
submitted before Alauddin. The question has been
Souh. The wealth of the Deccan was too tempting to
asked as so what were the causes which were an enterprising adventurer. His ambition to establish
responsible for the defeat of the Rajputs and many his control over the South which had so far not
reasons have given. The Rajputs were disunited been conquered by the Muslims, must have led
politically. It is true that every Rajput kingdom put Alauddin to think of conquering Southern India. The
up stiff resistance, but singly none of them was a political condition in the South was also favourable
match for the Sultan of Delhi. Their disunity helped to Alauddin. There were four kingdoms in that reign
the Sultan. Reference be made in this Sevana was at that time. The first was the Yadava kingdom of
imminent, the ruler of Jalor, a neighbour, kept aloof. Devagiri under Rama Chandra Deva (1271-1309).
The result was that after the conquest of Sevana, Telingana, with its capital at Warangal, was under
Jalor was also conquered. Pratap Rudra Deva I of the Kakatiya dynasty. The
Another cause of the defeat of the Rajputs was Hoysala kingdom with its capital at Dwarsamudra
their reliance on their forts. These forts were usually was under Vira Ballala III (1292-1342). The Pandya
constructed on the top of some hillocks as a measure kingdom of Mudura was being ruled at that time
of defence. However, once a fort was besieged, it by Maravarman Kulasekhara (1268-1311). There
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were some minor rulers like Manma Siddha ruling these terms and not press the Rai too hard.” The
in the Nelore district, Bhanu-Deva ruling in Orissa, Delhi army marched via Devagiri and was given all
Ravi-Verman ruling from Kollam and Bank-Deva- assistance by Rama Chandra Deva. Pratap Rudra
Alupendra rulig from Manglore. The Hindu rulers Deva, the ruler of Telingana, put up stiff resistance.
of the South were quarrelling among themselves The fort of Warangal was besieged. When the
and consequently they were not in a position to put situation became critical, Pratap Rudra Deva sued
up a united front. No wonder, they were disposed for peace in March, 1310. The Raja gave Kafur 100
of one by one. elephants, 7,000 horses and large quantities of jewels
and coined money. He also agreed to send tribute
Conquest of Devagiri (1307 A.D.) to Delhi every year. Amir Khusro tells us that Malik
In March 1307, Alauddin sent an expedition Kafur came back to Delhi with an immense booty
under Malik Kafur against Ram Chandra Deva of carried “on a thousand camels groaning under the
Devagiri. The latter had not sent the tribute for the weight of treasure.”
last three years and also given refuge to Rai Karan
Dwarsamudra (1311 A.D.)
Deva, the fugitive ruler of Gujarat. Malik Kafur was
also asked to bring with him Deval Devi, daughter The next expedition was against Vira Ballala III,
of Kamal Devi, who had escaped at the time of the the Hoysala ruler. The latter was taken by surprise
conquest of Gujarat. It is stated that Karan Deva II and defeated. His capital, Dwarsamudra, was
had made arrangements to marry Deval Devi to a captured. Malik Kafur plundered the rich temples
Prince named Shankar, who was the eldest son of of the town and got a lot of gold, silver, jewels and
Ram Chandra Deva of Devagiri. When she was being pearls. He sent to Delhi all the captured property
escorted towards Devagiri, she fell into the hands and also the Hoysala Prince. The prince came back
of Alp Khan, Governor of Gujarat, who was going to of Dwarsamudra in May, 1313 but the Hoysalas
join Malik Kafur in his expedition against Devagiri. became the vassals of Delhi.
Deval Devi was sent to Delhi and was married to Pandya Kingdom (1311 A.D.)
Khize Khan, the eldest son of Alauddin. Malik Kafur From Dwarsamudra, Kafur marched against
marched through Malwa and advanced to Devagiri. the Pandya kingdom. At that time, there was going
He destroyed the whole country and captured a lot on a dispute for succession of the throne between
of booty. Ram Chandra was forced to sue for peace. two brothers, Sundara Pandya and Vira Pandya;
He was sent to Delhi where he was treated kindly Sundara Pandya was defeated by Vira Pandya. The
by Alauddin. He was sent back to his kingdom after former went to Delhi and asked for the help of
six months. Ram Chandra Deva continued to rule Alauddin. That was exactly the thing that Alauddin
Devagiri as a vassal of Alauddin. would like to have. To wonder, Malik Kafur reached
Telingana (1310 A.D.) Madura which was abandoned by Vira Pandya. Malik
As regards Telingana, an attempt had been Kafur plundered Madura and destroyed its temples.
made, in 1303, to capture Warangal but that had He then reached Rameshwaram on the island of
failed. Another attempt was made, in 1307, by Pamban. At Rameshwaram, he destroyed the great
Alauddin to bring Telingana under his control. temple and built a mosque and named it after his
Alauddin had no desire to annex Telingana and his master, Alauddin. He came back to Delhi, in 1311, with
only object seems to have been to get the wealth of rich spoils “which included 312 elephants, 20,000
that kingdom and also force its ruler to acknowledge horses, 2,750 pounds of gold, equal in value to ten
his authority. Alauddin is said to have given the crores of Tankas and chests of jewels. No such booty
following instructions to Malik Kafur, who was the had ever before been brought to Delhi.” The result
in charge of the expedition: “If the Rai consented of this expedition was that the Pandya kingdom
to surrender his treasure and jewels, elephants and became a dependency of the Delhi Sultanate and
horses, and also to send treasure and elephants in continued to be so till the early part of reign of
the following year, Malik Naib Kafur was to accept Muhammad Tughlak.
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Devagiri mostly vegetarians and very orthodox people. They
The last Deccan campaign of Malik Kafur was were more particular about their regular baths and
against Shankar Deva, who withheld the tribute untouchability than about fighting. It is obvious that
promised by his father and tried to regain his such people could not fight against the armies from
independence. Malik Kafur marched against Devagiri the North. No wonder, the armies of Alauddin were
and inflicted a crushing defeat on Shankar Deva. The successful in the South.
latter was killed. Most of the towns of his kingdom As regards the Deccan policy of Alauddin, it is
were captured and looted. It was in this way that the to be noted that like Samudra Gupta, Alauddin did
whole of Southern India was made to acknowledge not intend to annex the territories of the rulers of
the sway of Alauddin. Southern India. His main object was to get as much
of wealth as possible so that he could pay for the
Causes of Alauddin’s Success in the Deccan
expenses of a huge army which he was maintaining.
The success of Alauddin in the Deccan can According to Dr. Aiyangar, Alauddin regarded the
be attributed to many causes. The kingdoms of Deccan as milch-cow for the gold that he required
the South were constantly fighting against one to stablise his position in the North. Alauddin sent
another and hence, could not present a united Malik Kafur four times to the South not to conquer it
front to the armies of the North. When Alauddin but to get its gold, silver, pearls, jewels and elephants.
attacked Devagiri in 1296, Singhana Deva had gone Alauddin also had no religious motive in his wars
towards the Hoysala frontiers with his forces. When against the Southern states.There were no wholesale
Malik Kafur marched against the Hoysala country,
conversions.
its ruler Ballala Deva was absent in farther South
trying to snatch a portion of the Pandya territory. Even the rulers of the Deccan states were not
Sundara Pandya and Vira Pandya were the deadly forced to change their religion. It is true that temples
enemies of each other. were demolished by Kafur in his Deccan campaigns
but that was done more for economic than for any
The rulers of the Southern states also helped
religious purpose. It is true that some mosques
the invaders against one another. Ram Chandra
were built but there does not seem to have been
helped Malik Kafur in the conquest of Telingana.
any religious motive behind them. Their object
Vira Ballala escorted the imperial army farther South
was merely to commemorate his brilliant victories.
in Malabar. Sundara Pandya asked Malik Kafur to
help him against his step-brother, Vira Pandya. The The successful Deccan campaigns, must have
consequences of such a policy were obvious and no strengthened the position of Alauddin in the North.
wonder the Southern states were defeated. No ruler or governor could dare to defy Alauddin.
The wealth of the South must have improved the
Another cause of the success of the armies of
financial position of Alauddin and helped him in
Alauddin was their efficiency. The mobility of their
his administration of the country. It is pointed out
cavalry was staggering. It is pointed out that the
that the expeditions of Malik Kafur which were
distance between Delhi and Devagiri was almost
accompanied by the sack of cities, slaughter of
annihilated on account of the speed of the horses.
the people and plunder of temples, must have
Before the Southern states could find time to get
made an immense impression on the people of

ready for meeting the invasion, they were attacked
the South. They could not resist him and hence
all of a sudden and defeated.
submitted before him but they harboured a feeling
The soldiers from the North combined in of discontentment in their hearts and that ultimately
themselves the zeal for religion and greed for found expression in the Vijaynagar Empire.
plunder. They were superior to the Southern soldiers
in discipline, strategy and tactics. Referring to the Death (1316 A.D.)
soldiers of south India, Marco Polo says:“The people The twenty years’ rule of Alauddin came to an
of the country go to the battle all naked, with only end with his death on 2nd January, 1316. The Sultan
a lance and a shield and are the most wretched was not keeping good health. “His ill-health made
soldiers.” Marco Polo also points out that they were him more suspicious and irritable than ever, and like
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most people who distrust the bulk of mankind, he is said to have told the Qazi: “Although I have not
was the dupe of one artful individual.” So great was studied the Science or the Book, I am a Mussalman
the influence of Malik Kafur on Alauddin that the of a Mussalman stock.” The inscriptions on the
latter imprisoned Khizr Khan, his eldest son and his monuments of Alauddin also show that Alauddin
mother on a charge of conspiracy. Shihab-ud-Umar had faith in Islam.
was nominated successor so that Malik Kafur, acting Alauddin revived the theory of kingship
as regent, could exercise all the powers. Rebellions of Balban. He believed in the majesty of the king
broke out on all sides. Harapala, the successor of who was the representative of God on each. His
Shankar Deva in Devagiri, was the first to declare his conviction was that God had given more wisdom
independence and drive out the Muslim garrisons to the king than to any other individual and his will
from his territory. Rana Hamir of Chittor turned out should be the law of the country. He also believed
the Muslims from Rajasthan. Gujarat also followed that kingship knows no kinship. All people were to
suit. According to Elphinstone, “The paroxysms be either his servants or his subjects and he was not
of rage produce by a succession of these tidings to be influenced by anybody in the administration of
increased the king’s suffering and soon brought the country. Both the nobles and the Ulema were to
him to the brink of the grave. His end is said to have be kept at distance. He inspired awe among all. He
been accelerated by poison, administered by Kafur.” would like to rule over the country according to his
It is rightly pointed out that Alauddin was own lights. He did not consider it necessary to get
a great administrative genius. No Muslim ruler the sanction of the Khalifa to add his authority and
before the Mughals had shown so much of interest no wonder, he did not apply for an investiture from
in organising the affairs of the state. He made a the Khalifa. However, he styled himself as Yamin-ul-
large number of reforms in various spheres of Khilafat Nasiri Amir-ul-Mumanin.
administrations some of which were really original.
Alauddin’s Militarism
Conception of Kingship Alauddin established a militaristic regime. He
In his conception of sovereignty, Alauddin based his kingship on military power and force. He
departed from his predecessors. He had the courage did not claim sovereignty on the basis of heredity
to say that he was not prepared to be dictated by or election by the nobles or the sanction of the
the Ulema. Qazi Mughisuddin of Biyana used to Khalifa. He knew full well that he had usurped
visit the court very often and he was an advocate power by force and the same could be maintained
of the supremacy of the church. However, Alauddin only by force. He subordinated the Muslim Church
told him his views about kingship in these words: by force. He overawed the nobility with his huge
“To prevent rebellion, in which thousands perish, I army. He did not allow the nobles to keep their
issue such orders as I conceive to be for the good armies. As a matter of fact, he owned everything to
of the state and the benefit of the people. Men are his efficient army. It is not possible to refer to the
heedless, disrespectful and disobey my commands; exact figures of the army of Alauddin. Ferishta tells
I am then compelled to be severe to bring them us that Alauddin maintained 4,75,000 horsemen.
into obedience. I do not know whether this is lawful He paid decent salaries to the soldiers. Muratab
or unlawful; whatever I think to be for the good or an ordinary horseman was paid 234 Tankas a
of the state or suitable for the emergency, that I year. The Sawar was paid 156 Tankas. A Do-aspah
declare; and as for what may happened to me on the was paid 78 Tankas a year. Payments were made to
Day of Judgement that I know not.” However, this the soldiers regularly and their activities were also
does not mean that he disregarded Islam. Outside supervised. Alauddin introduced two system of Dagh
India, he was known as a great defender of Islam. or the branding of horses and Huliah system or the
In the case of India, there is a difference of opinion. preparation of the descriptive rolls. Dewan-i-Arz
Barani and his followers emphasised the disregard was the head of the military establishment and was
of religion by Alauddin but Amir Khusru considered required to enforce the rules stringently. The result
Alauddin as a supporter of Islam. Alauddin himself of these changes was that the Sultan could not be
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deceived by clever nobles with regard to the identity revenue officer demands silver from them they
of the horses and the soldiers. Spies were kept in should without question and with all humility, and
every limit of the army and they were required to respect, tender gold. If the Muhassil chooses to spit
submit daily reports to the Sultan regarding the into the mouth of a Hindu, the latter must open his
conduct of the military officers. mouth without hesitation. The meaning of doing
such a thing is that the Hindu by acting in this way
Land Revenue
shows his meekness and humility and obedience
Alauddin made many reforms in the field and respect. The glorification of Islam is a duty, and
of land revenue. It was ordered that all land was contempt of the religion is vain. God himself has
to be measured and then, the share of the state commanded their subjection, in as much as the
was to be fixed. The post of a special officer, called Hindus are the deadliest foes of the Prophet. The
Mustakhraj, was created and he was given the duty Prophet has said that they should either embrace
of collecting unrealised balance of land revenue Islam or they should be slain or enslaved, and their
from the peasants. In order to check bribery and property should be confiscated to the state. No
corruption among the revenue officials, their salaries one except the great doctor, Abu Hanifa, allows
were increased. On certain occasions, the papers of the imposition of the Jizya upon the Hindus, while
the Patwaris were personally scrutinised. Alauddin other schools are of opinion that there is no other
did not force the peasants to pay land revenue in alternative for them but death or Islam.”
clash. As a matter of fact, he preferred to get the Alauddin adopted many measures by which
same in kind.
the Hindus were reduced to poverty and misery.
Zia-Barani has criticised Alauddin for heavy Ziauddin Barani tells us that the Chaudhries, Khuts
taxes. The latter charged half the produce as land and Muqaddams were not able to ride on horseback,
revenue while the demand of the state used to be to find weapons, to get fine clothes or to indulge
25% or 33% before Alauddin. That was probably in battel. Their wives were forced to work as maid-
due to the fact that Alauddin was in need of a servants in the houses of the Muslim neighbours.
larger amount of money for the maintenance of According to Prof. S.R. Sharma, the choice offered by
his army. At the same time, it is not be forgotten that Alauddin to the Hindus was to be hewers of wood
Alauddin took steps to safeguard the peasants from
and drawers of water, the helots of the Empire. No
the demands of the corrupt revenue officials and
wonder, Alauddin boasted that “at my command,
the latter were punished severely even the petty
they are ready to creep into holes like mice.”
offences. It is pointed out that for misappropriation
of one single ital, the revenue collectors were According to Sir Wolseley Haig, “Hindus
tortured. throughout the kingdom were reduced to one dead
level of poverty and misery, or, if there were one class
The condition of the revenue officials became
more to pitied than another, it as that which had
very bad in the time of Alauddin. We are told that
formerly enjoyed the most esteem, the hereditary
wives of the Khats and Muqaddams went and served
assessors and collectors of the revenue.”
for hire in the houses of Mussalmans. “Men looked
However, Dr. R.P. Tripathi contends that
upon revenue officers as something worse than

fever. Clerkship was a great crime and no man would the measures adopted against the Hindus by
give his daughter to a clerk.” Alauddin were not due to religious causes but to
political and economic causes. The Muqaddams
Alauddin’s Relation with Non-Muslims or village headmen, Khuts or farmers of revenue
Alauddin was very cruel towards the Hindus. and Chaudhries or venue collectors were mainly
He adopted all kinds or measures to crush them in Hindus and before the time of Alauddin, they had
every possible manner. The Qazi of Bayana explained enjoyed many privileges. They dressed themselves
the policy of the state towards the Hindus and daintily. They rode on fine horses. They oppressed
Alauddin followed the same. According to the Qazi, the cultivators. All that Alauddin did was that he
the Hindus “are called Khiraj-guzars and when the merely withdrew all the concessions which formerly
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the revenue officials enjoyed even in the reigns of the sending of any report for more than 24 hours.
the Muslim rulers. This did not prove that “ Alauddin The spy system of Alauddin was so very efficient
specially aimed at crippling the Hindus as such.” that they “often in their zeal to win royal favour
carried the silly gossip of the bazaar to the ears of
Measures against Nobility
the Emperor.”
Alauddin believed in the establishment of
The third Ordinance prohibited the use of wine.
a strong government at the center. That was not
In order to set an example, Alauddin himself brought
possible if certain elements in the country continued
all the jars and casks of wine from his palace and got
to revolt. It is true that Alauddin had successfully
them emptied at the Badaun Gate. So much of wine
crushed the rebellions of Akat Khan, the revolt of
was emptied that mud and mire were produced
the sons of the sister of the Sultan, Amir Umar and
as in the rainy season. The prohibition scheme was
Mangu Khan, in Badaun and Avadh, the conspiracy of
not a success. People began to distil wine in private
Haji Maula and the plots of the New Mussalmans, but
houses. Smuggling became common. The result was
all this made Alauddin analyse the causes of those
that certain concessions were made by the Sultan.
rebellions. His conclusion was that those rebellions
The prohibition was restricted merely to its public
were due to the inefficiently of the spy system, the
use and convivial gatherings. Nobles were allowed
general practice of using wine, social intercourse
to drink individually in their houses.
among nobles and intermarriages between them
and the excess of wealth in the hands of a few The fourth Ordinance issued by Alauddin
persons “which engenders evil and strife, and brings laid down that nobles should not have social
forth pride and disloyalty.” gatherings and they should into intermarry without
his permission. No dinners and parties could be
In order to avoid the evils mentioned above,
given by the nobles without the prior sanction
Alauddin mentioned four important Ordinances.
of the Sultan. Gambling even for recreation was
The first Ordinances aimed at the confiscation of
prohibited. Dr. Ishwari Prasad rightly points out
the religious endowments and free grants of land.
that “the amenities of social life disappeared and
Ziauddin Barani tells us that “the Sultan ordered that
life became an intolerable burden.”
wherever there was a village held by proprietary
right (milk) in free gift (in’am), or as a religious Economic Reforms
endowment (wakf ), it should, by one stroke of the Alauddin carried out a large number of
pen, be brought under the exchequer. The people reforms in the economic field. Certain regulations
were pressed and amerced, and money was exacted were issued with the objects of fixing prices of
from them on every kind of pretext. Many were left food products, cloth and all kinds of piece goods
without any money, till at length it came to pass and maid-servants, concubines, male and female
that excepting Maliks and Amirs, officials, Multans, slaves, milch cattle, beasts of burden, horses and
(i.e. large traders from Multan) and banders, no one various articles of general merchandise including
possessed even a trifle in cash. So rigorous was the such articles as bread, vegetables, reori, Yakhni,
confiscation that, beyond a few thousand tankas, all needles, etc. Other regulations were concerned
the pensions, grants in land, and endowments in the with the ways and means of enforcing the prices
country were appropriated. The people were also fixed. It was the duty of the government to ensure
absorbed in obtaining the means of living that the supplies by means of command. The hoarding of
name of rebellion was never mentioned.” produce of the Doab and the neighbouring country
By the second Ordinance, Alauddin reorganised up to a distance of hundred Kots was prohibited.
the spy system. An army of informers was created Merchants were commandeered to transport grains
and their duty was to spy on all that happened from villages to Delhi. Grain was to be stored in
in the Empire and submit reports to the Sultan. government granaries. A machinery was devised
Spies were required to work in the army. Spies were to coerce the people to obey the regulations. The
appointed in the markets. Spies were appointed government was to see that the fixed price level
in the Provinces. Spies were required not to delay was not distributed even in times of families which
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were frequent near. Delhi was so regulated that maintenance. He was given a Barid and other officers
neither the farmers were able to retain any surplus to help him in his work. Malik Maqubul, a servant of
nor secretly sell at a higher price to the merchants Ulugh Khan, was appointed Shahna. His duty was to
and grain dealers. Written agreements were taken supervise the market and also compel the merchants
from the Governor (Nawab) and other government and caravans to collect grain from the villages. The
officials that no one within their jurisdiction would maintenance of the official price scale must have
be allowed to hoard and regrate corn. If any case been a difficult task. A huge official machinery was
of regrating was detected, the officers were to be required for the purpose. Prices at the source of
held liable for it and punished. commodities had to be kept down at a sufficiently
Shahnas (Superintendents) and Karkunan low level to meet the demands of the government.
(Agents) were required to be guarantees that Caravans and merchants had to be kept under
they would cause the grain from the farmers to be control so that they might bring regularly goods
delivered to the Caravans of merchants on the fields to Delhi without regranting any portion elsewhere.
at the fixed rates. The collectors, overseers and other Cheating on the part of sellers and corruption by
revenue officers were required to realize revenues in government officials had to be checked. Alauddin
the Doab with so much of strictness that the farmers ordered that daily reports of the current prices of
were to be compelled to sell the corn left with them the market should be sent to him by the Shahana,
at the cheaper rates to the corn-carriers. These steps Barid and the informers of the courts independently
were intended to secure the regular flow of grains of each other and if those reports did not tally, the
to markets of Delhi through the caravans at the guilty officer was to be punished. Ziauddin Barani
fixed rates. Merchants and caravans were ordered tells us that although harsh punishments were
to carry grain from the villages to the Doab to Delhi. given to the shopkeepers, they did not hesitate to
Merchants and caravans from far and near were cheat and give short measures to the purchasers.
commandeered and were required to render service Alauddin used to make enquiries about the rates ten
to the state under pain of terrible punishment and to twenty times a day, in spite of that cheating did
humiliation. These merchants were required to shift not stop. Alauddin adopted the method of sending
with all their belongings and settle near Dehi on occasionally to the market a few slave boys to buy
the banks of the river Jamuna, in order to be within articles of food and if those were found to be less
easy reach of the Shahna or Superintendent of the than the correct weight, a quantity of flesh equal to
Market. As regards the storing of grains in governing the deficiency was cut from the cheeks or haunches
granaries set up for the purpose in all parts of Delhi, of the seller and he was also kicked out of his shop
those were filled chiefly with grain collected by way by Shanna-i-Mandi.
of revenue from the Khalsa villages of the Doab and Alauddin issued certain regulations under
those attached to the New City (Shahr-i-Nau). In which a new government market named Sarai-Adi
addition to Delhi, granaries were set up at Jhain and was established, under the Badaun Gate. Merchants
its villages. The corn collected at Jhain and its villages of Delhi and other provinces were required to be
could not be sold in the countryside and has to be registered. Loans were advanced to the Multani
transported to Delhi by the caravans. It is possible merchants and they were given charge of the Sarai-
that Jhain was at that time a big grain market. The Adi market. Passes were issued to those rich persons
storage was meant for emergencies and for times of who wanted to buy costly goods. All merchants were
scarcity and famine. On those occasions, the supply required to hand over their entire stocks into Sarai
of corn to the people of Delhi was rationed at a Adi on pain of severe punishment for concealing
maximum of half a Man per family per day. Special anything. The Diwan-i-Riyasat as ordered to register
consideration was required to be shown to the poor the names of merchants, whether they were Hindus
and if the Shahna did not do so, he was punished. or Muslims. These merchants were required to bring
Shahna or Superintendent or Inspector of all the commodities to the city and sell them at the
Market was appointed. He was given a contingent control rates. They must have suffered a lot unless
of cavalry and infantry and a suitable Jagir for his the government compensated them for the same.
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The brokers and horse-dealers, who used to earn a country became chaotic. Dr. Saran is of the opinion
lot, were ruined. that the system set up by Alauddin was thoroughly
Alauddin appointed Yaqub as Diwan-i-Riyasat. irrational, ill-conceived and artificial being in flagrant
Under him, a Shahna-i-Mandi was appointed with violation of all economic laws, intended primarily
a huge staff of subordinates. Only those persons for the benefit of the government and resulting in
were appointed who were not only honest and incalculable misery, poverty and humiliation to the
trustworthy, but also harsh and cruel. The Shahna- people who happened to fall directly or indirectly
i-Mandi was supplied with a schedule of control under it. The king, the army the government servants
rates and was required to keep an eye on all sales and other salaried people gained from price control
in the market. If there was any deficiency in weight, as they were merely consumers. Merchants and
the seller was lashed mercilessly and ill-treated in businessmen, being both consumers and sellers, got
every possible way. relief as they were able to get their requirements
Ziauddin Barani attributed the success of the at cheaper rates. The agriculturists were the most
measures adopted by Alauddin to various factors hard hit as they had very little to buy other articles.
and those were the strict enforcement of the rules of They could not take advantage of the amenities
the market, vigorous collection of the taxes, scarcity provided at Delhi.
of metallic currency among the people and the Dr. K.S. Lal express his view in these words:
zeal of the officers who acted honestly out of fear “ Alauddin’s passion for incessant conquest and
of the Sultan. constant invasions of the Mongol free-booters
There is a difference of opinion amongst from the north-west had rendered maintenance
scholars regarding the object of the economic of a large army unavoidable. Besides the army, the
reforms carried out by Alauddin. There are some expenses on a large staff of State officials on civil
who contend that Alauddin felt that it was the duty and military administration and on slaves involved
of the state to look after the economic welfare of heavy liabilities on the royal exchequer. The wealth
the people. Like Napoleon, Alauddin was of the accumulated in the time of Sultan Jalaluddin, the
view that the supreme talisman of statesmanship treasurers secured from the raid on Devagiri in 1296
lay in cheap bread. While Alauddin robbed the and the yearly tributes collected from the various
rich, he compensated the poor. He increased the provinces and dependencies of the Empire proved
salaries of the low-paid officials and by fixing the insufficient to meet the financial burden. Even the
prices of the necessities of life low, he added to raising of the revenue to fifty percent of the produce,
their happiness. Lane-Poole calls Alauddin a great the levying of different kinds of ceases, and the
political economist. conversion of the drinking vessels of gold and silver
However, this view is not accepted by Dr. P. into coins failed to meet the requirements of the
Saran. His view is that the problem of maintaining State. It was calculated that if the King recruited a
a huge army with the limited resources of the large number of troops even on a moderate salary,
kingdom as the sole motive which prompted the the entire treasure of the State would be exhausted
control of prices of all the necessaries of life, so as within five or six years. Alauddin, therefore, decided
to make them cheap enough for the soldiers to to cut down the salaries of soldiers; but to prevent
maintain themselves on the low salaries which their falling a victim to economic distress, he also
were paid to them. The amelioration of the decided to reduce the prices of commodities of
condition of the poor was not even in the remotest daily use. It was simple arithmetical calculation and
imagination of Alauddin. Dr. Saran also points out simple economic principle; since he had decided
that Alauddin’s system was confined to Delhi and to reduce and fix the salary of soldiers, he also
its neighbourhood. The rest of his dominion had decided to reduce and fix the prices of things of
directly nothing to do with it although the districts common use. With this end in view, he promulgated
immediately surrounding Delhi must have been various regulations which brought down the cost
influenced by the regulations. The economic life of living. These measures, which may be termed as
and the business conditions of the surrounding his Economic Reforms or his Market Control, form a
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conspicuous feature of his administration.” Delhi where the standing army was concentrated,
According to Sri Ram Sharma, the system of and the regulations extended to a region sufficiently
Alauddin “must have come to an end, much before large to ensure the isolation of the Delhi market.” Dr.
his own and came. It failed because it could not B.J. Saxena points out that this argument overlooked
perpetuate itself. It failed, as it was bound to fail, the fact that low prices in Delhi alone could not help
because it was not founded on anything except the army which was drawn from the whole of the
fear. It failed to gain any loyal supporters.” country, the needs of the families of the soldiers
and horsemen could not be overlooked. They had
About the economic measures of Alauddin,
claims to at least half, if not more of the wages of
Dr. K.S. Lal points out that neither agriculture nor
their bread-winners and as they lived in all parts
trade and commerce could flourish under the
of the empire, the mere reduction of prices in Dehi
circumstances created by them, and that also was
could hardly bring any relief to them or help the
not the aim of Alauddin. The one object he had in
state in reducing the salaries of the horsemen. The
his mind was to maintain a large army which was
basic fact was that Alauddin did not want and
sufficient to repel the Mongol invasion and also to
desired an isolated Delhi market. He was keen that
subdue the independent Chiefs of India. It is true
the commodities of the Serai Adl should not go out
that the benefits of the market regulations were
of it, but in case this was done he had no means of
enjoyed both by the civil and military population
preventing anything from being taken from Delhi
of Delhi but the agriculturists of the Doab and the
to provinces. If the Multani merchants were to bring
tracts in the vicinity of Delhi had to pay heavily for
commodities from distant provinces, they had to
the benefits of the people of Delhi. The tradesmen export North Indian products to distant regions.
also did not gain much as they had to work under Ferishta is right in saying that the regulations were
compulsion. Like other Emperors Alauddin was not meant for the greater part of the dominions of
bothered about all those considerations. To him, Alauddin. If enforced in Delhi alone, they would be
his military necessity was paramount. He wanted a meaningless.
strong army to defeat his enemies and he succeeded
remarkably well in that endeavour. The view of Dr. B.J. Saxena is that the economic
regulations of Alauddin were the greatest
Dr. K.S. Lal rightly observed that the market administrative achievements of the Sultanate
regulations of Alauddin died with him. His successor period. He quotes the following observations of
was more fond of concubines than of conquests.
Ferishta written in the reign of Jahangir:“To the end
Moreover, a very large army was not required as
of Alauddin’s reign these prices remained steady
the Mongol storm had subsided. There was no need
and there was no change in them owing to the
of controlling prices for recruiting a large army
lack of rain or other causes that bring famine. It was
on a small salary. Market control was a temporary
unique and remarkable achievement. Nothing like
measure, resorted to in a state of exigency and
this had been accomplished before and no one can
when the emergency was over, the regulations were
say whether it will be possible again.”
allowed to fall into discuss.
In his account of economic reforms of Allauddin Estimate of Alauddin
Khilji, Barani has given too much importance to According to Prof. S.R. Sharma,“ Alauddin Khilji
the city of Delhi. He has overlooked the provincial was the first Muslim Emperor of India. During the
capitals, the Qasbas (towns) and even rural areas, reign, for the first time, the Crescent dominated
there was no reason why Allauddin should have over the whole country from the Himalay’s to Cape
plundered the Doab for the sake of the citizens of Comorin and from sea to sea. He was also the first
Delhi only and incurred an endless and prolonged Muslim ruler of India to make bold experiments
headache. The view of Moreland is that Delhi was in administration. Balban had done little beyond
isolated from the rest of the country. To quote consolidating his kingdom and maintain order
Moreland, “No attempt was made to keep down therein. What little of government there was, under
prices throughout the country; effort was limited to the greatest of the slave Sultans, was of a primitive
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character. Suppression of rebellion, eradication of wonderful blitzkrieg in Devagiri and the subsequent
robbery, and defence of the realm against foreign events which led to his accession. As a ruler, he
invaders were the primary tasks which absorbed was vigorous and efficient; and as a reformer, bold
all energies of Balban. Alauddin no doubt reaped and original. He held a very exalted conception
all the benefits of this most essential spade-work. of kingship; the absolute state was the ideal for
But he was also an innovator. However crude his which he worked—a state untrammeled by the
autocracy, and whatever fate his dynasty might have authority of the Ulama and unhampered by the
immediately suffered, his administrative system influence of a powerful nobility. He understood the
supplied the foundation of which all later Muslim value of and prepared the ground for the separation
rulers in India built”. of the State from the Church. He was not more
“Though he might be wrong-headed and bigoted than his age. Himself almost illiterate, he had
disdainful of the law, Alauddin was a man of sense nothing but contempt for learning and scholarship,
and determination, who knew his own mind, saw though during his reign Delhi became ‘the rival of
the necessities of the situation, met them by his Cairo and the equal of Constantinople’ because of
own methods and carried out those methods with the throng of great men of whom the poet Amir
persistence.” Ferishta tells us that so long as Alauddin Khusro and Hasan were the most famous. Alauddin
was active, he “executed justice with such rigour that was the first Muslim imperialist and the first great
robbery and theft, formerly so common, were not Muslim administration in India really begins with
heard of in the land. The traveller slept secure on the him. Alauddin, Sher Shah and Akbar—each marks
highway, and the merchant carried his commodities a distinctive step in the evolution of Indo-Muslim
in safety from the sea of Bengal to the mountains history.”
of Kabu and from Telingana to Kashmir.” The view Dr. K.S. Lal rightly points out that although
of Elphinstone was that the rule of Alauddin was
Alauddin ascended the throne at the age of 30,
glorious and he was a successful monarch who
he reached the apogee of power at 45 through
exhibited a just exercise of his power. However,
unrivalled skill, studied tact and phenomenal energy.
Dr. V.A. Smith does not agree with Elphinstone.
His contention is that “facts do not warrant the From nothingness, he rose to be one of the greatest
assertion that he exhibited a just exercise of his rulers of Medieval India. With the help of a strong
powers and that his reign was glorious.” In reality and disciplined army, he pulled down the native
he was a particularly savage tyrant with very little princes and stamped out sedition from the land. By a
regard for justice and his reign, though marked by systematic tariff policy, he controlled the fluctuating
the conquest of Gujarat and many successful raids market and with an efficient administrative
like the storming of the two great fortresses, was machinery effectively governed the country for
exceedingly disgraceful in many respects. two decades. It is true that there were certain defects
“It is difficult to analyze or pass a verdict on in his administrative system. His Government was
Alauddin’s character. As a king, he was a ruthless one man’s rule and such a Government is by its very
tyrant, and as a man, treacherous and ungrateful. nature uncertain. His rule was based on force and
But with all these defects in his character, what not on the will of the people.
carried him through was his resourcefulness, energy He was only feared and obeyed but not
and capacity for work to which was added his loved or respected. He neglected the economic
unbounded courage tempered with calculation prosperity of the state and just to benefit his military
and a penetrating commonsense. He was a man of population, he killed every incentive to trade and
inordinate ambition, but also possessed bold and commerce. Under his regulations, the traders had
original ideas to which he would give practical shape neither freedom of movements nor hope of profit.
with his genius for organisation and leadership. He fleeced the peasantry. His spy system made
A vigorous commander, he knew how to carry the life of the people a hell. The oppression of the
his army through strenuous campaigns. A master nobility left the Government in a paralytic condition
of diplomacy and finesses, he revealed it in his after his death. However, in the view of Dr. K.S. Lal, all
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these accusations do not seem to hold water when a tion. The New Muslims intrigued against the Sul-
careful and critical analysis of his solid achievements tan. Over-centralisation, repression and espionage
is made. Alauddin had achieved much. He was able undermined the authority of the Sultan. Alauddin
to turn a small kingdom of Delhi into an Empire raised low-born persons to the position of honor
comprising almost the whole of India. He was the and eminence and that was resented by the nobles.
first ruler whose political hegemony extended over Towards the end, the Sultan also became violent
the Deccan peninsula. He dealt a death-blow to the and whimsical. However, the greatest mistake of
Mongol aggrandizement which threatened the very Alauddin was that he allowed Malik Kafur to be-
existence of Muslim rule in India. come all-powerful. That ultimately proved suicidal
He curbed the power of the Hindu Rajas in not only to Alauddin himself but also to the Empire
the far-off South. His work at least had permanent founded by him.
results, even if his conquests were not permanent. Alauddin was a great patron of learning. Amir
Most of his administrative reforms served as models Khusro was patronised by him. He was the greatest
for later monarchs. Barani refers to the achievements literary figure of that time. To begin with, Khusro
of Alauddin in these words:“The first special feature lived in the court of Prince Muhammad, the son of
of Alauddin;s times is the cheapness of the neces- Blab. When Prince Muhammad died, he wrote an
saries of life and fixed rates of grains in seasons of eulogy on Muhammad. Later on, Amir Khusro wrote
plenty and scarcity; the second is the unbroken chain Tarikh-i-Alai or Khazain-ul-Futuh. In this book, he
of victories which the king and his commanders gave an account of the conquests of Alauddin. He
obtained, and it appeared as if victory preceded a
wrote another book called Ashiqa-which contains
military enterprise; the third is the crushing of the
the love story of Deval Devi and Khizr Khan. Amir
Mongols; the fourth is that a large force remained
clam and contented on a small salary; the fifth is Khusro continued to enjoy royal patronage even
that contumacious landholders were suppressed; after the death of Alauddin. In this “Nuh-Spihr or Nine
the sixth is that roads and highways became safe, Skies,” he gave the story of Sultan Mubarak Shah. He
and those who used to rob were made to guard also lived in the court of Ghiasuddin Tughluq and
them; seventh, that the traders were compelled wrote Tughluqnama in which he gave the story of
to be honest; eighth is the abundance of strong Ghiasuddin Tughluq. Khusro wrote a lot in Hindi and
buildings; ninth that the Hindus were compelled he is considered to be a great Hindi writer. Khusro is
into obedience and Muslims true, abstemious and also known as Tuti-i-Hi’d or Parrot of India. He was
just; and the tenth is the congregation of artists and an excellent singer.
learned men such as had not been found to exist Ziauddin Barani tells us that in addition to Amir
in any other reign.” Khusro, 46 scholars were patronised by Alauddin.
Alauddin was a great military leader. He carried Amir Hassan was one of them. He is known as the
the militaristic ideal of Balban to its logical conclu- Sadi of India. Amir Arsalan Kohi and Kabiruddin were
sion. He showed great vigour as an administrator. great historians of this period and were patronised
He can claim the credit of governing the country by Alauddin. Shaikh Nizamuddin, Shaikh Ruknud-
independently of the authority and guidance of the
din and Qazi Mughisuddin were great masters of

Ulema. However, Dr. Ishwari Prasad rightly points out philosophy and theology of those times and were
that the foundation of the political system set up all patronised by Alauddin.
by Alauddin were unsound. His policy created a lot
of discontentment among the various sections of Alauddin was fond of architecture. Many forts
society. The Hindu Rajas, who were derived of their were built by his orders and the most important
independence, merely waited for the opportunity of them was Alai Fort or Koshak-i-Siri. The walls of
to throw off the yoke of the Delhi Sultanate. The this fort were made of stones, brick and lime. There
nobles were sick of the restrictions imposed upon were seven gates in it. According to Amir Khusro,
them. The merchants resented the control of the “All the mosques which lay in ruins, were built a new
market. The Hindus complained of their humilia- by a profuse scattering of silver.” In 1311, Alauddin
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began to extend the Qutab Minar. He also started He possessed an unusual originality of mind. He
the construction of a new Minar in the courtyard of was never satisfied with stereotyped solutions of
the mosque of twice the size of the old Kutb Minar. problems. He hated traditional and conventional
The construction of the new Minar could not be approach in all matters. He stood for the political
completed by him. In 1311, Alauddin caused a large and administrative unity of India. He wanted to
gate to be built for this mosque of red sand-stone liquidate the barriers which separated the North
and marble, with smaller gated on four sides of the from the South. He believed in making the whole
larger gate. Alauddin built the “Palace of a Thousand of India as one political and administrative unit.
pillars” called Hazar Situn. His Deccan experiment led to the rapid cultural
The Jama Masjid was also constructed by him. transformation of the South. Scholars, mystics,
The construction of the Shamsi Tank was also due to merchants, poets, administrators and armies moved
him. Ziauddin Barani tells us that Alauddin employed from Daulatabad to Multan and from Bengal to
70,000 men in public works alone. Those men could Gujarat. When Muhammad Tughluq ascended the
build a palace in two or three days. throne of Delhi, the Central Asian scene was in a
state of constant flux.
MUHAMMAD TUGHLUG There was vaccum in the political life of Central
Ghiyasuddin Tughlug was succeeded by Asia and Muhammad Tughluq tried to fill that
his prince, Juna Khan, who took up the title of vaccum. He initiated what may be called “an era of
Muhammad Tughlug. We are fortunate in having a higher imperialism”. To quote Barani, “On account
lot of authentic material about his reign. of the high ambition, which was ingrained in the
peerless personality of Sultan Muhammad, if the
Early Life whole fourth of the inhabited globe (rubi maskun)
Prince Juna Khan was the eldest son of was brought under the control of his slaves, and the
Ghiyasuddin Tughluq. He was brought up as a soldier entire world from east to west, and from north to
and he distinguished himself in the same. He was south, became the tax-payer to his exchequer, and
a precocious child. He was appointed the Master the people of the world became subservient to his
of the Horse of Khusro Shah. However, Juna Khan orders, and the currency in his name circulated in
started an agitation against Khusro Shah, his patron. the whole of the inhabited world (rubi maskun);
He helped his father in overthrowing Khusro Shah. yet if some one said that some land in some island
When his father became the Emperor in 1320, Prince or a piece of territory equal to the size of a room
Juna Khan was appointed the heir-apparent and was in some country had not been brought under his
also given the title of Ulugh Khan. He undertook control, his river-like heart and his world-conquering
two expeditions to Warangal in 1322 and 1323, spirit would not have found peace till that island
and although he failed in the first, he succeeded in or that little room-space had been brought under
the second. He seated himself on the throne soon subjection to him.
after the death of his father in 1325. For 40 days, he Owing to the high ambitions, exalted
remained at Tughluqabad after which he marched aspiration, great love of honour and extraordinary
to the city of Delhi and put himself in the Red Palace sense of prestige that was rooted in his mind, he
of Balban. Gold and silver coins were distributed desired to stalk in the world like Kaimurs and Faridun,
among the people at the time of coronation. and to behave towards the people like Jamshed
and Kaikhusrau. In fact, he would not have been
Political and Religious Concepts of the Sultan content merely with the status of Alexander (of
The political and religious ideas of Muhammad Macedonia) but tried to attain to the position of
Tughluq deserved careful considerations because Solomon so that ruling both over men and jins,
many of his attitudes were conditioned by them he could combine prophehood (nubuwat) with
and had a bearing on his projects and policy. sultanate, and counting the king of every country
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as his slave, issue his commands form his capital
both as a prophet and a sultan.”
Muhammad Tughluq believed in close
diplomatic, cultural and economic contact with
the outside world. His political vision extended
far beyond India and embraced countries up to
Egypt, on the one hand, and China and Khurasan,
on the other. A new phase started in the history
of India’s diplomatic relations with the outside
world during the reign of Muhammad Tughluq.
Missions came from China, Iran, Iraq, Syria, etc.,
to the Delhi court.
Muhammad Tughluq was a very careful
student of religion and philosophy. His rationalism
in matters of religion was interpreted by men
like Barani as denial of religion. He was very
particular about the performance of prayers and
other religious rites enjoined by Islam. At the
same time, he was tolerant of other religious and
participated in their religious, ceremonies and
festivals. He was, perhaps, the first Sultan of Delhi
about whom there is evidence that he took part in
the Hindu festival of Holi. Many Jogis moved about
in his territory with their Muslim followers and the
Sultan did not object to it. The Sultan is reported Muhammad bin Tughluq and his Major
to have visited the Satrunjaya temples at Palatina Projects
and the idol houses of Girnar. He is reported to We can discuss the events of the reign of
have issued a Farman for the construction of a new Muhammad Tughluq under two heads: his domestic
rest house for monks. Writers like Islami accused policy and foreign policy.
the Sultan of heresy. The Sultan was not against As regards the domestic policy, Muhammad
mysticism as such but he did not approve of the Tughluq began to look into the details of
mystic attitude of isolation from the state and administration from the very beginning of his reign.
wanted the Sufis to make their talents available He first ordered the compilation of a register of
to the state. He was anxious to absorb as many the revenue and expenditure of the provides of
mystic families in his administration as possible. his kingdom. The Governors of the provinces were
required to send to Delhi a relevant records and
The Sultan believed that all the officers must

be open to talent. He appointed low-born persons other materials required for that purpose. The result
to the highest offices in the administration. He was that summaries of income and expenditure
believed that the foundations of the empire could came to Delhi from the various parts of the empire
be strengthened only by giving it a broad base. and the system worked smoothly.
With that object in view, he appointed Hindus Taxation in the Doab
to some of the highest offices in the state. He The Sultan made an ill-advised financial
patronised Hindu Scholars and poets. We are told experiment in the Doab between the Ganges
that there were as many as 1,000 poets of Arabic, and the Jamuna. He not only increased the rate
Persian and Hindi at his court. of taxation but also revived and created some
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additional Abwabs or Cesses.There are discrepancies cultivation by giving direct help to the peasants. A
and vagueness in the accounts of the contemporary large tract of land measuring 60 miles square, was
and later Muslim writers with regard to the actual chosen for that purpose. Land was cultivated and
amount of assessment. Barani says that taxes were different crops were grown in rotation. In two years,
increased 10 or 20 times more. Elliot has translated the Government spent more than 70 lakhs. Land was
it as 10% or 5%. It is stated in Tarikh-i-Mubarak given to those who were in need of it. Unfortunately,
Shahi that the increase was twenty-fold and to this the experiment proved to be a failure. The land
were added Ghari or house tax and the Charahi chosen for experiment was not fertile. The period
or pasture tax. According to Badauni, taxes were of three years was too small to give any concrete
doubled. In these circumstances, it is not possible results. The money was not properly spent and a
to determine accurately the actual amount of large part of it was merely wasted.
additional assessment. Some modern writers have
Transfer of Capital to Daulatabad (1327 A.D.)
suggested that the additional tax was not more than
50%. It is also contended that the object of the Sultan A very important experiment was made
in levying these additional taxes on the people of by the Sultan in shifting his capital from Delhi to
the Doab was not punitive as suggested by Badauni Daulatabad. Barani points out that Daulatabad had
and Sir Wolseley Haig, but to “increase his military a central situation and was nearly equidistant (700
resources and to organize the administration on miles) from Delhi, Gujarat, Lakhnauti, Telingana and
an efficient basis.” Whatever the truth, it cannot be other important places. The new capital had its
denied that the measure entailed great hardships strategic value. It was safe from Mongolian invasions
on the people of the Doab. Barani tells us that “the which constantly threatened Delhi. The Sultan also
backs of the rayats were broker. Those who were did his best to make Daulatabad a suitable place
rich became rebels; the lands were ruined and for his officers and the people. All facilities were
cultivation was arrested. Grain became dear, the provided for those who were required to migrate
rains were deficient and so famine became general. to Daulatabad. A broad road was constructed for
It lasted for years and thousands upon thousands their convenience. Shady trees were planted on
of people perished.” Dr. Ishwari Prasad points out both sides of the road. A regular postal service was
that “unfortunately, this measure was carried out at established between Delhi and Daulatabad.
a time when a severe famine was prevailing in the However, when the people of Delhi hesitated to
Doab, and the distress of the people was greatly shift to Daulatabad, the Sultan got annoyed and he
aggravated by its disastrous effects. But this does ordered all people of Delhi to proceed to Daulatabad
not exonerate the Sultan altogether from blame; for with their belongings. Ibn Batuta says that a blind
his officials continued to levy taxes at the enhanced man was dragged from Delhi to Daulatabad and a
rate with the utmost vigour, and made no allowance bed-ridden cripple was projected there by a ballista.
for famine.” The relief measures of the Sultan such Regarding the transfer of capital to Daulatabad,
as the giving of loans to the agriculturists, sinking Barani observes:“Without consultation or weighting
of wells and “bringing the uncultivated lands under the pros and cons, he brought ruin on Delhi which
the plough by means of direct state management for 170 to 180 years had grown in prosperity and
and financial support”, came too late. The peasantry rivaled Baghdad and Cairo. The city with its Sarais
left their homes and shifted to other places. The and suburbs and villages spread over tour or five
Sultan was very much annoyed and he adopted leagues all was destroyed (i.e. deserted). Not a cat or
very harsh measures to bring back the peasants to a dog was left. Troops of the inhabitants with their
their original homes. However, all this had a very families were forced to move broken-hearted; many
adverse effect so far as the future of the Tughluq perished and those who reached Deogiri, unable to
dynasty was concerned. endure their exile, pined to death. All round Deogiri,
The Sultan created a new Department of an infidel land, spread graveyards of Muslims. The
Agriculture called Diwan-i-Kothi. The main objective Sultan was bounteous to the emigrants both on
of this Department was to bring more land under the journey and arrival; but they were tender and
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could not suffer exile. They laid down their heads in seen. Moreover, the statement of Barani that it was
that heathen land, and of the multitudes, few lived a calamity for the selected few and not the masses,
to return to their native home.” is borne out by documentary and circumstantial
The Sultan realised the folly of his experiment evidence. Two Sanskrit inscriptions, dated 1327
and ordered a return march of the people. The and 1328 A.D., confirm this view and establish the
result was that those few who had survived from prosperity of the Hindus of Delhi and its vicinity
journey to Daulatabad also died on their return at that time. One of them “records the foundation
journey. The net result of this experiment was that of a well by a Brahman of the name of Srindhara
Delhi lost its former prosperity and grandeur. It at the village of Nadayana, the modern Naraina,
is true that the Sultan “brought learned men and near Delhi.” The verses of this inscription speak of
gentlemen, tradesmen and land-owners into the Muhammad bin Tughluq as “the mighty Saka Lord”
city of Delhi from certain towns in his territory and and throw light on the favourable conditions in
made them reside there”, but when Ibn Batuta came which the Hindu families of Delhi lived. The second
to Delhi in 1334 he found certain parts of Delhi still inscription found at the village of Sarbar, five miles
deserted. According to Lane-Poole,“Daulatabad was inscriptions, read with Barani’s remarks about the
a monument of misdirected energy”.According to Dr. “misery of the related people”, lead to the inference
Ishwari Prasad, it is doubtful if the transfer of capital that Sultan Muhammad’s orders for migration
to Daulatabad would have helped the Sultan to keep applied to the leading Mussalman families only.
a firm hold upon the different parts of the empire. This is also supported by Barani’s references to
The Sultan did not see that Daulatabad was situated heavy casualties in these words. “And on all sides
at a long distance from the northern frontiers of the of the old infidel land of Deogiri, there sprang up
empire and those required to be constantly watched. graveyards of the Mussalmans.”
He disregarded the warning that the Hindu revolts The view is also supported by the stray
and the Mongol invasions might imperil his empire references made by the editors and compilers of
at any time. If such a contingency had arisen, the the Malfuzat of the Sufi saints. Their study reveals
Sultan would have failed to meet the same. the incontestable fact that the Sultan wanted only
the Musslaman nobles, the Ulema and the Mashaikh
Dr. Syed Moinul Haq refers to the various
to go to Deogir because his scheme was to have a
statements of Barani and points out that the
large population of his co-religinoists in the Deccan
Sultan had ordered the emigrations of the upper
and thus eliminate the possibility of the success
classes only who were comprised of the Ulema, the
of frequent rebellions of the Hindus. That could
Mashaikh countries, commanders of the army and
be achieved through migration and conversion,
the civilians of rank. It is beyond doubt that Delhi was
and those appear to be the motives of the Sultan
not evacuated in entirely. The frequent references
in sending the distinguished Ulema, the leading
of Barani and other writers to the destruction of Mashaikh and other influential Muslim families
Delhi simply mean the loss of its prosperity which, to Deogir and raising that city to the status of a
according to them, was mainly due to the presence capital. He knew that his stay there, for some time
of those distinguished families. at least, was as essential as that of the Shaikhs and
When Barani says that not even a dog or Ulema. His scheme of planting a strong colony of
cat was left in the city and its suburbs, he merely the Mussalmans at Deogir and making it the center
emphasised the point that emigration was on of his political activities as well as the missionary
a large scale and affluences and prosperity had work of the Ulema is clearly referred to by the
disappeared to a great extent. If his phrases were to author of the Seirul Aulia who was a contemporary
be understood literally, he would be guilty of making of the Sultan and whose family had migrated to
contradictory statements. There was no meaning in Delhi. In his chapter on Sultan’s interview with
the Sultan bringing the nobles and Ulemas from Maulana Fakhruddin-Zarradi, Amir Khurd says: “At
provincial towns if Delhi had been converted into the time when Sultan Mohammad Tughluq had
a wilderness where neither a cat nor a dog could be sent the people of Delhi to Deogir and wanted to
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conquer Khorasan and Turkistan and overthrow gave out that he wanted to set up his capital at
the descendants of Changiz Khan, he convened a Daulatabad because it was situated in the center
meeting of all the Sadrs and leading persons of Delhi of his dominions. It was not a case of mere transfer
and its suburbs who had assembled in the city, under of the capital as is proved by his anxiety not to let
a huge tent. He had ordered the setting up of a dias Dehi fall into obscurity. His efforts to brig Ulema
so that he might stand on it and address them in and Shaikhs provincial towns and made them settle
order to induce them to be ready for Jahad.” Amir down in that city gave a clue to his true intentions
Khurd also says that both his father and Maulana in spite of the official version which Barani seems to
Fakhruddin were sent to Deogir. have stated. Barani complains that the Sultan did no
Maulana Fakhruddin wanted to go to Mecca. consult his adviser on this question, but consultation
He consulted his friend Qazi, Kamaluddin of Deogir. could result in the leaking out of the true purpose of
The latter warned him that it would be impolitic the scheme and might have hampered its success.
to go there without the permission of the Sultan Dr. Haq points out that for two decades, the
because the Sultan was anxious to populate Deccan Kingdoms had been under the suzerainty of
Deogir and enhance its glory and reputation by Delhi, but their submission did not go beyond their
the presence of the Ulema, the Mashaikh and the sending presents and tributes occasionally. They
Sadrs. Besides these, other Shaikhs are also stated to could throw off their allegiance with the appearance
have migrated to the Deccan. Shaikh Burhanuddin, a of the slightest symptom of weakness in the
Khalifa of Shaikh Nizamuddin Aulia and the famous Central Government. Alauddin Khilji had remained
poet Amir Hassan can be mentioned as examples. contented with these unsatisfactory arrangements
Makhdoom-i-Jahan, the mother of the Sultan, also because his hands were full with the problems of the
migrated to Deogir. North. Muhammad Tughluq fond himself in a better
The greatest misconception in regard to the position and, therefore, decided to bring the Deccan
scheme has arisen from the error in interpreting in within the orbit of his direct rule. For that, he required
too literal a sense the phrase “Destruction of Delhi” a tolerably large population of Mussalmans upon
which Barani and other contemporaries seem to whose support he could rely at any difficult time.
have used only as a metaphor in order to impress He was fully conscious of the fact that in crushing
upon their readers the magnitude of calamity. the supremacy of the Hindu States in the Deccan,
Ibn Batuta who visited Delhi six years after the he would have to face tremendous opposition and
emigration testifies to the greatness and prosperity nothing would be more foolish than to rely upon
of Delhi. He tells us that Delhi was the biggest town sheer force for the permanent subjugation of those
of the East, had beautiful massive buildings, was territories. By making Daulatabad the center of a
surrounded by a wall, the like of which could not vast Musslman colony in the South, Muhammad
be found anywhere in the world and covered an Tughluq was trying to achieve what can be called
extensive area which was all populated. It consisted in modern phraseology “a peaceful penetration.”
of four different towns, viz., Old Delhi of the Hindus, Dr. Haq concludes thus:“Sultan Muhammad’s
Siri of Alauddin, Tughluqabad and Jahanpanah. project of the so-called transference of the capital
The view of Dr. Haq is that the population of Delhi was in reality a novel experiment in the administrative
was not evacuated in entirety and the Sultan never history of India, and was a peculiar invention of his
intended to make Deogir its substitute. What he ingenious mind. It has been generally held that
seems to have in his mind was to make Deogir it was a disastrous failure, but we cannot ignore
a stronghold of his power by converting it into the fact that the foundation and maintenance of
a large colony of the Mussalamns. It would have independent Mussalman Kingdom in the Deccan
been unwise on his part to have openly proclaimed would not have been possible if he had not planted
that he could not depend upon the people of the a strong Muslim colony there.” Similar views have
Deccan and wanted a large Muslim population to been expressed by Prof. Mohd. Habib and Prof. K.A.
support his Government. Hence he tried to justify Nizami. Prof. Mohd. Habib says that the Mongol
his scheme by seemingly harmless arguments and invasions of Central Asia and Persia had driven a
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large number of refugees to India who settled in the Tughluq did was that he made Daulatabad the
country for good. At the same time, the Chishti and second administrative city of the Empire. Al-Qalqa-
Subrawardi mystic orders carried on an extensive shandi says that the Empire of Delhi had two
religious propaganda in every village and town of capitals: Delhi and Devagiri or Qubbatul Islam. In
Hindustan and their efforts brought a considerable two separate coins, Delhi is described as Takhtgah-
minority of poor Indians within the fold of Islam. This i-Delhi and Daulatabad as Takhtgah-i-Daulatabad.
minority of gardeners, cooks, barbers, etc., converted Prof. Nizami says that when all contemporary and
to Islam gave to the Empire of Delhi the strength modern interpretations are take into consideration,
it needed. it appears that the Deccan experiment was basically
The view of Muhammad Tughluq was that dictated by political exigencies. In an Empire in
something like the above had to be done in the which simultaneous insurrections were operating in
Deccan to strengthen the Muslim position in that areas so far-off as Maabar and Bengal, there was no
area. Hence was the necessity of deporting a large other alternative to deal with the situation except
number of Muslims to the Deccan. Muhammad in the manner attempted by Muhammad Tughluq.
Tughluq made up his mind to accomplish the Prof. K.A. Nizami further states that the
task. The population of Delhi was a fine social impression of mass exodus given by contemporary
and economic unit for a southern capital and he historians is not correct. In fact, only the upper
would like to take it there. That alone was not classes consisting of nobles, Ulamas, Shaikhs and
considered enough and it was necessary to set up the elite of the city were shifted to Daulatabad.
in the Deccan centers of Muslim social and religious The general Hindu public was not affected by this
culture. Hence was the necessity to transport a large project. The elite of Delhi constituted a fine social
number of mystics for the purpose of preaching and and economic unit for a Southern Capital and the
propaganda. That explains why a large number of Sultan forced it alone to change its habitat and settle
mystics were forced to migrate to Daulbad at the in a new region and amidst new surroundings. The
time of the transfer of the capital. exodus took place during the hot summer months
and that considerably added to the miseries of the
The view of Prof. Nizami is that it was in all people. Isami says,“The people had to tread over the
probability during or immediately after his campaign soil which the burning sun had made hot like iron.”
against Bahauddin Gurshasp in the Deccan that
Prof. K.A. Nizami refers to the immediate
Muhammad Tughluq realised the urgent need of
and remote effects of the Deccan experiment of
having a strong administrative center in the south
Muhammad Tughluq. According to him, its immediate
to cope effectively and instantaneously with all
effect was widespread resentment against the
situations that arose in that region. His councilors
Sultan who forfeited the confidence of the people.
suggested Ujjain for that purpose but his decision
The bitterness created by their sufferings continued
was in favour of Devagiri. To the beauties of Devagiri
their hearts for decades. As regards its remote effects,
and its claim to a pride of cities in the world, his the Deccan experiment of Muhammad Tughluq was
attention had been drawn by the poet Amir Khusrau. a remarkable success. The boundaries which had
Muhammad Tughluq embarked upon his Deccan separated the North from the South broke down.
project after considerable thought and attention. It It is true that the extension of administrative power
was neither a haphazard plunge in administrative of the Delhi Sultanate into the Deccan failed, but
experimentation nor an eccentric craze for novelty, so far as the extension of the cultural institutions
but a well-thought-out solution of a problem by one was concerned, it was successful. Barani tells us that
who of all the Sultans of Delhi had the most intimate “on all the four sides of Daulatabad there appeared
experience of the difficulties in the administrative graveyards of Mussalmans.”The view of Prof. Nizami
control and the military operations in the South. is that these graveyards connected the hearts of the
Prof. K.A. Nizami points out that the general people of the North with the soil of the South and
impression that Muhammad Tughluq transferred his the rise of Bahamani Kingdom was made possible
capital to Daulatabad is not correct.What Muhammad by this influx of population.
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The Currency Experiment (1329-30 A.D.) of money to maintain the great army of conquest
Edward Thomas has described Muhammad numbering 3,70,000. The second cause was the
Tughluq as “a prince of moneyers”. He points out deficiency in the treasury caused by the lavish gifts
that one of the earliest acts of his reign was to made by the Sultan. Another probable cause can be
remodel the coinage, to re-adjust its divisions to the relative scarcity of silver in the market. According
the altered values of the precious metals and to to Dr. Ishwari Prasad, the Sultan who was a man of
originate new and more exact representatives original cast of mind, well-versed in the arts and
of the subordinate circulation.” A new gold coin sciences of the age. The Sultan might have felt a
weighing 200 grains and called Dinar, by Ibn Batuta, powerful impulse for the experiment in a scientific
spirit.The royal exhortations which accompanied the
was issued by Muhammad Tughluq. He revived the
introduction of the currency and the subsequent
Adali coin containing 140 grains of silver in place of
behaviour of the Sultan effectively rebut the charge
the old gold and silver coins weighing 174 grains.
of eccentricity which had been brought against him
This change was probably due to a “fall in the relative
by modern writers.
value of gold to silver, the imperial treasury having
been replenished by large quantities of the former Many reasons have been given for the failure of
metal as a result of the campaigns of the Deccan.” this monetary experiment of Muhammad Tughluq. It
is pointed out that this carefully organised measure
In A.D. 1329, the Sultan issued a token currency
failed because it was in advance of the time and the
in copper coins. There were already examples of people could not realize its real importance. To the
such a currency in China and Persia. Kublai Khan, people at large in those days, brass was brass and
the Mongol Emperor of China, had introduced a copper was copper, however urgent the needs of the
paper currency in China towards the close of the state might be. Another cause of the failure of the
13th century. Gai Khatu, the ruler of Persia, made a experiment was that the Sultan could not make the
similar experiment in A.D. 1294. With these examples issue of the copper coins a monopoly of the State.
before him, Muhammad Tughlug issued a decree To quote Edward Thomas, “There was no special
proclaiming that in all transactions, copper tokens machinery to mark the difference of the fabric of the
should be accepted as legal tender like gold and royal mint and the handiwork of a moderately skilled
silver coins. According to Barani, “This edict turned artisan. Unlike the precautions taken to prevent the
the house of every Hindu into a mint and the Indians imitation of the Chinese paper notes, there was
of the provinces coined lakhs and crores of copper positively no check upon the authenticity of the
coins, with which they paid their tribute and bought copper tokens and no limits to the power of the
horses and arms and fine things of all sorts. production by the masses at large.”The contention
The Rais the village headmen and land-owners of Elphinstone was that the failure of the token
grew rich on these copper coins but the state was currency was due to the insolvency of the king and
impoverished. In no long time, distant countries the instability of his government. This contention
would only accept the copper Tanka as metal, and has been found to be groundless as the Sultan
in places where reverence for the edict prevailed the successfully withdrew all coins by paying gold and
gold Tanka rose to be worth a 100 copper Tankas. silver coins for the copper tokens. Had the Sultan
Every goldsmith struck copper coins in his workshop been insolvent, he would not have been able to give
and the treasury was crammed with them. They fell gold and silver coins in exchange. Brown attributed
so low that they were no more valuable than pebbles this currency muddle to the shortage in the supply
or potsherds. Trade being disrupted, the Sultan of the silver in the world during the 14th century.
repealed his edict and in great wrath proclaimed There was a similar scarcity of coins in England in the
that all the copper coins should be redeemed in gold reign of Edward III about the year A.D. 1335 Similar
or silver at the treasury. Thousands brought them for difficulties were experienced in other countries.
exchange and their heaps rose up in Tughluqabad Prof. Mohd. Habin gives a different and more
like mountains.” Barani tells us that the experiment plausible explanation in these words:“The mind had
was due to two causes. The first cause was the need a special type of bronze alloy for the coins, which
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could be easily distinguished on the touchstone; of circulation. The payment of land revenue was
but the secret of the proportion of the metals in made in the spurious token currency. The Khuts,
the bronze coins could not be discovered by the Muqaddams and Chaudhris weapons and war
goldsmiths. When people took gold and silver coins materials with the spurious token currency. Foreign
in those days, they had the coins weighted (to make merchants stopped bringing their wares to India
allowance for clippings) and also tested on the and imports received a serious set-back.
touchstone for purity of metal. The Sultan expected About the token currency, Sir Wolseley Haig
the public to follow the same practice in regard to says that Mohd. Tughluq understood the principles
his token coins. But in this matter the public failed of a managed currency and he did not believe, as
him. Consequently, many forged coins got mixed is suggested by some historians ignorant of those
with the treasury coins; and as the forged coins principles, that his command could raise the value
became current and the government was unable of the baser to that of the precious metal. Success
to prevent his, more and more forged. A bronze coin might have been possible if the measure had been
would be at least worth its weight in bronze—i.e., efficiently supervised but unfortunately, no steps
about 50 bronze coins would be normally equal to were taken to prevent fraud and hence it failed.
one silver Tanka. But forging the bronze coins was
an offence. So a forged bronze coin may meet any Liberal Administration
fate, for a new element—fear of punishment—also Muhammad Tughluq was a learned man and
entered into the determination of its value. In the he refused to accept the dictates of the Ulemas in all
distant provinces, it circulated at one-half of its matters. The four legal taxes were Khiraj, Zakat, Jazya
official value in terms of the silver Tanka; in the and Khamsa but Muhammad Tughluq levied many
capital people would be afraid of being found in taxes in addition to them. Muhammad Tughluq was
possession of forged bronze coins; they would throw not a religious bigot and consequently he showed
them away or keep them in order to melt them into greater respect for the sentiments of the Hindus
bronze vessels later on. than was done by his predecessor or his successor.
The whole operation got beyond the control He tried to stop the practice of Sati. Independent
of the government. Too many forged coins got into Rajput rulers he felt undisturbed and this was not
circulation and the failure of the experiment caused liked by the clerical party. He deprived the clerical
a havoc in the market. It was not possible to punish party of its monopoly of the administration of justice.
those in actual possession of the forged bronze He made himself the highest court of appeal and
coins, because they were innocent. In fact, strange whenever he differed from the Muftis. He over ruled
to say, nobody was punished……. It was understood them and acted according to his own view. Judicial
from the very beginning that the treasury would powers were given to some of the distinguished
redeem every bronze coin brought to the treasury officers of the state although they were not Qazis or
the bronze coins they had. The treasury redeemed Muftis. Mubaraq Khan, the brother of Muhammad
the borne coins it had issued as a matter of treasury Tughluq, sat along with the Qazi in the Diwan-i-
conscience; it rejected the false coins but did not Khana to help him in disposing of cases. Some of
punish their owners because they were ‘bonafide’ the members of the clerical party were severely
possessors. Heaps of these rejected bronze coins, punished by the Sultan as they were found guilty of
which were probably melted later on, could by rebellion, open sedition or embezzlement of funds.
seen at Tughlugabad. But forged bronze coins not The clerical party could not be expected to be like a
brought to the treasury continued to circulated at ruler who was prepared to punish even the Shaikhs
their metallic value, specially in the provinces, and and Saiyyads who were considered to be sacred by
have survived to our days.” the Muslim rulers.
In addition to the forging of token coins, The envoy was received with the highest
the people started hoarding silver and made all honours. The Sultan, all the great officers of the
their purchases in token currency. The result was state, the Sayyids, holy and learned men, and all who
that a considerable quantity of silver was kept out could pretend to any importance, went out of Delhi
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to meet the envoy. The Sultan walked barefooted as he did not take into consideration the problem of
the envoy approached and kissed his feet several transport. The difficulties of geography were also
times. Triuphal arches were erected in the city and ignored. It was completely forgotten that it was not
alms were lavishly distributed. The utterances of an easy task to send such a huge army through the
the envoy were recorded and repeated as though passes of the Himalayas or the Hindukush and also
they had been inspired. To quote Barani, “Without to provide for their food and other necessaries in
the Caliph’s command, the king scarcely ventured to such a distant land. Moreover, the Muslim soldiers
drink a draught of water.” In spite of this, Muhammad of India would not have been a match for the hardy
Tughluq did not regain the loyalty and confidence hordes of Central Asia. Muhammad Tughluq could
of his people. He remained as unpopular as ever. not have depended upon the help of the Sultan of
Egypt and Tarmashirin Khan. They had their own
Foreign Policy interests to serve than to help Muhammad Tughluq.
The Delhi Sultanate was not free from external It has rightly been said that the scheme was impolitic
dangers during the reign of Muhammad Tughluq. in the highest degree from every point of view and
In 1328-29, Tarmashirin Khan, the Chaghatai chief of no wonder, the same was abandoned. Ziaud-Bin
Transoxiana, invaded India. He ravaged the country Barani observes: “The covered countries were not
from Multan and Lahore to the outskirts of Delhi. acquired. And his treasure which is the true source
It appears that the change of capital from Delhi to of political power, was expended.”
Daulatabad and the neglect of the defence of the The fort of Nagarkot was situated on a hill in
North-Western frontier by Muhammad Tughluq, the Kangra district of the Punjab. It had defied every
encouraged the Mongols to attack the country.There Turkish army from the time of Mahmud Ghazni.
is a difference of opinion among writers regarding It had not been conquered during the reign of
the outcome of the invasion. Yahiya-bin-Ahmad and Alauddin Khilji. In 1337, Muhammad Tughluq led an
Badauni tell us that Muhammad Tughluq defeated expedition against Nagarkot. The Hindu Raja offered
the Mongols and drove them out of the country. resistance but was forced to submit. However, the
However, Ferishta says that Muhammad Tughluq fort was restored to him.
bribed the invaders and they retired. The gold and Following the lead of Ferishta, many writers
jewels given by the Sultan to the invaders have been of Indian history have wrongly maintained that
described “as the price of the kingdom.” Whatever Muhammad Tughluq sent an expedition against
the truth, “the invasion was no more than a raid, China. However, it is clearly stated by Ziauddin Barani
and Tarmashirin disappeared as suddenly as he and Ibn Batuta that Muhammad Tughluq intended to
had come.” capture the mountain of Karajal which lies between
the territories of Hind (India) and those of China. Ibn
Muhammad Tughluq had visions of universal
Batuta tells us that the Karajal mountain was situated
conquest. He decided to conquer Khurasan and Iraq
at a distance of 10 stages from Delhi. It appears that
and mobilised a huge army for the purpose. He was the expedition was directed against some refractory
encouraged to do so by the Khurasani nobles who tribes in the Kumaon-Garhwal region with the object
had taken shelter in his court. They had also their of bringing them under the Delhi Sultanate. A huge
own axe to grind. Zia-ud-Bin Barani tells us that as
army was sent, in 1337-38 for the purpose. The first

many as 3,70,000 men were enrolled in the Diwan- attack was a success. But when the rainy season set-
i-Arx or the office of muster master. They were paid in, the invaders suffered terribly. The entire baggage
for full one year by the state. It cannot be denied of the army was plundered by the mountaineers.
that there was instability in Khurasan on account According to Ziauddin Barani only 10 horsemen
of the unpopular rule of Abu Said and Muhammad came back to tell the story of the disaster. However,
Tughluq could certainly take advantage of the same. Ibn Batuta gives the number as 3. In spite of this
However, it cannot be ignored that the position of failure, the object of the expedition was achieved.
Muhammad Tughluq was not very stable in India The hillmen realised the folly of defiance and came
itself and consequently, it was foolish on his part to terms with the Sultan by agreeing to pay him
even to think of conquering foreign lands. Moreover, tribute.
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Bengal had never been loyal to the Delhi Ferishta,“Belal Deo and Krishna Naik both combined
Sultanate. Fakuruddin the armour-bearer of ‘Bahram their forces and delivered Mabar and Dwarsamudra
Khan, Governor of Eastern Bengal killed his master from Muslim control. On all sides the flames of
and usurped his territory in 1336-37. Qadr Khan, war and rebellion were kindled and of the distant
Governor of Lakhnauti, marched against him, but provinces nothing remained in the possession of
was himself killed. Fakhruddin took advantage of the Sultan except Gujarat and Deogiri.”
the difficulties of Muhammad Tughluq and declared Qutlugh Khan was the Governor of Daulatabad.
himself an independent ruler of Bengal. He also A lot of public revenue was embezzled by his
got coins struck in his own name. As there was subordinates and therefore, Muhammad Tughluq
no interference from Delhi, Fakhruddin was able decided to send Ain-ul-Mulk Multani to Daulatabad.
to consolidate his position and Bengal became That could not be done on account of the revolt
prosperous under his rule. The prices of foodstuffs of Ain-ul-Mulk. In spite of this, Qutlugh Khan
and other necessaries of life were so low that people
was called back from Daulatabad. However, the
from Persia called Bengal a “hell crammed with
situation did not improve. According to Ferishta,
good things.”
“The people disgusted at the removal of Qutlugh
Ain-ul-Mulk Multani was the Governor of Oudh. Khan and the want of capacity displayed by the
He was a loyal officer, a great soldier and a man of new administration, rebelled in all quarter and
letters. He was responsible for the suppression of the country was devastated and depopulated in
the revolt of Nizam Main of Kara. When there was consequence.”
famine in Oudh, he sent 70 to 80 lakhs of Tankas
Aziz Khummar had been appointed the
worth of grain. In spite of these services, he was
Governor of Malwa and Dhar by Muhammad
ordered to go to Daulatabad, in 1340-41, to put down
Tughluq. His attitude toward the nobles was
the disturbances there. Ain-ul-Mulk considered it as
objectionable and consequently they revolted. The
a diplomatic transportation to weaken his position
Governor caught hold of 80 such nobles and got
and prestige in Oudh. He requested the Sultan not
them beheaded in front of his palace with a view to
to send him to the Deccan but as the latter persisted,
terrorise others. This was too much and there was
he revolted. However, he was defeated and taken a
trouble everywhere. Aziz Khummar was captured
prisoner. He was dismissed from his poet and was
and put to “an ignominious death.”
made to put up with great humiliations. As the
Sultan was convinced that Ain-ul-Mulk was a half- The Sultan could not tolerate the defiance of
hearted rebel, his life was spared and he was made his authority and consequently marched into Gujarat
the keeper of the royal gardens at Delhi. at the head on an army and destroyed and that fell
into his hands. At that time of a rebellion in Deogiri
Taking advantage of the instability in the and Muhammad Tughluq marched towards Deogiri.
empire, brigandage grew to threatening proportions Deogiri and Muhammad Tughluq marched towards
in Sind. Muhammad Tughluq led an expedition Deogiri. There the Afghans, Turks and Hindus had
against them in person. The ruffians were scattered. made common cause against the Sultan but the
Their leaders were captured and forced to embrace latter was able to recover Daulatabad from the
Islam. rebels. While in Daulatabad, Muhammad Tughluq
Harihar, an enterprising Hindu leader, heard of another revolt in Gujarat. The leader of
founded the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar in the revolt was Taghi, a common shoe-maker and
1336. He also gave help to Krishna Naik, son of slave of a Muslim nobleman. He was able to bring
Prataparudra Kakatiya, when the latter revolted under his command all the discontented elements.
against Muhammad Tughluq, in 1343-44. Warangal He successfully occupied and plundered placed
was captured by Ballala II and its Muslim governor, like Nehruwala, Cambay and Broach. However,
Imad-ul-Mulk, ran away to Daulatabad. According to Muhammad Tughluq was successful in driving out
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Taghi from Gujarat and the latter took refuge in Sing. According to Dr. Ishwari Prasad, “Among the
Things were brought to normal in Gujarat. Amirs who crowded his camp, he looked about for
When Muhammad Tughluq was in Gujarat, the support to buttress up his tottering power, but they
were all mediocrities without any plan or policy
foreing Amirs made a vigorous effort to recover their
and could render him but little assistance. What
position and besieged the fort of Deogiri. All the
seriously hampered him was the lack of capable
attempts of the imperialists to re-capture it failed. governors and officers to carry into effect his plans.
Imad-ul-Mulk was defeated by Hasan Gangu and The inefficiency of the men on the spot emphasised
the rebels occupied Daulatabad. Ismail Mulk whom the importance of the personal factor to such an
the rebels had chosen as their king “voluntarily extent that the Sultan’s presence became necessary
and gladly” resigned in favour of Hasan Gangu. to restore order in the disturbed areas. The local
Hasan took up the title of Alauddin Bahman Shah, in administrations, paralysed by persistent opposition
August, 1347, and founded the Bahmani Kingdom. and mismanagement, could make no stand against
Taghi had taken refuge in Sind and Muhammad the rebels whose power was daily increasing. Neither
at Deavgiri nor in Gujarat, the local administration
Tughluq decided to proceed against him. However,
displayed any vigour to check the forces of disorder
on the way, the Sultan fell ill at Gondal and was
and the Sultan alone had to bear the brunt of the
obliged to halt for some time. After partial recovery, opposition. The imperial army, too, does not seem
he proceeded towards grave and he died on 20 to have shown any remarkable efficiency; probably
March 1351. Badauni observes: “And so the king the unusual severities of the Sultan had exhausted
was freed from his people and they from their king.” its patience and chilled its enthusiasm.”
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Character and Estimate of Muhammad was that “he ignored the canon of law” as expounded
Tughluq by the Qazi and other Muslim divines and did what
There is a lot of controversy regarding the he considered to be just and proper.
character and achievements of Muhammad Tughlug. According to Ibn Batuta, “Nothwithstanding
Elphinstone was of the view that Muhammad all his modesty, his sense of equity and justice, and
Tughuq was affected by some degree of insanity his extraordinary liberality and kindness to the poor
and writers like Havell. Edward Thomas and Smith that we have described, he had immense daring
have followed him. Gardiner Brown had ignored (sic) to shed blood. His gate was hardly free from
altogether the dark aspect of the life of Muhammad the corpse of a man who had been executed. And
Tughluq and has absolved him of the Tughluq I used to see frequently a number of people killed
and has absolved him of the charges of madness, at the gate of the royal palace and the corpses
blood-thirstiness and of being a visionary. Ziauddin abandoned there. One day as I arrived there, my
Barani and Ibn Batuta have opposite views about horse was started, and as I looked round I saw on
the personality, virtues and faults of Muhamamd the Earth some white thing. ‘What is it?’ said I. One
Tughluq. The controversy is as fresh as ever. of my comrades replied,‘It is the torso of a man who
Muhammad Tughluq was one of the most has been cut into three pieces.’
learned and accomplished scholars of his time and no “The Sultan used to punish all wrongs whether
wonder he has been praised by his contemporaries. big or small and he would spare neither the men of
He had a keen intellect and a wonderful memory. learning (Ahl-ul’ilm) and probity (Salah), nor those
He knew logic, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy of high descent (Sharat). Every day, hundreds of
and physical sciences. He was a perfect master of people in chains with their hands fastened to the
composition and style. He was a brilliant calligraphist. neck and their feet tightened were brought into
He had a very good knowledge of Persian poetry and the council hall.
took pleasure in quoting verses from Persian poetry “Those who were to be killed were killed and
in his letters. He knew medicine and was skilful in those who were to be tortured were tortured and
dialectics. He was an expert in the use of smiles those who were to be beaten were beaten………….
and metaphors. Ziauddin Barani describes him as May God save us from the calamity.”
a learned scholar, a veritable wonder of creation Muhammad Tughluq had a lot of imagination
whose abilities would have taken by surprise even but he lacked practical judgement and
Aristotle and Asaf. He was generous. He gave lot of commonsense. He was hasty and hot tempered.
gifts to all those who crowded his gate at all times. He could not tolerate any opposition from any
His habits were simple. quarter and was ready to punish all those who
He was free from the prevailing vices of the dared to defy him or differ from him. According
age. Ibn Batuta describes him “as the most humble to Ziauddin Barani. “Whatever he conceived, he
of men and one who is most inclined towards doing considered good, but in enforcing his schemes, he
what is right and just.” Barani, Yahiya-bin-Ahmed lost territories, disgusted his people and emptied his
Sarhindi, Badauni, Nizamuddin Ahmed and Ferishta treasury. Embarrassment followed embarrassment
have wrongly stated that Muhammad Tughluq was and confusion became worse confounded. The ill-
not a religious person and he was responsible for feeling of the people gave rise to out-breaks and
the slaughter of the pious and the learned persons. revolts. The rules for enforcing the royal schemes
Ibn Batuta positively asserts that “He (Muhammad grew daily more oppressive. The tribute of most of
Tughluq) follows the principles of religion with the distant countries and provinces was lost and
devoutness and performs the prayers himself and many of the soldiers and servants were scattered
punishes those who neglect them.” Ibn Batuta is and left in remote lands. Deficiency appeared in the
supported by two other contemporary writers, treasury. The mind of the Sultan lost its balance. In
namely, Shihabuddin Ahmed and Badr-i-Chach. It the extreme weakness and harshness of his temper,
appears that the only fault of Muhammad Tughluq he abandoned himself to severity. When he found
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that his orders did not work so well as he wished, he due to the fact that he had no sense of proportion
became yet more embittered against his people.” and also because such was the custom prevailing
Muhammad Tughluq declared to Barani: “My in Europe and Asia at that time.
kingdom is diseased and no treatment cures it. The The charge of blood-thirstiness was leveled
physician cures the headache and fever follows; against the Sultan by the members of the clerical
he strives to allay the fever and something else party. Barani has condemned the rationalism of the
supervenes. So in my kingdom, disorders have Sultan. In very strong language, he condemns his
broken out; if I suppress them in one place, they philosophical speculations. There is nothing to show
appear in another; if I allay them in one district, that the Sultan took pleasure in the destruction of
another becomes disturbed.” Again,“I visit them with human species and organised man-hunts. According
chastisement upon the suspicion or presumption of to Dr. Ishwari Prasad, "The truth is that the Sultan
their rebellious and treacherous designs and I punish combined a headstring temper with advanced ideals
the most trifling act of contumacy with death. This of administrative reforms, and when his people
I will do until I die or until the people act honestly failed to respond to his wishes, his wrath became
terrible. His impatience was the result of popular
and give up rebellion and contumacy. I have no such
apathy, just as popular apathy was the outcome of
Wazir as will make the rules to obviate my shedding
his starting innovations.”
blood. I punish the people because they have all at
once become my enemies and opponents. I have According to Dr. R.C. Majumdar, “No ruler in
dispensed great wealth among them, but they have medieval India has evoked so much discussion
not become friendly and loyal.” Again,“My remedy concerning his policy and character as Muhammad
for rebels is the sword. I employ punishment and Tughluq. Muslim chroniclers, without exception,
described him as a blood-thirsty tyrant and severely
use the sword o that a cure may be effected by
condemn his various measures. It has also been held
suffering. The more the people resist, the more I
by many modern historians that he was a blood-
inflict chastisement.”
thirsty tyrant almost verging on insanity, whose
Muhammad Tughluq has been described as policy ruined the Sultanate of Delhi. In recent times,
“a mixture of opposites.” If he had his virtues, he however, some reputed historians have challenged
had his faults also. While he was kind, generous and this almost universal belief of both scholars and
humble, he was also most cruel. While he gave gifts laymen add sought to exonerate his character. The
to all those who came to him, he was responsible for truth, as usual, perhaps lied midway between the
the deaths of many. The temperament of the Sultan two extremes, and Muhammad Tughluq’s character
was such that nobody was sure as to what he would was probably a mixture of opposites.
get. It was possible that he might get something It must be admitted that he had many good
in charity. It was equally possible that he might be qualities of head and heart, while his cruelties were
hanged. He did not bother about the sentiments of shocking and horrid, and he showed a capricious
the people. He had no balance or patience. He had temper and a sad lack of judgement and common
no sense of proportion and no wonder, he failed. sense on many occasions. We may, therefore, begin
Muhammad Tughluq has been described by a general description of both the good and bad
as an amasing compound of contradictions. Dr. qualities of Muhammad Tughluq. Again, “It would
Ishwari Prasad points out that the charges of blood- appear from what had been said above although
thirstiness and madness are mostly unfounded. the current view about Muhammad Tughluq was
No contemporary writer has stated anything from not true to the whole extent, the attempts of some
which it can be concluded that Muhammad Tughluq recent historians to exonerate him from all blemishes
was mad. It is possible that Elphinstone and other have not proved successful. He was not a monster or
European writers were misled by the statement of a lunatic, as has been suggested by some, but there is
Ibn Batuta that some dead bodies were always found no doubt that he was a mixture of opposites, for his
I front of the palace of the Sultan. If he inflicted the many good qualities of head and heart seem to be
penalty of death even for petty offences, that was quite incompatible with certain traits of vices in his
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character, such as revolting cruelty, frivolous caprice, in an age of rhetoric, a philosopher, trained in logic
and an inordinate belief in his own view of things. and Greek metaphysics, with whom scholars feared
He might have had good ideas but he had not the to argue, a mathematician and a lover of science. The
capacity to execute them. This was best exemplified contemporary writers extol his skill in composition
in his ambitious projects like change of capitals, and his exquisite calligraphy, and his beautiful
issue of token currency and foreign expeditions, coinage bears witness to his critical taste in the art
and the appointments of new classes of officials. of engrossing the Arabic character, which he read
All these indicate a want of judgement which is and understood though he could not speak the
undoubtedly a great defect in the character of a language fluently.
ruler, and it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that “In short, he was complete in all that high
his character and policy largely contributed to the culture could give in that age and country, and he
decline of the Delhi Empire.” added to the finish of his training, a natural genius
According to Gardiner Brown, that he was for original conception, a marvelous memory, and
mad is a view of which contemporaries give no hint; an indomitable will. His idea of a central capital, and
that he was a visionary, his many-sided, practical his plan of a nominal token currency, like most of his
and vigorous character forbids us to believe. To schemes, were good; but he made no allowance for
call him a despot may be true, but no other form the native dislike of innovations: he hurried his novel
of government was conceivable in the Middle measures without patience for the slow adoption
Ages: to use the term as though it were the name of the people, and when they grew discontented
of a vice or a disease is to ignore the fact that a and rebelled he punished them without truth. To
despotic prince who is accessible to new ideas him, what seemed good must be done at once,
or who embarks on measures of reform can do and when it proved impossible or unsuccessful,
much to advance the prosperity of his people in his disappointment reached the verge of frenzy,
an age when education is but little advanced and and he wreaked his wrath indiscriminately upon
conservatism deeply rooted. Such a ruler, however, the unhappy offenders who could not keep pace
has in his own time series of difficulties to face: the with his imagination. Hence with the best intention,
inevitable disturbance of vested interests, the innate excellent ideas, but no balance or patience, or
preference for established custom, raise up for him sense of proportion Muhammad Tughlug was a
numerous enemies: officials, carrying out unpopular transcendent failure. His reign was one long series
reforms shelter themselves beneath the plea of the of revolts savagely repressed; his subjects, whom he
master’s orders: should unmerited disaster befall his wished to benefit and one whom he lavished his
schemes, should corrupt or incompetent officials treasure, grew to loathe him; all his schemes came to
pervert their ends, it is he—because he is a despot— nothing and when after twenty-six years he died of
who must bear the balem if he has been a warrior a fever on the banks of the Indus, he left a shattered
an death finds him when engaged on some small empire and an impoverished and rebellious people.”
campaign—like Muhammad Bin Tughluq the walls “The delineation of character so complex and
of Thatta—the judgement of Heaven is cited to contradictory as that of Muhammad Tughlug is no
confirm the popular verdict, and literature records. easy task. He was one of the most extraordinary
“Muhammad Tughluq was the most striking monarchs who ever sat upon a throne. To the
figure in medieval India. He was a man with ideas far most lavish generosity, he united revolting and
beyond his age. Alauddin had brought a vigorous indiscriminate cruelty; to scrupulous observance
but uncultivated mind to bear upon the problems of the ritual and ceremonial prescribed by the
of government; Muhammad Tughluq was even Islamic law in utter disregard of that law in all public
more daring in his plans, but they were the ideals of affairs; to a debasing and superstitious veneration
a man of trained intellect and tutored imagination. for all whose descent or whose piety commanded
He was perfect in the humanities of his day, keen respect a ferocity which when roused respected
student of Persian poetry—the Latin of Indian neither the blood of the prophet nor personal
education—a master of style, supremely eloquent sanctity. Some of his administrative and most of
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his military measures give evidence of abilities of the office of prophet as well. His ambition was to
the highest order, others are the act of a mad man. make all the kings of the Earth, his slaves, and Barani
His protégé Ziyauddin Barani, the historian, whom would liken his pride to that of Pharaoh and Nimrod.
he admitted to a considerable degree of intimacy Who claimed divinity as well as royalty, but that his
and whom he often designed to consult, attributes scrupulous personal observance of the law and firm
many of the atrocities which he commanded or adherence to the faith of Islam cleared him of the
sanctioned to the evil influence of twelve wicked suspicion of blasphemy and infidelity. He would
counsellors, stigmatised as ‘miserable’, ‘accursed’, compare him with Bayazid of Bustam and Hussain,
or ‘most accursed’, whose delight was to shed the son of Mansure-ul-Hallaj, who, in the ecstasy of
blood of Muslims, but Muhammad Tughlug was no their devotion, believed themselves to have been
weakling and was never a tool in the hands of his absorbed into the godhead, but that his barbarous
counsellors. If his advisers were vile and blood-thirsty cruelty deprived him of any claim to sanctity.”
men, it was he that chose them, and if he followed The view of Prof. K.A. Nizami is that Muhammad
evil counsel he did so because they commended Tughlug was one of the most striking personalities of
themselves to him. In like manner, Barani attributed medieval India. His intellectual attainments elicited
his disregard of the Islamic law in administrative and praise from friends and foes alike. His personal life
punitive measures to his early association with Sad, was absolute chaste and free from the vices from
the heretical logician, Ubaid, the infidel poet, land which the other medieval rulers suffered. He had
Alauddin, the philosopher, but this is mere special knowledge of literature, history, philosophy, poetry,
pleading. His association with these free thinkers mathematics, medicine, astronomy, rhetoric, etc.
never diminished his faith in Islam, his careful regard He possessed a prodigious memory. He knew the
in other respects for its laws, of his veneration for Quran and a part of Hidaya by heart. He possessed
its traditions. sharp intelligence. He was an expert in the use of
It was not the fault of logicians, poets, or metaphors and similes. He was essentially a man of
philosophers that the scandalised the orthodox action who never allowed his intellectual pursuits
by deliberately preferring human reason to divine to affect his administrative responsibilities. He
revelation as a guide in mundane matters, and by possessed a well-built body and had the gait and
openly avowing his preference. His private judgment bearing of a soldier. He looked smart in whatever
misled him, but this was due to his temperament. dress he put on. He possessed a dauntless spirit
His peculiar vice as a judge and administrator was field. Probably no other Sultan of Delhi undertook so
his inordinate pride, which deprived him of the many campaigns in person and dealt with so many
power of discriminating between offence. All his rebellious as he did. In spite of all these, he remains
commandments were sacred and the slightest unrivalled in the history of the Delhi Sultanate on
deviation from an impracticable regulation and account of his administrative measures and cultural
the most flagrant act of defiance and rebellion were contacts with the outside world. He started a new era
alike punished by a cruel death. The policy acted and of cultural contacts with Asian and African countries.
reacted with cumulative effect on the monarch and People from Khurasan, Iraq, Sistan, Herat, Egypt,
its people. Disgusted by their sovereign’s barbarity, Trans-Oxiania, Tangiers, etc., visited his court and
they grew ever more refractory. His wide dominions he got first hand information about the literary
were seldom free from rebellion during his reign, and and cultural developments in those countries. His
at his death the whole kingdom was in a ferment. political vision was broad and dynamic. He possessed
“Barani, notwithstanding his gratitude and a dogged tenacity of purpose.
his fears, is surprisingly frank. So overweening, he In spite of these achievements, he failed in his
says, was the king’s pride that he could not endure attempt to established in all India administration.
to hear of a corner of the Earth, hardly even of a He had inherited a vast empire from his father and
corner of heaven, which was not subject to his sway. he made it vaster still by his own exertions. It was a
He would be at once a Solomon an Alexander; nor very difficult task to maintain effective control over
did mere kingship content him, for he aspired to his vast empire. He applied his organising capacity
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and resourcefulness to part of his extensive empire However, when he became very unpopular,
under his personal control. However, after 10 years he changed his attitude towards the Khalifa and
the experiment failed. The experiment could not requested the Khalifa of Egypt to confirm him as
succeed on account of the conditions of transport the Sultan of Delhi. He substituted the name of the
and communications in those days. Khalifa on his coins in place of his own name. All
Prof. K.A. Nizami says that while attempting royal orders were issued in the name of the Khalifa.
a correct estimate of Muhammad Tughlug, there In 1344, Muhammad Tughluq received Haji Said
things must be kept in mind. In the first place, so Sarasari, the envoy sent by the Khalifa of Egypt.
Sultan of Delhi had to face so many and so well-
organised rebellions as Muhammad Tughlug. The FIRUZ TUGHLUG
fact that made them survive proves that he must Muhammad Tughlug was succeeded by Firuz
have had a corps of very loyal officers. Secondly, Tughlug. The latter was born in 1309 and died in
Muhammad Tughlug is one of the few rulers of Delhi 1388. He was the son of Rajab, who was the younger
Sultanate on whose life no attempt was made to kill brother of Ghiyasuddin Tughlug. His mother was
him.There must have been thousands and thousands a Bhatti Rajput girl, who agreed to marry Rajab
of persons in India who had deep personal reasons to save the kingdom of her father Ram Mal, Chief
for having their revenge on him. It is not reported of Abohar, from destruction of the hands of the
that the Sultan took any but the traditional measure Muslims. When Firuz grew up, he was trained in the
of his predecessors for his personal protection. He art of administration and warfare but he did not
was too much of a soldier to be afraid of the dagger distinguish in either of them. Muhammad Tughlug
of an assassin or a palace revolt.
had great love for Firuz and consequently, him with
Different assessments have been made of the administration of the country.
Muhammad Tughlug. He has been called a “mass
of inconsistencies”, “a wonder of creation”, “a freak Succession
of nature”,“a nightmare”, and “a mad man”. However, When Muhammad Tughlug died, on 20 March,
foreign scholars like Shihabuddin-ul-Umari, Al- 1351, there was complete confusion and disorder
Qalqashandi, Ibn-i-Hajar Aswalani and Salahuddin in the camp which was plundered by the rebels
Safadi have unqualified praise for the Sultan, but of Sind and Mongol mercenaries had been hired
on account of his learning, generosity and cordial by Muhammad Tughlug to fight against Taghi.
treatment of foreign scholars. Ibn-i-Battuta praises The Sindhis and the Mongols would have devided
the generosity of the Sultan, but condemns his the fate of all. It was at that time that Firuz was
executions. Isami says that the Sultan was a second approached to ascend the throne. He hesitated but
Yezid, a tyrant and a heretic who deserved all when the nobles, Shaikhs and Ulema put pressure on
condemnation. He justifies all rebellions against
him, he agreed to become the Sultan. It was under
him. To Barani, Muhammad Tughlug appeared
these circumstances that Firuz was coronated in a
as “a mixture of opposites”. However, Prof. Nizami
camp near Thatta on 23 March, 1351.
says that it was not the Sultan who was “a mass of
inconsistencies”, or “a mixture of opposites”, Barani Firuz had to meet another difficulty. Khawaja-
himself was miserably-torn personality. He projected i-Jahan, Deputy of the late Sultan, proclaimed at
his own psychological states in his assessment of Delhi a boy as the son heir of Muhammad Tughlug
the Sultan. Love and hatred alternated with the and also put him on the throne. The situation was
fluctuations in the moods of Barani. serious and consequently, Firuz consulted the
Muhammad Tughluq believed that he was the nobles and Muslim jurists. The nobles contended
shadow of God. Some of the inscriptions on his coins that Muhammad Tughlug had no son. The jurists
read as “Sovereignty is not conferred upon every maintained that the candidate of Khwaja-i-Jahan
man, but is placed on the elect.”“He who obeys the was disqualified on the ground that he was a minor
Sultan truly obeys God.”“The Sultan is the shadow and not fit to be seated to the throne at a time when
of God” and “God is the supporter of the Sultan.” He the situation was serious. It was also contended
dropped all references to the Khalifa. that there was no inherited right of succession
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to throne under the Muslim law. Circumstances Revenue Policy
demanded that there should be a powerful ruler on When Firuz Tughlug came to the throne, there
the throne of Delhi. When Khawaja-i-Jehan found his was complete chaos in revenue administration.
position weak, he surrendered. Firuz pardoned him He not only cancelled all the Taqavi loans which
in consideration of his past services and allowed him had advanced in the reign of Muhammad Tughlug
to retire to Samana. However, he was beheaded on but also ordered that the peasant should not be
the way by a follower of Sher Khan, the Commandant harassed by the officers of the state. He increased the
of Samana. salaries of the officers of the revenue administration.
Domestic Policy Khawaja Hisamuddin was entrusted with the
We can discuss the reign of Firuz Tughlug task of preparing a rough estimate of the public
under two heads. domestic policy and foreign policy. revenues of the kingdom. The Khawaja took 6 years
As regard the domestic policy, the immediate task in completing his work. He not only toured the
of the new Sultan was to win over the people to his provinces but also examined the revenue records.
own side. This he did by remitting all the debts due He ultimately fired the revenue of the Khalsa land
to the state from the subjects and by abstaining in the kingdom at six crores and eighty-five lakhs
from any endeavour to recover the treasure which of Tankas. It is to be noted that the estimate was
had been frittered away by Khawaja-i-Jahan in his not based on the actual measurements of the land.
efforts to establish his nominee on the throne. For However, it was based on local information and was
the first year of his reign Firuz was fully employed a good working hypothesis.
in restoring peace and order in the kingdom. The The Sultan abolished 24 vexatious and unjust
new Sultan set before himself the idea of looking cesses which had been levied during the previous
after the welfare of the people and he did all that reigns. The share of the state as land revenue was
he possibly could to add to their material prosperity lessened. He abolished the custom of imposing
and comforts in life. He introduced a large number benevolences on the Governors at the time of their
of reforms in various fields and thereby won the appointment and also the annual money paid by
goodwill of the people in spite of his incompetence them. These amounts were actually charged by
in the military field. the Governors from the people. The new system of
The author of Futuhat-i-Firuz Shahi observes: taxation was according to the Quran. Four kinds of
“In the reigns of former kings, the blood of many taxes sanctioned by the Quran were imposed and
Mussalmans had been shed, and many varieties of those were Kharaj, Zakat, Jizya and Khams. Kharaj
torture employed. Amputation of hands and feet, was the land tax which was equal to 1/10th of the
ears and noses, tearing out the eyes, pouring molten produce of the land. Zakat was 2½% tax on property
lead into the throat, crushing the bones of the hands realised from the Muslims and spent on certain
and feet with mallets, burning the body with fire, specific religious purposes only. Jizya or poll-tax
driving iron nails into the hands, feets and bosom, was levied on the non-Muslims and other heretics.
cutting the sinews, sawing men asunder; these and However, the scope of Jizya was extended by
may similar tortures were practiced. The great and Firuz by charging the same from the Brahmans also
merciful God made me, his servant, hope and seek who had formerly been exempted from the tax. It
for his mercy by devoting myself to prevent the is stated when Jizya was levied on the Brahmans,
unlawful killing of Mussalmans, and the infliction the latter surrounded the palace and protested
of any kind of torture upon them or upon any men. against the invasion of their ancient privilege. They
“Though the mercy which God has shown to threatened to burn themselves alive and call upon
me these severities and terrors have been exchanged the Sultan the wrath of God. The reply of the Sultan
for tenderness, kindness and mercy. Fear and respect was that they could burn themselves as soon as
have thus taken firmer hold of the hearts of men, and they pleased and the sooner, the better. The result
there has been no need of executions, scourging, was that instead of burning themselves, they sat
tortures or terrors.” without food at the gate of his palace. The Sultan
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did not yield and ultimately it was arranged that the Critics point out certain defects in the revenue
tax lviable from the Brahmans should be levied from policy of Firuz. It is contended that the Sultan made
the lower castes of the Hindus in addition of the tax a mistake in extending the system of farming of
to which they were personally liable. Khams was taxes. Alauddin Khilji and Muhammad Tughluq
one-fifth of the booty captured during war. Alauddin stood for direct management by the state and
and Muhammad Tughlug used to get four-fifths of avoided as far as possible, the system of giving the
the booty and left only one-fifth to the army. Firuz right of collecting revenue to the highest bidders.
followed the Islamic law, according to which the The system adopted by Firuz brought less money
state was entitled to take only one-fifth and four- to the government and more harassment of the
fifth had to be left to the soldiers. In consultation people. Another defect in the system of Firuz was
with the canonist, the Sultan levied an irrigation tax the introduction of the Jagir system which had
at the rate of 10% of the produce of the fields. The been stopped by Alauddin. Shams-i-Siraj Afif has
merchants were not required to pay the irregular described the system in these words: “The soldiers
and oppressive octroi duties which obstructed the of the army received grants of land (Jagir) enough
free circulation of commodities from one part of the to support them in comfort and the irregulars
country to another. The collectors of revenue were received payment form the government treasury.
warned that they would be severely dealt with in Those soldiers who did not receive their pay in this
case they charged more than the prescribe dues manner were, according to their necessity, supplied
from the people. with assignments upon the revenues.
The result of the reforms of Firuz was that he When these assignments of the soldiers arrived
was able to put a lot of money into his coffers. His in the fiefs, the holders used to get about half the
increased revenues were due to the cultivation total amount from the holders of the fiefs. It was the
of superior crops, water tax and revenue from practice of certain persons in those days to buy up
gardens. The gardens yielded an annual income of these assignments, which was an accommodation
1,80,000 Tankas. The revenue policy of the Sultan to both parties. They used to get one-third of the
also added to the general prosperity of the people. value for them in the city and receive one half in
Shams-i-Siraj Afif says: to the general prosperity the districts. The purchasers of these assignments
of the people. Shams-i-Siraj Afif tells us that “Their carried on a traffic in them, and gaining a good profit,
(people) homes were replete with grain, property, many of them got rich and made their fortune.”
horses and furniture; everyone had plenty of gold Another defect was the extension of the scope
and silver, no woman was without her ornaments and rigours of the collection of Jizya. The Sultan
and house without good beds and Divans. Wealth considered the Brahmans as “the citadel of infidelity”
abounded and comforts were general. The state and was not prepared to exempt them.
did not suffer from financial bankruptcy during this
Irrigation
reign. The revenues of the Doab amounted to eight
lakhs of Tankas and those of the territories of Delhi In order to encourage agriculture, the Sultan
to six crores and eighty-five lakhs of Tankas.” Again, paid a lot of attention to irrigation.
“By the blessings of God and favourable seasons, Shams-i-Siraj Afif tells us that two canals were
abundance of the necessaries of life prevailed, not excavated under the orders of the Sultan. One of
only in the capital, but throughout his dominions. them was excavated from the Sutlej and the other
Grain was so cheap that in that city of Delhi wheat from the Jamuna. However, Yahija refers to four
was 8 Jitals a maund and grain and barley 4 Jitals. canals which were excavated in the reign of Firuz
A camp follower could give his horse a feed of 10 Tughlug. The first canal was from the Sutlej to the
Sirs (20 lbs) of corn for one Jital. Fabrics of all kinds Ghaghar. It was 96 miles long. The second canal
were cheap, and goods, both white and coloured was 150 miles long and it carried the waters of the
were of moderate price. Orders were given for the Jamuna to the city of Hissar. The third canal started
reduction of price of sweetmeats in accord with the from the neighbourhood of Mandvi and Sirmour
general fall of prices.” Hills connected it with Jhansi. From Jhansi, it was
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taken to Arasani where the foundation of the fort of mosques and colleges and monasteries that the
Hissar Firuza was laid. The fourth canal flowed from learned and the devout and the holy, might worship
the Ghaghar by the fort of Sirsati up to the village God in these edifices and aid the kind builder with
of Hirani-Kher. The remains of some of these canals their prayers.”
can be seen even today. Skillful engineers were According to Dr. V.A. Smith,“Asiatic kings, as a
appointed to superintend the canals and to make rule, show no interest in buildings erected by their
their report about the same. 150 wells were dug predecessors which usually are allowed to decay
during his reign for irrigation purposes and also their uncared for. Firuz Shah was peculiar in devoting
use by travellers. As a result of the irrigation facilities much attention to the repair and rebuilding of the
provided by the Sultan, as many as 52 colonies structures of former kings and ancient nobles giving
sprang up in the Doab alone. Superior crops such
the restoration of those buildings the priority over
as wheat, surgarcane, etc., were cultivated. Fruits
his own constructions.” The two pillars of Ashoka
were also grown in large quantities.
were brought to Delhi from Meerut and Topra (in
Public Works the Ambala district). The pillar from Topra was re-
The master passion of Firuz was to build. Sir erected at Delhi, near the palace and great mosque
Wolseley Haig rightly points out that the passion for at Firuzabad. The pillar from Meerut was set up on
building of Firuz equaled, if it did not surpass, that a mound near the Qush-i-Shikar or hunting palace
of the Roman Emperor, Augustus. The important near the Bara Hindu Rao Hospital, at Delhi.
town of Firuzabad (the present Kotla Firuz Shah in
Judicial Reforms
Delhi), Fatehabad, Hissar, Jaunpur and Firuzpur (near
Badaun) were founded by him. During his Bengal When Firuz came to the throne the penal law
campaigns, he renamed Ikdala as Azadpur and of the country was a savage one. To quote the Sultan
Pandua as Firuzabad. The Sultan built 4 mosques himself, “In the reigns of the former kings, many
tombs, 10 baths, 10 monumental pillars and hundred varieties of tortures were employed. Amputation
bridges. He constructed 150 wells for the use of of hands and feet, ears and noses; tearing out the
travellers. He dug 5 canals for irrigation. He laid pouring molten lead into the throat, crushing the
out 1,200 gardens in the neighbourhood of Delhi. bones of the hands and feet with mallets, burning
The Sultan established, at Delhi, a hospital the body with fire, driving iron nails into the hands,
described variously as Dar-ul-Shifa, Bimaristan feet and bosom, cutting the sinews, sawing men
and Shifakhana. Very competent physicians were asunder; these and many similar tortures were
appointed to look after the patients. Its Darukhana practiced. The great and merciful God made me
or dispensary contained numerous medicines and His Servant hope and seek for His mercy by devoting
preparations which were supplied free. Orders were myself to prevent the unlawful killing of Mussalmans
given to the staff of the hospital to be very polite and the inflicting of any king for torture upon them
to the people. The revenues of certain villages were or upon any man.”The result of the reforms of Firuz
appropriated for the maintenance of this hospital. was that the judicial system became more humane
Four hospitals of this type were also set up in other than before. Not only the practice of torture was
towns. abolished as a means of ascertaining truth, very

The Chief architect of the state was Malik mild punishments were imposed in criminals. In
Ghazi Shahana, who was assisted in his work by some cases, culprits got no punishment at all. The
Abdul Haq. The plan of every building along with penal reforms applied not only to the Muslims but
its estimates was required to be submitted to the to all the sections of the population. Dr. V.A. Smith
Diwani-i-Wizarat before money was sanctioned praises Firuz Tughlug in these words: “One reform,
for its construction. About his building activities, the abolition of mutilation and torture, deserves
the Sultan himself observes thus:“Among the gifts unqualified commendation and the orders must
which God bestowed upon me, His humble servant, have been acted on to a considerable extent during
was desire to erect public buildings. So I built many his lifetime.”
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Another reform introduced by Firuz was that written during his reign. There autobiography of
if a traveller died on the road, the feudal chefs and the Sultan is known as Fatuhat-i-Firuz Shahi. When
Muqaddams were required to call the Qazis and the Sultan conquered Nagarkot, a large number of
other Muslims and get the body of he deceased Sanskrit books fell into his hands. 300 of these books
examined. A report was required to be drawn were translated into Peninsular,a by Aazzuddin
certifying under the seal of the Qazi that no would Khali Khani, under the title of Dalail-i-Firuz Shahi.
was to be found on the body. It was only then that A large number of colleges and monasteries were
the deceased was to be buried. established where men devoted themselves to
A new department of Diwan-i-Khairat was set prayers and meditation. A mosque was attached to
up to make provisions for the marriages of poor girls. each college for worship. Two well-known professors
Anyone who had a daughter of marriageable age were attached to these colleges. One of them was
and lacked the required money for her wedding, Maulana Jalaluddin Rumi. He lectured on theology
could apply to the Diwan-i-Khairat. The offices of and Islamic jurisprudence. The other was a preacher
this department made enquiries about the financial from Samarkand.
position of the applicant and fixed the amount
Patronage of Slavery
of money that was to be paid to him. Poor men
and widows came to the capital from all parts of Shams-i-Siraj Afif tells us that “Sultan was
the country to get the names of their daughters diligent in procuring slaves and he carried his case
registered in the Diwan-i-Khairat. so far as to command his great fief-holders and
officers to capture slaves whenever they were at war
The Sultan also set-up another Department
and to pick out and send the best for the service of
known as Diwan-i-Istihqaq. This department gave
the court. Those chiefs who brought many slaves
financial help to the deserving people. 36 lakhs of
received the highest favour. About 12,000 slaves
Tankas were annually set apart for this purpose. The
became artisans of various kinds. Forty thousands
view of Afif is that about 4,200 men received help
were in readiness to attend as guards in the Sultan’s
from this department. To provide relief to those who
equipage or at the palace. Altogether, in the city and
had been the victims of recklessness of fitfulness of
in the various fields, there were 1,80,000 slaves for
Muhammad Tughluq, the Sultan made liberal grants.
whose maintenance and comfort the Sultan took
The Sultan also set up an employment bureau. special care. The institution took root in the very
This was concerned chiefly with those who desired centre of the land and the Sultan looked upon its
clerical and administrative employment. It was due regulation as one of his incumbent duties.”The
the duty of the Kotwal of Delhi to seek those who Sultan set up a separate treasury, a separate Jao-
were without employment and to produce them Shunguri, and deputy Jao-Shunguri and a separate
in the court. The Sultan personally made inquires Diwan.
into their circumstances and qualifications. After
We are told that as many as 1,80,000 slaves
consulting their inclination, they were provided
poured into the capital. They were given training
with employment. No effort was made to find out
in different vocations; some of them became
whether there was any demand for their services
artisans and craftsman: Some joined the army and
or not as the whole thing was done on a charitable

became warriors; some were employed in the Royal
basis. It must have helped many a young idler.
Karkhanas; a few of them mounted guard at the
Learning Royal Palace. There were some who occupied such
The Sultan was interested in the promotion odd jobs as ewer bearers, curtain bearers, weapon
of learning. He patronised the Shaikhs and learned bearers, keepers of medicines and libraries and some
men and gave them a hearty reception in his Palace held the charge of elephants, precious birds and
of Grapes. He gave pensions and gratuities to the hunting panthers. Some of them were appointed
learned. The Sultan was fond of history. Ziauddin Amir and Maliks.
Barani and Shams-i-Shiraj Afif wrote their works Some of the slaves had fixed salaries from 10
under his patronage. Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi was also to 100 Tankas per head. There were other who were
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remunerated through assignments and grants of overheard a trooper complaining to a comrade
villages. These slaves amassed wealth for themselves the hardship of being compelled to submit his horse
and their kinsfolk. It is stated that a slave named for inspection. The Sultan enquired of the trooper
Bashir Sultani was appointed as Muqti of Rapri but about his hardship and he was told that he could
he paid no state dues for several years. When the not expect his horse to be passed unless he paid the
matter was reported to the Sultan, he observed inspector at least one gold Tanka. The Sultan gave
thus: “What difference does it makes whether it is him the coin to be paid to the inspector instead of
my property or the property of Bashir?” taking action against the inspector. Thus, in a way,
These slaves became undistinguishable from the sultan became a party to the general corruption
the military aristocracy of the Turks. They carried that was prevailing in the administration.
the germs of corruption into the higher classes of Coins
society. All the Departments of the Government The Sultan did not issue absolutely new
were affected by this vice. The slaves were neither varieties of coins. The coins in circulation in his
attached to the person of the Sultan nor to his reign were already there in the time of Muhammad
dynasty. It is well-known that these very slaves cut- Tughlug. Shams-i-Siraj Afif attributes the introduction
off ruthlessly the heads of the children of the Sultan of Shahghani or six Jital piece of Firuz but Ibn Batuta
and displayed their dead bodies in public. also refers to such a coin. However, it cannot be
Army denied that Firuz introduced two coins described
as Adha (half Jital) silver, and Bikh (quarter Jital).
The army was on a feudal basis. The regular
These coins were mixed copper and silver, and
soldiers of the army received grants of land which
were intended to facilitate the transactions of the
were sufficient for their comfortable living. The
common people but there was a lot of fraud and
irregular soldiers (Ghriwajh) were paid direct from
corruption in the working of the mint. It is stated
the royal treasury. There were soldiers who were
that the two informers reported that six Jital pieces
supplied with transferable assignments on the
were a grain short of standard purity. Khan-i-Jahan
revenue. The assignments were purchased in the
Maqubul, the minister, sent for Kajar Shah, the mint-
capital by middlemen at one-third of their value and
master and directed him to find out a method by
were sold to the soldiers in the districts as one-half.
which the Sultan could be satisfied about the purity
Thus, certain persons gained at the expense of the of the coin. Kajar Shah arranged that the coins
soldiers. The army of the Sultan consisted of 80,000 should be melted before the metal was tested. He
or 90,000 cavalry which could be increased by the also approached the goldsmiths whose duty was
retainers sent by the nobles. The army could not to conduct the experiment in the presence of the
be efficient. The Sultan passed a new regulation king and request them to put secretly into crucible
that if a soldier became incapable of service in the sufficient silver to bring the molten metal to the
field on account of his old age, his son or son-in-law standard of purity. They pointed out the difficulty
or his slave could be sent in his place. Obviously, of doing so but promised to do the needful if silver
the recognition of the hereditary claim in military was placed of charcoal use for heating the crucible
service was highly objectionable. The retainers
and goldsmiths succeeded in conveying it into the

supplied by the nobles could not be relied upon vessel without being observed. When the metal was
by the Sultan as they looked to their masters and not tested, it was found to be of the standard purity.
to the Sultan for their recruitment, promotion and Kajar Shah was carried through the city on one of
discipline. Old and inefficient soldiers were allowed the royal elephants to proclaim his honesty and the
to approach the Sultan and he intervened on their two informers were banished.
behalf unmindful of its effects on the efficiency of
the army. The inspectors who inspected soldiers and Court
horses were corrupt and in spite of his knowledge, The Sultan maintained a magnificent and
the Sultan would not dismiss them on account luxurious court, which was particularly decorated
of his tender heart. We are told that the Sultan on the occasions of Id and Shabrat. There was 36
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royal establishments and each had a separate and Salibpur near Delhi and in the town of Gohana
staff of officers of its own. The expenses of these in the Punjab, were demolished.
establishments must have been considerable. It was reported to the Sultan that a certain
Religious Policy Brahman was inviting Muslims to worship idols. The
Sultan referred his a case to the Ulema, Mashaikh
While Firuz has been praised for other reforms,
and Muftis. All of them demanded the conversion
he has been criticised for his religious policy. He
of the Brahman to Islam. In case he refused to do
was a staunch Sunni Muslim and was prepared to
so, he was to be burnt alive. The Brahman was given
help all those who belonged to his faith. He gave
the option, but he was stuck to his principles, he
the Ulemas a high place in society and government.
was burnt to death.
It is their decisions that bound the Sultan. He did
nothing without consulting them. He arranged for The Sultan imposed Jizya on the Brahmans,
the marriages of the daughters of poor Muslims. He who had been taxed before. He called a meeting
set-up schools and colleges, and maintained them of the Ulema and Mashaikh, and addressed them
at the state expense. However, he was intolerant in these words,“The Brahmans are the very keys of
towards the Hindus temples and even the Muslim the chamber of idolatry and infidels are dependent
dissenters. He pulled down the Hindu’s temples and on them. They ought therefore, to be taxed first. The
“killed the leaders of infidelity who seduced other Ulema and Mashaikh also agreed that they should
into error.” He built mosques in place of the temples. be taxed.”
While referring to the Hindus who had assembled The Brahmans naturally protested against the
for worship in the new temple at Kohana, the Sultan action of the Sultan, and threatened to die and burn
wrote thus: “The people were seised and brought themselves alive before his palace. It is stated that
before me. I ordered that the perverse conduct of the Sultan was so much impressed by the sincerity
the leaders of this wickedness should be publicly of the Brahmans that he reduced the amount of
proclaimed and that they could be put to death Jizya to be realised by them.
before the gate of the palace. I also ordered that the The Sultan offered all kinds of temptations
infidel books, the idols and the vessels use in their to induce people to embrace Islam. To quote the
worship which had been taken with them, should Sultan,“I encouraged my infidel subjects to embrace
all be publicly burnt. The others were restricted by the religion of the Prophet and I proclaimed that
threats and punishments, as warning to all men that every one who repeated the creed and became a
no Zimmi could follow such wicked practices in a Mussalman should be exempted from the Jizya,
Mussalman country.” a poll tax. Information of this came to the ears of
Two Sayyids were put to death in Katehar. the people at large and great numbers of Hindus
When Firuz heard of it, he personally went to presented themselves and were admitted to the
Katchar and ordered a general massacre of the honour of Islam”.The Hindus who became Muslims
people. Thousands of innocent persons were put were not required to pay Jizya.They were also offered
to death and 23,000 persons were made prisoners temptations of Jagirs, rewards in cash, titles, honour
and converted into slaves. During the next five and state employment in case they became Muslims.
years, the Sultan visited Katehar every year and The Sultan was intolerant towards the Shias and
repeated the story. The cruelty was so great that the other Non-Sunni Mussalman who were considered
spirits of the murdered Sayyids themselves arose to to be heretics by the orthodox Sunnis. About the
intercede. That shows the ferocity of the Sultan to Shias, the Sultan observes thus:“I must seised them
punish those who had the audacity of lying their all and I convinced them of their errors. On the
hands on a Sayyid. most zealous in inflicted capital punishment and
During the expedition against Jajnagar, the the rest, I visited with censure and threats of public
Sultan caused the idol at Jagannath to be uprooted punishment. Their book I burnt in public and, by the
and treated with every mark of indignity. The new grace of god, the influence of this sect (Shias) was
idol temples built in villages of Maluha, Tughliqpur entirely suppressed.”The Mulhid and the Abahtiyan
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were imprisoned and banished and their religious courts of law and when those were proved, their
practices were stopped.The Mehdwis were punished property was restored to them.
and their leader Ruknuddin was convicted disciples. A plot was formed, in 1358, against the life of
The Sultan tells us that the people tore Ruknuddin Firuz. His cousin Khudavadzada and her husband
to pieces and broke his bones into fragments. A arranged that the king should be assassinated by
similar treatment was given to Sufis. armed men on the occasion of the visit of the Sultan
It is pointed out that “Firuz iconoclasm is some to their house. However, the plot was frustrated by
what incongruous interest in the historical and her son, Davar malik,who was not in sympathy with
cultural past of India. A visit to a library in Kangra the stepfather. He indicated the Sultan by signs that
led him to order the translation from Sanskrit his life was in danger and thus, caused him to leave
into Persian and Arabic of various manuscripts before the arrangements for his assassination were
on the subjects of Hinduism. He saw the pillars of complete. On returning to his palace, the Sultan
Asoka at Meerut and Topra, and was so fascinated ordered troops to surround the house and the men
by them that he had them transported to Delhi, who would have murdered the Sultan were arrested.
difficult as this was, and one of them was placed in Instead of hanging Khudavandzada, she was merely
a commanding position of the roof of his citadel. He imprisioned and her wealth was confiscated. Her
was curious to know what the inscription said, but husband was also banished.
no one could read it, the script have changed since
Foreign Policy
the time of Asoka. He was associated with religious
ritual. If objects of infidel worship had indeed been Firuz Tughlug was a pious and merciful ruler.
so abhorrent to Firuz, he would have had the pillars He did not possess the courage which was required
destroyed: instead, they were placed in positions of of a king of the 14th century. He did not possess the
prominence.” qualities which could help him to bring under his
control all those parts of the Delhi empire which
The Sultan had great regard for the Khalifa of
had become independent during the reign of
Egypt. He styled himself as the deputy of the Khalifa.
Muhammad Tughlug. The Sultan had a horror of
During the first six years of his reign, the Sultan
war and his heart would begin to sing at the sight of
received twice a patent of rulership and robes of bloodshed. According to Thomas,“His generalship in
honour from the Khalifa. He associated the name of two campaigns to Bengal and his eventual reduction
the Khalifa on his coins, along with his own name. of the Thatta, seems to have been of the lowest order;
The name of the Khalifa was read in the Khutaba, and the way he allowed himself to be deluded into
along with that of the Sultan. the deserts of Cutch or the defiles of Jajnagar, seems
A reference may be made to some minor to savour of positives fatuity.” No attempt was made
aspects of the domestic policy of the Sultan. The by the Sultan to bring the Deccan under his control.
Sultan wanted to make atonement for the sins When his officers asked him to send an expedition
of Muhammad Tughlug. He ordered the heirs of to Daultabad, the Sultan “looked distressed and his
those who had been executed during the reign eyes were suffused with tears and approving their
of Muhammad Tughlug and those who had been arguments, he said that he was resolved never more
deprived of a limb, nose, eye, hand or foot to be to make war upon men of the Muhammadan faith.”
satisfied with gifts and reconciled to the late There was no Mongal invasion during his erring.
king. They were required to give declarations in Yahiya tells us that the “frontiers of the kingdom
writing, duly attested by certificates. Those written were secured by placing them under great armies
parsons were put in a chest placed near the tomb and the well-wishers of the Emperor.”
of Muhammad Tughlug so that is might help
him on the Day of Judgement. All those who had Bengal
been deprived of their villages, land and ancient Haji Ilyas was the independent ruler of Bengal.
patrimonies during former reigns, were restored He took up to title of Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah. He
to their rights. Their claims were fully examined in made himself the master of Eastern and Western
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Bengal. He also attached Tirhut with a view to one has to agree with the statement of Thomas
annexation. In spite of his disinclination for war, that “the invasion only resulted in the confession
Firuz Tughlug felt that action must be taken against of weakness.”
Shamsuddin. In November, 1353, the Sultan marched Firuz made another attempt to conquer
from Delhi at the heat of 70,000 horses. When Iliyas Bengal after a few years. Zafar Khan, son-in-law of
heard of the advance of the Sultan, he retreated into Fakhruddin Mobarak Shah of Eastern Bengal, ran
the fort of Ikadala which was situated at a distance away from Sunargaon to Delhi and complained
of 10 or 12 miles from Pandua. While pursuing the to Firuz Tughlug of the high-handedness of the
retreating enemy, the Sultan issued a proclamation Bengal ruler. The death of Haji Iliyas also encouraged
to the people of Bengal which has been described by Firuz to organize an expedition against Bengal.
Dr. Ishwari Prasad as “one of the most extraordinary Firuz Tughlug set aside all the previous treaties
documents in the history of the Sultanate of Delhi and assured of friendship and marched in 1339,
and throws much light upon the mild policy of against Sikander Shah, the son and successor of Haji
Firuz.” After promising concessions to the people, the Iliyas. The army of the Sultan consisted of 70,000
proclamation reads thus:“whereas it has come to our horses, about 500 elephants and a considerable
auspicious ear that Iliyas Haji has been committing infantry. On the way, the Sultan halted for 6 months
oppression and high handedness upon the people at Jafarabad on the river Gomti and founded in its
of the territory of Lakhnauti and Tirhut, shedding neighbourhood the city of Jaunpur in the memory of
unnecessary blood, even shedding the blood of Muhammad Tughlug, who was also known as prince
women, although it is a well established position in Juna Khan. When the rainy season was over, the
every creed and doctrine that no women, even if she Sultan continued his advance towards Bengal. Like
be a Kafir, should be slain. And whereas the said Iliyas
his father, Sikandar Shah retreated into the fortress
Haji has been levying illegal cesses not sanctioned
of Ikdala which was besieged by the Delhi troops.
by the law of Islam, and thus putting the people into
The fort was defended bravely and when the rains
trouble there being no security of life and property,
came and the territory was flooded, the Sultan came
no safety for honour and chastity….. And whereas
to terms with Sikandar Shah which were favourable
he has exceeded the limit and publicity rebelled
to the Bengal ruler. The result was that the second
against our authority, therefore we have approached
Bengal expedition failed in its objective. It merely
invincible army for the purpose of opening this
proved the weakness of the Sultan.
existence, withered by the hot pestilential winds of
tyranny and oppression, might flourish and fructify Jajnagar
by the limpid water of our bounty.” While coming back to Delhi from Bengal, the
Haji Iliyas was defeated by the Delhi troops but Sultan decided to conquer Jajnagar (modern Orissa).
the Sultan did not take full advantage of his hard- It is difficult to state the real motive of the Sultan
earned victory and went back to Delhi in September, in waging war against Jajnagar. The Sultan wanted
1354 without annexing Bengal. There are numbers to capture Puri which is famous for the temple of
views regarding the action of the Sultan. One view Jagannath. The ruler of Jajnagar ran away on the
is that the Sultan decided to retire on account of approach if Sultan and took shelter Talingana. The
the cries of the women in the besieged fort. To Sultan destroyed the Hindu temples. Their idols were
quote Shams-i-Siraj Afif,“To storm the fort, put more thrown into the sea and some of them were sent to
musalmans to the swords and expose honourable Delhi to be trodden under foot by the faithful. After
women to ignominy, would be a crime of which that, the ruler of Jajnagar was called back and his
he could not answer on the Day of Judgement territories were restored to him on the condition that
and which would leave no difference between him he would send every year a number of elephants
and the Mughlas.” Another view is that the Sultan to the Sultan.
retreated because he was afraid of the disasters From Jajnagar, the Sultan went to Chhota
that might come on account of the beginning of Nagpur. On the route to Nagpur, the Sultan lost his
the rainy season. Whatever the cause of the retreat, way and for several months nothing was known
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about his whereabouts. A large number of soldiers The Sultan made a mistake in organising his army
died in those jungles. on a feudal basis. He should not have revived the
Jagir system which had been abolished by Alauddin
Nagarkot
Khilji. The granting of big Jagirs was bound to create
It is true that the fort of Nagarkot had been trouble and ultimately was partly responsible for
conquered in 1337 by Muhammad Tughlug but it the disintegration of the Tughluq Empire.
had become independent once again towards the
The Sultan also made a mistake in creating
end of his reign. Firuz Tughlug decided to conquer it
a large number of slaves. These slaves interfered
once again. The fort was besieged for 6 months and
with the administration of the country and were
ultimately its ruler submitted. The Sultan entered the
partly responsible for the fall of the Tughluq Empire.
Jawalamukhi temple. Its idols were broken and their
The religious policy of the Sultan was also partly
pieces were mixed with flesh and blood of the cow.
responsible for the downfall of the Tughluq dynasty.
Some of the idols were sent as trophies to Medina. It
The Hindus and Non-Suni Muslims became the
is to be noted that from the temple of Jawalanmukhi,
enemies of the Tughluq dynasty. The Sultan made
a large number of Sanskrit books fell into the hands
a mistake in making the Ulemas the masters of
of the Sultan and some of them were translated into
the show. According to Dr. R.P. Tripathi, “The irony
Persian under the title of Dalail-Firuz Shahi.
of history reflects itself in the unfortunate fact
Character and Estimate of Firuz that the very qualities that had contributed to the
Contemporary Indian writers are unanimous popularity of Firuz were also largely responsible for
in praising Firuz Tughluq. Their view is that since the the weaknesses of the Sultan of Delhi.”
time of Nasiruddin Mahmud, no king had been “so According to S.R. Sharma,“Firuz was neither an
just and kind, so courteous and God-fearing, or such Ashoka nor an Akbar, both of whom have been noted
a builder” as Firuz was. The latter was adored by the for their religious toleration. Firuz was a fanatic like
people. He reformed abuses. He checked extortion. Aurangzeb, though unlike him a wine-bibber. But in
He increased irrigation. He was a father to his people. spite of this, he had more of constructive wisdom in
He took care of the needy and unemployed. He him than his dilettante predecessor possessed. Lack
refused to dismiss the aged officials and allowed of martial vigour and the unwisdom of feudalising
their sons to act for them. He helped the marriages the kingdom are the only to her charges that have
of the poor Muslims. He provided state hospitals for been leveled against him.”
all classes. He was a devout Muslim. He kept fasts and An attempt has been made to compare Firuz
said public prayer. When an old man, he went on a with J Alauddin Khilji. However, it is pointed out
pilgrimage to the shrine of Salar Masud at Bahraich that it is better to compare Firuz with Nasiruddin
and humbly got himself shaved as an act of piety. He Muhammad than with any other ruler. Like
never did anything without consulting the Koran. Nasiruddin, he was too much inclined towards
He even selected a Governor in accordance with religion and like him, again he found his Balban
a lucky omen in the sacred book. He was always in Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul. Both sovereigns were of
worried about the welfare of his subjects. The people a mild and forbearing disposition although Firuz
enjoyed prosperity during his reign. was amore capable administrator. According to Sir
However, there are certain aspects of his life Wolseley Haig,“Both were weak rulers, but Firuz was
which take away from his greatness. He was not a far less weak and vacillating than Mahmud and both
general and consequently, he did not make any effort were benevolent, but the benevolent of Firuz was
to reconquer the territories which had been lost in more active than that of Mahmud. Firuz possessed
the Deccan during the reign of his predecessor. He far more ability than Mahmud, and his weakness
was not strict in administration. Many examples consisted largely in an indolent man’s distaste for
of his misplaced generosity can be quoted. It has the details of business and in unwillingness to cause
already been pointed out how he gave a Tanka to a pain. His benevolence was indiscriminate, for he
trooper, so that the latter could bribe his inspector. showed as much indulgence to the corrupt official
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as to the indigent husbandman and his passion a large extent to the downfall of the Delhi Sultanate,
for constructing works of public utility was due and accelerated the process of the decline that had
probably as much to vanity as to benevolence.” already set in during his predecessor’s reign.”
Henry Elliot has tried to compare Firuz with According to Sir Wolseley Haig, “The reign
Akbar. However, Dr. Ishwari Prasad points out that the of Firuz closes the most brilliant epoch of Muslim
comparison is unnecessary and unjust. According to rule in India before the reign of Akbar.” In spite
him,“Firuz had not even a hundredth part of genius of his defects of character, Firuz succeeded in
of that great-hearted and broad-minded monarch improving the administration and in alleviating
who preached from the high platform of public the lot and winning the affection of his subjects.
interest of gospel of peace, goodwill and toleration Military capacity and diligence in matters of detail
towards all sects and creeds. The reforms of Firuz are qualities indispensable to an oriented despot,
lacked permanence, they failed to strengthen the and was fair to recognize the independence of
Muslim polity and to gain the confidence of the that country, and his rashness twice imperiled the
Hindus whose feelings were embittered by his existence of his army. His easy tolerance of abuses
religious intolerance. Altogether, they produced a would have completely destroyed the efficiency of
reaction which proved fatal to the interests of the that mainstay of absolute power, had it not been
dynasty of which he was by no means an unworthy counteracted by the vigilance and energy of his
representative.” officers, who were carefully selected and entirely
Dr. R.C. Majumdar says: “Although the reign trusted by him. His judgement of character was,
of Firuz was marked by mildness and beneficent indeed, the principal counterpoise to his impatience
activities, in striking contrast to that of his of the disagreeable details of government, and
predecessor, it also undermines, to a large extent, the personal popularity which he enjoyed as the
the foundation of the Sultanate. The active interest kindly and genial successor of a capricious tyrant
and influence of the ‘Ulema’ and Mushaikhs in affairs secure fidelity of his trusted officers, but his extensive
of State which Firuz permitted, partly as policy and delegation of authority to them undermined the
partly as an article of faith, was a retrograde step. power of the crown.
His connivance at the inefficiency of public servants,
No policy, however, well devised could have
misplaced leniency in dealing with civil and military
sustained this power under the feeble rule of
officials and undue favours shown to the nobility
his successors and the terrible blow dealt at the
weakened the entire administrative machinery. His
kingdom within ten years of his death, but his system
aversion to war against the Muslims, even when it
of decentralisation would have embarrassed the
was imperative—in striking contrast to the brutal
ablest successors, and undoubtedly accelerated
severity with which he treated the Hindus of Katehar,
the downfall of his dynasty.”
and particularly his unwillingness (on the specious
ground of saving Muslim women from disgrace) Decline of the Delhi Sultanate
or inability to carry the fights to a finish, destroyed Disintegration of Delhi Sultanate constitutes
the stability of the empire. The organisation of the a watershed in the socio-political history of India.
slaves, though promoted by humane consideration, It brought an end to an era of centralised Turkish
was no doubt partly due also to a desire to create a rule and the rise of regional kingdoms. These
personal bodyguard on which the Sultan could trust regional kingdoms were the progenitors of many
for his own safety. But as could be easily foreseen it socio-cultural elements that formed the bedrock
developed into something like a Praetorian Guard of Akbar’s policies. Causes of the disintegration
and proved to be a great disturbing factor in the may be sought in the very nature of the Sultanate
State. On the whole, in spite of peace, prosperity and ruling structure and its institution, which over a
contentment that prevailed during the long reign period of time became anachronistic and moribund,
of Firuz Shah, no one can possibly doubt that his creating fissiparous tendencies. Prominent among
policy and administrative measures contributed to them being the absence of any well defined law of
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succession, conflict between the crown and nobility, of the corporate group, he was fully aware of the
crisis in revenue administration, rebellions and the recalcitrant predilection of the forty. Hence, has
Mongol menace. eased out the “tallest poppies” among them. On
No clear well defined law of succession the other hand, he built up a committed cadre of
developed in the Sultanate. It was checked at the nobles (Ghiyasi/Balbani slaves/nobles). Removal of
outset by Iltutmish. The only arbiter was force – ‘the many members of the forty deprived the empires
longest the sword, the greater the claim’. As a result, of the services of many veterans and the void could
intrigues and factionalism became operative as soon not be filled by the ‘Ghiyasi’ nobles.
as a king died, to usurp power. It created diversions This situation inevitably led to the fall of the
among the already heterogeneous nobility creating Ilbarite rule, paving the way for the Khiljis. Reign
great political instability. The situation became of the Alauddin saw a broadening of the social
precarious when weak rulers assumed power. This basis of the nobility wherein offices were open
situation continued upto the rule of Firuz Tughlug. to talent and loyalty to the exclusion of race and
Accession of the Lodhis created a new problem, creed. Besides, he controlled them through various
for they had a peculiar kind of sovereignty. They measures. Enhancement of revenue demand to 50%
were prepared to accept Sultan’s authority but this and territorial expansion placated the nobles and
acceptance was hedged in by their emphasis on invited fresh talent. But this situation was short-
partitioning the empire among various classes and lived and his death brought out once again the
maintaining tribal militia, which in the long run dissensions and conspiracies of the nobles, leading
greatly hampered the military efficiency of the to the elimination of Khiljis as rulers. Muhammad bin
central government. Tughluq also tried to muzzle the voice of the nobility
Political history of the Sultanate testified that but in vain. Even the Khurasanis, whom he used to
consolidation and decline of the sultanate were call ‘Aizzah’ (dear once), betrayed him. Problems
largely the result of constructive and destructive created by the nobility can be gauged from the
activities of the nobles (umara). Nobles always tried fact that 22 rebellions took place during his reign.
to maximize their demands in terms of the economic The crisis set in motion after Muhammad bin
and political gains. Under the Ilbarite rule, conflicts Tughluq’s death seems to have gone out of hand.
usually revolved around three issues: succession, Under these circumstances, Firuz shah could not be
organisation of the nobility and division of economic expected to be stern with the nobles.They were given
and political power among them and the Sultans. many concessions. They succeeded in making their
Aibak’s authority was challenged by Yalduz and iqtas hereditary. Army became inefficient because
Qubacha. Iltutmish organised the nobles into a the practice of dagh introduced by Allauddin was
corporate body called “Turkan-i-Chehalgani” owing almost given up. These practices through pleased
personal loyalty to him. This privileged position the nobles, undermined the stability of the empire.
of the forty was envied by other groups. The forty It was not possible, henceforth of this descendants
were themselves not free from internal bickerings. to roll back the tide. The situation under Lodhis
They united at least on one principle: to plug the and the Sayyids was not comfortable. Sikandar
entry of non turks to high offices. On the other Lodi made the last attempt to arrest the looming
hand, the fifty tried to retain its political influence catastrophe. But dissensions among the Afghans
over the Sultan who would not alienate this group. and their unlimited individual ambitions hastened
But at the same time, would not surrender his the final demise, actually its murder with Babur the
autonomy. Thus, a delicate balance was attained executioner.
which soon broke down after his death. Thus, Iltutmish introduced a sound system of
Raziya’s accession to power was challenged by revence assignments (iqta) through which the
nobles as she tried to organize non Turkish groups vast bureaucracy was maintained. Firuz Tughlug’s
(Abyssinians and Indians) as counterweight to the reign however, saw, deterioration in its working.
forty. During Balban’s region (1266-87) influence of During his reign, revenue assignments tended to
the forty was minimised. Himself being a member be hereditary and permanent.“If a person died”, says
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Afif, his offices would go permanently to his son; if Responsibility of Muhammad bin Tughlug
he had no son, than to his son-in-law; if he had no & Firuz Shah Tughlug
son-in-law, then to his slave”.Sikandar Lodhi stopped Accusation have been leveled on both of
to reclaim the balance (fawazil). The tendency of the bringing about the downfall. Reign of Muhammad
principal assignees to sub-assign their territories bin Tughlug, a steady deterioration in the functioning
also increased greatly during his reign. These factors of the various institutions of the sultanate particularly
had deep implications. It meant not only loss of adverse developments in the composition of the
revenue resources to the state exchequer but by nobility, in the field of revenue administration,
making assignment hereditary. Sultan allowed the security of fronticus, relus with the Ulema etc. His
assignees to develop strong local roots which led reign while marking the zenith of the sultanate, also
to large scale corruption and turbulence. saw the beginning of its disintegration, a paradox
The above factors made rebellions ubiquitous. which reflected in his conduct also.
But as long as the center was powerful, these Muhammad bin Tughlug extended the
rebellions were successfully crushed. Signs of frontiers of the empire to its far extent limit.
physical disintegration were witnessed for the Managing such a vast and unwidely domain entailed
first time during Muhammad bin Tughlug’s region that the basic structures of administration delies the
in 1347 with the establishment of the Bahmani goods. But, as was the lot of the nobility, this support
kingdom. But the sultanate remained intact at least was not forthcoming. The pillars of the governance
nearly for 50 years when finally the Timurid invasion started to crumble under its own weight. This was
(1378) exposed its weakness. It provided ample compounded by problems on other fronts also. A
opportunity for the nobles to assume independent large expansive empire and the incapacity of the
airs. Jaunpur, Gujarat and some regions in Rajasthan central government to manage led to numerous
declared their independence. Bengal was already a rebellions which sounded the death knell of the
semi-independent kingdom since the days of Bughra sultanate.
Khan. Sultanate politically shrink to the radius of 200
miles around Delhi. It had deep implications. Loss New elements were added in the nobility during
of fertile areas of Bengal, Malva, Gujarat curtailed his reign—Indian converts and foreigners. As such the
greatly the vast revenue resources of that state, nobility comprising of divergent sections could not
affecting the military potential.The situation became develop cohesion and loyalty. Moreover, according
so critical under the Sayyids and Lodhis that even high offices to men irrespective of their birth and
for regular revenue extraction, sultans, had to send creed sowed seeds of discontentment among the
yearly campaigns. All this shows that the control old families of nobles. This widely portrayed in the
of the sultans during the 15th century, remained remarks of Barani.This coupled with the large empire
nominal and only minimum efforts would have created favourable grounds for rebellion.
sufficed to overthrow it. Problems crept up in revenue administration
Mongol menace though produced occasional also. Though the revenue demand was the same as
shocks but was not of a magnitude to have damaged demanded under Alauddin’s reign, but the state
the economy or the state apparatus. Starting from share was now fixed arbitrarily and not on the basis
the days of Iltutmish it continued upto the period of actual produce. Prices were also fixed artificially
of Muhammad bin Tughlug with intervals, Balban, for converting the produce into money. This put
Alauddin and Muhammad bin Tughlug resisted a great burden on the peasantry which was soon
them successfully and undertook many measure to visited by a severe famines. The problem of over
check the menace (one of Alauddin’s motive force assessment had earlier led to peasant rebellions
for his economic regulations was to requisition a during his reign. His agricultural experiments and
large army to curb the Mongols). Though Mongol grant of loans failed due to dishonest officials and
on slaughter’s dissipated a large amount of men and faulty implementation. This apart from putting a
materials, but it does not seen that these invasions strain on the exchequer, also drove peasants into
enfeebled the sultanate in any substantial manner. desperation.
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Muhammad bin Tughlug’s infamous of villages. This meant that a soldier either head to
experiments and their dismal failures added to more go to the villages to collect his salary and absent
problems. Though these measures were intended to himself from services or to give the assignment to
rectify the defects of the empire, they soon turned some middleman who would give him 1/2 and 1/3
into new problems. His expeditions to Khurasan and of its value. Then, the soldier did not benefit in the
Qarachil was a disaster for army, transfer of capital long run. The entire military administration became
to Daulatabad disaffected many nobles and ulema; lax and soldiers were allowed to pass useless horses
token currency was not accepted by the traders at the muster by bribing the clerks.
or the common men. These failures affected the Firuz tried to win over the theologians by
prestige of the sovereign and also meant a wastage proclaiming that he was a true Muslim king and
of money. that the state under him was a truly Islamic state.
Finally, his liberal disposition and secular In this pursuit, he tried to ban practices which
conduct of state affairs was a source of troubles the Ulema considered un-Islamic–persecution
for the Ulemas his haughty and rash temperament of Muslim sects branded heretical by the Ulema,
and conflict with Sufis who were very influential Jizyah was imposed as a separate tax Bahamanas
strengthened rebellions tendencies. not exempted, erasing of beautiful wall paintings in
However, his role in the disintegration cannot his palace. These narrow steps were detrimental to
be singular and over-emphasised. He left the the composite culture which had been taking roots.
frontiers of the directly administered areas of Delhi In the process of placating the Ulema, he alienated
Sultanate, exactly where they had been at the death a sizeable section of people.
of Aluddin. Ibn Batuta could not see any harmful Besides, he was not an able military
effect of his failed experiments. He gave good commander. His campaign of Bengal, Gujarat and
account of himself against the Mongols going for Jhatta exemplified that he was not an imperialist of
the first time on the offensive. He quelled rebellion the stature of Allauddin or Muhammad bin Tughluq.
in far flung areas of the empire successfully. Even Even the humanitarian measures he undertook were
when he was away from the capital for long periods, basically designed to help Muslims of good families
administration of Delhi, Punjab and other parts of who had fallen into bad times.
the empire continued to function normally.
Firuz like his predecessors had built up a
The foregoing account now shifts the blame
committed cadre of slaves – ‘Firuzi’ (slave) which
to his successor – Firuz Shah Tughlug faced with the
son became a separate interest group apart from
problem of the imminent collapse of the Sultanate
the nobility. Though this body served the sultan
adopted a policy of appeasement towards the
loyally; after his death, it brought to surface the
nobility army and theologians and of asserting
his authority over only such areas which could be same problems which cropped up impermeably
easily administered from the center. But his solutions throughout the political history of the sultanate.
proved to be his undoing as they led to further Firuzi slave intervened in the claims of succession by
problems making the decline almost and reality. the descendants of Firuz, thus denying any possibility
of putting a cohesive front during times of turmoil.

Firuz made the officers of the nobles and their
iqtas hereditary and permanent. He also abolished Local rajas and Zamindars took advantage of this
the practice of torturing nobles even if they stood situation and assumed independent airs. Successors
accused of embezzlement. This had harmful of Firuz could neither control the ambitious nobles
implications. It reduced the chances of competent nor the intransigent rajas. Reforms of Firuz was at
men being recruited into the services outside a the bedrock of such a weakness. It had made the
narrow circle and made the Sultan dependent on nobility too strong and the army too inefficient.
a narrow oligarchy. He extended the principle of Governors of provinces became independent and
hereditary to the army as well. Old soldiers were not the sultan of Delhi was confined virtually to a small
paid in cash but by assignments on the land revenue area surrounding Delhi.
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Notwithstanding these failures of Firuz, ended in failure but caused a reaction under Firuz
the entries guilt of having fomented the decline Shah Tughlug. However, the rule of these regional
cannot rest solely on his shoulders. Despite his kingdoms, evinced a keen interest in promoting
military failures, the Sultanate continued to be this reapproachment. In the process, they prepared
as large as it was during the early years of the the ground for the bold experiments in ‘Sulh-i-Kul’
reign of Alauddin. There were no major rebellions under Akbar.
unlike under Muhammad bin Tughlug; he did not
Foreign Contacts: Ibn Battuta
let theologians dictate his state policy; undertook
many humanitarian measures despite his Islamic India had commercial and cultural contacts
pretensions he took steps to have Hindu religious both with West and South East Asia, Chin, Madagascar
works translated from Sanskrit into Persian; and countries in Africa. Arab traders became much
undertook large building activity (public works, more active after the establishment of the Abhasid
canals, cities) which improved the economic status empire. Several Indian embassies visited Baghdad.
of the empire; repealed vexatious taxes and waived These contacts continued to exist in the years that
off loans. followed as seen from the visit of Ibn Battuta.
The responsibility for the disintegration of Abu Abdullah Muhammad, known more
Delhi Sultanate cannot be ascribed to any one commonly by his family name as Battuta was born
ruler. We have been seen that there were some at Tangier (Morocco, North Africa), in 1304 A.D., and
persistent problems during medieval times, such is said to have died at Fez, at the age of seventy-four.
as the relation between the crown and nobility, He left his home in A.D. 1325 and passing through
conflict with local rulers and Zamindars, pull of various countries in Africa and West Asia crossed
regional and geographical factors etc. Individual the Indus in A.D. 1333. He undertook travels as far
rulers tried to cope with these problems but more as Indonesia and China. Out of a total of more than
of them was in and position to effect fundamental 1,23,000 km, he covered more than 22,400 km in
changes in society to offset these perennial factors. the course of his travels through India. Maldives
Disintegration of the political fabric was the just and Ceylon (Sri Lanka). He stayed in India for about
beneath the surface and any weakness in the central 14 years (1333-47) of which about 8 years were
administration set off a chain of events leading to spent in Delhi (1334-42). During the period of
political disintegration. Firuz was able to contain his stay in Delhi, he was appointed the Qazi by
the chain reactions which had set in due to over Muhammad Tughluq and assigned the office of
extension of empire under Muhammad bin Tughlug.
hospice administrator (1334 A.D.). In the beginning,
He instituted a series of reforms aimed in appeasing
he enjoyed high favours of the Sultan. Later he
the nobles and the army but which, however,
incurred the Sultan’s displeasure. For sometime, he
weakened the central machinery of administration.
was imprisoned. After sometime, he was set free
Impact and restored to royal favour and was offered office.
Politically, it brought Turkish rule to an end This time, he politely declined the offer. He was then
and paved the way for the rise of the Afghan power. asked to conduct a royal embassy to China. This he
More importantly, it brought to an end the period had agreed to do in A.D. 1341. Ship-wreck drove him
of centralised rule in North India and led to the rise to Maldives and thence visited Ceylon and Madura.
of regional kingdoms that were to dominate north If he reached China, his stay there past have been
Indian polity for the next century and a half. short. He returned to Malabar and from there took
In the social sphere, these regional kingdoms ship, reaching home in 1349 A.D.
saw deep interest in the social and cultural life Ibn Battuta completed his Rihla (Journal) in
of their subjects. The Turkish rulers were more 1355 and produced it at the court of the Sultan of
engrossed in tasks of political expansion and Morocco. The Rihala contains abundant information
consolidation. The attempt for promoting religious not only on the momentous events of the period but
tolerance under Muhammad bin Tughlug not only also on the judicially political and military institutions
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and social and economic conditions of India. It also and personal predilections of an Indian historian
throws interesting light on a variety of topics such for a contemporary ruler, his assessment appears
as the postal system and roads, traffic and secret to be unquestioned and accurate. It is interesting
intelligence men and ideas of the age, agricultural to note that his picture of Muhammad is in perfect
products, court ceremonies, trade and shipping, harmony with that depicted by Barani.
music, etc. As a contemporary account of a widely However, it is to be noted that, Ibn Battuta’s
travelled man of wisdom, the Rihla occupies very account of the sultans of Delhi from Aibak to
important place among the sources of the reign of Muhammad bin Tughluq was based on the
Muhammad Tughluq. His account enables us to form information he got from his Indian acquaintances.
a fair estimate of the character and achievements Ibn Battuta has thrown some light on the Sultanate
of Muhammad. Being a foreigner, free from the of Madura. On the whole, the Rihla is a valuable
difficulties and embarrassments of a court-chronicler supplement to the indigenous accounts.
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CHAPTER-5
SOCIETY, CULTURE AND ECONOMY
IN THE 13TH AND 14TH CENTURIES
SOCIETY axity to extreme rigidity. The prohibition relating

Caste system under the Sultanate: The Hindu to the taking of food offered by the Sudras, one
society was divided into four primary castes—the authority says that prohibition refers only to the
Brahmanas, the Kshatriyas, the Vaisyas and the food of the condemned Sudras, and that food of
Sudras with diminishing ranks and status. The duties the good Sudras could be taken for the purpose
and occupations of these castes, particularly these of gaining coins, lands etc., but not otherwise. The
of the Brahmans and Kshatriyas are described at Brahmanas were permitted to take the food of
length in the Smritis. The Brahmanas were expected certain specified classes of Sudras and uncooked
to remain active right from sunrise to sunset, and food in normal times and cooked food in times of
devote themselves to their compulsory and optional distress. By contrast, another authority prescribes
duties as well as other blameless occupations. They penances of different grades which a Brahmana, who
were entitled to pursue agriculture through others ate a Sudras' food, must undertake. He goes on to
in times of distress. Profession of trade and crafts say that a Brahmana should avoid not only eating
could also be taken up by them. a Sudras' food, but living in the same house with
Sudras sitting in the same cart with Sudras engaged
The Kshatriyas were to wield weapons to
as agricultural labourers, and receiving religious
protect the people. As regards the duties and
instructions from a learned Sudra. The Kshatriyas
occupations of the Sudras, we have different
and the Vaisyas were permitted to eat certain kinds
attitudes. Certain works reflect the complete
of Sudras’ food when they were tried by the toils
dependence of the Sudra upon a Brahmana. It is
of journey and were unable to procure food from
said that the highest duty of a Sudra was the service
other castes. The food of condemned Sudras like
of the Brahmana, as it ensured for him supreme bliss,
the Chandalas was completely prohibited.
along with his distinctive occupation. His service to
the Kshatriya and the Vaisya formed his subordinate The authorities hint at the disuse of the old
duty, as it secured for him merely his occupation. discriminatory clauses of the penal law which
On the other hand, the authorities tend to relax provided for punishment for the same offence
the rule for hidding dealings in specified classes committed by a Brahmana, a Kshatriya, a Vaisya
of commodities by a Sudra engaged in trade in and a Sudra on an ascending scale.
default of service. As regards penances, our authorities refer to
The Sudras continued to suffer from the older the discriminatory clauses in the Smriti law in this
religious disabilities though there was a growing regard. An ascending scale of penances was applied
tendency to relax them. Sudra must not practice the in respect of mortal sins and a descending scale
Vedic or the ordinary religious exercises. He must of penances to the minor sins committed by the
not study the Vedas or the Puranas. Nor could he Brahmans, the Kshatriyas, the Vaisyas and the Sudras.
explain the sacred texts. He could only listen to the Besides the four castes, there were a number
recitations of the puranas and study as much of the of mixed castes. Some authorities have elevated the
Agamas as was permitted by his guru. As regards issues of anuloma marriages to their father’s caste,
the social disabilities suffered by the Sudras, the some others have degraded them to the caste of
views of our authorities vary from comparative their mother.
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There were despised castes such as the after making a contract to serve and obey. We shall
Chandalas. The Chandalas were to be kept at a confine ourselves only to comments on rules relating
distance. People touching them had to undertake to the emancipation of slaves. According to some
purificatory bath. A Brahmana was required to do commentators, slaves born in the household, slaves
different penances for conversing or sleeping on purchased, slaves acquired and slaves inherited
the same bed or going in company with a Chandala, could be released by the master’s favour. According
for drawing water from a well where from a pond to some other classes except those who had
owned by a Chandala, for drinking water from a fallen-off from the monastic order could also be
well wherefrom water was drawn in a Chandala’s released by the master’s favour. According to some,
vessel, for unwittingly eating a Chandala’s food, for certain specified classes of slaves would get their
living for sometime in the same house with him, for emancipation simply by saving their master from
association with a Chandala on a journey to a field imminent danger. A female slave begetting a son
or garden or another village and in the event of a through her master would get her freedom along
Chandalas’ entry into the house even once. with that son provided her master had no other
Slavery: Slavery was fairly common during the son. In Vijayanagar empire, slavery was a recognised
period of the Delhi Sultanate. There were different institution.
types of slaves. Slaves born in the household, slaves
purchased, slaves acquired, slaves inherited. The SUFI MOVEMENT
most usual way of acquiring a slave was capture The Sufi order was divided into two: Ba-Shara
in war. The Turks practised this on a large scale (those who followed the Islamic law) a Be-Shara
in their wars. Many were generally bought. They (those who were not abided by Sharia). Both types
were bought for domestic service, for company, prevailed in India. The Sufis were also organised into
or for their special skills. There were slave markets 12 Silsilahs or order. The Chisti order and Suharwadi
engaged in selling slaves. Some were imported order was important Silsilahs in India though other
from Africa, mainly Abyssinia. Ibn Batutah refers order also existed.
to the acquisition of slave-girls in lots and their The advent of Sufis in India dates back to the
distribution as gifts and presents. Muhammad
Arab conquest of Sindh. These Sufi saints established
Tughluq made free gifts of their, to his relations
their hermitage all over.
and nobility and sent as presents one hundred male
slaves and one hundred slave songstresses and The Sufi movement was a socio-religious
dancers from among Indian infidels to the Chinese movement of fourteenth to sixteenth century. The
emperor. The slaves maintained by the sultan were exponents of this movement were unorthodox
called Bandagan-i-khas. Alauddin had 50,000 slaves; Muslim saints who had a deep study of vedantic
Puruz Shah had 2,00,000. These slaves were treated philosophy and Buddhism of India. They had gone
very well by their masters, as they formed a useful through various religious text of India and had come
source of service and pecuniary gain. The sultans in contact with great sages and seers of India. They
usually manumitted their slaves after some time. could see the Indian religion from very near and
Some of the slaves rose to eminence on account of realised its inner values. Accordingly they developed
their merit and service. The Muslims took delight in Islamic Philosophy which at last gave birth to the
enslaving Hindu women unmask from the highest Sufi Movement.
to entertain the Muslim court and the nobility with The Sufi movement therefore was the result
music and dance. of the Hindu influence on Islam. This movement
According to Nizamuddin, Muslims and Sayyid influenced both the Muslims and Hindus and thus,
women were taken by the Rajputs and turned into provided a common platform for the two.Though
slaves. All these show that a sort of communal spirit the Sufis were devout Muslims, yet they differed from
prevailed in this regard. the orthodox Muslims. While the former believed in
The Smriti authorities of the period reiterate inner purity, the latter believed in external conduct.
the clauses of law called non-rendition of service The union of the human soul with God through love
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and devotion was the essence of the teachings of of Bhakti cult) showed path and suggested
the Sufi Saints. The method of their realising God means to their followers, called Murids for the
was the renunciation of the World and Worldly attainment of that eternal bliss called Marifat
pleasures. They lived a secluded life. or Wasl (Union).
They were called Sufis as they wore garments The orthodox Muslims were opposed to the
of Wool (suf ) as their budge of poverty. Thus the doctrine of Wahadut-Ul-Wajud and Marifat.
name ‘Sufi’ is derived from the word Suf. They According to them God as the Absolute Power
consider love to be the only means of reaching was individual and unrivalled in his eternal
God. Historian Tara Chand says,“Sufism indeed was existence, and that the relation between God
a religion of intense devotion, love was its passion; and man was one of creator and created or
poetry, song and dance, its worship and passing master and the slave where the Sufis held that
away in God its ideal”. God was an invisible Absolute Reality and an
The Sufis did not attach importance to Eternal Beauty which they named as (Jamal).
namaz, hajj and celibacy. That is why they were The universe was not a mere illusion. It was the
misunderstood by orthodox muslims. They regarded visible or outward manifestation of God. This
Singing and dancing as methods of inducing a state was named (Hisn). They argued that desire to
of ecstasy which brought one nearer to realisation be loved was an essential attribute of eternal
of God. There were some leading Sufi saints like beauty. Hence their emphasis on love.
Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti, Fariuddin Ganj-i-Shakar, 5. The Sufis practiced austerities like fasting,
Nizamuddin Auliya etc. penance and holding breath which are often
Main Teachings traced to Buddhist and Hindu Yogic practice.
They felt that purity of heart was far greater
1. The Hermitage or Khanqah was set up by
than rituals and ceremonials.
each saints. Just like the Bhakti saints, the
Sufis also differed from each other in many 6. Like the Bhakti saints, most of the Sufis
respect as regards their method of teaching renounced the materialistic pursuit of the
which explain a number of silsilahs. world, it was called Tark-i-Dunya. It is a fact that
a man when gets involved with materialistic
2. Like the Bhakti saints, Sufis also developed
pursuit, is drifted from spiritual objectives.
their own line of thought or philosophical
speculation in visualising the absolute Reality So, many denounced the world lived in
or the supreme creator and the relationship outskirts and did not accept favour however
between creator and this creation. many accepted government grants etc.
3. The monistic philosophy of Sufism was based 7. Some maintained celibacy while many lived
on the theory of Wahadat-Ul-Wajud or “unity as an ordinary householder.
of Being”,according to which the creator (Haq)
PROMINENT SUFI SAINTS IN INDIA
or the created (Khalq) were identical.
The period of 12-15th century is considered
This theory was inconformity with the Vedanta
as the period of penetration of Sufi thoughts in
philosophy of absolute monotheism all to

India. The two Sufi order which took deep roots in
which the creator and the created, or god and
India were Chisti and Suhrawardi. The Suhrawardi
the soul constituted one Absolute Reality.
order was confined to Sindh, Multan and Punjab.
4. Sufis emphasised the direct communication The Chisti organised themselves in North India and
with God and Soul which could be attained in also in other parts of India.
this mortal life through intense love and total
surrender and dedication to the supernatural Chisti
power. Founded by Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti, who
The Sufi saints in their capacity as PIR (the came to India around 1192. Living for a short while
teachers or spiritual guide like the gurus in Lahore and Delhi he made Ajmer his seat.
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Features of Chisti Silsilah Influence of Islam on Indian Culture—
1. Chisti believed in Wahadat-ul-wajud. Muslim Mystic Movements
2. Laid emphasis on service to mankind. Tasawwuf or Islamic mysticism or Sufism
3. Adopted such Hindu practices as Shaving of aims at establishment of direct communion with
Head of new entrant, bowl for collecting food, god and man through personal experience of
offering water to visitor etc. mystery which lies within Islam. It was a natural
development within Islam based on the spirit of
4. Adopted musical recitations called SAMA to
Quranic piety. Mystics accepted sharia but did not
create mood of nearness to God.
always confine themselves to it and adopted non
5. After death of Chirag-Delhi in 15th century conformist attitudes which was detestable to the
Chisti in Delhi declined and extended message orthodox ulema.
to Southern and Eastern India.
Features
6. Led simple austere life and conversed with
people dialect in the Hindawai of Hindi. 1. It came to stress the importance of the sufi
path or ‘tariqa’ as a method of establishing
Suharawardi direct communion with the divine reality
1. Entered at the same time as Chisti confined ‘haqiqat’.
to Multan and Punjab. 2. The sufi path could be traversed only under
2. Founded by Shahibuddin Suhrawardi. the strict supervision of a spiritual director
3. They had big Jagirs and kept close contact (shaikh/murshid/pir).
with the state. 3. The ‘murid’ progressed through stages
Firdausi by practicing self mortification to attain
concentration zikar.
1. Established by Badruddin of Samarqand.
4. They organised impassioned musical recital
2. Most important center was Bihar under ‘sama’ creating an environment of ecstasy.
Surfuddin Maneri. This was detestable to the ulema.
Shattari—by Abdullah Sattar 5. Sufis were organised into various orders or
Three important religious movement ‘silsilahs’ founded by a leading figure.
developed in India during 15th-16th century. 6. Khanqah was the center of activities of a Sufi
The Shattari order, the Mahadwi Movement and order.
Raushaniya sect.
Growth in North India
Qadiri Al Hujwiri was the earliest Sufi of eminence to
Niyamatullah Qadiri and Makhudum Gilani have settled in India. Sufi orders were introduced in
were to founders. India only after the establishment of Delhi Sultanate
in the beginning of the 13th century. India not only
Naqshbandi
provided a favourable pasture ground for these ideas
Founded by Khwaja Baki Billah in 1603 during but many of them also made India their home. Fluing
later years of Akbar. from the Mongol depradations of 13th century, they
Impact established Khanqahs in many parts of the country
Thought surrounded by controversy Sufism by the middle of the 14th century. The entire country
played a great role in the cultural Synthesis and from Multan to Bengal and from Punjab to Deogir
Hindu-Muslim co-existence. had been embraced under their activity. Sufism
in India stemmed from the original Sufi thought
1. Conversion through peaceful means. and practice of Iran and Central Asia. However, its
2. Education in Khanqah, intellectual discourse. subsequent development was influenced more
3. Rapid Indianisation of Islam. by the Indian environment than by the non-Indian
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variants of Sufism. They followed their own course Sufis migrated to Deccan, established
of growth, stagnation and revival. These were themselves in Gulbarga and Bijapur. In the former,
determined largely by indigenous circumstances, the Sufis developed close relations with the court
though outside developments and their influences and accepted state patronage, thus effecting a
cannot be altogether discounted. change in earlier Sufi Chisti attitude towards the
state. Bahmani rulers on their part, purchased
Suhrawardis
the political loyalty of these Sufis and granted
A major order introduced in India by Shaik land to them. Gesudaraz received land grant of
Bahavddin Jakariya of Multan. He sided with Iltutmish four villages from Firuz Shah Bahmani. He was
in his tussle with Qubacha and thus, became the an orthodox Sufi who tried to placate the ulema.
‘shaikul Islam’. He dabbled in state affairs and built But the transformation of his descendants into a
up a large fortunes (contrary to Chistis). Punjab, landed elite and their indifference towards Chisti
Sind and Bengal became three important centres teachings led to the decline of living Chisti tradition
of Suhrawardi activity. Scholars are of the opinion in Gulbarga. However, Sufism of Chisti order began
that Suhrawardis converted non-Muslims and in to thrive again in the Deccan from the end of the
this task they were helped by their affluence and 15th century, under the auspices of Bijapur. The
connections with the ruling class. In this connection, Shahpur Hillock Sufis maintained distances from the
a sharp distinction is drawn between them and the court and the ulema and drew its inspiration from
Chistis which did not aim at conversion. local influences. They were much close in attitude
Chistis to early Chisti saints of Delhi, but different to the
Gulbarga tradition.
The most influential order in India was
introduced by Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti. Growth of Jaunpur, Western UP were other centres of
Chistis in India took place in two phases; first phase Chisti orders during later 15th early 16th century.
ended with the death of Naseruddin Chirag (1356): An important order of Sufism developed in Kashmir
second phase is marked by its initial decline during during the period.
the later part of the 14th century. Followed by its The Rishi order
revival and dispersal in other parts of the country
It was an indigenous order established by
during 15/16th century. Shaik Nuruddin Wali which prospered in the rural
First phase: A succession of great Sufi saints environment of Kashmir and influenced by the
followed Moinuddin. Prominent among them were religious life of people during 15th/16th century.
Bakhityar Kaki, Hamiduddin Nagori, Baba Farid, Its popularity was two fold: due to its drawing
Nizamuddin Auliya and Naseruddin Chirag-I Delhi. inspiration from the popular Shavite Bhakti tradition
The last saint discontinued some of those practices of Kashmir (thus rooted in the socio-cultural milieu
of early Chistis which could clash with Islamic of the region) and its philanthropic works—planting
orthodoxy and in turn, persuaded the ulema to trees, digging wells etc.
soften their attitude towards the Chisti practices of
‘Sama’. However, during the later Jughirs and Sayyid Causes of Chisti Popularity
periods Delhi as a center of the Chisti order declined. Different Sufi orders observed distinct rituals
Some scholars ascribe it to reactionary policies of and customs of their own and differed in their
Muhammaad bin Tughluq. But he was not opposed attitude to state and society of all the orders, the
to Sufism per se. Sufi activities in many Khanqahs Chisti emerged as the most popular and it was also
were restored after his death when Firuz Tughluq widespread. Chisti rituals attitudes and practices
showered gifts on them. However, Delhi was not left made it an essentially Indian Silsilah. Following are
of any commanding Sufi figure after Nasiruddin’s the cause of its popularity:
death. This marks the dispersal of Khanqahs to more 1. Many practices of early Chistis bone close
stable provincial kingdoms. This marks the second resemblance to the attributes of some of
phase. the already existing non conformist religious
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orders in India such as the nathpanthi yogis— state favours and involvement in court affairs. It
life of austerity and asceticism, spiritual was due to these limitations that the later transition
musical recital etc. within the Chisti silsilah to the acceptance of state
2. Chistis adopted an attitude of religious patronage was a smooth process.
tolerance towards non-Muslim population Despite attempts made by Al-Ghazzali towards
and adjusted themselves to the needs of a reconciliation between Sufis and the Ulema, the
predominantly Non-Muslim environment. latter disapproved of the Sufis. Attitude of mutual
They made use of popular imagery and distrust continued throughout the Sultanate period,
idiom to convey their ideals to their Indian though orthodox Sufi orders as Suhrawardi and
followers and adopted many of their customs the Qadiri pandered to the Ulema. The latter were
and rituals. Many Chisti saints made Hindawi particularly hostile to early Chistis—their practice
the vehicle for spreading their teachings. of “sama” and their quest for religious synthesis.
3. Egalitarian atmosphere of Chisti Khanqaha However, Chisti saints as Nasiruddin and Gesudaraz
attracted a large number of people from lower gave an orthodox orientation to the Sufi order to
sections of Indian society. Caste distinctions mitigate the hostility of the ulema. They adopted
of classical brahmical order were meaningless doctrinal attitude akin to the ulema once they
in the Chisti Khanqaha. Nor did they accept accepted state patronage.
this two fold rural division of people by the Sufis have been generally considered as
Turkish elite into high and low born. propagator of Islam, represented in medieval evas
4. Inspired leadership of early Chisti masters, as active missionaries, in hagiographical literature
aloofness from the court and reluctance to as Champion of Islam who waged a jihad against
accept state patronage, rejection of orthodoxy Non-Muslims. There were certain active evangelists
and extremist attitude of ulema largely among Suhrawardi Silsilah. However, large number
contributed to their popularity. of Non-Muslims, especially from the lower orders
5. Miracle stories and their being transformed were attracted to the Sufis and later to their Durgahs.
into loving legends after their death in the There, they gradually came under the influence
form of popularity of Dargah Shrines went of Islamic precepts which eventually led to their
a long way in its popularity. The dargah of Islamicisation (Jat peasantry in Punjab-shrine of
Baba Farid at Ajuddhan was identified with Farid; Sufid in East Bengal—through religion brought
the saint (living) long after he had died. many virgin lands under the plough; Richard Eaton).
Social Role of the Sufis, their Attitude towards Later, the descendants of those converted claimed
that their ancestors were converted to Islam by one
State, Ulema, Conversions, Society, Economy,
or another Sufi, to establish their long association
etc.
with the dargah of the Sufi and their long standing
With the exception of the early Chisti Sufis and in Islam.
Chistis of Shahpur Hillocki, the Sufis belonging to
most of the Silsilah, including the later Chistis, were As referred earlier, Sufi did not question
involved in the affairs of the state and accepted state the existing social structure and did not see any
alternative to it. They never came out openly against
endowments. While the Sufis belonging to other

groups served the state machinery by becoming an the class structures but created a harmonious
integral part of it, the early Chistis helped the state atmosphere where all and sundry congregated.
by creating a milieu in which people belonging They also had some role to play in the economic
to different classes and religious persuasions structure. Some of them undertook the cultivation
could live in harmony (Baba Farid dargah Shrine— of waste lands, especially in East Bengal as brought
Rechard Eaton). Sufis never questioned the existing out by recent research. This has highlighted the
political systems and the class structure. At most fact that Islam was not a ‘religion of the sword but
they requested state officials to show leniency in of the plough’. They undertook and taught wet
collecting revenue from peasants. On the other hand, rice cultivation to the aborigines bringing them
they did not forbid their followers from seeking into the mainstream of society. The ‘futuh’ system
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also led to circulation of economic assets in the person who revived it, there is no doubt that he
Khanqah. Khanqahs and dargah shrines also led to was the one who made Lingayatism popular in
urbanisation. Festivals and congregations as ‘URS’ Karnataka. According to tradition, he was born at
and demands of the Khanqahs gave impetus to Bagevadi (Bijapur district). His father was Madiraja
trade, commerce and production of local handicrafts. and his mother was Malaprabha. Here, he seems to
Lingayats have received a divine call to work for the revival
of Virasaivism. His appointment as Prime Minister
The term Lingayats is applied to those Saivas
of Bijjala (1158-68) and the marriage of his sister
who wear, on their person, the Ishta-linga, the
with Bijjala helped him to fulfil his mission. In this
object of Lingayat worship. They are also called
task, he was helped by Channahasava, the son of
Virasaivas, the stalwarts or heroic saivas. They formed
another sister of his. The priests of the faith, known
an important religious sect in the 12th century in
as Jangamas were used as instruments to spread
Karnataka, particularly the Mysore territory, casting
their faith.
the Jainas from the prominent place they held in
that country. The Lingayats did not concern themselves with
the worship of Siva in public temples. The Lingayats
Lingayatism or Virasaivism traces its origin to
dispense with the rite of offering oblations of fire.
the five great religious teachers Renuka, Damka,
Ghantakarus, Dherukarns and Visvakarma. According Instead of the Brahama-Gayatri, they make use of
to tradition, these five teachers were the earthly the Siva-Gayatri. Some of the peculiarities of the sect
menifestation of the five aspects of Fara-Siva, viz. are in the nature of reforms. The diksha ceremony
Sadyots, Vamadeva, Aghora, Tatpurusha and Isana. which takes the place of Upanayana is performed in
These five teachers are said to have incarnated in the the case of girls also. The women, too, have to wear
Kaliyuga as Revanasiddha, Marulasiddha, Ekarama, linga, like men. The widows are allowed to marry.
Pnaditaradhya and Visvaradhya and expounded Women are not considered to be polluted during
afresh the ancient system of Lingayat. These are their monthly periods. The encouragement the
described on the Panchacharyas. The Svayambhuwa Lingayats give to the social practices disapproved
Agama gives an account of their incarnation. They by the Brahmanas brought upon them the wrath of
are said to have set up five mathas in different parts the Brahmans. But their literal attitudes won them
of India—Kedara, Ujjayini, Srisailam, Rambhapuri support of the lower sections of the society.
and Benares and entrusted with them the task of The Virasaiva philosophy is called
spreading Lingayatism. Saktivisishtadvaita, which means the non-duality
Lingayata or Virsaivism is generally described of God as qualified by Saki (Power). When expanded,
as a phase to the Agamanta from the fact that the it connotes that there is no duality between the soul
Saiva Agamas form the basic authority of this and the Lord, each qualified by Sakti. God and soul
form of Saivism as of other forms. But the Agamas are in an inseparable union through the inalienable
themselves are regarded as texts expounding Vedic power called Sakti. The Virassiva philosophy is a
religion. Reverence is paid by the Virsaivas to the doctrine of bhedabedha (difference-cum-non-
sixty-three Tamil nayanmars also. The writings are difference). The soul is identical with Siva in the
accepted as divinely inspired. sense that it proceeds from Siva, partakes of his
These saints are referred to as the Puratanas essence, and finds ultimate rest in Him. It is also
in contract to later medival saintswho are spoken distinct from Siva in the sense that though sharing
of as Nutannpuratanas. As many as 770 of these in His essence, it does not possess the attributes of
mutanap ratanas are enumerated. Among them omniscience, omnipotence, etc. The final goal of the
are Basava and his chief disciples. soul is conceived in the Virasaiva system of aikya or
Basava, an apostate Jaina, is, however, the unity with Para Siva. The final state of experience is
greatest name in the history of Vira, Saivism whether technically called Linganga-Samarasya i.e., identity
he was the founder of Virasativism or merely a in essence between Linga (Siva) and Anga (soul).
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BHAKTI MOVEMENT Sri Vaishnavas
The Bhakti movement was another glorious We have seen earlier that Ramanuja had
religious movement in the history of India. It was built up a philosophy which reconciled devotion
purely based on devotion to God and nothing else. to a personal god (bhakti) with the philosophy of
Devotion means Bhakti through which one can Vedanta and took steps to spread the doctrine of
realize God. The chief exponents of this cult were bhakti among Hindus and other outcastes. After
Ramanuja, Nimbarka, Ramananda, Vallabhacharya, his death, the Sri Vaishnavas were divided into two
Kabir, Nanak and Sri Chaityana. They preached schools. Vedakalai (the schools of northern learning)
the doctrine of love and devotion to realize God. and Tenkalai (The school of southern learning). Both
Therefore the movement came to be known as agreed as to the necessity of Prapatti or Saranagati
Bhakti Movement. (self surrender into God).
The concept of Bhakti or devotion to God was But they differed in their interpretation of
not new to Indians. It is very much present in the prapatti. The Vadagalai held that the devotee
Vedas, but it was not emphasised during the early had to exert himself to win the grace of God,
period. Much later during the Gupta period, when while the Tenkalai held that God’s grace by itself
the worship of Lord Vishnu developed, many holy conferred salvation on the soul that entered the
books including the Ramayan and the Mahabharata path of surrender. The position of the first school
were composed depicting the love and mystical is commonly summed up in the phrase Markata
union of the individual with God. The Ramayana kisoranyaya, the rule that the young monkey clings
and the Mahabharata, though written earlier were
to its mother with an effort. The position of the other
re-written during the Gupta times. Therefore Bhakti
school is called Marjarakisoranyaya, the rule of the
was accepted, along with Jnana and Karma, as
kitten which is carried by its mother in her mouth.
one of the recognised roads to salvation. But this
There are other differences between the two schools.
way (Marga) was not popularised till the end of
The Tenkalai have decided preference for Tamil as
fourteenth century in India.
against Sanskrit.
However, the development of Bhakti started
in south India between the seventh and the twelfth Generally, the Tenkalai sect is more liberal than
century. During this period the Shaiva Nayanars the Vadakalai. It provides for the teaching of the
and the Vaishnavite disregarded the austerities eight-syllabled formula om namo Narayanaya to
preached by the Jains and the Buddhists and all classes of people, while the Vadakalai sect omits
preached personal devotion to God as a means the syllable om from the formula when taught to
of Salvation. They also disregarded the rigidities of non-Brahmanas. The Tenkalai sect favours equal
the caste system and unnecessary rites and rituals treatment of all castes. Varadacharya or Nadadur
of Hindu religion. Ammal was the leader of the Sri Vaishnavas for
They carried their message of love and the first three quarters of the thirteenth century.
personal devotion to God to various parts of south Vedantadesika (1269-1370 A.D.) is the most
India by using the local languages. Although there important of the northern school of Sri Vaishnavas
were many points of contact between south and belonging to this period. The southern school took
north India, the transmission of the ideas of Bhakti upon Pillai Lokacharya, as its founder.
Saints from south to north India was a slow and Nimbarka was the founder of the school
long drawn-out process. of Vaishnavism, supporting the cult of Bhakti
It was mainly due to the fact that Shaiva against the doctrine of Maya. He is said to be a
Nayanars and the Vaishnavite alvars preached in Telugu Brahmana residing at a village of Nimba,
the Local Languages. And use of Sanskrit language which has been identified with Nimbapuri in the
was still less. However the ideas of Bhakti were Bellary district. His father was a Bhagavata by name
carried to the north by scholars as well as by saints. Jagannatha. The doctrines of the Nimbarka school
Among these mention may be made of Namadeva, of Vaishnavism resemble in some respects those of
Ramananda, Ramanuja, Nimbarka,Vallabhacharya etc. Ramanuja’s school. But Nimbarka preached bhakti
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in its original sense of love and gave exclusive Dnyandeve Dnanoba (1271-96). Jnaneswara wrote a
prominence to the conception of Krishna attended long commentary in Marathi on the Bhagavad Gita,
by the cowherdesses headed by Radha. For him, called Bhavarthadipika and more commonly as the
Radha is not merely the favourite mistress of Krishna Jnaneswari, the fountain head of Maharashtrian
but his eternal consort who lives with him forever in bhakti. More than a commentary Jnaneswari
the Goloka, the highest heaven. Nimbarkan school constitutes a religious sermon in the form of a song
has not accepted Ramanuja’s theory about the composed in a rhythmic prose which should be
Supreme soul being a composite personality and chanted. Though initiated in the Natha sect, which
developing into the animate and the inanimate explains his learning towards monism, his bhakti
world. Instead, it regards the Supreme soul, the was due to his connection with the Varkari sect,
individual soul and the world as identical and at a sect that has an important place in the history
the same time distinct from one another. They are of Maharashtrian devotionalism. The main cult of
identical in the sense that the individual soul and the Varkari-Panth is the twice-a-year pilgrimage
the inanimate soul are dependent on God and have to Pandharpur. Vittobha of Pandharpur is the God
no independent existence. Nimbarka’s theory is thus of this Panth. The Varkari Panth differed from most
monistic and pluralistic. His views are expressed other sects in several ways. Its members cut across
in a commentary on the Brahma-sutras called the whole caste structure and their most important
Vedantaparijatasaurabha and in Siddhantartna or aid to religion was the society of saints by which term
Dasa loka. was meant their brothers and sisters in the faith, and
the saints who had died but had left their immortal
Madhva’s School
songs behind. The name Jnaneswara is associated
Bhakti is the centre of the religion taught by with the spread of this intensely devotional cult.
Madhva, born in a Brahmana family at Kalyanapura
Another great name connected with the
in the Udipi talum of South Kanara district, some
Bhagavata school in Maharashtra is Namadeva
64 km west of Sringeri. Madhva became a sanyasi
(1270-1350). He was a tailor by caste who had
while he was still quite young. Like Ramanuja, he
taken to wandering before becoming a saint. But
had his early training in the system of Sankara. But
he was a gifted poet. He authored several simple
before his training was over, he broke away from
and passionate lyrics or kirtanas as ‘flowers’ to the
the system and evolved a system of his own based
Lord of Pandharpur and took a vow that he and his
chiefly on the Bhagavatapurana. He claimed to be
associates would compose a hundred crore abhangs.
the incarnation of Vayu. He taught that the universe
One of his pungent but well meaning statements
is governed by god as two persons—Vishnu and
was,“Hindu is blind and so is Mussalman, the Hindu
Lakshmi and that the souls in the world are eternally
worships in temple and Muslim in the mosque. But
distinct from him. The relation between God and the
Namadeva offers his worship to Him, who needs
individual souls is like that between the master and
neither temple nor mosque.” His personal attendant
the servant. By serving and worshipping God, the
was Janabai, a Sudra woman. She too was well-
individual souls become like God in most respects.
versed in the art of composing abhangs. She spend
The centre of his religion is bhakti to Lord Krishna
her life in the service of Namadeva and also of Lord
as taught in the Bhagavata. Radha has no place in

Vitthala. Her dedication is seen in her poems. Her
it. All avatars are revered. Siva is also worshipped.
abhangs are known for their simplicity, depth of
Maharashtra feeling and all-absorbing devotion.
The development of Vaishnavism based on Namadeva’s fame spread far and wide and in his
the Bhagavata led to the rise of a number of poet- own days he had the great privilege of being quoted
saints, towards the close of the 13th century. The in the Granthsaheb of Guru Nanak. Namadeva’s tours
popular songs of these poet-saints stirred the life of to propagate the cause of Bhagavata dharma and
Maharashtra as those of the nayanmars and alvars his melodious kirtanas were responsible, for the
had stirred the Tamil country, centuries before. The creation of a school of poetry in Maharashtra and
earliest of them was Jnaneswara popularly called the poet saint, Tukaram, belonged to this school.
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Namadeva lived to a ripe old age of 80 and (b) He also wrote some Hindi verses. Amir
his remains were buried at the great door of the Khusrau’s Khazain-ul-Futuh speaks about
Pandharpur temple—a great honour indeed. Alauddin’s conquests.
(c) His famous work Tughlaq Nama deals
CULTURE with the rise of Ghyiasuddin Tughlaq.
Impact of Hindu Society on Muslim Social- 4. Sanskrit and Persian functioned as link
life languages in the Delhi Sultanate. Zia Nakshabi
1. Religious sphere: influences of Yogic thoughts was the first to translate Sanskrit stories into
and rituals on Sufism. Bhakti also inspired Persian.
Sufism-Kashmir, many Sufis preached and 5. The book Tuti Nama or Book of the Parrot
wrote in Hindawi. became popular and translated into Turkish
2. Muslim society became Indianised in its social and later into many European languages.
sphere. Dresses, accourments, purdah system 6. The famous Rajatarangini written by Kalhana
entered Muslim social life. Indian cotton belonged to the period of Zain-ul-Abidin,
became the favourite of the Muslim gentry. the ruler of Kashmir. Many Sanskrit works
3. Habits—betel chewing, Khusro’s reference on medicine and music were translated into
(being chewed in diwan-i-arz)—culinary Persian.
practices, etc. 7. In Arabic, Alberuni’s Kitab-ul-Hind is the
4. Festivals: Shab-i-Barat, urs bearing resemblance most famous work. Regional languages also
to many Hindu festivals. developed during this period.
8. Chand Baradi was the famous Hindi poet of
LITERATURE this period.
1. The Delhi Sultans patronised learning and
9. Bengali literature had also developed and
literature. Many of them had great love for
Nusrat Shah patronised the translation of
Arabic and Persian literature.
Mahabaratha into Bengali.
- Learned men came from Persia and
10. The Bhakthi cult led to development of
Persian language got encouragement
Gujarati and Marathi languages.
from the rulers. Besides theology and
poetry, the writing of history was also 11. The Vijayanagar Empire patronised Telugu
encouraged. Some of the Sultans had and Kannada literature.
their own court historians. 12. Some historians have described the period
2. The most famous historians of this period of the Sultanate as barren from literary point
were Hasan Nizami, Minhaj-us-Siraj, Ziauddin of view. But, the majority of historians do not
Barani, and Shams-Siraj Afif. Barani’s Tarikh-i- accept this view.
Firoz Shahi contains the history of Tughlaq - They say that a medium success was
dynasty. achieved in the field of literature during
- Minhaj-us-Siraj wrote Tabaqat-i-Nasari, a this period. Literature was produced not

general history of Muslim dynasties up only in Persian and Sanskrit but also in
to 1260. other regional languages.
3. Amir Khusrau (1252-1325) was the famous 13. The Sultans of Delhi and rulers of provincial
Persian writer of this period. He wrote a dynasties provided shelter to different
number of poems. scholars who produced historical, religious
(a) He experimented with several poetical and literature in other fields of knowledge
forms and created a new style of Persian as well.
poetry called Sabaq- i-Hind or the Indian 14. The same way, books in the form of drama,
style. poetry, prose etc. were written.
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15. Therefore, it cannot be accepted that there (c) He wrote a number of prose books also,
was no literary progress during this period. most famous of them being the Khazain-
(a) But, while the Persian literature suffered ul-Fatuh, Tughluq-nama, and the Tarikh-
from religious bias, the Sanskrit literature i-Alai. Badruddin Muhammad was the
suffered from originality. most famous poet of Persian at the court
of Muhammad Tughluq.
(b) The only notable achievement, thus, was
the beginning of literatures of regional 6. Historian Isami was also Khusrau’s
languages in which saints of Bhakti contemporary writer.
movement also participated. 7. Sultan Firuz Tughluq wrote his autobiography
and provided patronage to historians
Persian Literature Ziyauddin Barani and Shams-i-Siraj Afif.
1. The Sultans of Delhi were interested in the 8. Sultan Sikandar Lodi wrote many verses and
progress of Persian literature. provided patronage to different scholars.
2. Al-Beruni, who visited India in the company Rafiuddin Shirazi, Shaikh Abdulla, Shaikh
of Mahmud of Ghazni was a great scholar. He Azizulla and Shaikh Jamaluddin received
was well-versed in Persian and also studied patronage from Lodi Sultans.
Sanskrit. - A large number of scholars flourished at
- He gave a vivid account of India which the courts of provincial rulers as well.
provides us valuable information 9. Sayyid Muin-ul-Haq was famous in Sindh,
regarding affairs of India in the eleventh Ibrahim Farukhi flourished in Bihar and
century. Fazlullah Zain-ul-Abidin was a scholar of
3. Most Sultans of Delhi provided patronage to Gujarat.
scholars of Persian at their court which helped - The Bahmani ruler Tajuddin Firoz Shah
in the growth of Persian literature. was a scholar and so was Mahmud
- Khwaja Abu Nasr, poetically surnamed Gawan who worked as a Prime Minister
Nasiri, Abu Bakar Bin Muhammad in that kingdom.
Ruhani, Tajuddin Dabir and Nuruddin 10. Among historians of the period of the
Muhammad Awfi were famous scholars Sultanate, Al-Beruni, Hasan Nizami who wrote
at the court of Sultan Iltutmish. Taj-ul-Maasir, Minhajuddin Siraz, the author of
4. Many Muslim scholars from Persia and Central Tabqat-i-Nasiri, Ziauddin Barani who wrote
Asia fled away from there because of the Tarikh-i-Firozshahi and the Fatwah-i-Jahandari,
Mongols and found shelter at the courts of Shams-i-Siraj Afif, the author of another Tarikh-
Sultan Balban and Alauddin Khilji. i-Firozshahi, Yahya-bin-Ahmad, the author of
- Each of them participated in the Tarikh-i-Mubarakshahi and Khawaji Abu Malik
enrichment of Persian literature and Isami who wrote Futuh-us-Salatin have been
therefore, Delhi became one great centre regarded as the most famous ones.
of its learning. 11. Translation of certain Sanskrit books was also

5. Prince Muhammad, eldest son of Sultan Balban done in Persian language during this period.
was a patron of scholars of his times, that is, Hindi, Urdu and Other Regional Languages
Amir Khusrav and Amir Hasan Dihalvi. 1. The one novelty of this period in literary field
(a) Amir Khusrav made use of Hindi words was the beginning of literature in different
in his poems which was a novelty. regional languages of India.
(b) He has been regarded as the greatest 2. The khari-boli and Braj-bhasa mostly spoken
Persian poet of his age and is said to have in western Uttar Pradesh provided the base
written more than four lakhs of couplets. for the growth of Hindi literature.
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3. Some of the famous works written in Hindi Thus, this period witnessed the growth of
during this period were the Prithviraj Raso literature in different fields and different languages
of Chand Bardai, the court-poet of Prithviraj and was remarkable at least from two points of view.
Chauhan, the Hammir Raso and the Hamir One was that historical texts were prepared during
Kavya written by Sarangdhar and the Alha- this period because of the Muslim court-writers
Khanda produced by Jagnayaka. which was mostly neglected by the Hindus; and,
secondly, it marked the beginning of literatures of
4. Urdu language was first called Hindavi.
different regional languages in India.
(a) It marked its beginning during this period
though could develop only afterwards. Important Sources
(b) Amir Khusrav, however, has been 1. Kakhri Mudabbir (1228 A.D.)—Adab ul Harb
regarded as a writer of both Hindi and was shipya’at—deals mainly with the arts of
Urdu. warfare.
5. Vidyapati Thakur who wrote works in Sanskrit, 2. Nizamul Mulk TTusi—‘Siyasatnama’—detailed
account of the institution of slave holds, their
Hindi and Maithili encouraged the beginning
training etc. during early Turkish Sultans.
of Maithili literature towards the end of the
fourteenth century. 3. Hasan Nizami—Tajul Masi’—first official
account of the Delhi Sultanate, deals with the
6. The saints of Bhakti movement who gave their
campaign of Muizuddin, Aibak and Iltutmish.
messages in the languages of the people also Covers the period (1191-1229).
helped in the growth of different regional
4. Minhaj Siraj—Tabaqat-i-Nasiri—(1259/60)—
languages and, thereby, their literatures.
begun from Nasiruddin Mohammad. Most
7. This period, thus, witnessed the beginning authentic source for the study of early Turkish
of the growth of practically all regional dynasties. Detailed study on campaigns,
languages of India like Bengali, Punjabi, sultans, maliks, amirs, ulema etc.
Rajasthani, Sindhi, Gujarati, Marathi, Kannada, 5. Amir Khusro—account covers 5 sultans—
Telugu, Tamil, Malayalam, etc. Balban, Jalaluddin Khilji, Alauddin, Mubarak
8. The Marathi literature began to grow during Khilji and Ghiyasuddin Tughlug. First Persian
this period. poet who used Hindi words in his writings:
(a) Chakradhar, Bhaskar, Bhatt and (a) Miftah ul Futuh: Jalaluddin's military
Mukandaraya were the early poets and Exploits
writers of Marathi. (b) Qiran-us-Sadain: Bughra Khan’s
(b) Afterwards saints of Bhakti-cult did a lot Reindezvous with his son Kaiqubad.
towards enrichment of Marathi literature. (c) Dewal Rani Khirz Khan: A masnavi or
(c) Saint Janeswar wrote his commentary on Romantic escapes.
the Gita called the Janeswari in Prakrit (d) Khazainul Futuh: Alauddins Deccan
Marathi. It was most appealing to the campaigns, Mongol invades.

masses. (e) Tughlug Nama: Account of Ghyasuddin
9. Eknath who flourished nearly 250 years after Tughlug reign.
Janeswar translated the Bhagwat in Marathi 6. Yahya bin Ahmad Serhindi-Tarik-i-Mubarak
and wrote Rukmani-Swayamber and the Shahis (1434-35): covers the history from Ghori
Bhawarth-Ramayan. His writings were also onwards. The account is valuable for the study
very popular. of nobles during the Sayyid period.
- But above all, the Abhangas of Saint 7. Isami—Futuh us Salatin—dedicated to
Tukaram are most famous in the Marathi Alauddin Behman Shah; covers a period of
literature of this period. 350 years (999-1350). Written in versified form;
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highly critical of Muhammad bin Tughlug of Alauddin Khilji but when he became a disciple
projects while applauds the achievements of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya, he gave up worldly
of Alauddin Bahman Shah. ambitions and retired from worldly life. However,
8. Ziauddin Barani: Tarikh I Friozshahi, Fatwa-i- he continued to write poetry. It is estimated that he
Jahandari. wrote more than 4 lakhs of couplest. His couplets
have been divided into four classes. To the first class,
9. Firuz Shah Tughlug: Futuhat-i-Firuzshahi—
belong his youthful effusions. To the second class
insight into thoughts and policies of Firuzshah.
belong poems of early middle age and those were
10. Shams Siraj Afif: Tarikh I Firuzshahi—detailed written when Amir Khusro was giving up childish
account of FST’s reign written soon after things and turning his thoughts towards religion.
Timurs invasion. High praise for peace and To the third class belong those poems which were
prosperity during Firuz Shah Tughlug reign. written when Amir Khusro had attained the dignity
11. Malfujat of a religious teacher. To the fourth class, belong the
(a) Amir Hasan Syzi—Fawaid ul Fuad— poems of his old age. Each of the four classes bears
conversations of Auliya from 1307-1322, the impression of his views on this world and the
throwing valuable light on religion, next. In the second class are to be found poems
culture and literature of the period. which were intended to please the Emperor.
(b) Hami Qalandar—Khairul Majalis— The historical Masnavis composed by Amir
conversations of Nasiruddin Chirag; not Khusro are of the greatest importance for purposes
only important for study of mysticism but of history. Qiran-us-Sa’dain or “The conjunctions of
also for studying market control policy of the Two Auspicious Stars” was written at the request
Alauddin, impact of Mongol invasion etc. of Kaiquabad. It had for its main theme the quarrel
and reconciliation between Kaiquabad and Bughra
Traveller’s Accounts
Khan. As Amir Khusro enjoyed the patronage of both
1. Marco Polo: Venetrain traveller, passed the father and son and was himself an observer of
through Indian waters touching eastern and the incident described by him, there is no reason to
western coast of India. Valuable account for doubt the authenticity of his statements.
understanding commercial activities during
Miftah-ul-Futuh, a portion of the Ghurrat-ul-
late 13th century and food, dresses and other
Kamal or The Key to Success deals with the earlier
social aspects of the Indians.
successes of Jalaluddin Firuzl Khilji and Deval
2. Ibn Batuta: Rehala-Moorish traveller, Devi. It begins with the conquest of India by the
held the post of Qazi of Delhi for 8 years, Muslims and proceeds to give a detailed account
under Muhammad-bin-Tughlug—graphic of the victories of Alauddin in peace and war—
account of his personal conduct, projects, his successful campaigns against the Mongols, his
contemporary, socio-economic conditions. expeditions to the Deccan, his triumph in Gujarat,
Also important for geographical details routes. and his regulations which introduced peace and
Amir Khusro (1253-1325) prosperity in the country. Apart from its literary
A reference may be made to Amir Khusro, values, the Ashiqa is perhaps the most important
who died in the same year in which Gahzi Malik of Amir Khusro’s works from the historical point
died. He was the greatest of all the poets of India of view. Here, we have a contemporary account of
who have written in Persian. He was born, in 1253, the reign of Alauddin Khilji, written by a shrewd
at Patial and died at the age of 72. His father was a observer who personally knew all the principal
native of Kash in Turkistan but he was driven from actors in the drama.
his native land by the Mongols and found shelter in Nuh Sipihr or “the Nine Skies” was written by
India. The original name of the poet was YaminUddin Amir Khusro at the request of Mubarak Khilji to
Muhammad Hasan although he is commonly known celebrate the glory of his reign. Incidentally, the
as Amir Khusro. The young poet entered the service poet throws much light on the social and religious
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conditions prevalent in his age. Amir Khusro says intrigues and himself lived in intimate contact with
that India is far superior to Khorasan. The Indians some of the principal personages who controlled
are very proficient in all branches of Philosophy the destinies of the country.
and learning is widespread among them. While
Historiography, Ziyauddin Barani
foreign scholars very often come to India for study,
the people of India are so advanced that they never Ziauddin Barani (born 1285) wrote his famous
feel the need of going to other countries for the work Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi in the time of Firuz Shah
purpose of adding to their knowledge. Tughluq. He was a native of Barani in the Doab. His
ancestors held high offices under the Khiljis. Qazi Ala-
In Ghurrat-ul-Kamal, Amir Khusro gives us a
ud-Mulk, one of his uncles, was the Kotwal of Delhi
very interesting discussion on the types and merits
in the time of Alauddin Khilji and was very much
of poetry in general and incidentally dwells upon
trusted by the Emperor. No wonder, the account of
the beauty of the language and poetry of India.
Barani regarding the reign of Alauddin has original
Tarikh-i-Alai or Khazain-ul-Futuh is beyond value as it was based on the information given to
doubt, but no modern historian can accept in full Barani by Qazi Ala-ul-Mulk. Barani himself spent
his estimate of the character and achievements of seventeen years in the court of Muhammad Tughluq
Alauddin. Amir Khusro gives us many interesting and also some years in that of Firuz Tughluq.
details and if we can follow the very difficult
Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi of Barani was completed
language in which the work is written, it will prove
in 1359. It is a standard historical work on Medieval
to be a veritable mine of information.
India. We are told that before writing his work, Barani
In his five Diwans, viz., Tuhfat-us-Sighar, Wast- took a vow that he would write nothing but the truth.
ul-Tayat, Ghurrat-ul-Kamal, Bakiya-i-Nakiya, and No wonder, his account is trustworthy. Barani praises
Nihayat-ul-Kamal, Amir Khusro often refers to Alauddin for his achievements but condemns him
incidents in his own career and many of the poems for his cruel punishments. He has showed praises on
are in praise of his numerous patrons. Ghiyasuddin Tughluq, the founder of the Tughluq
Amir Khusro had great respect for poet Sadi dynasty. He had described in detail the various events
of Persia. When the latter visited India, he was very of the reign of Muhammad Tughluq. He had given us
much entertained by Amir Khusro and the result details about the taxation in the Doab, transfer of the
was that Sadi praised Amir Khusro before Alauddin capital from Delhi to Daulatabad, the introduction
Khilji. In one of his verses, Amir Khusro admits the of token currency, the various schemes of conquest
influence of Sadi in these words:“The volume of my of Muhammad Tughluq etc. he has also given some
verse hath the binding of Shiraz.” important information about the reign of Firuz
According to Dr. A.C. Banerjee,“There are very Tughluq. However, it is to be noted that at times,
few literary men in medieval Indian history who chronology in the account of Barani is defective.
can lay claim to the wide personal knowledge of Sometimes, he also brings in his personal prejudices.
men and events during a period extending over His account of the sufferings of the people of the
half a century which it was the privilege of Amir Doab on account of high taxation by Muhammad
Khusro to possess. Though he wisely confined his Tughluq is obviously an exaggerated one.
activities to the sphere in which his genius shone Barani catches the thread of the narrative
with unrivalled brilliance, and never aspired after dropped by Minhaj Siraj. He begins with the history of
any direct participation in political affairs, yet his the reign of Balban and ends with the first six years of
unique experience must have made him an acute the reigns of Firuz Tughluq. Comparatively speaking,
observer of events. This consideration enhances the the reign of the Khiljis is more systematically treated
value of his testimony with regard to the history of than that of Tughluqs. In the narrative of the Khiljis,
his times, because in dealing with an age from which chronological sequence of the events is maintained
little contemporary evidence has survived, the best fairly accurately. Although Barani refers very often
material we can hope to seize is the version of an to the sources of his information, he did not take
intelligent observer, who had access to all court full advantage of the works of his contemporaries
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while writing his Tarikh. Had he improved upon the a philosopher-cum-historian and not an accurate
drafts of his book after consulting Amir Khusro’s historian always. His memory was prodigious.
Miftah-ul-Futuh, Khazain-ul-Futuh and Devalrani It cannot be denied that the work of Barani is
and Kabiruddin’s Fatehnamah, he would surely have very valuable. Later historians have dependent upon
given more reliable information on Alauddin’s wars Barani for their account of the history of the period
in Chittor, Ranthambhor and Malwa than the sketchy covered by him. Nizamuddin Ahmad especially
accounts to be found in his Tarikh. He does not refer quotes him very often. At some places, he merely
to the episode of Devalrani at all. His account of the copies Barani. At other places, he tries to solve the
Deccan campaigns of Malik Kafur is extremely poor.
problem left by Barani. Ferishta tries to analyse the
Moreover once he starts writing about the Deccan,
passage in which Barani described the salaries of the
he neglects the North altogether. He furnishes little
soldiers fixed by Alauddin. Hajiuddabir throws fresh
information about events in Northern India from,
light on some questions not properly explained by
1308 to 1313, particularly about wars in Jalor and
Barani such as the age of Alauddin and the causes
Sevana. Moreover Barani finished his work at the
advanced age of 74, when he was in a miserable underlying the constant quarrels between Alauddin
condition. His financial difficulties made him better and the family of J Alauddin. Abdul Haq Dehivi,
and disappointed. He was more likely to refer to the the author of Akhbarul Akhyar, depends upon
agonies of his soul than to sit down and improve his Barnai completely for the biographical sketches of
notes after comparing them with the works of Amir Nizamuddin Auliya and other saints of the period.
Khusro and other contemporary writers. In addition to Tarikhi-i-Firuz Shahi, Barani wrote
The Sarcasm of Barani is incisive. Occasionally, Fatwa-i-jahandari. This work does not refer to the
his sardonic humour helps him to sum up his ideas events of any particular ruler. However, it contains
in a few words. His remark that in Alauddin’s days, a the political ideals which must be pursued by the
camel could be had for a Dang, shows that articles Muslim rulers in order to earn religious merit and
were cheap in the time of Alauddin. The stern the gratitude of the people.
attitude of Alauddin towards the revenue officials He also wrote Salvat-i-Kabir, Sanai Muhammadi,
made them so unpopular that service in the revenue Hasrat-mamah, Inayatnamah, Ma’asir-i-Saadat and
department was considered worse than plague. a history of the Bramakides.
Nobody gave his daughter in marriage to a revenue Barani“can claim superiority to many a historian
clerk.The officer of the Superintendent was accepted of the Middle Ages in having made the scope of his
by one who had no regard for life. The plight of the book wider and more comprehensive as well as in his
agriculturists was so bad that they sold their wives fearlessness in expressing the truth and condemning
and children to pay the land revenue. The wives the actions of great men when necessary, and for
of the rich Zamindars (Khuts and Muqqaddams) a contemporary writer this is no mean virtue. His
worked in the houses of the Mussalmans for wages. style is extremely simple and remarkably free from
The bazaar people were the words of all the 72 unnecessary exaggerations and embellishments.
classes of people who inhabited the globe. Sometimes he indulges in needless repetitions,
Barani had his likes and dislikes. He did not feel but he is not guilty of concealing the drawbacks of
interests in the description of battles, tactics used great men by artificial expressions and phrases or
in a particular engagement and such other points over-drawn metaphors and similes. These virtues
of military strategy. Whenever he was forced to give him a most prominent place in the long list of
give a description, he became very brief. However, medieval historians of India.”
he did pause to praise an act, a character or a
motive. When he praised somebody, he praised Technological Changes under the Sultanate
him to heaven. When he condemned somebody, he There is almost no material which described
wrote with his pen dipped in acid. In spite of this, his the tools employed by the peasant. But the relics
character sketches were excellently done. He was suggests that they might have use of iron.
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The first important technological progress and brass industry made a mark. Broken pieces of
during the period of the Delhi sultanate can be seen vessels were sent to India for repair. Vessels and
in the improved device used by the peasants to raise utensils were exported to India. The coinage of the
water from canals and wells. The ancient India noria, sultanate testifies to the metallurgical excellence.
the arghatta used to carry a string of pots fixed close The newcomers brought in paper technology
to its run; at a later date it was given the rope chain too. The earliest surviving manuscript in India was
enabling it to reach water at some depth. Ultimately written, in Gujarati, in 1225. Balban talks of recycling
it was equipped with pin drum gearing, which made of papers.
it possible for it to be worked by animal power.
We have evidence of the uses of artillery in
This was the crucial addition made before the 16th
India, in the 14C. AD. It was an important item in the
century when Bahar offered the classic description of
the complete machine. It was the wood and earthern weaponry of the Delhi Sultanate. Mahmud Begarba
pot ancestor of the modern metallic Persian wheel. used this artillery during the naval wars. Cannon
This contributed to the extension of irrigation in technology was known.
the Indus basin. INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
The people knew the advantages of using
It includes architecture that belongs to Turkish,
iron ore. They knew the art of making damascened
Iranian, Delhi Sultanate, Deccan Sultanate, Mughals
steel. The greatest industry was textiles. There
and other Muslim rulers which have exhibited an
was improvement in cotton technology through
influence of local architecture as well. Muslim
the introduction of spinning wheel. The earliest
architecture was different because it used bricks,
reference to it so far traced in India occured in 1350,
apart from stones, alongwith lime and mortar.
in the writing of the luherrai Isami.
The spinning wheel came to India with the Indo-Islamic architecture is divided into four
Muslims. The wheel in its simplest form increased following broad categories:
the spinners’ efficiency. The cotton carders bow 1. Pre Mughal or Sultanate or Imperial period
reached India on the eve of the Ghoreai conquests. 2. Mughal architecture—mainly at Delhi, Agra,
The writings of the Persian poet Asiruddin Akshikati and Lahore
refer to it. The bow enhanced the quantity of cotton 3. Deccani Style—mainly architectures of Bijapur,
cleaned in comparison with the earlier and simpler
Golconda
method of beating raw cotton with a stick. The
spinning wheel and carding-bow cheapened spun 4. Provincial Style—Apart from the major Islamic
yarn. It probably enlarged its production. rulers many provincial styles also gained
influence. Architecture of Bengal, Mandu,
Not much is known about the weaver boom.
Bijapur and Jaunpur is regarded as distinct.
Treadles are an early medieval addition to the
loom—larger quantity of yarn was produced. There Earliest examples are from Turkish rulers
was an increase in cloth available per capita. who arrived in 13th century. One major departure
from earlier buildings was that Muslims forbade
The people knew the art of dyeing. References
representation of human forms in their holy places

are made in the writings of Hema Chandra about
and thus it was replaced by geometrical patterns,
cloth printing. In the field of architecture, new
designs were brought in. There was a remarkable calligraphy and elaborate stone and plaster work.
spurt in brick construction. Lime mortar was used Indo-Islamic architecture also retained many
as cementing material. True arch dome and vault features of the Indegenous architecture—for
provided new devices for roofing. example—Turned Lotus, Kalash on the domes and
Indian metallurgy enjoyed worldwide Ornamentation of Indian Art were adopted in the
reputation in fashioning sword and coins. The world the construction of Mosques in India.
best damascened sword came from India. Soft iron Indo-Islamic style replaced Trabeate style with
alloy was used to make copper and silver. Bronze Arcuate style.
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TRABEATE ARCUATE The distinctive features of Indo-Islamic
architecture were:
Its entrance is lintel Its entrance is shaped in
shaped. form of archs. 1. Instead of Shikhara, dome became the central
element. Central Dome was most prominent
In this, minars were In this, minars were
part and it was topped by an inverted lotus
not present. present.
motif and a metal or stone pinnacle above it.
Stone was the In this, brick, lime and
2. The walls in all buildings were extremely
primary material limestone mortar was
thick and were largely constructed of rubble
that was used. predominantly used.
masonry, which was easily available.
3. Lofty towers or minarets were another
distinctive element which exhibited Persian
influence.
4. Instead of flat roofs, arches became an integral
part of the architecture.
5. Now, limestone mixed mortar was used as a
cementing method.
6. In this phase there was more reliance on local
materials.
7. Human images and other images in general
are not shown as Islam prohibits portrayal of
Allah in image form and instead, decoration
took form of Calligraphy using Arabesque
method (an ornamental design consisting of
Iintel shape intertwined flowing lines, leaves and flowers).
8. Geomatrical and symmetrical patterns are
used.
9. There is intricate Jali work on the walls which
signifies importance of light in Islam.
Arch shape
Jali work
10. Water channels and ponds are also an integral
part for both beautification and utility.
Persian and Arab areas are hotter and water
Dome shape is important ingredient of architects.
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11. A lot of ‘decorative techniques’ were used
including Pietra Dura. The technique is used
in later architect which involves embedding
of colored stones into each other to make an
intricate flowery design on walls, floors etc.
Other decorative techniques included—use
of various motifs of flowers etc., calligraphy,
precious stones like Lappis Lazuli, use of
intricate jail work, multiple foliated arches
etc. Walls were also decorated with cypress,
chinar and other trees as also with flower
vases.
12. Gardens were important part, and among
these Chahar Bagh have special place.
13. Forts and minars were also distinguishing
features of Indo-Islamic architecture. Forts
of Chittor, Gwalior, Daulatabad, earlier
known as Devgiri and Golconda are some
of the prime examples. Among minars, two
most striking minars of medieval times are
the Qutub Minar in Delhi and the Chand
Minar at Daulatabad which was built in
15th century. The everyday use of the Qutub Minar
minar was for the azaan or call to prayer. 14. Tombs were another important feature. The
Its phenomenal height, however, symbolised idea behind the tomb was eternal paradise
the might and power of the ruler. as a reward for the true believer on the Day
of Judgement. This led to the paradisiacal
imagery for tomb construction like gardens
and source of water. Tombs of Ghyasuddin
Tughlaq, Humayun, Abdur Rahim Khan-i-
Khanan, Akbar and Itmaduddaula etc. were
built.
SULTANATE ARCHITECTURE OR
TURKISH ARCHITECTURE
1. It is a sub-part of broader Indo-Islamic or
Indo-Sarcenic style.
2. Sarcenic refers to a style of architecture
popular with Muslims in West Asia particularly
from the 11th to the 14th century.
3. With the arrival of Turks during the
thirteenth century came a new technique
of architecture—the architectural styles of
Persia, Arabia and Central Asia.
4. In their buildings, the Turks used the arch and
Pietra Dura the dome on a wide scale. The use of the arch
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and the dome had a number of advantages.
The dome provided a pleasing skyline. The
arch and dome needed strong cement and
the Turks used fine quality light mortar in their
buildings. Thus, new architectural forms and
mortar of a superior kind became widespread
in north India.
5. The style of decoration used by the Turks, had
no human or animal figures, since their use
was considered un-Islamic. The Turks used
scrolls of flowers and verses of the Quran,
which were intertwined in a very artistic
manner. The combination of these decorative
styles was called Arabesque.
6. They also freely borrowed Hindu motifs such Alai Darwaza
as the bell motif and the ‘swastika’.
4. Communal composition: Most of the
7. Before the advent of Turks, Rajput architecture monuments were Islamic which showed the
belonged to the trabeate style and had flat distribution of power in the urban society.
roofs, false arches and stone/mud based. Islam doesn’t permit images of birds and
– But Turks brought with them the Islamic animals so floral designs, geometric designs
style vis true arches, domes and used and calligraphy came up.
lime mortar and brick based. Turkish 5. In early phase of Turkish architecture, Turkish
architecture was technologically superior rulers had not yet established themselves and
as it used true arches, domes, lime mortar, they needed to create awe among the ruled.
headers and stretchers brick outlay, was Thus Iltutmish created many monuments in
massive. Delhi so that the public could be awed. Qutub
Minar was built as a symbol of Turkish victory.
Sultanate architecture reflects contemporary
socio-politico-economic realities in following 6. Further the monuments of the age can’t be
divided exclusively into secular and religious
manner:
monuments.
1. Focus on Urbanisation: Turks were urban
– This is because the rulers needed
dwellers. Their monuments are in urban areas
monuments which could be used for
and promote urbanism.
huge public gatherings of the nascent
2. Concentration of wealth: The Turkish rulers Muslim society in India. Thus they were
extracted all the agriculture surplus in their often located in the middle of the town
hands. This surplus had to be put to use and it and had large open garden in them,
happened in the form of grand monuments. pillared verandahs on 3 sides and the
3. Reflects the distance between the rulers and praying site facing west.
the ruled, the despotism of the sultans—Each 7. A mosque’s area is often proportional to the
monument reflects the tastes of the sultan Muslim population living in the area. Thus
as because of their scale each sultan tried Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque was expanded by
to build according to his likes to expand his Iltutmish and Alauddin. As Indian Muslim
glory. Alauddin built Alai Darwaza which was class grew stronger it also got its fair share
majestic in scale. This reflects the despotism in the ruling class in the form of Khaljis. So
of the sultan and his ability to extract surplus the expansion of the mosque also symbolised
from the peasants. rising power of Indian Muslim class.
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(b) Other examples include—Siri fort in
Delhi (named so because, the wall of
the fort had beheaded heads or sir of
Mongols who were enemies of Khilji)
which became center of power during
the Khilji rule.
(c) Another major achievement was Hauz
Khas. In Urdu language, ‘Hauz’ means
‘water tank’ (or lake) and ‘Khas’ means
‘royal’, giving it the meaning—the ‘Royal
tank’. The large water tank or reservoir
Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque was first built by Allauddin Khilji.
8. Gradually a shift was made to purely Islamic
Turkish architecture. Balban’s tomb had the
first True arch. Jamat-i-khana mosque of
Alauddin is the first true Islamic monument.
Alai Darwaza can be construed to be the first
monument which symbolised the end of the
initial phase of insecurity and the Indo-Islamic
architectural form.
Red sandstone, yellow sandstone and marble
were widely used in construction
1. Turk Sultans in India were always under danger
of attack from Mongol and hence, ruggedness
of the architecture was the first requirement
for them. Their buildings are even today in Siri fort
very good shape. 4. Tughlaq period architecture added new
2. Sultanate period starts from Slave dynasty. dimensions like—thick sloping walls called
They started to replace the existing buildings Battar for strength, multi domed roofs,
with mosques. tapering minarets.
(a) The earliest building of this period is (a) Turkish Architecture was at its zenith
QuwwatulIslam Mosque at Delhi was during the Tughlaq period.
made from a Jain temple. (b) During Tughluq age, the monuments
(b) Qutub Minar is another example and it built were inferior in grandeur and
was also built by demolition of a Hindu beauty compared to the Khalji phase.
temple. There are beautiful engravings Perhaps they represented a reaction to
of calligraphy both in the mosque and the excessive ways of the Khaljis or the
on the tower. economic problems facing the sultan.
3. Next came Khilji dynasty. Alauddin Khilji (c) Another feature of the Tughlaq
enlarged the Quwat-ul-Islam mosque and built architecture was the deliberate attempt
a gateway to the enclosure of the mosque. This to combine the principles of the arch, and
gateway is called the Alahi Darwaja and is one the lintel and beam in their buildings.
of the most beautiful architectural designs (d) The Tughlaqs did not generally use the
even today and it is only a half tomb and not costly red sandstone, but cheaper and
full hemispherical tomb. more easily available gray stone. Thus
(a) They started using red-sandstone. there was an outburst of building activity,
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marked by the growth of many styles – Lodis believed in the kingship theory
of architecture in different parts of the of being first among the equals. This is
country. also reflected in the architecture as we
(e) During the 14th and 15th centuries, the find that the monuments built by many
style of architecture evolved in Delhi Amirs were equal in scale and grandeur
under the Tughlaqs was carried forward to those built by the sultans.
and modified in the various regional 2. By their time, the octagonal designs, double
kingdoms throughout India. domes and headers and stretchers brick
(f ) Feroz Shah Tuglaq also established new layering styles came up. Char-bagh style also
cities like Hisar, Ferozabad etc. Some of came up.
the achievements of this period are– (a) The devices of double dome enable the
Tughlaqabad fort city–the first fort city. ceiling inside to be placed lower and in
(g) The tomb of Mohammad Tughlaq, Firoz better relation to the Interior space it
Tughlaq etc. are some other examples. covers. This is done without disturbing
the proportions and the effect of
(h) Under Ghiyasuddin Tughluq we can see
elevation of the exterior.
the continuation of the fusion of Indo-
Islamic forms. Thus in his mausoleum (b) The method of making double dome was
we can see a kalash kept on top of practiced in East Asia for quite sometime
the dome. The construction work in before it was imported into India.
Tughluqabad may also reflect the haste
and commotion in the face of impending
Mongol threat.
Charbagh
3. They didn’t focus much on other architectural
buildings and only Tombs were made during
Ghiyasuddin Tughluq tomb
this period. Sikandar Lodhi established Agra
and he also repaired Qutub Minar. Tomb of
5. Lodhis were the last Sultans of Delhi. They Sikandar Lodhi at Lodhi Gardens in Delhi was
belonged to Sultanate period, but they were first example of double dome architecture and
not Turks, but were Afghans, their architecture due to a double dome, the outer appearance
falls under both Afghan style and Sultanate of the tomb was much bigger.Some of the
style. features of architecture during his times are
AFGHAN ARCHITECTURE (a) Base of most of the tombs is octagonal.
1. Lodhis, from Afghanistan, introduced ‘double (b) Each side of the octagon is marked by
dome’ method which was later used in Mughal triple arches.
architecture as well. (c) Often entrance is marked by the Chatris.
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DECCANI STYLE
1. In South, Deccan style was initially influenced
by Tuglaqi style and later it exhibited Persian
influence. Later it also exhibited Hindu
architecture influence also.
2. Under Bahamani Sultanate (which was later
disintegrated into five dynasties including
Bijapur, Golcunda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar etc.)
highest developments took place under Adil
Shahi and Qutb Shahi rulers.
- The Bahamani sultans borrowed from
the styles of Persia, Syria, Turkey and the
temples of Southern India.
3. Distinctive features of Bijapur style, that
developed in 15th-16th century, were–three
Lodhi Garden
arched face of building with central arch larger
Sher Shah Suri was another Afghan who than the other two and only central arch has a
ruled India in early 16th century replacing Mughal gate and other two being only for decoration
for a short while. Sher Shah Suri was son of a local purpose.
Afghan noble and he was very ambitious. He not
only wanted to have large area under him, but also 4. Dome was bulbous and almost spherical in
wanted to administer it well. He was influenced by shape. Dome of Gol Gumbaz has the largest
the revenue and military policies of Alauddin Khilji. dome in the world.
Like Khilji, he paid to army regularly to prevent (a) Lower part of dome has lotus petal type
dissent and dissatisfaction and interacted with patterns.
regularly. In revenue administration also, like Khilji, he (b) At the corners there were numerous
introduced a measurement based revenue system smaller doms instead of Chatris. Graceful,
so that peasant class is not over-burdened. He also slender, tall minarets.
build many roads, planted trees and build sarais.
(c) Gol Gumbaj, mausoleum of Adil Shah is
He rebuild the highway to Bengal from north India,
build by Mauryas, again. Finally, he is also credited finest examples of Bijapur Style. Its dome
with giving the name to Indian currency the name is said to be largest in world and it is also
which it is known today—Rupiah. He would have famous for its whispering galleries.
been a great ruler, had he not been killed accidently (d) Bijapur was relatively less affected by
in a gun explosion in his face during a siege after wars and attacks and hence, many of
a rule of just 5 years. This provided opportunity to monuments are still well preserved.
Humayun. His tomb at Sasaram in Bihar is major 5. Qutub Shahi or Golcunda style is another
example of architecture during his time. It stands famous style apart from Bahamanis in South.
in the middle of an artificial lake, which is nearly
(a) It is marked by rich stucco (a type of
square, is known as the second Taj Mahal of India.
plaster) carving. It is predominantly
The tomb stands at the centre of the lake on a
Persian with Hindu influence.
square stone plinth with domed kiosks, chhatris at
each of its corners. It is connected to the mainland (b) Char Minar of Hyderabad is a unique
through a wide stone bridge. The main tomb is built example of their style. It was built to
on octagonal plan, topped by a dome, 22-metre commemorate eradication of the plague
in span. Shersha also built an elegant mosque in from the city. Golcunda Fort is another
Purana Quila of Delhi. example of this style.
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Among the provincial styles, major

developments took place in Gujarat. It reached

its peak during time of Mahmud Begaraha.
6. Gujarati Indo-Islamic style is marked by
extensive use of pillar and lintel system.
Another unique feature is ornamentry
carvings on stones.
7. Minarets were elegant, screens were widely
used and windows supported on richly carved
brackets of elegant designs. Mosque of Rani
Rupmati of Ahmedabad is a fitting tribute to
this style which has successfully synthesised
The Jama Masjid, Gulbarga Muslims style with indigenous style.
6. The Jama Masjid at Gulbarga is quite well 8. Malwa style is marked by absence of minarets.
known. The courtyard of this mosque is It uses arches profusely and use of ornametry
covered with a large number of domes and is carving is, unlike Gujarati style, is only
the only mosque in India which has a covered moderate. European influence can also be
courtyard. found in form of large windows. Ashrafi Mahal,
Jahaj Mahal (Mandu, MP) and Hindola Mahal
PROVINCIAL STYLE are some of examples of this style.
1. Introduction of Persian art during Sultanate
period and its infusion with the local/provincial
traditions produced many beautiful results.
For example—Sharqui rulers of Jaunpur
produced many beautiful results like Atala
Masjid.
2. Ahmed Shah built the city of Ahmedabad
with beautiful monuments like Jama Masjid.
Malwa rulers built their palaces on the hills
of Mandu like Jahaz Mahal. All of them used
the stones which were available locally, this
also gave their architectures local touch.
3. In Bengal, brick was used as stone is not easily
available, Dakhi Darwaza is an example. In
Kashmir, central Asian pattern was followed
and wood was used in the architecture.

4. Bahamani Sultans gave stiff competition Jahaj mahal, MP
to Delhi sultans and had many beautiful 9. Jaunpur style is also marked by absence of
buildings in Bidar and Gulbarga etc. even on minars. It mainly flourished under Sharqi rulers
older traditional styles rather than copying and hence also called as Sharwi style as well.
Persian styles. Forts at Daulatabad and 10. Bengal school is characterised by use of bricks
Golconda are such examples. Gol Gumbaj is and black marble. No focus on decoration, but
an example of infusion of local and Persian on massive building. Adina masjid, Kadam
art. Rasul mosque are some examples.
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Kadam Rasul Masjid
PUBLIC BUILDINGS 4. Murals by common people are doted from a
Such building far out number royal buildings. 4th century. Hindi poem Chandayan written
by Mulla Daud.
Majority of these comprised sarais, bridges, irrigation
tanks, wells and baoli, dams. Kacherhri, Kotawali, Dak 5. Quaranic calligraphy was a highly revered art
Chowki, Hammam and Katra (market places). They in Islamic world (Kufi script).
were available for the general public irrespective 6. Manuscript illustration under court patronage
of religious affliations. and also for individual patrons or bourgeois
group evidence for latter—Hamzanama,
Sarai is the most conspicuous of these public
Chandayan—both in Berlin.
buildings. Turks brought it to India in 13th century
and earliest e.g. is from Balban’s time. Among later Evolution of a Composite Culture
ruler, Muhammad bin Tughlug and Firuz Shah It is an axiomatic truth that whenever two
Tughlug built a large number of them in Delhi as civilisations, entirely different from each other in
also along the major trade routes of the sultanate. almost all respects, come into close and intimate
The sarai had a small mosque and a well, besides contact with each other and continue to co-exist
the residential quarters. Other important specimen for centuries together, both are bound to have their
was bridges Masonry bridges. impact imprinted on each other and produce a
Gandhak Ki Baoli built, by Iltutmish, at Mehrauli composite culture. And this had happened in India
is one of the step wells. in the medieval period with the coming into contact
of Hindu culture with that of the Muslims. The initial
Sultanate Painting Hindu reaction to the arrival of Turko-Afghans
1. Generally, obscure due to lack of evidence. must have been strongly adverse. The animosity
2. Book illumination and murals. Quranic between the two must have even deepened in
calligraphy. due course. However, their co-existence must
necessarily have produced a feeling of oneness
3. Evidence of murals compiled by Simon
and a sense of synthesis among the members of
Digby (Literary Evidence for Painting in Delhi
the two communities.
Sultante).
Throughout the medieval period, the Muslims
(a) Earliest reference is in a qasida in praise took enormous pains to acquaint themselves
of Iltutmish (Tabaqat-i-Nasiri). with the religious literature of the Hindus. They
(b) Tarikh-i-Feruz Shahi by Afif. translated important texts into Persian—the Vedas,
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the Upanishads, the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, Shah of Bijapur described him as Jagadguru for his
the Dharmasastras, the Puranas, etc. Muslim writers patronage of the Hindus in his state. Similarly, we find
wrote on topics relating to Hindu life. For instance, Hindu rulers employing Muslims as their important
Malik Muhammad Jayasi wrote on Padmini and officials both in civil and military administration. The
Hindu writers such as Bhanas Mal wrote in the Vijayanagar rulers employed Muslims in their military
Persian languages on the literary traditions. Many service from the time of Devaraya II. Rana Sanga had
Muslim poets wrote in Hindi and Hindu poets in a contingent of Muslim troops under him in his war
Urdu, a language which grew out of the mingling with Babur. Whether these appointments were due
of Persian, Arabic and Turkish words and ideas with to political necessity or to any feeling of goodwill,
languages and concepts of Sanskritic origin. the fact remains that they facilitated the growth of
The assimilation between the two cultures amity between the Hindus and Muslims and thereby
led also to the springing up of new styles of art, paved the way for the evolution of a composite
architecture, and music in which the basic elements culture. This assimilation between the two cultures
remained the old Hindi and the finish and outward had progressed so much that when Babur came
form became Persian. to India he was compelled to notice their peculiar
“Hindustani way”. We may well conclude with the
Through long association, the Hindus and
words of Sir John Marshall:“Seldom in the history of
Muslims began to imbibe each other’s thoughts and mankind has the spectacle been witnessed of two
customs. One of the sources of Muslim mysticism civilisations, so vast and so strongly developed, yet so
was Indian, Renowned Muslim scholars and saints radically dissimilar as the Muhammadan and Hindu
who lived and laboured in India, helped the meeting and mingling together. The very contrasts
dissemination of the ideas of Islamic philosophy which existed between them, the wide divergences,
and mysticism in India. The spirit of Mutual toleration in their culture and their religion, make the history
found expression in the growing veneration of of their impact peculiarly instructive.”
the Hindus for Muslim saints, particularly of mystic
school. The Muslims, in turn, began to venerate to TRADE AND COMMERCE
Hindus for saints. This spirit of mutual toleration Growth of Urban centers required food and
culminated in the emergence of the common raw materials for craft production. At the same time,
worship of Styapir (the True saint). It is likely that this the growing realisation of revenue in cash led to the
feeling of friendship made possible the conversion growth of a steady cash nexus. Both these factors
of the Muslims into Hindu fold and recon version were conducive to be development of inland trade.
of the Hindus to their original faith. To pay the revenue in cash, the peasantry was forced
Several intermarriages between the ruling to sell its surplus produce while merchants had a
members of these two communities helped to market in newly emerged towns for agricultural
maintain harmony between the two communities. products. This trade resulting from the compulsions
These inter communal marriages, though sometimes of land revenue system is known as induced trade.
tainted with compulsions as a condition of conquest Inland trade developed at two levels: (a) short
contributed a great deal to soften the scrimonious; distance village town trade in bulk commodities
differences between the two communities and (b) long distance inter-town trade in high value
help the transplantation of the customs of the one goods. Village town trade was a natural consequence
to the fold of the other. This spirit of harmony and of the emergence of towns and realisation of
cooperation was extended even to the political field. revenue in cash. It was marked by a one way flow
Besides retaining the existing machinery of local of commodities. While the towns received grain and
administration, the Hindu headmen and accountants raw material from the village in the vicinity, they
of the villages, the Muslim rulers employed a large did not send their goods in returns to the villages
number of Hindus in their services and entrusted as these were largely self sufficient. Turnover of this
with the offices of responsibility. It is, therefore, not trade was high in terms of volume but low in terms
surprising that the Muslim subjects of Ibrahim Adil of value. The commodities were food grains, wheat,
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rice, gram, sugercane and raw material like cotton Coastal trade: It was natural for the coastal
for urban manufactures. trade to flourish right from Sind to Bengal touching
Inter-town trade was mainly in luxury articles Gujarat, Malabar and Coromandal coasts. This
and thus was a high value trade. Manufactures that provided an opportunity for exchange of regional
were taken from one town to another are reported products along the coast distinct from inland inter-
by Barani: distilled wine to Delhi from Kol and regional trade.
Meerut, Muslim from Devagiri and striped cloth Overland Trade
from Lakhnauti to Delhi.
Multan was the major trading center for
Long distance inter trade also carried goods overland trade. India was connected to central Asia.
coming from other countries from entry point towns
Afghanistan and Persia through the Multan Quetta
to other urban centers as well as the export goods
route, but this route fell into disuse due to Mongol
to exit points. Multan was the greatest entrepot for
depredations.
overland foreign trade and served as a center of
re export while Gujarat port towns as Broach and Imports and Exports
Kambay were exchange centers for overseas trade. Two principal items of import: horses from
Foreign Trade Hormuz, Aden and Persia, previous metal, gold and
silver for metallic currency and fashioning luxury
Khilji annexation of Gujarat must have enlarged
articles.
trade relations between the Delhi Sultanate and the
Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. Hormuz and Basra Gujarat was the major centers from where
were the chief ports for the ships passing through the luxury articles from Europe used to enter.
the Persian Gulf while the ports of Aden, Mocha Sultanate mainly exported grains and textiles.
and Jedda along the Red sea were important for Besides, slave were exported to Central Asia and
Gujarat. Through these ports, commodities moved indigo to Persia.
to Damascus and Aleppo on the one hand and Commercial Classes
Alexandria on the other. From the last two opened
Two types of merchants are mentioned in
up linkages with Europe merchandise of Gujarat
our sources—Karawnis or Nayaks and Multanis.
were also carried towards the East though the port
The merchants specialising in carrying grains
of Malacca. Tom Pires writing in the 16th century
were designated by Barani as Karwanis. They were
says, “Malacca cannot live without Cambay, nor
the reoercussions of Banjaras of the succeeding
cambay without Malacca, if they are to be very rich
centuries. Long distances trade was in the Lands
and very prosperous.”
of Multanis. They were also engaged in usury and
The main export from Gujarat to Malacca was commerce and gave loans to nobles, who according
the coloured cloth of Cambay and in exchange the to Barani, were generally in need of cash. Another
Gujarati merchants came back with species. The important commercial class was that of the dallals
Broach coin boards containing the coins of the (brokers) who worked as a link between the buyer
Delhi Sultans along with the gold and silver coins and the seller and took commissions from both.
of Egypt, Syria, Yemen, Persia, Genoa, Armenia and Sarrafs were yet another mercantile group whose
Venice testifies to large scale overseas trade. economic role was no less than the brokers. As
Ports of Bengal had trading relation with China, money changers, they were most sought after by
Malacca and far east. Textiles, sugar and silk fabrics the merchants, especially the foreign ones who
were exported from Bengal. Latter imported salt came to India with their native coins. They also
from Hormuz and sea shells from the Maldive islands. issued ‘hundu’s’ or letter of credit, thereby acting
Sind was yet another region from where sea borne as bankers. Brokers and sarrafs were indispensable
trade was carried on. It imported special cloth and in the new economic dispensation—they were the
dairy products. custodians of several basic economic institutions.
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Condition of Artisans and Peasantry Unani system of hygiene and health science became
Clear knowledge of the condition of artisans increasingly popular in North India.
is very scanty. While mostly they worked at home, New Crafts, Industry and Technology
there are also references to their employment on Delhi Sultanate is not fortunate enough to
wages. Where materials were expensive and the have an Ain-i-Akbar of Fazl which gives a detailed
products were luxury goods, work was done mostly outline of industrial production during the Mughal
in Karkhanas by artisans whose services were hired period. As a consequence, only a fragmentary sketch
out. Some merchants employed skilled craftsmen can be outlined in this regard. This period was
under their supervision. Wages were low. During marked by the importation of many technology
Alauddins reign it amounted to 2 to 3 jitals a day. from Islamic lands by the Turks which were faithfully
During the reign of Mubarak Khilji prices rose and assimilated within the indigenous tradition, without
wages also went up four times. Similarly during the any pejorative disdain.
reign of Firuz Tughlug price were very high and
In the field of agricultural, technology, plough
so were wages. According to the contemporary
was fitted with an iron share as shown in ‘Niptah-ul-
chroniclers, there was a 12 fold rise in tailors’ wage.
Fuzala’ (Persian lexicon compiled in 1460 in Malwa).
According to Ibn Batuta, prices were cheaper in
Unlike Europe, India could not develop horse drawn
Bengal than in any other country. This must have wheeled plough for the reason that our plough was
helped the artisans to lead a comfortable life. Skilled light in weight suited to the soft soil. For sowing,
craftsmen lived a life of comfort and case. Since the the method of broadcasting was known. Much
tool of production even after the introduction of innovation was seenin the irrigation device. Almost
new devices were still simple and mainly of wood all of them oriented towards drawing water from
and little of iron, should have remained cheap. The wells. Five techniques were used: rope and bucket,
artisan was thus a master of his own tools, though charkhi (pulley), rockbucket pulley contraption, that
varied form of labour organisation seem to be working on first class lever principle and the Persian
prevalent. Spinning was done mostly by women wheel (Sabiya) the last was an Islamic innovation.
at home.
As regards crafts, the textiles industry was very
Peasantry important. By the introduction of spinning wheel
Due to burdensome taxation and vexatious (charka) during the 13th/14th century, production
cesses the condition of peasant was not satisfactory. of cotton was revolutionised. It increased the
Standard of living was very low. Amir Khusro say that spinners efficiency six fold in comparison with the
“every pearl in the royal crown in but the crystallised one using a hand spindle for the purpose. Another
drop of blood fallen from the tearful eyes of the poor improvement was the cotton carder’s bow which
peasant.” Alaudding Khilji and Mohammad Tughluq greatly enhanced the quantity of cotton cleaned in
reign saw an increase in revenue demand. Their comparison with the older method. Introduction of
condition worsened during famines (Jalaluddin Khilji these two devices must have not only lowered the
and MBT). But there were some endeavours towards price of spun yarn but also enlarged its production.
We do not know whether these innovation were
ameliorating this lot: Allauddins price regulations,

suppression of interim classes; Muhammad Tughluqs followed by improvements in the weavers’ loom. But
agricultural loans, famine relief agricultural reforms: the possibility that treadles were an early medieval
Firuz Tughluq irrigation network, writing of loans etc. addition to the loom can not be over ruled. Various
coloures derived from vegetables and mineral
Indian Medicine sources were used for dyeing. Indigo, madder and
Advent of Islam had given rise to a healthy lac were widely used. Silk weaving was another
intercourse between Indian and Muslims medical important industry Ma Huan refers to mulberry trees
practitioners. In this process of intercourse of ideas, and silk worms. Silk weaving was taken to its finest
the Siddha and Ayurveda systems became popular level in Gujarat which was the home of the patola
among liberal Muslims. Similarly, the introduction of device. The shawl industry was firmly established
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and Muhammad Tughluq sent Kashmiri shawls as manufactured robes of honour numbering 900,000
presents to the Chinese emperor. Carpet weaving per year. There were 36 Karkhanas during Firuz
was encouraged during the period. Tughluq’s reign and Firuz attached greater importan
In the building industry, many construction to them and said just as lacs of revenues are collected
devices were introduced by the Turks in India. in the provinces, similarly lacs are collected in the
There was a great spurt in brick construction due Karkhanas. While some were factories others were
to introduction of fine quality mortar (lome) as a purchasing houses. Among the manufactures,
cementing material. The lime mortar paved the greatest attention was paid to the production of
way for the construction of the true arch (mehrab) luxury goods and war materials.
and the dome. These provided new devices for Agrarian Structure and Relations
roofing. As a consequence, building activity saw
It is unreasonable to expect that the
a great boom with forts, palaces, mosques being
establishment of the Delhi Sultanate could have
constructed on a large scale.
effected any radical changes in the system of
The next important industry was paper making. agricultural production, though the coming of
It was definitely a Turkish importation. During certain new technologies seemed to have helped
the period, paper was used for many purposes— irrigation and spread of commercial crops as indigo
books, farmans and numerous commercial and and grapes. However, it was the agrarian relations
administration document. It was available on a that underwent a significant change. According
large scale as much as that the sweetmeat sellers to D.D. Kosambi, these changes did no more than
of Delhi delivered sweets to the buyers in paper intensify the elements already present in Indian
packets called purya, which is still practiced in ‘Feudalism’ while Mohd. Habib regards these to be
India. The practices of writing books on paper was
not only radical but as a progressive in nature that
accompanied by the craft of book binding which
to him these deserved the designation of ‘rural
was an innovation in India.
revolution’.
In military technology, the stirrup was the
contribution of the Muslims. So was the horse shoe Agricultural Production
(shoeing being monopolised by Muslim artisans). During the 13th and 14th centuries, the land
These were important innovation as cavalry was the man ratio was very favourable. Nizami writing the
main arm of the Turkish army providing mobility to 14th century says that the peasant was in need
the troops and greater striking power. Gunpowder of seed, a pair of oxen, tools and implements and
was brought by the immigrant Turks during this not land. Owing to the abundance of land during
period. But even by the time of Firuz Tughluq its the period agriculture was extensive. Control over
only use was for pyrotechny or fireworks (atashbazi) land was therefore, not as important as on persons
and not for firearms or for propelling canon cultivating them.
balls. Shipbuilding was influenced by European
technology particularly the use of iron nails for One of most remarkable features of age during
riveting and the iron anchors. The magnetic compass the period was the large number of crops grown.This
has perhaps no parallel in other parts of the world
was a Muslim contribution. Salt and diamond

mining were very important industries. Salt was except perhaps in South China. Ibn Batuta was struck
also produced by the natural evaporation of the by the multiplicity of crops grown and described in
saline sea water collected systematically. detail the various crops grown in the two cropping
seasons. He suggests that in the region around Delhi
Karkhanas double cropping was practiced. Among the food
Karkhanas occupied an important place crops, the major ones were wheat, barley, paddy,
in industrial production. Sultans paid special millets and pulses. Among the cash crops, sugarcane,
attention to its organisation and were generally cotton, oil seeds, seasamum are referred to. One may
placed under the charge of a high ranking grandee. perhaps legitimately assume that improved facilities
During Muhammad Tughluq’s reign, Karkhanas of irrigation could have helped extend he area under
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rabi crops as wheat, sugarcane etc. from Ibn Batuta’s varied in size. On one extreme, there were Khuts and
account, we get information on fruit growing Muqaddams having holding and enjoying superior
in Delhi Sultunate. Special mention comes into rights on ordinary peasant and at the other was the
measures of Muhammad Tughluq & Firuz Tughluq village menial holding a petty plot of land (balahar).
in encouraging fruit cultivation. However, the Indian In the abundance of land, there was no proprietary
peasants did not practices sericulture and no true right of the peasant over the land he tillest. On the
silk was produced. Ma Huan, the Chinese navigator contrary, even on his produce there were claims of
in 1432, makes the first reference to sericulture in the superior classes. The peasant, though recognised
Bengal. Agriculture was generally dependent upon as free born at times was deprived of the freedom
natural irrigation, hence the tendency was to grow to leave the land at will or to change the domicile.
mostly single, rain-watered kharif crop and coarse Barani say than each village had a patwari to keep
grains more. Canal irrigation is mentioned in the accounts. His bahi was scrutinised to discover every
contemporary sources and the efforts of some, payment made by the peasant to the revenue
Sultans stand out. Ghiyasuddin Tughlug was the officials. He was not a government official but a
first to dig canals. Cutting of canals in a big way was village official. The village was collectively a tax
carried out by Firuz Tughluq who cut two canals paying unit. Barani’s complaint that the ‘burden of
from the Yamuna. Canal irrigation greatly helped in the rich falling on the poor’ further indicates that
the extension of cultivation in the eastern Punjab. the village community was not an ideal institution
Now, there was an emphasis on cultivation on cash but itself a machinery of exploitation.
crops hike sugarcane that required more water than The highest stratum of the peasant was
other crops. Afif comments enthusiastically “neither comprised of rural intermediaries called Khuta
one village remained desolate nor one cubit of land and Muqaddamas and Chandhuris. From Barani’s
uncultivated.” account, it appears that prior to Allauddin’s agrarian
Agrarian Relations measures, they held revenue free lands. As a class,
the village headmen were prosperous. Barani says
On the eve of the Ghurid conquest, the ruling
with malicious pleasure that they were cut down
class was heavily ruralised like the contemporary
to size by Alauddin. However, since these rural
feudal aristocracy of West Europe. Minhaj us
intermediaries were necessary for the system of land
Siraj designates the Chiefs opposing ghorians
revenue mobilisation, stern measures against them
and early Delhi Sultans as ‘rai and rana’ and their
(during AK) were not to last longer. Ghiyasuddin
cavalry commanders as ‘rawat’. From the epigraphic
introduced moderation. Exemption from grasing
evidence from different parts of Northern India, the
as well as tax on their own cultivation was granted
earlier feudal hierarchy of Raja (rai), Ranaka (rana)
again. But they were not allowed to levey any cess
and Rauta (rawat) is fairly well established.
upon the peasantry.They received further concession
In the early phase, the Sultans tended to enter under Firuz and these concessions are interestingly
into settlement this subjugated rural aristocracy. enough approvingly described by Barani. Among
Kharaj was the tribute imposed on them. It seems the rural intermediaries, the ‘Chaudhuri seems to
that even after the replacement of this tribute by have emerged, during the 14th century, as he is not
vigorously assessed tax imposed on the peasants mentioned by Minhaj or any other source of 13th
under Allaudin, the older rural aristocracy had some century. It makes it appearance during Barani’s 14th
role to play in revenue collection. They were held century account. Ibn Batuta calls him the chief of the
responsible for collection of revenue, at least till the group of 100 villages (Sadi). Irfan Habib suggests that
early years of the 14th century. The administration the Chandhuri was in fact a successor, though much
too exercised its right to collect it directly through reduced in authority, of the head of the chaurasi (84
villages Headmen and Chaudharis. villages) of Gurjara Pratihara and Chalukyas. From
Peasants: Cultivation was based on individual the time of Firuz, all these intermediaries were given
peasant farming. But this peasant economy was not a blanket designation—the Zamindar—which was
egalitarian. Size of land cultivated by them greatly much in vogue during the Mughal period.
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SYSTEM OF TAXATION cases, a wali and an amir was appointed to the
Sultans of Delhi did not completely and same territory. Wali was to called revenue and after
immediately eliminate the older systems of taxation. deducting his pay, to send the rest to the treasury.
These continued to function but with the super- The amir or commander had nothing to do with
imposition of the demands of a new ruling class. revenue realisation and received his own salary,
Initially, when the roots of Sultanate were not fix, it that of his troops in cash, presumably from the local
extracted tributes from the conquered areas. But treasury. This infuriated the commanders leading to
with the consolidation of authority attempts were political problems for Muhammad Tughluq.
made to increase the revenue by collecting taxes Firuz, therefore, decided to make concessions.
modeled on those levied in the Islamic land. For He made iqtas hereditary and assigned away lands
the purpose of revenue administration, land was in iqtas, reducing the size of the Khalisa. The term
divided into 4 categories; Khalisa, iqta, inam and ‘Jama’ (estimates of revenue) was used for the first
land held by Hindu chiefs who had come to terms times and no change was made in it during his long
with the revenue and taxes were based on summary rule. Fixity of Jania meant that the Muqti would not
assessment. Taxes were paid in cash as the mahsul be troubled on account of enhancement (taufir).
went to pay for the soldiers. Alauddin collected tax There was no attempt to restore central
in kind is some of the Khalisa. control by Firuz’s successor. Under the Lodhis, the
Iqta was a territorial assignment. It combined administration charges and revenue assignments
the dual function of revenue collection and were combined together and these were no more
distribution without immediately endangering the designated as iqtas but were simply called sarkar
unity of the political structures. The Muqti has no and parganas. A system of sub-assignments came
claim over the ‘raiya’ other than that of collecting in vogue, particularly under Sikander Lodhi.
tax that was assigned to him. Iqta implied in turn Land Grants
certain obligations on the part of the muqti to the
Sultan—maintenance of troops for sultan. He was a Revenue grants to religious men and
tax collector, army pay master and army commander foundations were called milk, or inam. These were
all rolled into one. not generally resumed or transferred, but the Sultan
had the right to cancel them. Allauddin is said to
Iltutmish is reported to have assigned inliev
have resumed about all the grants. Ghiyasuddin also
of salaries, small iqtas in the Doab to the soldiers of
cancelled a large number of them. Firuz reign was a
the Sultans army (hashu qalb). Balban made a half
departure not only returned all previous grants but
hearted attempt at their resumption but without
granted fresh ones. But in spite of Firuz’s munificien,
success. However, Balban introduced the offices of
total grans made by the Sultan, as recorded by Afif
he ‘khwaja’ posted in each iqta to find out the exact
accounted only for about 1/20th of the total Jama.
difference between the actual income of the iqta
and muqti’s expenditure. Nobles too made grants out of their own iqtas. Grant
of land was generally made in uncultivated lands
Real intervention in iqta administration came
i.e. expansion of cultivation.
under Alauddin. Diwan-i-Wazirat perhaps prepared
some sort of an estimated revenue incomes from Growth of Urban Centres

each iqta. Audit was stringent, punishments severe, Urban economy on the eve of Ghurid conquest
transfers frequent and enhancements (taufir) were was at a low ebb. However, with the establishment
often made in the estimated revenue income of the of the Delhi Sultanate, a thriving urban economy
iqta on various perexts. developed which is attested by archaeological.
Ghiyasuddin introduced some moderation. Numismatic evidences and literary widence. This
The enhancements in the estimated revenue income led Muhd. Habib to postulate a theory of urban
by wizarat was not to be more than 1/10th or 1/11th revolution. Literary records abound in mention of
annually. Attempt at central intervention reached major towns—Delhi, Multan, Anhilwara, Cambay,
is climax during Muhammad Tughluq. In several Kara Lakhnauti and Daulatabad. Some of these
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cities were big enough by contemporary standards. The ruling class required articles of luxury—
Ibn Batuta visiting Delhi in 1330 describes it as of silk, books, arcuate light architecture and with the
enormous extent and population, the largest city in tremendous resources at their command, they
the Islamic East inspite of the fact that Muhammad naturally encouraged in migration from Islamic
Tughluq had shifted much of its population to culture area. These immigrants were not only
Daulatabad. soldiers, but craftsman, artisans, singers, musicians,
Factors for Urban Expansion poets etc. In due course the Indian artisans must
have learnt these new crafts which led to the rise
The strength of the invader, of course, lay in
of many urban centres.
combination and not in disposal in an unfamiliar
land and thus, in initial stages, it was but natural Urban Manufactures
for the members of the ruling class to prefer to Urban craft production received a two fold
stay at their headquarters along with their cavalry. impetus with the establishment of the Delhi
These iqta headquarters having the concentration Sultanate.
of cavalry, its hangers-on. The retinue and household
The ruling class remained town centred and
of the muqti thus emerged in the early phases as
spent the enormous resources it appropriated in
“camp cities”. Most of the 13th century towns are
described in the contemporary sources as iqta. the form of land revenue mainly in towns, either in
Hansi, Kara, Anhilwara etc., these towns had to be burgeoning services of procuring manufactures.
fed and provided for. In the beginning, the troops Even the money spent on the service sector
had to go for realising kharaj/mal by plundering the partly went to help the urban craft sector through
neighbouring villages, but gradually, by the 14th multiplier effect.
century as pointed out by Moreland, Cash nexus Introduction of a number of technological
developed. Revenue was realised from peasants in devices that came with the Turks. A number of
cash who were, thus, forced to sell their produce urban manufacturers were introduced particularly
at the side of the field. The merchants catered to silk weaving, carpet making and paper making. A
the needs of towns, giving rise to what is called major sector of urban employment was building
‘induced trade’. industry.
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CHAPTER-6
THE 15TH AND EARLY 16TH CENTURIES
(POLITICAL HISTORY)

RISE OF PROVINCIAL DYNASTIES Thus, from the close of the fourteenth
The greatest spread of the Sultanate of Delhi century till Akbar’s accession, India was divided
was witnessed in the early fourteenth century into numerous centres of power. India, during this
period was in a state of continuous flux and all the
under Muhammad Bin Tughluq, when it extended
states into which the country was divided were
from the Indus to the Kaveri. But the vast Tughluq
at war with one another. Delhi was pitted against
empire started tottering during the latter years
Jaunpur. Jaunpur against Bengal, Gujarat against
of Muhammad Bin Tughluq and within half a Malwa, Malwa against Bahmanis and the latter
ceuntry of his death, the Sultanate disintegrated against Vijayanagar; and there seemed to be no
into a number of independent kingdoms, better end to these internecine feuds. It is against this
known as the Provincial Kingdoms or dynasties. background that the provincial kingdom have to
The process of disintegration of the Sultanate was be studied.
completed shortly after Timur’s invasion, in 1398,
which delivered the death blow to the tottering Bengal
Tughluq empire. The disintegration of the Sultanate The efforts of the Delhi Sultans to assert their
actually started from south India, when the Tughluq rule over all the conquered and annexed territories
governor of Madurai (Mabar) revolted and founded were unsuccessful except for a brief period during
an independent kingdom known as the Sultanate Sultan Alauddin Khilji’s reign. In Bengal, submission
of Madura, in 1333-34. This was followed by the to the Delhi Sultans had been nominal from the time
foundation of the historic empire of Vijayanagar of its conquest by Bakhtiyar Khilji to its complete
by Harihara and Bukka, in 1336. Exactly a decade independence. Sultan Ghiyasuddin Tughluq of
later, the Tughluq Amiran-i-Sadahs in the Deccan Delhi attempted to ensure the loyalty of Bengal by
founded the Bahmani kingdom, in 1346. dividing it into three administrative divisions with
capitals at Lakhanauti (North Bengal), Sonargaon
Thus the loss of the South by the Sultanate (East Bengal), and Satgaon (South Bengal); but his
of Delhi was complete. During the next half measures failed. His successor Muhammad bin
century, further dismemberment of the Sultanate Tughluq, was unable to assert his authority over
of Delhi took place leading to the foundation of Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah (1339-49) of Sonargaon,
the independent kingdoms of Khandesh, Malwa, who undauntedly assumed pretentious titles. In
Gujarat, Bengal, Jaunpur etc. But Orissa, throughout North Bengal, Alauddin Ali Shah (1339-45) declared
the Sultanate period, maintained its independent himself independent and transferred his capital
existence. Kashmir, which was outside the purview from Lakhnauti to Pandua. Bengal was finally united
of the Sultanate, was first captured by the Mongols under one independent rule by Alauddin’s foster
and finally an independent Muslim dynasty came to brother, Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah (1345-58), and the
rule over it. In Rajasthan (or Rajputana), numerous Delhi Sultan, Firuz Shah Tughluq, had no laternative
independent Rajput dynasties were already ruling but to make peace with him. Ilyas’ reign is marked
long before the decline of the Tughluqs. The status of by the development of an impressive coinage
the Saiyids and the Tughluqs amidst these kingdoms system and the number of monuments erected. His
was like that of any other provincial kingdom. successor, Sikandar Shah (1358-90), also successfully
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THE 15TH AND EARLY 16TH CENTURIES (POLITICAL HISTORY)

defied Firuz’s attempts to subdue him. Ghiyasuddin patron of Bengali literature. Himself a learned man,
Azam Shah (1390-1410), who followed Sikander, he patronised learning and the Bengali language. He
established diplomatic and cultural relations with won the hearts of his subjects—Hindus and Muslims
China and the growth of the port of Chittagong alike. The Hindus honoured him as an incarnation
stimulated increase in trade with the Far East. of Krishna, Nripati Tilak (Crown of Kings) and Jagat
In 1415 A.D., Raja Ganesha of Dinajpur Bhushan (Adornment of the Universe). He liberally
(Rajashahi), originally a leading noble for the Ilyas conferred high posts upon his Hindu subjects.
Shahi rulers, assumed royal power. Subsequently, Several celebrated Bengali writers flourished during
at the request of the outraged Bengali Ulema and his enlightened rule.
Sufis, who repudiated a non-Muslim ruler, Ibrahim Hussain Shah’s son, Nusrat Shah (1519-32 A.D.),
Shah Sharqi from the neighbouring Muslim state of who succeeded him, kept the Kingdom intact, but
Jaunpur invaded Bengal. Peace was soon concluded, his hold on the trans-Gandak region weakened
however, on the intercession of the leading Bengal due to the Mughal invasion. During the reign of
Sufi, Nur Qutb-i-Alam, and Ganesha’s twelve-year-old his successors, Bengal had to face the invasion of
son, Jadu, was converted to Islam and proclaimed Humayun and later on the kingdom of Bengal lay
king as Jalaluddin. After Ibrahim Sharqi had returned at the feet of Sher Shah Suri. The rise of Sher Shah
to Jaunpur, Ganesha reappeared in Bengal and ruled Suri ended the Hussain Shahi dynasty of Bengal.
in his son’s name, until he died in 1418. Upon his The state’s prosperity under their rule had amased
death in 1431, Jalaluddin was succeeded by his son, both Protuguese and Chinese visitors. Barbosa tells
Shamsuddin Ahmad Shah (1431-5). The Ilyas Shahi us of luxury and extravagance among the Muslim
ruler, Ruknuddin Barabak Shah (1459-74), organised aristocracy in whose hands the country’s wealth was
a militia of Ethiopian slaves and recruited Arab a concentrated. In the cities, they lived in brick-built
soldiers as his palace guards. One of these, Ismail houses with flat roofs and flights or ornamented
Shah, conquered Kamrup for his master. Barbak’s steps. Bathing-tanks were attached to their houses.
army also invaded regions as far north as Purnea Their cuisine was sumptuous. Men wore very thin,
district, and Bengal control over the Jessore-Khulna long, white garments reaching to their ankles, with
districts was strengthened. The Sultan was known cloth girdles under them and silk scarves over them.
as a patron of Bengali literature. The Chinese were The principal feature of Hussain Shahi rule in
deeply impressed by the wall of Pandua, the well- Bengal was a tendency towards unity among all
arranged bazaars, and the imposing royal palace.
classes of Hindus and Muslims. A genuine pride in
In 1487, the Ilyas Shahi dynasty was overthrown Bengali culture and social values had emerged. The
by Sultan Shahzada Barak Shah, the commander of Muslim foreigners adopted Bengali customs, while
the Ethiopian guards. Bengal was then ruled by the Hindus learned Persian to secure positions in
Ethiopians, until 1494. They were eventually deposed the administration. This is reflected both in mystical
by an Arab, Alauddin Hussain Shah (1494-1519), works and in poetry. The movement towards cultural
who had risen to a high position in their service. synthesis, however, had by no means, eliminated all
After coming to the throne, Hussain replaced the reactionary and revivalist tendencies.
Ethiopian soldiers and administrators with Bengali
Hindus and Muslims. He was an indomitable warrior, Kashmir

and his generosity to both Hindus and Muslims was Kashmir was attacked even by Muhammad
legendary. Of the later Ilyas Shahi rulers, Alauddin bin Qasim, the conqueror of Sind, but neither he
Hussain Shah (1493-1519) is regarded as the greatest nor other Arab invaders succeeded in conquering
indepdendent Muslim ruler of Bengal. He gave it. Mahmud of Ghazni’s attempt to capture Kashmri
refuge to Sutlan Husain Shah Shargi of Jaunpur and also failed. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries,
secured North Bihar through a treaty with Sikander however, Muslim families began to move to the
Lodi. He is also credited with conquests in Orissa. Kashmir Valley, where they obtained employment
During his reign, Chaitanya preached Vaishnavism under its Hindu rulers. One of the settlers was
in Bengal and Orissa. Alauddin Hussain Shah was a Shah Mir, who arrived apparently from Swat with
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his family, in 1313. Seven years later, the Mongol of Muslims, who had been displaced by Timur’s
invaders callously slaughtered most of the Kashmiri invasions, migrated from Iran and Transoxiana to
population and shook the foundations of Hindu rule. Srinagar. Their presence led the Sultan to Persianise
After the invaders had left the valley, Rinchana of the the administration and the life of the Kashmiri
Ladakh ruling family, who served to commander-in- Muslims. The process had already begun during
chief of Suhadeva, the Hindu ruler of Kashmir, seised his father’s reign with the arrival of Mir Sayyid Ali
the throne. Because he was a Tibetan Buddhist, Hamdani and his followers. Sikander’s Prime Minister,
Rinchana did not get much cooperation from the Suha Bhatta, who had embraced Islam, strove to
local Hindu noblemen. The rising wave of Mongol Islamise the country with the efficiency of a new
conversions to Islam in Iran and Transoxiana seems broom. The Kashmiri Brahmins were dismissed from
eventually to have prompted him to became a top positions. Important temples, including the
Muslim, although Shah Mir played an important famous Sun-temple of Martand, were desecrated
part in this decision. and destroyed. For the first time, jeziya was imposed
The stories surrounding Rinchana’s conversion on the Hindus. Before his death, however, conscious
may be dismissed as stock-in-trade legends of the problems resulting from his persecution of
attributed to innumerable conversions. He adopted the Brahmins, the Sultan fixed with some difficulty
the name Sadruddin. After his death in 1323, Hindu a limit to the advance of the great sea of yavanas
rule was reestablished in Kashmir. Nevertheless, (Muslims) and abolished turushkadanda (jeziya).
Shah Mir retained his influence and became very Sikander’s policy was completely reversed by
popular when his followers repulsed a second his successor, Sultan Zainul Abidin (1420-70). He
Mongol invasion. He won over the leading Hindu rebuilt some of the temples destroyed by Sikander
noblemen to his side; imprisoned the widow of and encouraged by Brahmins who had left Kashmir
the Hindu raja, Kota Rani, whom he subsequently to return to their homeland and resume their former
married; and became king, in 1339, under the high positions. Islamised Hindus were also permitted
title—Shamsuddin. Thus the Shah Mir dynasty of to revert to their ancestral faith. Cremation tax on
Kashmir was founded. He changed the Hindu feudal Hindus was abolished, and cow slaughter (which
framework to the Turkish system based on assigning was contrary to Hinduism) was prohibited. Even the
iqtas which he gave to his loyal commanders, both custom of sati, which Sikander had abolished, was
Hindus and Muslims. Shamsuddin fixed the land tax permitted. Muslims who supported these policies
at 17 percent of the gross produce and abolished a were also treated generously by the Sultan, and
considerable number of imposts. many eminent Muslim scholars moved to Kashmir
from India and other Islamic countries. The wave
Sixteen more members of the Shah Mir of Islamisation which had been rising among the
dynasty ruled Kashmir between 1342 and 1561. non-Brahmin class did not, however, subside. The
One of them, Alauddin (1343-54), transferred his Sultan was a patron of education and learning. He
capital from Indrakot to Alauddinpur (Srinagar). founded Muslim schools in Srinagar, staffed them
Sultan Shihabuddin (1354-73) loved fighting. He with famous scholars and offered grants to students.
conquered Pakhli, invaded Gilgit, defeated the He established a department to translate Sanskrit
Kashghari Mongols, and penetrated Ladakh and works into Persian and vice versa. The translation
then Nagarkot. Regions from Kishtwar to Jammu of the Mahabharata and Kalhans’s Rajatarangini
were also conquered him. into Persian was its most outstanding achievement.
His successor, Sultan Qutubuddin (1373-89), Jonaraja, who continued the Rajatarangini and
conquered Punch. During the reign of his son brought it up to 1458, as also Srivara, who continued
Sikander (1389-1413), Timur invaded India, but Jonaraja’s work, enjoyed his patronage.
Sikander was able to save Kashmir by diplomatic The Sultan was also interested in developing
negotiations with the invaders. Sikander also crafts. It would seem that paper had previously been
sent a successful expedition against the ruler of imported into Kashmir from Samarqand, but the
Qhind. During his reign a considerable number Sultan sent his own artisans there to learn paper-
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making and book-binding. Before long, Kashmir Tatar Khan, and Zafar was restored to the throne.
became an important center for both these crafts. In 1407 Muzaffar declared his independence as
Under the Sultan’s personal guidance, powder for Muzaffar Shah. He died in 1411 and was succeeded
fireworks was also manufactured in Kashmir. Crafts by Shihabuddin Ahmad Shah (1411-42), the son of
such as stone polishing, stone cutting, bottle making, the dead Tatar Khan.
window cutting, and gold beating developed in Ahmad Shah’s rule of thirty-one years was
Kashmir because of Sultan Zainul Abidin’s patronage. a period of relentless warfare but also saw the
The Sultan also fostered the development consolidation of the Gujarat Sultanate. In 1416,
of agriculture; a number of new canals and tanks he crushed a rebellious confederacy of Rajputs,
were dug, and dams were constructed. The Sultan reinforced by Hushang’s army, in the northwest. Two
appreciated the necessity of a strong army and stable years later Ahmad invaded Malwa, bringing home
government, and forced regions such as Ladakh and to Hushang that Malwa was no match to Gujarat, a
Baltistan to reacknowledge the suzerainty of the truce was signed in 1419. Hushang, subsequently,
Kashmir Sultans. Friendly relations were established invaded Jajnagar to obtain more elephants. His
with the Timurid rulers of Khurasan and Transoxiana, absence prompted Sultan Ahmad to make forced
the kings of Gilan and Egypt, and the sheriffs of marches to Mandu, but the garrison there stoutly
Mecca. Many independent Hindu and Muslim rulers defended the fort. Hushang returned meanwhile
also exchanged envoys with him. and was defeated by Ahmad near Sarangpur. Ahmad
The Kashmiris gave Sultan Zainul Abidin, was still unable to capture Mandu fort, returning to
the title Budshah (the Great King), and he is still Gujarat in May 1423.
remembered by it. His successors were unable After 1425, Gujarat entered upon an era
to match his achievements, although they were of intermittent warfare with the Rajput Raja of
interested in promoting the social and cultural life Idar. Ahmad also exacted tribute from the Rajput
of the region. Eventually the weaker rulers fell under chieftains of Champanir, Dungarpur, Kota, and Bundi
the domination of the adventurers. In 1540, Mirza to help finance his campaigns and enhance his
began to rule in the name of Nazuk Shah of the power. He died in 1442.
Shah Mir dynasty. Although he streamlined the Muslim historians praise Ahmad Shah for his
administration and built many new monuments, he devotion to Sufis and for his determination to destroy
was unable to command the loyalty of the Kashmiri idols. He forced the Rajput chiefs to marry their
upper classes and in October, 1551, he was killed daughters to him in order to make them outcastes
whilst quelling a rebellion. Three rulers of the Shah
in their own community, thereby ensuring their
Mir family succeeded him, but in 1561, the Kashmiri
subservience to him. His Muslim nobles also pursued
Chaks established a new dynasty and provided
the same policy, and the interracial marriages gave
the next six rulers until 1588, when Akbar annexed
rise to a mixed religious group in Gujarat.The soldiers
Kashmir to the Mughal empire.
in his army drew half their salary in cash from the
Gujarat royal treasury and half from land tax assignments.
The independent kingdom of Gujarat was To ensure his subjects’ obedience and to prevent
founded by Zafar Khan, son of Sadharan, a Jat them from uniting against him, half of the civil posts
convert to Islam. Sadharan’s sister was married to in each department went to the free-born Muslims
Firuz Tughluq. Zafar Khan was appointed governor and the other half to slaves.
of Gujarat, in 1391, with the title Muzaffar Khan. Ahmad’s successor, Muhammad Shah (1442-
Despite his advanced age, he firmly suppressed the 51), was a mild ruler, as was the next Sultan,
rebellious Muslim noblemen and Hindu chieftains. Qutubuddin Ahmad Shah II (1451-59). Fath Khan,
He remained loyal to the Delhi Sultanate, even after who ascended the throne at the age of thirteen as
Timur left India and anarchy prevailed there. In Mahmud Shah (1459-1511), was the greatest Muslim
1403-04 he was deposed by his son, Tatar Khan, ruler of Gujarat. Soon after his coronation, the ruler
but his uncle, Shams Khan Dandani, then poisoned of Khandesh sought his assistance in repelling an
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invasion by Mahmud Khilji of Malwa. Mahmud’s strengthened its defences and foiled two successive
military exploits despite his young age so impressed Portuguese attempts to seize it. He also helped
the Malwa Sultan that he decided that no military Mahmud Khilji of Malwa without any motives
solutions could be secured while Gujarat had such of personal gain. Although he loved music and
a strong ruler, and he ceased attacking the buffer patronised musicians, this did not conflict with his
state of Khandesh. piety. His death in 1526 was followed by the brief
In 1461, Mahmud defeated the Muslim ruler of reigns of two incompetent rulers. Then, Bahadur
Jalor in south Rajasthan and made him his protege. Shah (1526-37) ascended the throne. He was the
He then seised the port of Daman on the west coast last of the energetic Gujarat rulers. Early in 1531 his
from its Hindu rulers. Initially, in 1466, he exacted navy, in collaboration with the Turkish fleet, defeated
tribute from the Yadava prince of Girnar (Junagarh) the Portuguese fleet, which took shelter in Goa.
but four years later, he annexed Girnar to his Next, he annexed Malwa to his kingdom and then
Sultanate, thereby gaining control of the flourishing arrested Silahdi, the ruler of Raisen, Sarangpur, and
port of Veraval. Mahmud founded a new town at Bhilsa, when Silahdi visited the Sultan in his camp
the foot of the Girnar hills, Mustaphabad, where to conclude a treaty. Bahadur then seised Raisen
he settled members of the Muslim religious classes and gave it to a Lodi chief from Kalpi, whom the
and elite. Mahmud’s supremacy was threatened Emperor Humayun had expelled from his territory.
only by the Portuguese. After the arrival of Vasco da In March 1535, the use of artillery belonging
Gama in Calicut, in 1498, the Protuguese became to the Turkish gunner Rumi Khan made the Sultan
a serious threat to the trade of Cambay and other master of Chittor. Rumi Khan, however, disappointed
Gujarat ports. In the battle of Chaul, in January 1508, at the Sultan’s refusal to make him governor of
the governor of Junagarh and the Egyptian fleet Chittor, decided to betray him.The opportunity arose
sent by the Mamluk Sultan were victorious, but before long, when Humayun, in pursuit of Bahadur,
the Egyptian and Gujarati fleets were routed by the reached Mandasor. Rumi Khan urged the Sultan first
Portuguese in February 1509. Mahmud realised that to strengthen his defences and then to make short
the Portuguese were invincible at sea and opened work of Humayun by using his superior artillery.
negotiations for peace with Governor Albuquerque. The suggestion seemed reasonable, but Bahadur’s
In November 1510, the Portuguese conquest of Goa, loyal commanders rightly rejected it. They believed
which belonged to the Adilshahi ruler of Bijapur, so that the victorious Gujarati army’s best interest lay
greatly enhanced Portuguese power that Mahmud in an immediate assault; waiting around would
only destroy their morale. While the defences were
unconditionally released his Portuguese hostages,
being strengthened, Humayun, naturally seised
and the Egyptian-Gujarat confederacy was broken.
the opportunity to cut off supplies to Bahadur’s
Mahmud died in November 1511. According camp, and his army starved. Rumi Khan deserted to
to the Italian adventurer, Ludovico de Varthema. Humayun at the end of April 1535, and Bahadur had
Mahmud’s beard reached his girdle, and he tied no alternative but to retreat to Mandu. Chased by
his inordinately long moustaches behind his head. Humayun, Bahadur fled from Mandu to Champanir.
According to Barbosa, he had been regularly fed on From there, he sent extremely valuable presents
some poison since childhood, with the result that to the Ottoman Sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent
“if a fly settled on his hand it fell dead”. His ravenous (1520-66), in the unrealistic hope of obtaining his
hunger led him to consume enormous amounts of help. Humayun’s pursuit was relentless; Bahadur had
food. His title Begarha was a constant reminder of to flee to Cambay. There he burnt his fleet of one
both his conquest of the two forts, Junagarh and hundred warships in order to prevent their falling into
Champanir, and his moustaches, for the Gujarati Humayun’s hands, and sailed to Diu. In the despairing
word vegara means a bullock with sweeping horns. hope of obtaining assistance from the Portuguese,
Mahmud’s successor, Muzaffar II (1511-26), Bahadur granted them permission to erect a fort
was a gentle but active ruler. He refused to allow at Diu, which he had until then refused. Humayun
the Portuguese to build a fortress at Diu; instead he conquered Champanir and then Ahmadabad. He
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marched on to Diu but then had to abandon the relieved the besieged fort. Hushang ensured his
pursuit of Bahadur in order to deal with Sher Khan’s popularity with the majority Hindu population by
threat to his throne. Bahadur took the opportunity introducing a policy of religious toleration, although
to leave Diu and, reassembling his army, regained he also encouraged the ulema and Sufis to settle in
his lost kingdom. Now regretting his concessions to Mandu. Many Rajputs settled in his kingdom and
the Portuguese, Bahadur marched to Gogha near served his army loyally. The Jains also supported
Diu, but was outwitted by the Portuguese and slain him and proved an asset to the promotion of trade
on 13th February, 1537, while returning from the and commerce in Malwa. Although constant wars
negotiations aboard their flagship. With Bahadur’s against the rulers of Gujarat, Jaunpur, Delhi and the
death, the glory of the independent kingdom of Bahmanis brought no material gains to his kingdom,
Gujarat vanished. Its extinction by Akbar was only they frustrated his neighbour’s expansionist designs.
a matter to time. Before his death, in 1435, Hushang also founded a
new town, Hushangabad, on the river Narmada.
Malwa
His son and heir, Muhammad Shah, was an
The kingdom of Malwa founded by Husain
ineffectual ruler and was deposed by one of his
Ghuri, whom Firuz Tughluq had made a noble, giving
nobles, who ascended the throne in 1436, with the
him the title Dilawar Khan. In 1390-91 Firuz’s son,
title Mahmud Khilji (1436-69). He crushed Ghurid
Sultan Nasiruddin Muhammad, appointed Dilawar
resistance and established the Khilji dynasty. In
governor of Malwa. After Timur’s departure from
1442, he invaded Delhi, but the invasion of Malwa by
India, Dilawar proclaimed himself the independent
Ahmad Shah of Gujarat forced him to make peace
ruler of Malwa with his capital at Dhar. His son,
and return of Mandu. In 1443, Mahmud attacked
Alp Khan, reinforced the defence by competing
Chittor, but finding the fort impregnable, retreated.
the fortification of Mandu. Dilawar maintained
The historians of Malwa kingdom nevertheless
a conciliatory religious policy which made both
claimed victory for their ruler. Mahmud next
Rajputs and other Hindus friendly to him. He even
captured the Gagraun and Mandalgarh forts on
settled Rajputs in his newly acquired territory of
the Malwa border and later, in 1457, marched once
Nimar. Dilawar extended his kingdom by snatching
more against Chittor, unsuccessfully. His wars against
Saugor and Damoh from the Delhi Sultanate and
the Sultan of Gujarat were abortive too, and he
making the ruler of Chanderi accept his overlordship.
eventually, concluded an agreement guaranteeing
After his death in 1406-07, his son, Alp Khan, the integrity of their borders. Thrice Mahmud’s
became the Sultan of Malwa with the title—Hushang efforts to seize parts of the Bahmani territory failed
Shah (1406-35). Almost immediately Sultan Muzaffar because the ruler received timely assistance from
Shah of Gujarat invaded Malwa, defeating Hushang the Sultan of Gujarat. Mahmud was at length forced
and taking him captive. Nusrat, Muzaffar’s brother, to make a treaty with the Bahmins, cementing good
who was appointed the governor of Malwa, was neighbourly relations. Before his death, in 1469, a
unable to control it and returned to Gujarat. Muzaffar realistic boundary had been established for Malwa
intended to crush the popular uprising in Malwa by on its Gujarat and Deccan borders.
force but good sense prevailed and he restored the
throne to Hushang. Back in his kingdom, Hushang Mahmud was interested in all aspects
transferred his capital to Mandu. He then invaded of community life. He actively promoted the
Rai Narsingh Kherla’s kingdom in the southern part development of agriculture and trade, established
of Gondawana in order to obtain military assistance centres of Islamic learning, and encouraged scholars
and a supply of elephants. Profiting from Hushang’s from other parts of India to move to Mandu. The
absence, Ahmad I of Gujarat besieged Mandu, but hospital he founded there was a large establishment
Hushang, eluding the invading army, returned to with provision for free medicine.
the city, forcing Ahmad to retreat. Hushang then The reign of Mahmud’s successor, Ghiyas Shah
seised Gangraun. His subsequent invasion of Gwalior, (1469-1501), saw a period of peace and prosperity.
however, failed because Mubarak Shah of Delhi In 1482, he marched to the assistance of Rawal Jai
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Singh, the raja of Champan, when he was invaded Chanderi, while his associate Silahdi occupied Bhilsa
by the Sultan of Gujarat. Realising that he would and Raisen. Rana Sanga invaded Mandasor. Harauti,
actually have to fight the Sultan, he returned home Khichiwara, and Satwas also became independent.
on the pretext that the ulema were opposed to his Then Mahmud offended the Sultan of Gujarat by
helping ruler. Ghiyas Shah collected about 16,000 sheltering his rebellious brother. In March 1531,
slave girls in his palace, including the daughters of Bahdur Shah of Gujarat captured Mandu. Mahmud
many Hindu chieftains. An army of Ethopian and and his sons were sent as captives to Champanir but
Turkish slave girls was formed to act as guards. were killed on the way. For six years, Malwa remained
Another 500 damsels were trained in state business, under the control of Gujarat but after Bahadur Shah’s
and a bazar run by women was opened in the palace. death in 1537, it regained its independence.
The king quaintly combined his voluptuous desires Malwa’s new Sultan was Mallu Khan, who
with nightly prayers and vigils. He was easily duped adopted the title Qadir Shah. He was a far-sighted
by people pretending to be religious. His elder son, ruler, making peace with Silahdi’s sons, who ruled
Abdul Qadir Nasir Shah, whom he appointed his over Raisen, and improving relations with the Rajput
successor, had a very aggressive nature. He beheaded chieftains. Sher Shah, the Sur ruler of Delhi, however,
his younger brother and, although his father was still conquered Malwa and installed Afghan governors
living, proclaimed himself king. Ghiyas abdicated, there.
dying possibly from poisoning, four months after
surrendering the throne. Jaunpur
Nasir Shah’s despotic character and heavy Among the dynasties founded by the governors
drinking disgusted his nobles. His rule ended in appointed by Firuz Tughluq or his successors, a short-
A.D. 1510. His third son, who came to the throne lived brilliant line was that of the Sharqis of Jaunpur,
as Mahmud II (1511-31), appointed Medini Rai, the north of Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh). It was founded by
Rajput chief of Chanderi, as his wazir in order to Malik Sarwar, a eunuch belonging to Sultan Firuz
frustrate the intrigues of his Muslim noblemen. Tughluq. Malik Sarwar’s remarkable rapid rise to
Medini Rai filled all the important positions with his power was due largely to the anarchy which followed
own supporters. He also ordered that Muslim women Firuz’s death. Firuz’s younger son, Muhammad
should be trained as dancing girls, in retaliation Shah (1390-93 A.D.), eventually conferred the title
for Ghiyas’ treatment of Hindu women. The Sultan Sultanus-Sharq (Ruler of the Eastern Kingdom)
ultimately began to hate Medini Rai, who escaped upon him and made him his wazir. As reward for his
to Gujarat. Early in January 1518, he returned with services, he was in 1394 A.D., appointed the governor
Sultan Muzaffar Shah of Gujarat, and captured of Jaunpur, where he firmly crushed uprisings by
Mandu. Leaving a supportive Gujarat contingent, the Hindu chiefs of Avadh and Bihar. The chiefs of
Muzaffar returned to his capital. Medini then seised Darbhanga, Muzaffarpur, Champaran, and Tirhut
Gagraun. Mahmud besieged him but was defeated acknowledged his overlordship. When Timur left
by Rana Sanga, who rushed to relive Mandu. Rana Delhi, Sarwar proclaimed himself the independent
Sanga captured the Sultan and took him to Chittor, ruler of Jaunpur. Before his death in November
but when his wounds had healed the Rana sent 1399 the western boundary of his kingdom had
him back to Mandu and restored him to his throne. been extended to Kol (modern Aligarh), Sambhal
Comparing Muzaffar’s assistance to Mahmud Khilji (Muradabad) and Rapri (Mainpuri districts). His
with the Rana’s magnanimity, a Mughal historian eastern borders now ran along Bihar and Tirhut.
gives greater credit to the Rana; for Muhammad Although Sultan-us-Sharq was succeeded by
had helped a refuge, while the Rana had restored his adopted son Malik Mubarak Qaranfal (1399-1401
the kingdom to his captive enemy. Muzaffar again A.D.), it was his younger brother, Ibrahim Shah Sharqi
sent a contingent to Mahmud’s assistance, but (1401-40), who made Jaunpur a powerful kingdom.
the Sultan grew suspicious of his intentions and He made an alliance with Kirti Singh of Tirhut. When
sent the Gujaratis back. Before long all the border Tirhut was attacked by a Muslim adventurer, he
region was taken from Mahmud. Medini Rai seised sent his forces to help him and also attended his
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coronation. Then he invaded Bengal to remove the was deemed a personal loss by these Hindu rulers.
Hindu ruler, Ganesha, from the throne and annexed This short-lived kingdom surpassed others in
the petty independent sultanate of Kalpi to his helping the cause of cultural synthesis and social
kingdom. He invaded Delhi too, forcing the Saiyid rapproachement.
sultan there, Muhammad Shah (1435-46 A.D.), to
Bahamanis
make peace with him and sealed the alliance with a
marriage between his son and the Sultan’s daughter. In the twelfth century, the Chalukyas of Kalyani
and the Cholas of Tanjavur were the two great ruling
Ibrahim’s son, Mahmud Shah Sharqi (1440-57
dynasties of south India. Following their decline in
A.D.), was also an ambitious ruler. In 1542 A.D., he
the thirteenth century; four provincial kingdoms
captured Delhi but lost it through the treachery of
took their place. These were the Yadavas of Devagiri
his Afghan commander. Darya Khan, who supported
(Maharashtra), the Kakatiyas of Warangal (Andhra
Delhi’s first Afghan ruler, Bahlul Lodi (1451-89 A.D.)
Pradesh), the Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra (Karnataka)
consolidated the eastern boundaries of the Delhi
and the Pandyas of Madurai (Tamil Nadu). Under
Sultanate from Etawa to Shamsabad. In Jaunpur,
these kingdoms, the political, economic and cultural
Mahmud’s successor, Muhammad, was deposed
vitality of south India remained intact, as it did during
after a few month because of his excessive cruelty.
the Chola-Chalukya phase. Till the first invasion
The next ruler, Husain Shah Sharqi, made peace
of Alauddin Khilji against Devagiri in 1295, south
with Bahlul, strengthened the army, and forced
India also remained free from Turkish invasions. The
Orissa and Gwalior to submit to him. In 1469 A.D., he
huge booty which Alauddin Khilji collected after
invaded Delhi but was driven away before he could
his first invasion of Devagiri, whetted his appetite
cross the Jamuna. In retaliation, the Delhi Sultan
to undertake the conquest of south India. After
Bahlul, not content with Etawa and Shamsabad completing the conquest of North India, he sent
as his eastern boundary, attacked Jaunpur. Husain Malik Kafur as the Commander of the Khilji troops
Shah had frittered away his resources in raising for the conquest of these states. As a result of Malik
huge armies, but his three successive bids to defeat Kafur’s campaigns, Devagiri was annexed to the
Bahlul failed. In 1481-82 A.D., he sustained a crushing Sultanate of Delhi and while the Kaktatiyas and
defeat near Kannauj. Bahlul reached Jaunpur in a the Hoysalas accepted the suzerainty of the Khiljis,
series of forced marches and seised it, issuing coins the Pandyan kingdom of Maddurain as plundered.
therein 1483-84. Husain made four more successive Khilji influence over the South, however proved
efforts to expel Bahlul’s governor from Jaunpur, temporary. After Alauddin’s death, Khilji influence
but Bahlul defeated Husain and forced him to seek was almost overthrown. Consequently, after coming
refuge in Bihar. to power, Ghiyasuddin Tughluq deputed his son
The Rajputs, particularly the Bachgotis, were Jauna Khan (later on known was Muhammad bin
Husain’s staunch supporters and helped him to Tughluq) for conquest of south India in 1321, who
establish his rule over an area between Chunar and annexed the Kakatiya and the Pandyan kingdoms
Bihar. In A.D. 1494 he suffered another crushing to the Sultanate of Delhi, and the Hoysalas became
defeat at the hands of Bahlul’s successor, Sultan tributary of the Tughluqs.
Sikander Lodi, near Benares Sikander seised the On account of the extent of the Tughluq empire
Bihar fort, while Husain Shah took refuge with in the South, and to keep the newly conquered areas
Sultan Alauddin Husain Shah (1493-1518 A.D.) of under effective control, Muhammad bin Tughluq
Bengal. Sikander stayed at Jaunpur for six months, transferred his capital to Devagiri which he named
demolishing the Sharqi monuments in order to as Daulatabad. But the Tughluq authority in the
demonstrate his control of the district. Only the South had to face numerous rebellions and chronic
mosques were spared. Husain Shah died in 1505 A.D. unrest and it lasted only for about two decades. In
The Sultans of Jaunpur were frequently helped 1333-34, Jalaluddin Ahsan, the Tughluq governor of
by the Hindu chiefs against their Muslim opponents, Madurai, declared this independence and founded
particularly the Lodis. The fall of the Sharqi kingdom the Sultanate. The Hoysalas also threw off the yoke
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of Tughluq Suzerainty. In Andhra, the Reddis became the reign of Alauddin Ahmad Shah II, although
powerful. In 1336, the empire of Vijayanagar. Taking he was a ‘newcomer’ (afaqi). Under Humayun, he
advantage of this situation, the Tughluq Amiran-i- became chief minister as also governor of Bijapur.
Sadahs revolted at Daulatabad and founded the During the minority of Nizamuddin Ahmad Shah
Bahmani kingdom with its capital, at Gulbarga, in III, he was one of the two ministers who ruled the
1346. Thus, in the fourteenth century, two powerful kingdom under the direction of Nargis Begum.
kingdoms emerged in the South—the Vijayanagar During the reign of Muhammad Shah III,
and the Bahmani. Since we are dealing with the he was the de facto ruler of the kingdom for
empire of Vijayanagar separately in the next chapter, about twenty-four years. Under his guidance, the
here we shall confine overselves to the Bahmani kingdom attained a height of power and prosperity
kingdom. unequalled in its history. The final annexation of the
The Bahmani kingdom came into existence Konkan and Goa extended its frontier to the western
during the closing years of Muhammad Bin Tughluq sea, and the annexation of the Godavari-Krishna
as a result of the rebellion of the Amiran-i-Sadah in Doab brought it to the coast of the eastern sea.
the Deccan. After the success of the rebellion, they In the south, the Bahmani power reached Kanchi.
elected Ismail Mikh as the Sultan. He assumed the Apart from the territorial expansion, he provided
title of Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah (1347-58) and for the consolidation of the kingdom through
established his capital at Gulbarga which remained administration reforms. But military and political
the seat of the Bahamni government till 1424, when successes could not save the great minister from the
it was shifted to Bidar. jealousy of his rivals and the folly of his sovereign.
Thus, the history of the Bahmanis is divided He was executed (1481) on the Sultan’s order on
into two parts—the Gulbarga and the Bidar phases. the charge of treasons which was false.
The central theme of the Bahmani history hinges This tragedy was the culmination of party
around the struggle with the empire of Vijayanagar, strife which was to some extent racial in origin. From
mostly in the region between the Krishna and the early years of the fifteenth century, the ruling
Tungabhadra—known as the Raichur Doab. The Muslim aristocracy in the Bahmani kingdom had
basic cause of this long-drawn and indecisive split itself into two rival groups. The old immigrants
struggle was economic, i.e., the desire of the who had permanently settled in the Deccan were
Bhamanis to capture economically productive and known as Deccanis. Among them, were some Hindu
prosperous areas of the empire of Vijayanagar. In converts—the founders of the Imad Shahi and Nizam
spite of this struggle continuing till the decline of Shahi dynasties, for instance. The new immigrants,
the Bahmani kingdom, the nature and scene of the who came year after year from foreign countries in
struggle remained the same and its results proved search of fortune, were called newcomers (afaqis)
disastrous at least for the Bahmani kingdom. In the or foreigners (pardesis). They came from different
Gulbarga phase, Tajuddin Firuj (1397-1422) was the countries—Persia, Turkey, Central Asia, Afghanistan,
greatest Sultan who invited a large number of Afaqis Arabia—as soldiers or traders; and many of them
or foreigners or West Asians to a sharp division drifted into politics which generally held the key
of the Bahmani nobility into Afaqi and Deccani to political and social prominence. Some sultans
groups, which ultimately led to the decline and offered wide scope to them for employment in the
disintegration of the Bahmani kingdom. army. Alauddin Bahman Shah took many officers of
Sultan Ahmad Shah I (1422-36) transferred the the Tughluqs into his service. Alauddin Mujahid Shah
capital from Gulbarga to Bidar. In the Bidar phase, showed a distinct preference for the Persians and
the period of the Bahmani Prime Minister Mahmud the Turks. Ahmad Shah I extended his patronage to
Gawan (1463-81) who was also the regent of the scholars from Persia, Iraq and Arabia.
Bahmani Sultan Muhammad Shah III (1463-82), was The Deccanis looked upon the Pardesis as
the most glorious of Bahmani history. A Persian by intruders who took a share in opportunities and
birth, Mahmud Gawan came into prominence during privileges which should have been reserved
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solely for them. The clash of material interests was 3. Ahmadnagar,
sharpened by religious differences. Most of the 4. Bijapur and
Abyssinians, were Sunnis; a majority of the Pardesis
5. Golcunda.
were Shias.
1. Bidar: Qasim Barid was the founder of the
During the reign of Ahmad Shah I, the Bahmani
Barid Shahi kingdom. As Prime minister of the
forces were defeated on three successive occasions
Bahmanis, he usurped Bidar and made the
by the Gujarati army. The minister, Mahmud Gawan,
Bahmani Sultan his puppet in the beginning
who was a Pardesi, attributed this humiliation to the
and subsequently his prisoner. Qasim died in
cowardice and treachery of the Deccanis who, in
1504 and was succeeded the post by his son,
their turn, attributed it to minister’s incompetence.
Amir Ali Barid. The Bahmani monarchy had
The Sultan then raised the Deccanis to power. In the
become so powerless that Amir Ali Barid was
reign of Alauddin Ahamd Shah II, they massacred
able to act as kingmaker on the demise of
many Pardesis at Chakan (1446) with the Sultan’s
succeeding do-nothing king, with the flight
permission for a military reverse. The bitter hatred
from Bidar of the last Bahmani ruler Kalimullah
between the two parties was accentuated by
in 1528, there was no impediment left for the
this incident. It culmination was the execution of
assumption of kingship by the Minister. But
Mahmud Gawan.
Bidar was always in a precarious condition,
With this political crime, “departed all the being hemmed in by powerful rulers who
cohesion and power of the Bahmani kingdom”. were always knocking at the gates of the
Muhammad Shah III died within a year of Mahmud capital.
Gawan’s execution and his minor son, Shihabuddin
Amir Ali Barid died in 1542, and was succeeded
Mahmud Shah (1482-1518), succeeded to the throne.
by his son, Ali Barid Shah. He was an artist and
The bitter fued between the Deccanis and the
a man of letters, and he distinguished himself
Pardesis continued and paralysed the government.
by commanding the left wing of the allied
An unsuccessful conspiracy to murder the Sultan
armies which shattered the Vijayanagar forces
was followed by a massacre of the Deccanis
in the battle of the Krishna. But this did not
(1487). The disintegration of the kingdom began
help the security of the kingdom and it was
with the appointment of Qasim Barid, a Paradesi,
often menaced by the army of Ahmadnagar.
as the Prime Minister and de facto ruler of the
Ali Barid Shah died in 1579. His mausoleum, at
kingdom. The provincial governors refused to
Bidar, is one of the most magnificent edifices
acknowledge his authority. Three of them asserted
in the city, today. He was succeeded by his
their independence, founding the Sultanates of
son Ibrahim. After Ibrahim, came a number of
Berar, Ahmadnagar and Bijapur. This was followed
weak rulers. Not long after, Ibrahim Adil Shah
some years later by establishment of the Sultanate
II invaded Bidar and annexed the kingdom to
of Golcunda. Meanwhile Qasim Barid died and his
Bijapur, in 1619.
position was inherited by his son, Amir Barid. The
puppet Sultan, Shihabuddin Mahmud Shah, died in 2. Berar: The Bahmani succession state which
had the shortest span of life was Berar with
1518. He was succeeded by four puppet Sultans, one

after another, but Amir Barid remained in power in its shifting capitals at Ellichpur and Gawilgarh.
Bidar. The last of them, Kalimullah, died in 1538 and Its importance lay in its being a kind of buffer
the Bahmani dynasty came to an end. between Malwa, Khandesh and the Deccan.
The founder of the dynasty was Fathullah
Bahmani Succession States: In the aftermath
Imadul Mulk, a Brahmin of Vijayanagar
of Qasim Barids appointments as prime minister by
converted to Islam. He was made governor
Shihbuddin Mahmud Shah, the Bahmani kingdom
of Gawilgarh by Mahmud Gawan. He soon
broke up into the five kingdoms of:
annexed the eastern portion of Berar as well
1. Bidar, and thus consolidated the whole of the rich
2. Berar, black cotton tract under his rule. He never
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declared his independence, and there are Although Husain lived a short life of just over
instances of the respect which he showed to twenty-five years, his reign is a landmark in
the Bahmani Sultan, even after the political the history of the Deccan. He had inherited a
connection with Bidar had snapped. bitter feud with Bijapur, and the joint armies
Fathullah died in 1504 and was succeeded of Ali Adil Shah. Ibrahim Qutb Shah and Rama
by Alauddin, who assumed the title of Imad Raya of a coalition of which Rama Raya was
Shah. Small as the state was, it was involved the strongest party, invaded the Ahmadnagar
in the perennial conflict which was the order territories (1562). The depredation on the
inhabitants of Ahmadnagar in general and
of the day in the Deccan. But he was able to
Muslims, in particular, made Husain very bitter,
make his kingdom so powerful that his help
and he was successful in forming the Muslim
was sought even by the Baridi rulers of Bidar.
confederacy against Vijayanagar in 1565.
He was, however, not equal to the task of
resisting the pressure of Ahmadnagar and Husain died a few months after the battle
of Krishna and was succeeded by his son
had to flee to Khandesh once. Alauddin died
Murtada (1565-88). His reign saw the first
in 1529 and was succeeded by his son Darya
invasion by the Mughals, and the annexation
who had also to take sides in the internecine
of Berar. But the Sultan’s mental faculty gave
wars of the Deccan Sultans. After Darya his way after 1574 and he began to consider
infant son Burhan was placed on the throne his own son, Miran Husain, to be his deadly
in 1562. But it was the minister, Tufal Khan, enemy. Miran, in his turn, conspired against
who became the real ruler, and he confined his father and had him suffocated to death
Burhan to the Narnala fort. This was an open in his bath. The patricide did not reign was
challenge to Murtada Nizam Shah who was mostly taken up by the struggler for power
related by marriage to the Imad Shahi dynasty. between the Mahdawi sect and the Shias. The
In 1572, Murtada sent an ultimatum to Tufal king’s father, Burhan, a fugitive at the court of
Khan, to release Burhan at once. On receiving Akbar, returned and after defeating his sons’
an unsatisfactory answer, he invaded Berar army ascended the throne.
and after a sharp struggle, took both Tufal and Burhan’s reign (1591-95) was marked by a
Burhan prisoner and annexed Berar (1574). series of defeats at the hands of Ibrahim Adil
3. Ahmadnagar: The founder of the Nizam Shah II and by his failure to recover Chaul from
Shahi dynasty was Ahmad, son of Hasan the Portuguese. In the context of historical
Nizamul Mulk, prime minister of the Bahmani literature, his reign saw the compilation of
Burhan-i-Ma’athir. He was succeeded by his
kingdom after Mahmud Gawan’s execution.
son Ibrahim who reigned for barely four
Ahmad succeeded to his father’s title and was
months. There was now confusion in the
appointed to the governorship of Daulatabad.
capital, with four claimants to the throne
In 1494, he founded the city of Ahmadnagar
supported by four different groups of the
and shifted his capital therefrom Junnar. He ruling aristocracy. One of these was supported
had made his position thoroughly secure by by Miyan Manjhu and another by Chand Bibi,
the time he died in 1510 and was succeeded princess of Ahmadnagar and widow of Ali Adil
by his son, Burhan, the seven years old. He had Shah of Bijapur, who had returned to the land
an able minister in the person of Mukammal of her birth. When Miyan Manjhu saw that the
Khan Dakhini. Burhan was the first of the line cause of his nominee, Ahmad, was in danger
to assume the title of Nizam Shah. During his of being foiled, he sent a message to Akbar’s
reign, Ahmadnagar was in turn the ally and son, prince Murad, beseeching his help. Murad
then the enemy of Bijapur, Bidar, Vijayanagar, responded by marching towards Ahmadnagar.
Golcunda and Berar. Burhan died in 1553, and When the capital was under siege, the intrepid
was succeeded by his son Husain. Chand Bibi took over the command of the
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fort and defended the battlements as long only replaced Persian by ‘Hindawai’ (Dakhini
as she could, but in the end she had to make Urdu) as the official but gave numerous
peace with the Mughals, ceding Berar as its employments to the Hindus. He supported the
price. Peace, however, did not last long and party opposed to Rama Raya at Vijayanagar,
the Mughals again laid siege to the capital. and although he was defeated by Rama Raya’s
It was during this second attack that Chand forces he recouped and was able to take Adoni
Bibi lost her life (1600). in 1535.
The last scene in the drama of the struggle Ibrahim was succeeded by his son, Ali (1558-
of Ahmadnagar for independence was its 80). There was the eternal quarrel with
gallant defence by Malik Ambar, the thrice Ahmadnagar for the possession of Sholapur,
manumitted Abyssinian slave, who would and in order to strengthen his own hands
not bow before the Mughal might and he made an alliance with Rama Raya. The
proclaimed Murtaza II king with his capital allied armies now invaded the Nizam Shahi
at Parenda. From that center, he raided the territories and ultimately, forced Husain Nizam
Mughal territory by means of guerrilla tactics. Shah to flee to Junnar. But the conduct of the
Malik Ambar's stubborn resistance continued Vijayanagar army estranged all the Bahmani
over a long period but he was defeated by succession states and even disgusted Ali
prince Khurram, first in 1617 and again in himself who was led to make a matrimonial
1621. His death, in 1626, finally sealed the alliance with Ahmadnagar by marrying
fate of the Nizam Shahi kingdom. Its last ruler Husain’s daughter, Chand Bibi. It was this
Murtada III was captured by Shah Jahan in alliance which became the pivot of the league
1636 and the Nizam Shahi territories were that shattered the power of Vijayanagar. Ali
parcelled out among the Mughals and, the was murdered in his bed in 1580, and was
ruler of Bijapur. succeeded by his nephew Ibrahim II.
4. Bijapur: The founder of the Adil Shahi dynasty, Ibrahim II, who reigned until 1627, was a great
Yusuf Adil Khan, who ruled Bijapur until 1510, patron of learning and was affectionately
claimed descent from a scion of the Ottoman called Jagadguru by his subjects. It was the
dynasty. A protégé of Mahmud Gawan, he king’s aunt, Chand Bibi, who was the real
was one of the most eminent figures of the ruler of Bijapur during Ibrahim’s reign; and
last days of the Bahmani kingdom. A great her courage, quick decision and intrepidity
patron of art and literature, he was married cost her own liberty many a time. When things
to a Maratha, Babuji Khanum. Yusuf died in were taking a nasty turn at Ahmadnagar,
1510, and was succeeded by his 13-year-old Chand Bibi went to the city of her birth and
son, Ismail. A great loss incurred by the state faced the Mughals right up to her last breath.
was the capture of Goa by the Portuguese. In The reduction of Ahmadnagar by the Mughals
other fields, however, he was more successful, and Chand Bibi’s death must have told on
and was able to defeat the Baridi ruler and Ibrahim’s nerves, and he had to bow before the
actually occupied Bidar for a time. He could Mughals by giving his daughter in marriage
not, however, withstand the invasion of to prince Daniyal. Ibrahim was the author of
Krishnadeva Raya of Vijayanagar and had to the famous book of Hindu songs, the Nawras-
cede Raichur to the victory. Namah and it was in his reign that the Tarikh-
Ismail was succeeded by his son Mallu (1534) i-Firishta was completed. His many public
who proved to be entirely incapable of works, the magnificent tomb he constructed
governing the State. He was deposed after for his wife, and his own versatility made his
reigning for a little over six months, and his reign one of the most unique in the history
younger brother Ibrahim was put on the of the Deccan.
throne. Ibrahim (1534-58) was the first Bijapur He was succeeded by his son, Muhammad
ruler to adopt the title of Shah, and he not (1627-57). Although he extended the territories
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of Bijapur at the expense of Ahmadnagar in July 1550. Ibrahim’s reign (1550-80) was a
as well as of Vijayanagar, the hands of landmark in the history of Golcunda. He was a
the Mughals lay heavy on the kingdom. cultured man, a linguist of note, popular with
Muhammad lies buried in the magnificent his subjects both Hindu and Muslim, and a
tomb, the Gol Gumbad, which is one of the diplomat of high order. Ibrahim was the first
wonders of architecture. He was succeeded by in the line to assume the title of Shah. In the
Ali II (1657-72). Emperor Shah Jahan refused to beginning of his reign he had close contacts
recognize Ali II as the lawful king and ordered with Vijayanagar, but the inordinate vanity of
prince Aurangzeb to march against Bijapur. Rama Raya estranged him and he also joined
But the life of the dynasty was prolonged for the league which defeated the Vijayanagar
a few years by Aurangzeb’s return to the North army.
to fight the battle of succession at Samugarh. Ibrahim died in 1580 A.D., and was succeeded
In the South, Shivaji sprang to eminence, and by his son, Muhammad Quli. As the founder
the episode of the Bijapur general Afzal Khan of the city of Hyderabad, as the author of
and his murder is well-known. Ali’s court was the first Diwan or collection of poems in
full of literatures of note, and his half-finished Dakhini Urdu, and as a patron of both Telugu
mausoleum testifies to his artistic nature. He and Urdu, he holds a notable place in the
was succeeded by Sikander, the last of the history of Golcunda. On the political side, the
line. Shivaji was crowned as Chattrapati at meaningless squabbles between the Deccan
Raigarh in 1674, while in 1681, Aurangzeb kingdoms continued. Muhammad Quli had
moved to the Deccan never to return. Bijapur to suppress revolts in the eastern part of his
was invested, and the city opened its gates to kingdom, and it is remarkable that he sent
the Mughals on 12 September, 1686. Bijapur his Hindu as well as Muslim generals for this
as an independent kingdom thus ceased to purpose.
exist. Muhammad Quli died in 1612 and was
5. Golkonda: This state, with its capital first succeeded by his nephew, Muhammad. The
at the rock-citadel of Golkonda and then reign of this Sultan is marked by comparative
at Hyderabad, was named Tilang after the peace and order. He was succeeded by his
Bahmani province of that name, and was 12-year-old, son Abdullah. During the king’s
placed in charge of Sultan Quli Hamadani, in minority, the state was governed by his able
1494. The Bahmani ruler granted him the title mother, Hayat Baksh Begum, who has given
of Qutbul Mulk, a title which gave its name to her name to many villages, sarais, etc. When
the dynasty. He assumed independence in 1512. Abdullah grew up, he indulged in a life of
The period of his government was filled with pleasure and proved incapable of defending
his struggles with Vijayanagar and his attempts the kingdom against the Mughals. The treason
to reach the natural frontiers of the Andhra of Mir Jumla, who went over to the Mughals,
country. Sultan Quli, at the age of ninety-eight, helped them to tighten their hold considerably,
was assassinated (1543) by his son, Jamshid, resulting in their occupation of Hyderabad in
who was tired of waiting for the throne. January 1656. On Abdullah’s death (1672), the
Jamshid’s reign of seven years was by no question of succession arose since the king
means peaceful. His alleged complicity in had no male issue, and the throne passed to
the murder of his father made him very his son-in-law, Abul Hasan, surnamed Tana
unpopular and the sternness of his character, Shah. A deep rift grew between Abul Hasan
verging on cruelty, forced his borther Ibrahim and emperor Aurangzeb, who himself arrived
to seek asylum in Vijayanagar. Jamshid was in the Deccan, in 1682. Events now took a
succeeded by his young son Subhan. In the quicker pace. The Mughals again occupied
meantime, the discontented people invited the capital (October 1685) and the king had
Ibrahim who entered the capital in triumph to seek refuge in the Golcunda fort. With
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the fall of Bijapur in September 1686, there The tradition, however, goes to say that
was nothing to keeping the Mughals back. Vijaynagar was founded in 1336 by two brothers,
Golcunda was invested in February 1687 and called Harihara and Bukka. It is held that these two
in September the citadel opened its gates. The Sangama brothers, were appointed to guard the
Qutb Shahi king was sent to Daulatabad as northern portions of the Hoyasala Kingdom against
a prisoner and the last Bahmani succession possible Muslim inroads, when they became the
state became a part of the Mughal empire. masters of Hoysala Kingdom. But, the popular belief
is that these brothers were first in the service of
The Vijaynagar Empire
the Kaktiya King, Pratap Rudra Deva, and when his
Vijaynagar—“the city of victory” and often kingdom was conquered by the Muslims in A.D.
referred as the first ‘Medieval Hindu Kingdom’, 1323, they switched over to Kampili, but when the
ruled a substantial part of the southern peninsula same fate fell on Kampili too, they were taken to
for not less than three centuries, beginning in the Delhi as prisoners and were forced to embrace
middle of the 14th century. This intervening epoch Islam. They, however, were released and reappointed
is also considered as an epoch of transition from as the ministers in the kingdom of Kampili.
the ‘Medieval’ past to the ‘Modern’ colonial future. When after sometime both of them realised the
The rulers of Vijaynagar or ‘Rayas’ were peninsular conditions as favourable, they declared themselves
overlords and their capital was symbol of the vast independent and founded the Vijaynagar empire
power and wealth: lordships of all sorts became with the blessings of the Sage Vidyaranya. Thus,
powerful than ever. Abdur Razzaq, a Persian traveller, these two brothers founded the first dynasty of
consider Vijaynagar as“one of the most splendid cities Vijaynagar, which they named after their father
anywhere in the world which he had seen or heard as ‘Sangama’ dynasty (1336-1485). The ‘Sangama’
of “in fact the emergence of Vijaynagar resulted in dynasty was followed by three other dynasties,
the martialisation of its politics, and the transfiguring namely Saluva (1485-1505), Tuluva (1505-1570) and
of older economics and social institutions by the finally ‘Aravidu' dynasty, which ruled till about the
forces of urbanisation, commercialisation and middle of the 17th century. It was under Devaraya II
monetisation as well as the ‘royalisation’ of the royal and Krishnadeva Raya that the Vijaynagar Kingdom
power. Moreover, its emergence is also supposed achieved tremendous glory and authority. However,
to be the symbolic expression of vigorous cultural the ‘dharmik’ and ideological impetus attributed
movement. This impetus, in fact, gives south India to the formation of Vijaynagar, in the 14th century,
its own individual cultural complexion by defending was spent up by 1450, when the reign of Deva
from the continuous Muslim inroads as well as Raya II ended. Then, and thereafter, Vijaynagar was
by intermingling with the forms and practices of itself a conquest State and acquired the status
gradually evolving Islamic idiom in India. of an empire in the sense of exercising rule over
Vijaynagar derived its name from its capital regions and people of the Peninsula, who spoke
on the Tungabhadra river, near the center of the different languages and had a different culture.
subcontinent. Over three centuries, its rulers claimed This was achieved by subjecting the lesser Hindu
a universal sovereignty to rule the vast world lordships and by defending their conquest against
under a single umbrella and they also, referred to the Sultanate founded immediately to the ‘North’
themselves as the rulers of the ‘Karnata’, the modern of it by Alauddin Gangu Bahmani. It resulted in
day Karnataka. frequent wars between the possession over ‘Raichur
Doab’ region. The conflict, however, ended when
There remains considerable controversy
Tuluva dynasty came to the throne. The kingdom of
regarding the actual origin of the Vijaynagar dynasty.
Vijaynagar now grew into a kingdom and gradually
Three varying theories have been put forward;
expanded into an empire.
1. The Telugu, the Andhra or the Kaktiya origin,
Vijaynagar dwells into duality in terms of its
2. The Karnata (Karnataka) or Hoysala origin and politics—between the ‘centralised state’ of N.K. Sastri
3. The Kampili origin. and the segmentary state of Burton Stein. Burton
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Stein views that the new form of polity evolved Krishnadeva Raya advises the king that “with great
out by the Vijaynagar rulers had important links care and according to your power, you should attend
with its earlier politics of Chola period, for being to the work of protecting (the good) and punishing
segmentary in character, and one in which kings (the wicked) without neglecting anything you see or
continued to be essentially a ritual sovereign, rather hear.”The successful military deeds of the Vijaynagar
than autocrats ruling bureaucratised absolutist rulers led them to assume the title of ‘Divijayee’.
regimes, like contemporaries of Western Europe. The king was assisted in the task of
Stein’s view remains strongly disputed and does administration by a council of minister, appointed
not hold much weightage in the light of the recent by him. Though, the Brahmanas held high offices in
historical research. The politics, instead of being the administration and had considerable influence,
segmentary in character, seems greatly dispersed the ministers were restricted not only from their
and parcelised, remaining closely linked to the king ranks but also from those of the Kshatriyas and
at the top. It seems equally futile to assert that the rise Vaishyas. The office of a minister was “something
of Vijaynagar represents ‘Hindu revival’ in the South, hereditary and sometimes by selection.” Both Abdur
as there is very little evidence to substantiate this Razzaq and Nuniz refer to the existence of a sort of
view. It would be rather appropriate to attribute the ‘Secretariat’. Besides the ministers, the other officers
patronage of Hindu institutions by Vijaynagar rulers of the State were the chief treasure; the custodians
to the fact that this was the only substantial kingdom of the jewels; an officer who was the look after the
ruled by ‘Hindu’ kings, who were rich enough to commercial interests of the state; the prefect of
grant endowments to ‘Hindu’ institutions. Royal the police who was responsible for the prevention
patronage was responsible largely for embellishing of crime and maintenance of order in the city; the
older temples and building and was certainly not chief master of the horse; and subordinate officials
concerned with stirring up anti-Muslim sentiments. like the bhats who sang the praise of the kings, the
The rulers of Vijaynagar did not form an alliance, nor betel bears or personal attendants of the king, the
they hesitated in attacking Hindu kings coming in calendar makers, the engravers and the composer
the expansion of their empire. of inscriptions.
The pattern of administration which evolved The empire, for administrative purposes, was
under this new state, became much more stratified divided into several provinces (rajya, mandala,
and was closely linked with the pattern of the chavadi), which had again subdivisions like venthe,
economy. The economic pattern, in fact, was the nadu, sima, village or sthala in the Karnataka
replica of the Chola pattern, which obtained its portion and kottam, parru, nadu and village in
income generally from agriculture and trade. This the Tamil portion. Writers basing themselves on
pattern, though of independent origin, remained Paes estimate that the empire was divided into
broadly in alignment with the pattern of northern 200 provinces—though according to H. Krishna
India. Sastri, the empire was divided into six principal
The Vijaynagar empire was a monarchy, with provinces. Eash province was under a viceroy, nayaka
the king being at the center of affairs, and the or naik, possibly a member of the royal house or an
supreme authority in civil, military and judicial affairs, influential noble of the State, or some descendant of
and often even intervening in the social disputes.Yet, the old ruling families. Each viceroy exercised civil,
a king could not afford to be a ‘despot’ as the concept military and judicial powers within his jurisdiction
of ‘Dharma’, as the sanction behind the restraint on thus enjoying a large measure of autonomy, they
the actions and policies of the king remained un- were allowed to issue their own coins, though of
questioned. The king was bound to obey the laws of small denominations only. There was no regular
the ‘Dharmashastras’ and the accepted conventions, term for provincial governor, his term depending
customs and practices of society. Thus, the concept on his ability and his strength. The governor had
of Kingship among the Vijaynagar rulers was high the right to impose new taxes or remit old ones.
and he had always an eye for the good or welfare of Each governor paid a fixed contribution in men and
the people. In his book, on polity (Amuktamalyada), money to the Central Government. Thus, it has been
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estimated that while the income of the kingdom productivity of the land, earned by the person, who
was 12,00,000 parados, the Central Government undertook such developmental works.
got only half the amount. Besides land tax; many professional taxes
The ‘Dharmasastras’, the Smritis, and the works were also imposed, these were on shopkeepers,
on polity helped in regulating the law and order farm servants, washermen, porters, shoemakers,
condition. The justice was generally administered musicians etc. There was also a tax on property.
through the village assemblies, temple trustees Grasing and houses taxes are also imposed.
and caste elders in the outlying areas of the empire. Commercial taxes consisted of levies, duties and
Severe punishments were given to those found customs on manufactured articles of trade. Private
guilty of offences. A competent police organisation owners of workshops paid an industries tax. Special
further helped in maintaining the law and order. dues on marriages, and others raised for temple
Disputes of social and religious nature were decided requirements, were listed under a social taxation
by religious heads. scheme. A periodic military contribution was used
As far as the local administration is concerned, for maintaining forts and garrisons. Judicial fines
the powers of the territorial assembly (nadu) as were an additional source of revenue for the State.
well as the village assemblies (Sabha and Ur) were Finally, free labour could be extracted for specific
weakened during the time of the later Cholas. projects such as the building of an irrigation tank.
During the Vijaynagar period, these institutions The revenue of the State was collected both in kind
did not completely disappear, when the ‘nayaka’ and and cash.
particularly ‘ayagar’ systems came into prominence. During the Vijaynagar period, temples emerged
(As nayaka system is often taken to curb the local as an important center of economic activities. They
assemblies functioning). During this period, the not only took up irrigation work but also carried on
ayagar system continued and became widely banking activities. They employed large number of
prevalent. It spread in the Tamil country with the persons and Mahalingam, T.V., refers to an inscription,
decline of nadu and natter, in the 15-16th century. which mentions a temple, which employed 370
The ayagars were village servants or functionaries servants. Temples had their trusts which utilised
and constituted of groups of families. their funds for various purposes.
As stated earlier, the pattern of administration
The contemporary foreign accounts show that
was closely linked with a stable economy, as it helped
local and long distance trade increased under the
in the proper functioning of various administrative
Vijaynagar rulers. Roads and roadside facilities for
organs. The State derived its national revenue from
travellers between towns were excellent. The mode
a number of taxes. Land tax, of course, remained the
most substantial single source. Land was carefully of transportation were carts, pack animals or riverine
assessed and state claimed 1/6th of the produce shipping, especially on the West Coast. Regular and
as its share. The nature of the lands (whether of periodic fairs were held which gave impetus to the
‘devadana’‘brahmadeya’, or ‘karagama’), the tenure urban trade and towns. The literary and inscriptional
of land, the properties of soil and the kind of crops evidences of the 14th to 16th centuries reveal the
produced, were all considered before a levy was existence of 80 major trade centres or towns. Some
made. A detailed land survey and assessment was towns were religious, others were commercial and
conducted during the reign of Krishnadeva Raya, administrative centres. Inside these towns were
and the rate was fixed between 1/3rd and 1/6th many bazaars—separate markets being for different
depending on the quality of the land. The rate of commodities. Markets for agricultural and non-
revenue did differ in different parts of the empire. agricultural products were separate in accordance
Another source of income was derived as a result with the left and right hand caste affiliations. In fact,
of investment in irrigation. It was called ‘dasavanda’, the Vijaynagar State possessed on urban quality
in Tamil country, and ‘kattukodage’ in Andhra and which is not witnessed in any other south Indian
Karnataka. These two were a share in the increased State of the time.
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Paes, and Nuniz, all give vivid description of to be commonly used by high officers. Formerly,
horse trade and talk about the minimal role of the the keeping of elephants was considered to be a
Indians in the overseas trade. The Arabs and later, privilege of the Sultan alone. But during this period,
the Portuguese controlled horse trade. Horses were many nobles maintained large numbers of elephants
brought from Arabia, Syria and Turkey to the West and brought them to the battlefield in times of
Coast ports. Importation of horses was of great conflict. During this period, there were a large
military importance for the Southern States as good number of zamindars all over the northern India.
horses were not bred in India. Besides horses, ivory They had direct contact with the peasantry, which
pearls, spices, precious stones from Pegu. White put them in a very advantageous position. They
rice, sugarcane and iron were the major exports. could raise large armies without any effort. During
Nuniz refers to the port of diamonds stating that the this period, the center of political gravity gradually
diamond mines here were the richest in the world. shifted to Agra. It was found that it was easier to
At last, we see that the formation of Vijaynagar control from there the zamindars and Maliks of
Kingdom represents a very significant phase in Etawa, Koil and Badaun. Likewise, the activities of
the Medieval Indian politics. Its emergence led the people of Mewar could be better watched from
to the growth of various political institutions Agra and campaigns against the Sharqis of Jaunpur
and an economic pattern conceived more along could be managed more efficiently from there.
Hindu traditions and practices, but still it had to Bahlol Lodi (1451-1489 A.D.): Early Life
strike a balance with the existing Muslim pattern
Bahlol Lodhi was the founder of the Lodi
so administration. Assimilation with Islam was
dynasty, which lasted from 1451 to 1526. He
inevitable, more because of its universal character
and the kind of edifice it had created in the form belonged to the Sahu Khail section of the Lodi clan.
of Persio-Islamic Culture. This in fact, made the Malik Bahram, grandfather of Bahlol, migrated to
emerging regional identity to seek its legitimation Multan during the reign of Firuz Tughluq and took
from the apex body. Unfortunately, the legacy of service under Malik Mardan Daulat, Governor of
such a splendid empire, has so quickly receded from Multan. Malik Bahram had five sons only two of them,
the minds and memories of men that the remains, namely, Malik Sultan Shah and Malik Kala became
befitting strong cosmopolitan character of this famous. Bahlol was the son of Malik Kala who had
great empire, lying scattered around the little village defeated Jasrath Khokhar and set himself up as an
Hampi, seem mere metaphors of ‘medieval time.’ independent chief. In 1419, Sultan Shah, his uncle
was appointed the Governor of Sarhind by Khizr
THE LODIS (1451-1526 A.D.) Khan and given the title of Islam Khan.
About Lodhi dynasty, Prof. K.A. Nizami says that Ferishta tells us that Islam Khan married his
although it was the last of the ruling families of the daughter to Bahlol and although he had his own
Sultanate period, it has a greater lifespan than the sons, he nominated Bahlol as his heir on account
Khiljis and had better achievements to its credit than of his ability. After the death of Islam Khan, Bahlol
the later Tughluqs and Saiyyids. However, its history became the Governor of Sarhind. Bahlol was allowed
was a story of conflicts between the crown and to add Lahore to his charge. Thus, Bahlol became
the nobility, the petty zamindars and the powerful a very important Governor in the Sayyid empire,
Hakims, the centrifugal tendencies of the age and the on account of the strength of his forces. When
centripetal aspirations of the rulers, the monarchical Muhammad Shah was threatened by the invasion
ideals of absolute power and the Afghan concept of Mahmud Shah Khilji of Malwa, he came to the
of partnership in Government. During this period, help of his master. By his cleverness, he was able to
the army of Delhi Sultanate changed its complexion show himself as a victor over the army of Malwa.
from the king’s army to a tribal militia. It was not Muhammad Shah was so much pleased that he
centrally recruited, maintained or administered and called him as his son and gave him the title of Khan-
hence, lacked homogeneity. During this period, some i-Khanan. The opportunity for Bahlol came as Alam
of the privileges and prerogatives of the Sultan came Shah retired completely to Badaon in 1448 and there
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was trouble in Delhi. Bahlol was invited by Hamid him that it was considered necessary for reasons
Khan, who gave him the keys of the city. Bahlol also of state that he should be confined for a few days
secured the consent of Alam Shah. Thus, it was that but in consideration of his services, his life was to be
on 19th April, 1451, Bahlol became the ruler and he spared. The result was that Hamid Khan completely
continued to be so till his death, in 1489. disappeared from the scene.
There is a story that one day when Bahlol was In order to strengthen his position, Bahlol
in the service of his uncle, he went to Samana where tried to win over the confidence of the army by
he paid a visit to Sayyid Ayen, a famous Darvesh, distributing gifts and bounties. The Amirs were won
with his friends. The Darvesh said:“Is there any one by holding out promises of promotion and honour
who wishes to obtain from him the empire of Delhi according to their ranks.
for two thousand Tankas?” Bahlol at once gave the Struggle with Jaunpur
money to the Darvesh who observed thus: “Be the
Although Bahlol was put on the throne,
Empire of Delhi blessed by Thee.” The prophecy of
Mahmud Shah Sharqi, ruler of Jaunpur, tried to oust
the Darvesh came out to be true as stated above.
him. Mahmud Shah advanced to Delhi and besieged
Hamid Khan Khwaja Bayazid, the eldest son of Bahlol who had
It cannot be denied that Hamid Khan was been left in charge of Delhi. Bahlol hastened towards
instrumental in putting Bahlol Lodi on the throne Delhi and he was within 30 miles to the capital when
of Delhi. No wonder, Bahlol asked Hamid Khan Mahmud Shah succeeded in making an impression
to become king and expressed his willingness to on its defences. Darya Khan Lodi who was helping
become merely the commander of his armies and Mahmud Shah of Jaunpur, was persuaded to leave
carry out his orders. Bahlol also showed him great him and after his departure, the rest of the army of
respect. However, Bahlol decided to dispose off Jaunpur was demoralised and fled. Thus, failed the
Hamid Khan later on and hit upon a plan to achieve attempt of Mahmud Shah of Jaunpur to oust Bahlol
that objective. He asked his Afghan followers to Lodi from the throne.
pose themselves as rustics in the presence of Hamid The defeat of Mahmud Shah Sharqi of Jaunpur
Khan and “to adopt a conduct the most remote made a profound impression on both enemies and
from good sense and common reason, in order to friends. The position of Bahlol was strengthened.
induce him to believe that they were thoughtless His enemies and critics were silenced. Many chiefs
fellows, and of course banish all apprehension and and fief-holders were frightened into submission.
fear of them from his heart.” The Afghan followers Bahlol proceeded towards Mewat and secured
of Bahlol did what they were asked to do. The men the submission of Ahmad Khan who was deprived
at arms crowded into the hall of audience on the to seven Parganas. Darya Khan Lodi, Governor of
pretext that all soldiers and fellow tribesmen were Sambhai, was treated leniently in spite of treason
equals. Their conduct convinced Hamid Khan that and was merely asked to give up seven Pargranas. Isa
he had to deal with mere simpletons. The number Khan was allowed to retain all his possessions. similar
of Afghan troops was large enough to crush any treatment was given to Mubarak Khan, Governor
disturbances,which might arise in the city. Their of Suket. Qutb Khan of Rewari also submitted after
number at the court was large enough to enable some hesitation. The heads of Etawah, Chandwar
Bahlol to carry out any act of violence. One day, and other districts of the Doab acknowledged
when Bahlol had gone to the residence of Hamid the authority of Bahlol. In 1472, Bahlol marched
Khan to pay him as visit, his followers picked up a towards Multan to reduce to obedience Hussain
quarrel with the gatekeeper and requested him to Shah Langah, who had succeeded his father in that
allow them to go in. Hamid Khan did not suspect small kingdom.
any treachery and granted their quest. However, Bahlol had to spend most of his time in fighting
he was surprised when Qutb Khan, a cousin and against Jaunpur and he ultimately succeeded in
brother-in-law of Bahlol, placed before Hamid Khan destroying its independence and annexing it. It has
chains he had concealed in his pocket and told already been pointed out that Mahmud Shah made
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an attempt to oust Bahlol at the very beginning humble suggestions for a settlement, but these were
of his reign but he failed in his attempt. At the rejected by Hussain Shah. Bahlol was once again
instigation of his queen, who was the daughter of successful in defeating the army of Jaunpur. In spite
Alam Shah of Badaon, Mahmud Shah Sharqi made of this, Hussain Shah marched against Bahlol and
another attempt to enter Delhi and with that object the two armies met at a distance of about 25 miles
in view marched into Etawah. However, a treaty from Delhi. Hussain Shah was again defeated but
was made and it was agreed between the parties was able to make peace on equal terms.
that both the rulers would retain possession of the Hussain Shah made another attempt and in
territories, which belonged to their predecessors. March 1479, arrived at the banks of the Jamuna.
Bahlol Lodi was required to restore the elephants, This was the most promising of all his campaigns.
which had been captured by him in the last war. However, he was induced to make peace on
Mahmud Shah agreed to dismiss Juna Shah from his obtaining from Bahol the formal recognition of his
service. Acting upon the terms of the treaty, Bahlol tenure of all districts east of the Gangas. After making
tried to take possession of Shamsabad, which the the treaty, Hussain Shah began a leisure retreat but
ruler of Jaunpur had given to Juna Khan. Bahlol was he was treacherously attacked by Bahlol, who was
opposed by the forces of Jaunpur and Qutb Khan able to capture a large number of elephants and
Lodi was captured. However, at this time, Mahmud horses laden with spoils and treasure. This success
Shah died in 1497 and his son, Bhikan, was raised to marks the turn of the tide in favour of Bahlol and the
the throne under the title of Muhammad Shah. The latter pursued the demoralised army of Jaunpur and
latter made peace with Bahlol and acknowledged occupied the Parganas of Kampil, Patiali, Shamsabad,
his right to retain Shamsabad. A revolution took Suket, Koil, Marhara and Jalesar. Hussain Shah tried
place at Jaunpur as a result of which Husasin Khan to face Bahlol but was defeated. He was forced to
ascended the throne of Jaunpur. The new ruler agree to the retention by Bahlol of the large part
was remarkable person who continued to fight of territory which he had recovered. Hussain Shah
against Bahlol, all his life with great persevere. A retired to Rapri and Bahlol to Delhi but Hussain Shah
four years’ peace was concluded by Hussain Shah once again took the field to get back his lost territory.
with Bahlol but it turned out to be mere truce. In However, he was defeated by Bahlol at Senha. This
1478, Hussain Shah of Jaunpur, instigated by his has been described as the heaviest defeat he had
wife Jalila, marched on Delhi with a large army. experienced so far. The plunder which fell into the
Bahlol was so much upset by the danger that he hands of Bahlol and the prestige which he gained
request Mahmud Khilji II of Malwa to help him. with his victory, established the superiority of Delhi.
Before any reply could come from Malwa, Hussain Bahlol took the initiative and defeated Hussain Shah
Shah reached the banks of the Jamuna. Bahlol was at Rapri. After capturing Etawah, Bahlol marched to
prepared to offer very tempting terms to the invader attack. Hussain Shah was forced to retreat and Bahlol
but those were haughtily rejected. The result was marched straight on Jaunpur and Hussain Shah fled
that Bahlol came out of the capital to fight against towards Kannauj. Bahlol followed him and overtook
the enemy. The camp of Hussain Shah had been left him on the banks of the Rahab. He attacked him and
unprotected and Bahlol crossed the river by a ford defeated and captured one of his wives. Bahlol went
and fell upon it. When the Afghans began actually back to Jaunpur and captured it and put it under
to plunder his tents. Hussain Shah decided to run Mubarak Khan Lohani as its governor.
away. Even the ladies of his harem, including Jalila, Bahlol also went to Badaon which had been
were captured by Bahlol, who, however, generously nominally subjected to Hussain Shah, after the
were sent them to Jaunpur, without allowing any death of Alam Shah in 1478. Hussain Shah took
harm to be done to them. advantage of the absence of Bahlol and marched
Another truce for three years was arranged. on Jaunpur. Mubarak Khan was forced to withdraw.
After that, Hussain Shah captured Etawah and The officers of Bahlol gained some time by starting
marched on Delhi with an army of one lac horses negotiations and in the meanwhile Bahlol came back
and 100 elephants. Bahlol once again made many from Badaon and reoccupied Jaunpur. Hussain Shah
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ran away in Bihar and he was pursued by the troops and the rulers of Gwalior, Dholpur paid tribute to
of Bahlol. In 1486, Bahlol placed his eldest surviving him. He possessed the clear vision of a political
son, Barbak, on the throne of Jaunpur. realist. A dogged tenacity of purpose guided his
activities all though. He believed that end justified
Estimate of Bahlol
the means and he never hesitated to have recourse
Bahlol was not only the founder of the Lodi to chicanery, treachery or fraud if that suited his
dynasty but was responsible for its strength and purpose. He employed foul means to realize his
glory. He was successful in subduing the various objectives against the rulers of Malwa and Jaunpur.
chiefs who could defy the central power. He was He did not hesitate to bribe Darya Khan Lodi on the
able to establish the prestige on the empire on a firm battlefield of Narela. There were two major problems
footing. His great achievement was the annexation confronting Bahlol—the rulers of Jaunpur and the
of Jaunpur, which defied him for many years. Rajput chiefs of the Doab and he succeeded in
Bahlol was forced to spend most of his time dealing effectively with both. The power of Jaunpur
in fighting wars and consequently there was hardly was shattered and the Rajput chiefs were humbled.
the time left for civil administration. Bahlol was Nirodbhusan Roy says:“The effacement of the Rajput
brave, generous, humane and honest. He did not dynasties which had realised their heads in the last
believe in any show. His view was that as he was quarter of the 14th century in the middle and lower
known to be king, nothing else was required to Doab was primarily the work of Bahlol, achieved by
be displayed to impress this fact on the people. his fraternisation with the Afghan.”
He was very kind to the poor and no beggar was Bahlol possessed an affable personality. He was
allowed to go away disappointed. He loved justice just, generous, simple and unostentatious. Certain
and personally listened to the complaints of the things done by him won him popularity among
people. He distributed all that he had among his the people. When he captured the treasures of the
troops. He did not put on airs of superiority while Kings of Delhi, he distributed the spoils among the
dealing with fellow Afghans. According to the author soldiers and took for himself only a proportionate
of Tarik-i-Daudi, “In his social meetings, he never share. He did not maintain any personal guards.
sat on a throne and would not allow his nobles to That shows his self-confidence and popularity with
stand; and even during public audiences he did the people. His food was not prepared in his palace,
not occupy the throne, but seated himself upon a but was sent in rotation by the nobles. He did not
carpet. Whenever he wrote a firman to his nobles, sit on the throne in the presence of the nobles and
he addressed them as Masnad Ali; and if at any time forbade them to stand. All use to sit together on
they were displeased with him, he tried so hard to carpets and Bahlol called everyone Masnad-i-Ali.
pacify them that he would himself go to their houses, Dr. R.P. Tripathi says that the experiment
unguarded his sword from his waist, and place it of Bahlol was an interesting one. “Its immediate
before the offended party, nay, he would sometimes usefulness was proved by the spirit of loyalty that
even take off his turban from his head and solicit it awakened among the Afghan tribal leaders who
forgiveness, saying:‘If you think we unworthy of the in fighting for him felt to be virtually fighting for
station I occupy, choose some one else, and bestow their own cause. By toning down the autocratic
on me some other office.’ He maintained a brotherly conception of kingship, Bahlol Lodi had taken a
intercourse with his chiefs and soldiers. If any one substantial step towards making it amenable to
was ill, he would himself go and attend on him.” the wishes of the peers.”
Prof. K.A. Nizami points out that although Dr. A.B. Pandey sums up his estimate of Bahlol
Bahlol started his career as the Governor of Sirhind, in these words: “His qualities of leadership were of
he ended it at the ripe old age of 80 as the Sultan of a high order. He knew the material he had to use
Delhi, whose authority extended from the Punjab to and moved warily about his business. He treated
the frontiers of Bihar and embraced important cities his nobles and even his soldiers as his brethren. If
like Delhi, Badayun, Baran, Sambhal, Rapri, Kampil anybody fell ill, he would go to his place to enquire
and Patiali. A part of Rajasthan was also under him about his health. This won for him implicit loyalty of
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his followers who neither wavered in their obedience from burdening his people with insupportable taxes.
to him nor considered any risks too great when To the poor and the indigent, he was always kind
he was present at their head. It was not merely in and generous. In short, he was a fairly popular and
formal courtesies that he showed his concern for the successful monarch.”
Afghan and Mughal soldiery. Ferishta says that when
he captured the treasures of the kings of Delhi, he SIKANDAR SHAH (1489-1517)
distributed the spoils among his followers and took Bahlol Lodi was succeeded by his son, Nizam
for himself only a proportionate share. Ferishta goes Khan, who took the title of Sikandar Shah. There was
further and say,‘Bahlol was very religious, brave and some hesitation on the part of the nobles to accept
of a generous disposition. He did not disappoint any Sikandar Shah as their ruler as his mother was the
supplicant, nor did he collect a treasure. Whatever daughter of a goldsmith and her son was more of a
lands he conquered, he distributed among his plebian than a prince. However, this hesitation was
followers. He did all this because he realised the overcome and he became king. Sikandar was an
imperative need for an army consisting of numerous, orthodox Muslim and his bigotry must have been
satisfied and brave soldiers.’ He did not hesitate considered as a special qualification for elections
to use local talent wherever practicable and we to the throne.
find the names of Rai Karna, Raja Pratap, Rai Bir
Condition in 1489
Singh, Rai Trilokchand and Rai Dahndhu among
recipients of his favours. There were some persons, The position of Sikandar Shah at the time of
however, whom Bahlol could not permanently win his accession to the throne was not very strong as
over to his side. Personal ambition, unsettled political there were a large number of vassals and chieftains
conditions, local intrigue and shifting fortunes of who exercised a lot of power and authority in their
war rendered his task difficult. That is why we hear respective spheres. The author of Waqiat-i-Mustaqi
of Qutb Khan, Raja Pratap and Ahmad Khan, Mewati gives the following picture of India at that time:
changing sides so often. Ahmad Khan Jalwani of “One-half of the whole country was assigned in
Bayana even had the Khutba read in the name of Jagir to the Farmulis, and the other half to the other
Sultan Hussain Shah Sharqi, when the latter’s star Afghan tribes. At this time, the Lohanis and Farmulis
was on the ascendant. But when a balance has been predominated. The chief of the Sarwanis was Azam
struck between success and failure and due regard Humayun and the principal chieftains of the Lodis
is paid to the circumstances in which Bahlol had to were four: Mahmud Khan who had Kalpi in Jagir;
act, it would be admitted that his achievement was Mian Alam to whom Etawah and Chandwar were
remarkable. He had begun his career as an orphan, assigned; Mubarak Khan whose jagir was Lucknow;
had steadily risen to fame and had not merely and Daulat Khan who held Lahore. Among the Sahu
captured the throne of Delhi but was regarded by Khails, the chiefs were Husain Khan and Khan Jaha,
competent contemporary observers, both friendly both from the same ancestor as Sultan Bahlol; Husain
and hostile, to be marked out for that high destiny. Khan, son of Firuz Khan, and Qutb Khan Lodi Sahu
He found the Sultanate of Delhi in the last stages of Khail, who flourished in the time of Sultan Bahlol.
disintegration. He had arrested the rot, had infused “The districts of Saran and Champaran were
fresh vigour into its bones and the Sultanate of held by Mian Hussain; Oudh, Ambala and Hodhna by
Delhi had began to show signs of fresh lease of life Mian Muhammad Kala Pahar; Kannauj by Mian Gadai;
and vitality. Refractory chiefs were brought to book, Shamsabad, Thanesar and Shahabad by Mian Imad;
a neighbouring kingdom was virtually liquidated Maraha by Tatar Khan, brothers of Mian Muhammad;
and the dominions were rounded off towards the and Hariana, Desua, and other detached parganas
south and west. by Khwaja Shaikh said.
“What is more to his credit, he was no mere “Among the great nobles of Sultan Sikandar’s
militarist or warlord. He was a man of humane spirit time was Saif Khan Acha-Khail. He had 6,000 horses
and wanted to promote public welfare by ensuring under him, and was deputy of Azam Humayun,
law and order, administering justice and refraining Jagirdar of Kara, who used to buy 2,000 copies of
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the Quran every year, had 45,000 horses under The last expedition was undertaken by Sikandar
his command, and 700 elephants. There were also Shah at the instance of Ali Khan of Nagpur. Ali Khan
Daulat Khan Khani, who had 4,000 cavalry; Ali Khan was treacherous man and having gone against
Ushi who had 4000 also; and Firuz Khan Sarwani, who Sikandar asked the Governor not to surrender. The
had 6,000. Amongst other nobles, there were 25,000 result was that Ali Khan was deprived of his fief.
more distributed. Ahmad Khan also, the son of Jamal Sikandar Shah died on 21st November, 1517 A.D.
Khan Lodi Sarang Khan, when he was appointed to
Jaunpur, had 20,000 cavalry under him.” Internal Administration
Foundations of Agra It is true that Sikandar Shah had to spend a lot
of time in fighting but he was able to find some time
Sikandar Shah was responsible for the
foundation of the city of Agra. The decision was to look to administration. He was able to weaken
due to the fact that the Sultan wanted to have more the various chiefs and thereby strengthen his own
effective control over the fief-holders of Etawah, position. He insisted on the auditing of the accounts
Bayana, Koil, Gwalior and Dholpur. The new city of the Afghan nobles even at the risk of their
of Agra was founded in A.D. 1504 and very soon, displeasure. When the accounts of Mubarak Khan
a beautiful town came into existence. The Sultan Lodi after the Bengal campaign were examined,
also transferred his residence from Delhi to Agra. no leniency was shown to him. The balance of the
In A.D. 1505, there was an earthquake.“It was amount was realised from him promptly. With the
in fact so terrible that mountains were overturned help of an efficient system of spies, the Sultan was
and all lofty edifices dashed to the ground: the living able to get information from every nook and corner
thought, the day of judgment was to come; and the
of the country. The personal retainers of the great
dead, the day of resurrection.” The area affected by
the earthquake was very large. As a matter of fact, it Amirs were appointed by the king himself.The Sultan
was general throughout India. Badaoni tells us that encouraged agriculture and abolished corn duties.
the earthquake extended to Persia. There was too Traders and merchants were helped in every
much loss of life and property. way to do their work in peace and security. Under
Narwar the orders of the Sultan, lists of poor persons were
In 1508, Sikandar Shah marched to attack prepared every year and they were given rations for
Narwar, which was usually included in the kingdom six months. Prisoners were released on certain days
of Malwa but was now subject to Gwalior. There in a year. The Sultan listened to the petitions of the
were fighting for some days and that was followed aggrieved persons and disposed of cases according
by a general attack on the fortress. Under the stress to their merit. The Sultan had a good memory and
of famine and want of water, the garrison of Utgir was able to collect a lot of useful knowledge. He
surrendered on certain terms and Sikandar Shah patronised the learned people and himself wrote
entered the fortress. However, Sikandar Shah poetry in Persian.
destroyed all the Hindu temples and ordered the
It was under his patronage that Mian Bhua
construction of mosques on their sites.
translated into Persian a Sanskrit work on medicine
Chanderi known as Tibbi Sikandari. No one was deprived

The fort of Chanderi was captured and given to of his Jagir arbitrarily. An established custom was
Afghan officers. In 1510, Muhammad Khan, Governor never abrogated. The author of Tarikh-i-Daudi tells
of Nagpur, submitted and caused the Khutba to us that “Every business had its appointed time and
be read in the name of the Sultan. The Prince of custom once fixed was never changed. When the
Chanderi expressed a desire to accept Sikandar Shah Sultan had once allowed a particular meal or drink,
as his overlord. The prince was allowed to remain he never altered it. A man of note came from Jaunpur
nominally in possession of the city of Chanderi but to visit him in the hot weather and was given 6 jars
its administration was given to the leading Afghan of Sherbet with his food on account of the heat and
officers. thirst; but when he came again in winter he still
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had six jars of Sherbet to drink. The Sultan always of Islam, he should be asked to embrace it and in
behaved to the nobles and great men in exactly the case he refused to do so, he should be put to death.
same way for many years as he did on the first day.” Sikandar Shah accepted the decision and as the
The same author tells us that “The Sultan Brahman refused to embrace Islam, they were put to
daily received an account of the prices of all things death. Sikandar Shah broke the sacred images of the
and an account of what had happened in the Jwalamukhi temple at Nagarkot. The Hindus were
different districts of the Empire. If he perceived not allowed to have their bath at the Ghats on the
the slightest appearance of anything wrong, he banks of the Jamuna. The barbers were prohibited
caused instant inquiries to be made about it….. from shaving the heads and beards of the Hindus
In his reign, business was carried on in a peaceful, in accordance with their usual custom. All this must
honest, straightforward way. The study of belles- have alienated the feelings of the Hindus against
lettres was not neglected…… Factory establishment the Lodi dynasty.
were so encouraged that all the young nobles and Estimate
soldiers were engaged in useful works…… All the
Prof. K.A. Nizami says that Sikandar Lodi was in
nobles and soldiers of Sikandar were satisfied; each
certain respects a very striking figure of medieval
of his chiefs was appointed to the government of
India. He gave a new orientation to Afghan polity in
a district, and it was his especial desire to gain the
India and considerably raised the stature and dignity
goodwill and affections of the body of the people.
For the sake of his officers and troops, he put an of the office of the Sultan. The Afghan nobility was
end to war and dispute with the other monarchs made to recognize the superior status of the monarch.
and nobles of the period, and closed the road to It was impressed upon the nobles that they were the
contention and strife. He can passed the whole of servants of the Sultan and their position and power
his life in the greatest safety and enjoyment, and depended entirely on his goodwill and pleasure.
gained the hearts of high and low.” Those who held Jagirs were required to submit
accounts regularly and all cases of mismanagement,
Religious Bigotry corruption and misbehaviour were sternly dealt
However, there is one blot on his character, with Sikandar Lodi was an able administrator. He
which cannot be ignored. Sikandar Shah was fanatical could analyses the situation with a clear head and
Muslim and he did a lot to injure the feelings of his enforces his order vigorously. He displayed a great
Hindu subjects. On one occasion, Sikandar Shah sense of responsibility in discharging the functions
ordered the temples of Mathura to be destroyed and of his office and for that he worked very hard. The
Sarais and mosques were constructed in their places. result was that there was peace and prosperity
The idols were given to butchers who made them in the country. The common man got justice. The
into meat weights. In the case of Utgir, the Hindu
highways became safe from bandits and robbers.
temples were destroyed and mosques were raised
The judicial system was efficiently organised under
on their sites. After the surrender of Mandrael, in
Mian Bhua. The Sultan himself disposed of cases
1505, Sikandar Shah destroyed the Hindu temples
brought to him. Sikandar Lodi made arrangements
in the town and erected mosques on their sites.
He also plundered the districts surrounding the for the distribution of cooked and uncooked food
fortress. A Brahman of Bengal publicly maintained to poor people in the Capital. Bi-annual, weekly and
that Islam and Hinduism were both true and God daily allowances and stipends were fixed for the poor
could be approached by following any one of them. and the destitute in his kingdom. He patronised men
Azam-i-Humayun, Governor of Bihar, was directed of letters, artists, poets, etc. Unfortunately, he was
to send the Brahman and two doctors of the Islamic narrow-minded and fanatical in religious matters.
law to the court. Theologians were summoned from He was intolerant towards the Hindus. It was he who
various parts of the kingdom to consider whether ordered the destruction of the idols of the temples
it was permissible to preach peace. Their decision of Nagarkot and those idols were given to butchers
was that as the Brahman had admitted the truth for weighing meat.
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According to Sir Wolseley Haig, “He was the the poor and godly people. Sikandar was neither
greatest of the three kings of his house and carried greedy nor miserly, and the fruits of his liberality
out with conspicuous success the task left unfinished were shared not merely by a select group of courtiers
by his father. We hear little of the Punjab during his and metropolitans but his charity was broad-based
reign and he drew no troops from it to aid him in his and was intended to alleviate the sufferings of the
eastern campaigns, but there are indications that it people as a whole.
was more tranquil and more obedient to the crown Dr. Pandey also points out that Sikandar Lodi
that it had been in his father’s reign. His vigorous was a great patron of learning and he loved the
administration amply justified the choice of the company of learned men. His benevolence and
minority, which in the face of strong opposition patronage attracted them to his court from Persia,
raised him to the throne and his selection saved the Arabia, and different parts of India. Rizqullah
kingdom from becoming the playing of an oligarchy Mushtaqi was an author of repute both in Hindi
of turbulent, ignorant, and haughty Afghans. His and Persian. Main Bhua, the Wazir of Sikandar Lodi,
weakest action was his support of his hopelessly had collected around him a band of able physicians
incompetent brother Barbak, but this weakness was and doctors of medicine who compiled a highly
an amiable trait in a character by no means rich in authoritative work called Tibb-i-Sikandar Shah or
such traits. He seems to have had a sincere affection Maha-Ayuraidik. He also got together a group of
for his brother, and to have felt that he owed him calligraphists and learned men who were continually
some reparation for having supplanted him in his employed in copying and compiling books on every
birth right, when he discovered that leniency was science. Sikandar himself was well acquainted with
a mistaken policy he knew how to act. Persian literature and wrote verses under the pen
name of Gulrukhi. Yadgar says that when Sikandar
“The greatest blot on his character was his Lodi heard about Shaikh Jamal Dehlawi’s return
relentless bigotry. The accounts of his conquests, from his travels through Iraq. Arabia, Syria and
doubtless exaggerated by pious historians, resemble genuine taste for learning and his encouragement
those of the raids of the Islam in India. The wholesale of the learned and interest in their work must have
destruction of temples was not the best method contributed to its progress. Sikandar Lodi was a
of conciliating the Hindus of a conquered district devout and orthodox Muslim who performed his
and the murder of a Brahman, whose only offence prayers regularly. He kept the fast in the month of
was the desire for an accommodation between the Ramzan and spent a good deal of his time at night
religions of the conquerors and the conquered was in religious study and meditation. He was always
not a political act, but Sikandar’s mind was wrapped accompanied by a select group of 17 theologians
by habitual association with theologians.” whom he consulted, whenever necessary, to ensure
About Sikandar Lodi, Dr. Pandey says that all strict conformity with the holy law.
authorities speak in superlatives about his physical Dr. Pandey concludes by saying that although
charms. There are many who say that he was equally ‘he was at times consumed with jealousy, restrained
adorned with excellence of head and heart. He was by timidity or deceived by soft words, he was on
credited with great intelligence, discernment and the whole a better and a greater administrator
moderation. He was a fair judge of men and none then either his father or his son. He improved
of his highest officers played him false. Rizquallah the administration of justice; reduced the power
calls him magnanimous, religious, brave and just. of the nobility by transfers, audits and personal
There are many stories about his generosity. There supervision; enhanced the prestige of the sovereign;
are references to the distribution of cooked and and ministered to the general welfare and happiness
uncooked food coined money and other articles on of his subjects. Sikandar was thus, quite remarkable
Friday, in the month of Ramzan, on the Barawafat both as a man and as the head of growing empire,
and on the 10th day of Muharram. If we can trust and even a conservative estimate would rank his
Abdullah and other Afghan historians, provision among the greatest Muslim rulers of Delhi, in the
for such charities was and to satisfy the wants of Sultanate period.’
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Ibrahim Lodi (1517-1525) demand of the rebels that Azam Humayun be
After the death of Sikandar Shah, his eldest son, released. Negotiations having failed, there was a
Ibrahim, was put on the throne on 21st November bitter fighting and there was a lot of bloodshed.
1517. To quote the author of Malohzan-i-Afghan, ‘Dead
bodies, heap upon heap, covered the filed; and the
Action against Prince Jalal
number of heads lying upon the ground is beyond
There were a few nobles who advocated for the reach of recollection. Streams of blood ran over
their own selfish ends a partition of the kingdom. the plain; and whenever for a length of time, a fierce
They carried Jalal Khan, a younger brother of Ibrahim, battle took place in Hindustan, the old men always
to Jaunpur and put him on the throne. Khan Jahan observed, that with this battle no other one was
Lohani, Governor of Rapri, condemned this suicidal comparable, brother, fighting against brother, fathers
policy of dividing the kingdom. The result was that against son, inflamed by mutual shame and innate
the Afghan nobles acknowledge their mistake and bravery; bows and arrows were laid aside, and the
sent Haibat Khan,‘the wolf-slayer’, to persuade Jalal carnage carried on with daggers, swords, knives and
Khan to withdraw from Jaunpur. It was then that javelins.‘The ultimate result was the Islam Khan was
Ibrahim issued a Firman by which he ordered the killed in the battlefield. Said Khan was captured. The
Amirs no to obey Jalal and threatened to punish rebels suffered terrible losses.
them if they disobeyed. Jalal Khan allied himself
with the zamindars and improved his position. Azam War with Rana Sanga
Humayun who also had a grouse against Ibrahim There is a reference to a war between Ibrahim
jointed him. Ibrahim confined all his brothers in and Rana Sanga of Mewar. It is stated that Ibrahim
the fort of Hansi and personally marched against organised a large army for the invasion on Mewar
Jalal Khan. Kalpi was besieged and the fort was and put in under very experienced generals. Mian
dismanted. Jalal Khan fled towards Agra where Hussain went over to the side of Rana Sanga at the
the Governor entered into negotiations with him. beginning but later on treacherously deserted him
When Ibrahim came to know of those negotiations, at the crucial moment. The Afghans felt upon the
he disapproved of them and passed orders for the Rajputs and killed a large number of them. Rana
assassination of Jalal Khan. The latter took refuge Sanga escaped but his followers were butchered.
with the Raja of Gwalior.When the fort of Gwalior was It is to be noted that excepting Tarikh-i-Salatin-i-
Afghan, Waquit-i-Mushtaqi and Tarikhi-Daudi, no
captured, he fled towards Malwa. He was captured
other authority refers to his expedition. Nizamuddin
by the zamindars of Gondwana and handed over
Badaoni and Firishta are silent on the point. There
to Ibrahim. While he was being conveyed to Hansi,
is no mention of this war in the Rajput Chronicles.
he was put to death on the way by the orders of According to Tod,“Sanga organised his forces with
the king. which he always kept the fired, and when called to
Action against Azam Humayun contend with the descendant of Timur, he gained
18 pitched battles against the kings of Delhi and
Ibrahim Shah called Azam Humayun from
Malwa. In two of these, he was opposed by Ibrahim
Gwalior on mere suspicion and put him and his

Lodi in person at Bakrol and Ghatoli; in which last
son Fatheh Khan, in prison. Islak Kham, another
battle the imperial forces were defeated with great
son of Azam Humayun, was deprived of his slaughter leaving a prisoner of the blood royal to
governorship of Kara-Manikpur. There was a lot of grace that triumph of Chittor.“It appeared that the
resentment of account of the action taken against statement of Ahmad Yadgar regarding the victory
Azam Humayun. The rebels collected a large army of Ibrahim over Rana Sanga is not correct.
consisting of 40,000 cavalry, 500 elephants and also
a large infantry. The efforts of Shaikh Raju Bokhari, Nobles
a holy man, to bring about reconciliation between Ibrahim wanted to strengthen his position at
the parties failed. Ibrahim refused to accept the the cost of his nobles and he did all that he could to
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humble them. He imprisoned Mian Bhua who was to invade India. The author of Tarikh-i-Khan-i-Jhan
one of his father’s leading nobles. His only offence Lodi states that invitation to Kabul was sent through
was that he was careless of forms and he acted as he Alam Khan. The latter marched to Delhi but he was
thought best in the interests of his master without defeated by Ibrahim who himself was defeated in
always troubling to obtain the formal approval of the battle of Panipat, in 1526.
his proceedings. The old man died in prison and his It appears that the real object of Daulat Khan
death sapped the fidelity of his son, although he was was to use Babur as a tool in establishing his own
otherwise generously treated. Azam Humayaun was power on the Punjab. Alam Khan was to be put on
treacherously assassinated in prison. the throne of Delhi and the Punjab was to remain
Jalal Khan was put to death by the orders with Daulat Khan. It is stated that in 1524, Babur
of the king when he was being actually taken invaded the Punjab and easily captured Lahore.
to the fort of Hansi for imprisonment. Even the Babur gave the fiefs of Jullundur and Sultanpur to
Daulat Khan but as Daulat Khan did not behave well,
greatest nobles feared their safety. No wonder, Darya
those were taken away from him and given to his
Khan, Khan-i-Jahan Lodi and Husain Khan Farmuli
own son Dilawar Khan. Babur went back to Kabul
revolted against the Sultan. Hussain Khan Famuli
after making arrangements for the administration
was killed in his bed by some holy men of Chanderi of the Punjab. As soon as Babur was away, Daulat
Bahadur Khan, son of Darya Khan, took up the title Khan took away the fief of Sultanpur from his son
of Muhammad Shah and defied the authority of and turned out Alam Khan from Dipalpur. Alam
Ibrahim. Ibrahim cruelly treated Dilwar Khan, son Khan went to Kabul and complained to Babur. It
of Daulat Khan Lodi, Governor of the Punjab. When was under these circumstances that Babur started
Ibrahim summoned Daulat Khan Lodi to the capital, for the second time from Kabul and fought the
the former executed him on the ground that he battle of Panipat in 1526. Ibrahim was killed in the
would come later on with the treasure of the state battlefield and Babur turned out to be the victor.
and sent his son Dilawar Khan at once. While in Delhi, The battle of Panipat ended the Lodi dynasty and
Dilawar Khan was taken by Ibrahim to the prison, brought in the rule of the Mughals.
where the victims of his anger were suspended from Rushbrook Williams ascribes the defeat of
the walls. Ibrahim addressed Dilawar Khan in these Ibrahim Lodi to the artillery of Babur. To quote
words. “Have you seen the condition of those who him, “If there was one single material factor which
have disobeyed me?” It is stated that Dilawar Khan more than any other conduced to his ultimate
made his submission before Ibrahim but somehow triumph in Hindustan, it was his powerful artillery.”
managed to escape to his father and told him all However, Dr. A.B. Pandey points out that Babur
that he had seen and experienced at the capital. It himself does not emphasize the role of artillery
was under these circumstances that Daulat Khan so much as that of archery, coupled with Ibrahim’s
Lodi sent an invitation to Babur to invade India. utter incompetence as a general so that he neither
moved nor halted according to the plan. Yadgar
The various authorities differ on this point. It finds in the dissatisfaction of the Afghans the
is stated in the Makhzan that Daulat Khan entered key to Ibrahim’s defeat and death. All these views
into an alliance with Ghazi Khan and other Amirs partially explain the event. “Other factors which
of the Punjab and addressed an invitation to Babur contributed to Babur’s success were treachery of
through Alam Khan. The statement of Firishta is Ibrahim’s nobles, his own freedom from Central
that finding no safety for his family, Daulat Khan Asian troubles, and his scientific methods of warfare
Lodi revolted and asked Babur to conquer India. and seasoned generalship in contrast to Ibrahim’s
Before the invasion of Babur, Alam Khan, uncle or outmoded tactics, handicapped as they were by the
brother of Ibrahim, had fled from Ibrahim Lodi and presence of too many soldiers and elephants that
was residing at Kabul. The view of Ahmad Yadgar caused confusion in their own ranks when pressed
is that Dilwar Khan was sent to Babur to invite him back by a deadly fire.”
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As regards an estimate of Ibrahim, he was side of his mother. The Mughals were so proud
in some respects like his father and grandfather. of their connection with Timur that they called
He was intelligent, courageous and brave. He had themselves Timurids. On the death of his father
some reputation for piety and orthodoxy. Like his Umar Shaikh Mirza, Babur inherited the ancestral
father, he was interested in music. As man, he was kingdom of Farghna in 1494. On account of his
generous and kind, but as a ruler, he had many precarious position in Central Asia, he, after crossing
shortcomings, which were heightened by the the Indus, invaded India five times.
adverse circumstances in which he was placed. He The first real expedition took place in April
had a certain amount of vanity and he demanded 1526. Panipat was merely the beginning of the
more implicit obedience than was customary among Mughal rule and not its real foundation which was
the Afghans. He was reckless in punishing all those laid by Akbar, in 1556. At the time of the battle
whom he suspected of treachery or disaffection. of Panipat, the political power in Hindustan was
In political dealings, he neither forgave nor forgot being shared by the Afghans. But Babur’s conquest
and hence, he often appeared vindictive. His
of Hindustan would have been incomplete till he
treatment of the nobility was on the whole trackless
defeated the Rana of Mewar, Sangram Singh or Rana
and indiscreet. He could make enemies but could
Sanga, who was the greatest Rajput prince of the
not convert men of doubtful loyalty into devoted
period. Consequently, a decisive battle took place on
servants by his magnanimity. He attached too much
March 16, 1527, at Khanua, a village some 60 km west
importance to discipline, obedience and humility
of Agra, between the forces of Babur and Rana Sanga.
among his subordinates but did not know how to be
securing them. His policy was calculated to provoke In this battle, the latter was decisively defeated and
opposition and rebellion. He lacked qualities of Khanua confirmed and completed Babur’s victory
generalship and seldom took the filed himself. Even at Panipat. In 1528, he captured Chanderi from a
when he did so, he gave little evidence of anything Rajput Chief Medini Rai and a year later, he defeated
other than courage and determination. He failed the Afghan chiefs under Mahmud in the battle of
to maintain his authority over local officers and Ghagra in Bihar. These conquests because shortly
provincial governors. He started well but failed afterwards he died at Agra on December 26, 1530.
afterwards. On account of his own acts of mission Babur’s conquest of Hindustan has been called
and commission, discontentment continued to by R.P. Tripathi “a result of chance thought”, because
increase and the result was that by 1526, he was his original intention was only to annex the Punjab
surrounded by enemies on all sides. He was no to his Central Asian territories. But the subsequent
match for Babur and no wonder he lost the game. political developments led him to aim at capturing
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE—FIRST PHASE, the entire Lodi heritage. The infant Mughal empire
was, however, “rather a congeries of little states
BABUR AND HUMAYUN
under one prince than the regular and uniformly
Babur governed kingdom”. A detailed record of Babur’s
Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur, who defeated career is found in his autobiography. Turzuk-i-Baburi
Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat in 1526, founded the Mughal or Baburnamah—which he wrote in his mother-
empire in India. Babur was a descendant of Timur tongue (Turki). It is reckoned among the most
on his father’s side and of Chengiz Khan on the enthrailing and romantic literary works of all time.
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Humayun (1530-36 A.D.) Malwa, Gujarat and Bengal, were arrayed against
Babur’s eldest son, Humayun, who succeeded the Mughals. On top of it, Humayun divided the
him, inherited “a monarchy which could be held empire inherited from his father among his three
together only by the continuance of war conditions brothers, Kamran, Hindal and Askari.
which in times of peace was weak, structureless The Afghans, who had not yet been crushed
and invertebrate”. Babur conquests had not been also raised their heads. Of them, Sher Khan known
consolidated, the army lacked cohesiveness and as Sher Shah Suri, proved to be the most formidable
the administration an effective machinery. The enemy of Humayun and after defeating the latter at
imperial treasury was almost bankrupt and beyond Chausa and Kannauj in 1540, completely shattered
the frontiers powerful political forces, such as his prospects. After his final defeat at the hands of
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Sher Shah Suri, the Mughal empire in India was stipulated revenue a peasant was also required
temporarily eclipsed and Humayun had to pass to pay Jaribana and Munasalana together with a
nearly fifteen years (1540-55) in exile. But shortly contingency tax of 2-1/2 ser per bigha of land.
after regaining the empire, Humayun died in an Shershah prefered the collection of revenue for
accident. staple crop in cash. In such cases, the government’s
The Sur Empire—Shershah’s Administration demand was fixed according to the prices obtaining
in near markets. While Shershah was lenient about
Shershah was undoubtedly the greatest of the
the determination of revenue, he was strict in its
Afghan rulers of India, the significance of his reign
collection so that arrears may not be accumulated.
in Medieval Indian History may be assessed on the
He also allowed for partial or complete remission of
basis of his two major achievements:
revenue in natural calamities. To protect standing
1. Restoration of Afghan political supremacy in crops from destruction in course of any warships,
northern India, and he arranged for compensatory payments.
2. Introduction of extensive reforms in the Shershah’s revenue reforms were beneficial for
sphere of administration which subsequently the state and the peasant. But they suffered from
provided the model for Akbar’s organisation certain defects. The inferior quality of land, jagirs and
of Mughal administration. Sher Shah’s reforms bribery could not be abolished completely. Some of
covered almost all branches of administration these defects were sought to be removed, later by
including law and order, justice, currency, the Akbar. Little information is available on the central
army, public works etc. But the most important administration under Shershah. It seems that the
of these concerned land-revenue. earlier department of governments continued.These
The objectives behind Shershah’s land revenue included Diwan-e-Wizarat or revenue department,
reforms were mainly: or Diwan-e-Arz or military department, Diwan-e-
1. Elimination of intermediaries in land, Insha or secretariat, Diwan-e-Risalat or department
2. Amelioration of the condition of the peasantry, of public charities and Diwan-e-Qaza or judicial
and department. But Sher Shah did not believe in
delegating power or authority to his ministers.
3. Stablisation of the revenue resources of the He was despot and personally supervised all the
state. different branches of administration and looked
He abolished system of Jagirs and appointed into their details.
government officials to collect revenue from the However, his despotism was based on the
peasant. Each peasant was given a Patta specifying wiling consent or his subject and the welfare of his
the area of land under his cultivation, the crop subjects. The details of provincial administration
grown there, and the state’s demand. In return, the under Shershah are also obscure. Probably, Shershah
peasant gave Qabuliyat to the state. Thus, Sher Shah allowed the earlier territorial units and administration
tried to protect the peasant from the extortions setup to continue. The only exemption was made in
of the Muqaddama and zamindars, and arbitrary Bengal where the entire province was partitioned
assessment by the revenue officials. into a number of units each under a military chief.
Shershah introduced the systems of It was at the levels of the Sarkar and Pargana that
assessment of revenue on the basis of measurement Shershah carried out a thorough organisation of
of land instead of the earlier practice of crop sharing. administration. His experience as administrator of his
All cultivable land throughout the kingdom was father’s jagir of Shasaram came handy to him in this
measured and divided into three categories of good, connection. A Sarkar was placed under charge of a
middle and bad. The average produce of the three Shiqdar-e-Shiqdaran who looked after revenue and
was calculated and 1/3 of it was fixed at the state’s judicial matters. Below the sarkar was the pargana
share. Schedule of crop rate were drawn up showing each with a Shiqdar incharge of law and order, an
the method and rate of assessment. Besides the Amin in charge of revenue matters and a munsif
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in charge of judiciary. The Amin was assisted by a rule. Well executed coins of gold, silver and copper
Khazanadar and two Karkuns, each to keep record in of a uniform standard and value replaced the old
Persian and Hindi at the level of the village Shershah debased ones of mixed metals. His silver rupee
allowed the headman or Muqaddam to continue remained a standard coin for centuries after him.
performing his police duties. But he introduced the Smaller fraction of a rupee or even the copper one
principle of local responsibility. The local headman such as quarter, half eight and sixteenth were also
had to arrest thief and robbers or pay compensation coined. His coins bore beautiful legends both in
to the aggrieved party. Arabic and Nagari.
This considerably improved the existing law Shershah is rightly remembered for his works
and order situation. Shershah laid great stress on of public welfare. These included the construction
impartial dispensation of justice although he does of roads and sarais, patronage to education and
not seem to have introduced any change—either charitable activities. To improve the means of
in judicial organisation or administration of justice. communication in the empire new roads were
The Munsif looked after cases concerning revenue. constructed and old one repaired. Shady trees were
An orderly administration had to be supported planted on either sides of the roads linking such
by an efficient army and Shershah was aware of distant places as Dacca and Lahore, Mandu and
this necessity. He carried out a through reform Eurhanpur, Agra and Burhanpur and Jodhpur and
in the military. He revived Alauddin’s practice of Chittor, Minor highways connected Jaunpur and
maintaining a permanent standing army recruited Bayana, Agra and Delhi, Multan and Lahor. These
and paid by the center, and substituted it for the roads were as useful for commercial as for military
feudal contingents of the Afghan warlords which purposes. Along these roads were sunk wells sat
accounted for their turbulent behaviour and the short convenient distances and salaries were built at
military weakness of the state. He also revived the intervals of four miles. Arrangements were made
the practice of ‘Dagh’ and ‘Huliya’ to guard against for both Hindu and Muslims travellers. The sarai also
served as centers of commerce and soon became
the cheating and fraud by the soldiers and their
the nuclei of new market towns that developed.They
commanders. The army was stationed in forts
also served as post offices or dark chaukies where
and cantonments in different parts of the empire.
news carriers and horses were kept for transmitting
Shershah preered to pay his soldiers in cash and
message to the next sarai. These arrangements
did away with the practice of granting jagirs in
largely explains the efficient functioning of the spy
most cases.
system devised by Shershah.
A stable and efficient government encouraged Shershah did not fail to make adequate
commercial activity in the empire considerably. It provisions for the upkeep of Madarsas and Mosques.
received further impetus from the policies pursued Another sphere of state activity was the grant of
by Shershah. He reduced the number of duties charity to the indigent, windows, orphans, students
charged on commercial merchandise. This duty scholars and the recluse. Shershah was tolerant of
was not to be paid only at two place (1) place of other religions as well and displayed no bigotry
manufacture of import (2) place of sale. He also against his non-Muslim subjects. The tolerant
made arrangement for the security of merchants attitude of Shershah is reflected in the religious,
and their goods in transport. The construction of literary and architectural achievements of his age.
roads and sarais also helped the merchants. The Muslim took great interest in the growth of
In addition, Shershah introduced a uniform Hindi literature and some of them produced works
system of weights and measures and a uniform of great merit and originality. In architecture too he
currency throughout the empire. His currency patronised as eclectic style which assimilated both
reforms were perhaps the most important since Indian and Persian artistic. The best example of it is
Muhammad Bin Tughlug’s reforms. He effected his mausoleum at Sasaram. In many ways, Shershah
improvements in the currency which had been paved the way for the highly enlightened policy of
debased during the later days of Turko Afghan Akbar and was his true precursor.
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Prof. K.R. Qanungo, in his monograph on little modification down of the middle of the 19th
Shershah calls him the “greatest military and century were not the achievements of Akbar but of
administrative genius among the Afghans”. Shershah”. Keene agrees with him when he says “no
According to him Shershah may justly dispute with government not even the British has shown much
Akbar the claim of being the first who attempted wisdom as this pathan”, and according to Crookes
to build up an Indian nation….. The work of “that he introduced such extensive reforms in his
Shershah’s administrative genius did not perish short reign of five years is a wonderful proof of his
with his dynasty….. It forms the substratum of our executive ability” historians scan even questions of
present administrative system…. The revenue and tilt of Shershah to rank among the most prominent
currency systems which prevailed in India with very enlightened and virile rulers of medieval India.
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The Portuguese Colonial Enterprises innocent men and women and tortured them. The
On 17th May, 1498, Vasco da Gama, who had zamorin’s attempted invasions of Cochin were easily
left Lisbon with three vessels on 8th July, 1497, repelled, and a war fleet, consisting of 200 or 300
touched the land thirteen kilometers north of Calicut. vessels sent to the Red Sea by the Arabs, destroyed
The Zamorian welcomed the Portuguese, but the four Portuguese ships.
Muslims were alarmed. They poisoned the Zamorin’s In 1505, the Portuguese king introduced a
mind against the Protuguese and convinced him that scheme of appointing a viceroy to reside in India
the newcomers were spies who would bring huge for three years. The first viceroy was Francisco de
forces to conquer the country. Their prophecies were Almeida. His successor, Alfonso d’ Albuquerque,
not groundless. The Portuguese had meanwhile who conquered Goa in March 1510, encouraged
discovered that the Hindu princes on the Malabar the Portuguese to marry Indian women and allotted
coast were jealous of each other and that the region, them cattle. In 1511, Albuquerque conquered
which depended for food on grain vessels from Malacca. A year later he foiled a Bijapuri commander’s
the Coromandel coast, was extremely sensitive to attempts to regain Goa. Portuguese dominance
a sea blockade. Most importantly they had learned at sea gave them a monopoly of the horse trade,
that the Indian and Arab ships could not withstand which they used as a weapon in their diplomatic
cyclones and typhoons and sailed from Gujarat to manoeuvres with the Indian rulers. Albuquerque
Aden and Basra, from Bengal to Malacca, and from died in December 1515 and was buried in the church
Malabar to Malacca, only at particular times of the he had built in Goa. He had laid the foundation for
year. By contrast, the Portuguese ships could hold the Portuguese predominance in the eastern waters. The
seas in all weather, and their cannot could destroy next Portuguese objective in India was control of the
Indian ships with the first volley. Gujarati port of Diu. Unfortunately for them Malik
Vasco da Gama returned to Lisbon, in August, Iyaz, governor of Diu, until his death in 1522, was a
1499, with a cargo of species collected at Calicut. In formidable adversary. He possessed vast personal
March 1500, the king of Protugal sent a larger fleet resources, and his navy, fitted with heavy cannon
of thirteen vessels carrying 1,200 men, under Pedro and light pieces, was quite strong. Not only did he
Alvarez Cabral, to destroy their Muslim enemies. defend Diu against Portuguese invasions, he also
Seven ships were lost on the way to Calicut, but thwarted the intrigues of the Gujarati nobles, who
the journey took only a few days more than six saw no harm in granting the Portuguese permission
months. The Zamorian welcomed but did not help to build a fort in Diu in return for the right to trade
them. War then broke out between the Protuguese freely. After Iyaz’s death, interest in protecting the
and the Muslims. The Portuguese sank ten Muslim Gujarati was stepped up by Sultan Bahadur, who
vessels and bombarded the town of Calicut for two built a fleet of some 160 vessels, during his reign
days. Cabral then sailed to the neighbouring port the Portuguese grew even more determined to
of Zamorin had sent to punish the Portuguese. The extend their hold on the western coast with success
Rajas of Cannanore and Quilon became Portuguese to some extent.
allies; Cochin, which was better suited to trade,
was transformed into the Portuguese trading Cartaz and Qafila

headquarters. 1. Throughout the 16th century, an important
The success of their first two expeditions aspect of the Portuguese involvement was the
prompted the Portuguese king to dispatch Vasco attempt to control and tax the trade carried
da Gama again, in 1502, not only to destroy Arab on by Asian merchants in the Indian Ocean. It
trade but also to plant Christianity in India. Gamma was here in their cartaz-armada-qafila system
exerted considerable pressure on the Zamorin to that the Portuguese produced their greatest
expel all the Muslims from Calicut, but the Zamorin impact on Asian trade.
only partially complied with his demands. Vasco 2. The main instrument used for this was the
da Gama then sank several Arab ships, captured cartaz or passport backed by armadas.
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3. The near-absence or the inferiority of the naval was hostile to any heterodox movement. Advent of
power of the Asian states greatly helped the Turks destroyed this alliance and caused a setback
policies of the Portuguese. to the power of the Brahmans. As a consequence,
4. Under the cartaz system, every Asian ship non-conformist roots, with anti-caste and anti-
was required to take a cartaz from the Brahmanical ideology took roots. The Nath panthis
Portuguese. It authorised the vessel to embark were the first to gain from the declining power of
on a specified trip. The ports of call were also the Rajput Brahmana alliances and reached its peak
specified and generally included a visit to in the beginning of the Sultanate period.
a Portuguese-controlled port to pay duties Socio-Economic Factors: Certain socio-
before proceeding to its destination. economic changes took place with the establishment
5. If a ship was found without a cartaz, it was of the sultanate which created a favourable
automatically confiscated and its crew ground for the spread of the Bhakti movement.
immediately killed or sent to the galleys. The Turkish ruling class being urban based and
Again, if a ship, even with a cartaz, violated having tremendous resources at its disposal created
the conditions laid down in it, it was liable to a great demand for manufactures. This was aided
confiscation. The fee charged for a cartaz was, by the growth of many techniques and crafts. This,
however, very small. in turn, led to the expansion of the class of urban
artisans in the 13th, and 14th century. This class was
6. In the second half of the 16th century,
increasingly attracted to the egalitarian ideas of the
the Portuguese introduced the so-called
monotheistic movements as they were not satisfied
qafila or caravan system in the western coast with the law status accorded to them in traditional,
of India. The main purpose of this was to Brahminical hierarchy. It has been pointed out that
ensure that the ships carrying cartased were some groups of traders like the khatris in the Punjab,
not able to evade calling at the Portuguese- who benefited directly from the growth of towns,
controlled ports and pay customs duties urban crafts production and expansion of markets
on their goods as also to obviate the risk of were also drawn into the movement for the same
attacks by Malabari pirates on these ships. reason. Popularity of monotheistic movements was
7. Under this system, the ships operating the result of the support it obtained from one or
between the specified points were required to more of that different classes of the society. It is
sail in a group escorted by a Portuguese fleet. one or most of these sections which constituted
But many Indian traders were reluctant to join the social base of the movement in different parts
the qafilas and call at Goa to pay customs of northern India. In Punjab, the popularity of the
duties there and engage in virtually forced movement did not remain confined to urban classes:
trade. it acquired a broader base by the incorporation of
Jat peasants in its ranks. Support extended by the
8. Hence the Portuguese escort fleet had to
Jats of Punjab to Nanak’s movement ultimately
perform two functions: to guard the merchant
contributed to the development of Sikhism as a
ships against pirates and to ensure that mass religion.
none of them slipped to trade outside the

Was Bhakti a counterpart of Protestant
Portuguese system
Reformation in Europe Challenging Feudalism? It
BHAKTI AND SUFI MOVEMENT has been argued that Bhakti movement represent
sentiments of the common people against feudal
Nature and Significance of oppression. According to this view, elements of
Bhakti Saints revolutionary opposition to feudalism can be
Political factors: The Bhakti movement could found in Bhakti poetry of Kabir, Nanak, Chaitanya
not take root in northern India before the Turkish etc. It is in this sense that Medieval Bhakti is seen
conquest because the socio-religious milieu was as a counterpart of Europe protestant reformation.
dominated by the Rajput Brahman alliance which However, there is nothing in their poetry to suggest
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that they represented the class interests of the 7. Followers of Kabir, Raidas and Nanak gradually
peasantry against the surplus extracting feudal organised themselves into exclusive sectarian
state. Bhakti saints broke away from brahmanical orders called panths. Only the Nanak panth
order only to the extent that they believed in Bhakti crystallised into a mass religion.
and religious equality. Normally, they continued
Origin/Background
to subscribe to many basic principles of orthodox
Brahmanism. The more radical reformers even did Origin can be traced back to both the
not call for the overthrow of the state and the ruling Brahmanical and Buddhist traditions of ancient
class. For this reason, Bhakti cannot be equated India and to scriptures as the Gita. But it was for
with or regarded as an Indian variant of European the first time in south India between the 7th and
Protestant Reformation which was a far greater 10th century, that bhakti grew from a mere religious
social upheaval linked to the decline of feudalism doctrine into a popular movement based in religious
and rise of capitalism. equality and broad-based social participation. It
reached its climax during the 10th century, after
Common Features of Popular Monotheistic which it began to decline. But it was reviewed as a
Movements philosophical and ideological movement by a series
1. Most of the monotheists belonged to low of wandering scholars or acharyas beginning with
castes and were aware that there existed a Ramanuja in the 11th century establishment of
unity of ideas among themselves. Delhi Sultanate witnessed a great outburst of many
diverse and widespread socio-culture movements
2. All of them had sources of inspiration Vaishnava drawing upon the concepts of Bhakti.
concept of Bhakti, Nath panthi movement and
Sufism. These three were synthesised and Difference between south Indian Bhakti
give new orientation. There was only one and Popular Monotheism of Later Years
way of establishing communion with God It never consciously opposed Brahmanism or
by personally experiencing Bhakti. It differed the Varna system at the social level. It was integrated
from Vaishnava Bhaktism as the latter believed with the caste system and the lower castes continued
in ‘Saguna’ Bhakti while monotheist believed to suffer from various social disabilities. There was no
in ‘nirguna’. Monotheist also recognised the elimination of Brahmanical rituals such as worship
crucial importance of repitetion of divine of idols, recitation of Vedic mantras and pilgrimages
name, spiritual guru, kirtan and satsang. to sacred places. Buddhist and Jains were its targets,
not Brahmanas. This was the reason why Brahman
3. They followed a path which was independent
dominated temples played an important role in
of both dominant religions of the time
the growth of south Indian Bhakti movement. It
Hinduism and Islam. Denying their allegiance
was ultimately integrated into the conventional
to either of them, they criticised the orthodox Brahmanical religion. However, its non opposition of
elements of both religions. They launched a Brahmanism strengthened it rather than weakened it.
vigorous ideological assault on caste system
and idolatry, rejected Brahmanical symbol Nanak
and imagery. Nanak was an important expounders of

4. Preached in popular languages, used popular non-conformist popular monotheistic movement.
symbol and imagery. He laid emphasis on one God, whose name with
continuous repetition (with love and devotion) could
5. They were not ascetics but householders.
entail salvation without distinction of caste, creed
6. Ideas spread among ‘lower’ classes and to or sect. He laid great stress on purity of character
various regions. The 17th century Persian work and conduct as the first condition of approaching
on comparative religion Dabistan-I Mazahib God and the need of a Guru for spiritual guidance.
testifies to the continuing popularity of Kabir Like Kabir, he advocated a middle path in which
among the people of north India. spiritual life could be combined with the duties of
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the householder. He had no intention of founding They freed people of the tyranny of ritualism and
a new religion. His catholic approach aimed at other externalities of formal religion which was a
bridging distinctions between Hindus and Muslims, source of exploitation for the common man.
in order to create an atmosphere or peace and
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
goodwill.
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486-1533), born of
Kabir a brahmin family from Nadia, was the most famous
Kabir was the earliest and undoubtedly, bhakti reformer in Bengal. He became an ascetic at
the most powerful figures of the monotheistic the age of twenty-five and adopted the Krishna cult.
movements that began in the 15th century. He He stayed at Mathura and Vrindavana for many years
emphasised the unit of god whom he called by and attracted lakhs of devotees. Deadly opposed
various names (Rama, Hari, Govind). He strongly to caste system and untouchability, Chaitanya was
denounced idol worship, pilgrimage, bathing in holy ‘the very image of love’ whose heart ‘melted with
rivers and taking part in formal religion as manner. pity’ to observe the sufferings of the poor and the
He also advocated the middle path denouncing downtrodden. He was very popular in Bengal; so
asceticism. He strongly denounced the caste much so that some of his devotees declared him to
system, especially the practice of untouchability be the incarnation of Lord Vishnu or Krishna himself.
and emphasised the fundamental unity of man.
Though his sympathies were with the poor, yet NATURE OF BHAKTI MOVEMENT
he was not a social reformer, his emphasis being
reform of individual under the guidance of a guru. Influences
According to Jarachand, “the mission of Kabir was 1. Bhagvat Purana: Emphasis on Bhakti of
to preach a religion of love which would unite all Vishnu in his various incarnations. The
castes and creeds. He rejected those features of Bhagvata accepts the orthodox Brahmanical
Islam and Hinduism which were against this spirit theory of origin of Varna system. However,
and which were of no importance to the spiritual its influence was not exerted in a direct
welfare of the individual. manner on Kabir and Nanak. They were mostly
Their impact has been debated. It has been illiterate, not having access to Bhagvatas.
argued that old forms of religion continued almost They did not believe in incarnations and
unchanged. Nor was it possible to effect any major rejected Brahmanical and scriptural authority
break in the caste system. Also in course of time, altogether.
ideas of Nanak gave birth to a new creed, Sikhism 2. Ramananda: But his ideas of Bhakti were
and followers of Kabir shrank into a sect the Kabir essentially a part of Vaishnava Bhakti, but
panthis. However, their importance should be Kabir and Nanak went ahead of his ideas and
assessed from a broader perspectives. They created challenged Brahmanical order in its entirely.
a climate of opinion which continued to work
through the succeeding centuries. It is well-known 3. Nathpanthis: Like non-conformist, most
that Akbar’s real ideals and policies reflected in a of Nath panthi preachers were from lower
considerable measure in the fundamental teachings castes. Influence on Kabir is clearly seen in
of these two great saints. Nor was Akbar alone in his non-conformist approach, independent
this pursuit (regional kingdoms-Kashmir-Zanul thinking, harsh style of utterances, mystical
Abidin). The fact that their ideas were at the heart symbolism etc. However, Kabir and other
of the religions and intellectual controversies of modified the nathpanthi ideas to their own
16th/17th centuries testifies to their significance. needs. Kabir rejected their asceticism and
It was the voice of Kabir and Nanak which spoke exoteric practices and other Yogic exercises.
through the imperials lips and created a storm in Nathpanthi influence can be seen more in their
orthodox circles during Akbar (Ishwari Prasad). They heterodox attitudes towards the established
also promoted the growth of vernacular literature. Brahmanical religion than in their practices.
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4. Islamic ideas and Sufism: Scholars have Kabir, Nanak and the latter project was accomplished
argued that the Bhakti movement came into by Tulsidas in late 16th/17th century. However, such
being as a result of Islamic influence. This a notion is not born out by historical evidence.
claim has been made on the basis of many
similarities between Islam and Bhakti cults.
Impact of Islam and Causes for Growth
Nonconformists as Kabir, picked up many There is much debate pertaining to the
ideas from Islam non-compromising faith in influence of Islam as a factor for Bhakti. Such a
one god, their rejection of incarnation, their contention totally negates the indigenous elements
conception of Nirguna Bhakti and their attack of Bhakti prevalent in Hinduism from a very early
on idolatry and the caste system. However, date. Yet the impact of Islam can’t be totally denied.
the Vaishnava Bhakti movement cannot be However, this impact was not so much on the
interpreted in terms of such an influence of metaphysical and spiritual level as on its social and
Islam as they neither denounced idolatry and organisational level. The simple and articulate non-
caste system nor incarnation. Relationship ritualistic doctrine of Islam, its belief in egalitarianism
between monotheistic Bhakti movement definitely sharpened the attack on Brahmanical
and Islam seems to be of mutual influences Hinduism with its idol worship, superstition and
and Sufism provided the common meeting rigid caste system. It seems that by its challenge as
ground. Sufi concept of guru and devotional an alternative, it certainly awakened the dormant
surrender to god. Kabir is even said to have trends of Hinduism which finds its expression in the
affiliations with Chisti saints. Nanak’s encounter Bhakti movement.
with Sufis are described in the Janam Sakhis. The Bhakti Movement could not take roots in
There was remarkable similarity between the north India before the Turkish conquest because
them, including their common rejection of the socio-religious milieu was dominated by the
Hindu and Muslim orthodoxy (Tarachand, Rajput-Brahmin alliance which was hostile to any
Yusuf Hussain and Humayun, Kabir regarded orthodox movement. With the advent of Turks this
Bhakti as an offspring of Islam). Rather than alliance was completely broken and the prestige of
searching for far-fetched sources of influences Brahmanas certainly declined.
from other religion, it is more appropriate The origin and growth of Bhakti Movement
to understand them in terms of their own was linked to various socio-economic developments
immediate historical contents. following the Turkish invasion. The period witnessed
Others have tried to relate it to Hinduism. They the increase of agriculture, crafts, trade and
see Bhakti as a reform coming from within commerce and various industries. The Turkish ruling
Hinduism. But it was aimed at eradicating class was a predominantly urban settlers and with
evils from both Hinduism and Islam. their effective organisation led to an increase in
(a) They were non-sectarian, monotheistic the surplus at the hand of ruling classes. This must
orders. have increased their demand which must be led to
an expansion of artisans.
(b) Challenged orthodoxy in both religions.
Thus, a social strata emerged whose social
Theory of Islamic Challenge to Hinduism status was not in conformity with their economic
According to one theory, Bhakti emerged as status. This class could not be satisfied in the
a response to the challenge posed by Islamic ideas hierarchical system of Brahmanism which placed
to Hinduism and due to the alleged persecution of him lowly. Hence their attraction towards the
Hindus under Muslim rule. According to this theory, egalitarian movement of the period, which various
Bhakti movement was a two pronged defensive forms of Bhakti Movement represented.
mechanism to save Hindu religion by purging it of This explanation sound creditable. Most of
such evils as caste systems and idolatry and at the Bhakti Movement followers came from the peasant,
same time defending its basic tenet by popularising artisan and lower class. Secondly, it gained deeper
it. The former task is said to have been undertaken by roots in the region under Turkish rules. Further, many
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of the vocal supporters of Bhakti Movement such prominent among Ramaites; Mirabai, Narsingh
as Jats had ambivalent social status despite the fact Mehta, Chaitanya, Surdas were famous Krishnaites.
that they were will off farmers. Further even among saints there was variety of
So, it is wrong to assume that Bhakti Movement differing view pertaining to each one of them.
was a direct outcome of the emergence of Islam in Kabir and Nanak were prominent among
India. Hinduism had in it the inherent philosophy to Nirguna sect and were move radical in their approach.
achieve salvation. This was done by Jnana, Karma or They followed rational approach, rejected caste
Bhakti. With coming of Turks, the decline in Brahman system, idol worship. Other were the Nathpanthis
Rajput alliance hostile to it, and the changes in which went a step ahead to ridicule the Brahmanical
socio-economic milieu certainly gave fill up to Bhakti system as a whole.
Movement. Due to these diversities in composition of
No doubt some of the principles advocated the Bhakti Movement, no definite character can be
by Saints of Bhakti Movement as assigned to it while the Saguna were at best the
1. Universal brotherhood reformists and functioned within the establishment,
2. Opposition to idol worship the Nirguna were non-conformists and Nathpanthis
3. Disbelief in caste distinction were anti-establishment.
were cardinal virtues of Islam but it would be Despite this a broad feature can be outlined:
too much to say that the Bhakti saints borrowed 1. Most of them belonged to low caste.
it from Islam. In fact, Hinduism knew it from the 2. All monotheist movement was influenced by
earliest time. The “EKANTIKA DHARMA”, the religion Bhakti as a salvation.
addressing itself to a single God finds its reference 3. Assault on caste system and superstition
in the Bhagavat Gita. Idol worship was not practised
(egalitarianism).
for a long time during ancient India. But an outright
rejection of influence of Islam on Bhakti too would 4. Use of popular language.
be to deny the essence of Hinduism to borrow and 5. Most were non-ascetics. They preached and
make it a part of its own. lived worldly life.
So, it emerges that Bhakti Movement provided 6. Followers of each of major saints gradually
answer to both the reason and emotion of the period organised members into exclusive sectarian
which helped it to become in popular movement. order called panths e.g.—Kabir Panth.
Nature and Significance of Bhakti Saint 7. Ideas were drawn from both existing and
Islamic traditions.
The use of the term Bhakti Movement gives the
impression of a homogeneous movement, which is Ramanuja
far from truth. It consisted of various components 1. Born in 1017 A.D., became successor to his
that some historians have rejected to call it a single guru Yamuna Muni at Srirangam.
movement but rather a series of movements.
2. Ramanuja is a monotheist, but contrary to
The major division which deserves note Sankaracharya he did not believe that God
was between the Saguna and Nirguna sect. In the may be exempt from qualities. So this qualified
Saguna sect, there was a belief in highly personalised Monoism (vishistadvaita) established unity of
diety and the predominance of an emotional God possessing attributes.
approach and appeal. They rejected the rationale
of Vedanta, believed in temple traditions, supported 3. He reputed Mayavad of Shankara. He did not
idol worship and did not oppose caste system regard the cosmic appearance of God as false
vehemently. However, even various trends was to but as an aspect (Prakara) of God.
be seen in this Saguna sect. These were Ramaites 4. According to him, God has two attributes—
and Krishnites while Tulsidasa and Ramanand were Prabara and Prabiriti.
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5. Emphasised on Bhakti. 4. Wide discrepancy between teaching of various
6. Evolved prapptimarga for achieving salvation. saints.
This marked beginning of movement for 5. Not much for women.
upliftment of lower caste. In conclusion, our understanding of Bhakti
Ramanand Movement requires the recognition of non-
homogenous nature of Bhakti Movement. Its
1. Credit of spreading Bhakti Movement in North.
significance lay in the fact that it provided hope
2. Believed in vishistadvaita of Ramanuj and or inspiration to the man of law caste people and
carried it further. created an atmosphere of tolerance and peaceful
3. His disciples came to be known as Avadhutas. consistence in an atmosphere of great tumult. It
4. Opposed sectarianism and rites and preached was not only a spiritual or religious but had social
in Hindi language instead of Sanskrit. overtones as well.
5. In his Anand Bhasya, he did not recognise Sufism in its Pantheistic Phase
the right of Sudra to read Vedas. Though he
It is said that during the period of our survey,
did not believes in equality of four varna, he
some of the Sufis under the influence of Vedantist
made disciples from all castes:
Pantheism accepted the doctrine of Wahdatul Wujud
(a) Ravidas was cobbler (Unity of Being). This doctrine was first expounded
(b) Kabir was weaver by Sheikh.
(c) Sena was barber Muhinuddin Ibnul Arabi (1165-1240 A.D.) had
(d) Sadhana was butcher found its way in mystical theosophy itself. Ibnul
(e) Dhana was jat Arabi’s system is openly monistic. He asserted the
identity of the creator (the Haq) and the created
(f ) Even women were his disciples and
Padmavati and Sursari. (Khalq). According to him, God is the unity behind all
the plurality and the reality behind all phenomenal
Impact of Bhakti Movement appearance. “There is nothing but God, nothing
1. Diminishing rigid organisation of ritualism. in existence other than he; there is not even a
2. Eased the vigorous of caste system. “there” where the essence of all things in one”. His
conception of Wahdatul Wujud is an extension of
3. Climate of understanding between Hindu
the Islamic doctrine of Tauhid. From the doctrine
and Muslims.
that there exists but one God, he proceeded to the
4. It may have affected policies of kings as under doctrine that there is nothing in existence except
Akbar.
God. He argued that this being a matter of heart
5. Fastened humanitarianism. cannot be realised through reason. It required a
6. Rise of vernacular language. higher system of knowledge, based on the intuitive
7. Period of cultural systems. experience of the individual which he called zauq.
8. Two novel ideas of universal brotherhood and Ibnul Arabi’s system implies the immanence of
to tolerance. God. He fully realised that it might lead to polytheism

which he rejected outright. To overcome this
Weakness dilemma he laid stress on the principle of love which
1. Caste system and ritualism remained, binds all beings together. According to him the
institution of priesthood did not decline. The highest manifestation in which God is worshipped
reason being failed to distinguish clearly from is love; the doctrine of the Unity of Being.
traditional form of hinduism.
Sheikh Sharfuddin discussed the mystic
2. Lack of royal patronage. implications of Islamic tauhid in his Maktubat and
3. Use of regional language restricted an all India clearly explained that both in its stage of gnosticism
character. (ilm) as well as in the stage of immediate vision
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(Shuhud) of the doctrine of the Unity of Being, the a part of the texture of mystic thought in India. He
slave remains a slave and God remains God. His was a mystic of the Chisthia Sabriya order founded
interpretation of the passing away of the Self (fana) by Sheikh Alauddin Ali Bin Ahmad Sabir. The poetry
is that the devotee in this state of consciousness of Sulaluddin Rumi Hafiz and Jami went a long way
experiences a vision in which he feels one with to popularise the concept of Wahadatul Wujud
God who manifests himself in the form of Light. The among the intelligentsia of the country.
union with God is not like the union of a body with The fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries saw
a body. It is an intuitive contact and a detachment a conflict between the followers of Wahadatul Wujud
from the world and all that is other than God. The and its critics with the arrival of the disciples Shaikh
remoteness or nearness to God is maintained only Alauddin Daula Simnani, the great Irani opponent of
in relation to out ignorance and knowledge. That is, Ibn Arabi. Alauddin Daula argued that Being cannot
he who knows more stands nearer to him than he be identified with God; it is distinct from his essence
who knows less. The association of a body with a although eternally inherent in him. He believed
body is not real. It can be real only when the thing that Wahadatul Wujud was the initial stage in the
with which it is associated is comprehended by it. development of Sufism, the final stage being his own
The comprehension of one object by another is theory of Wahdatush-Shah (Unity of Perception).
in relation to its fineness. The finer it is the more Some of his followers seem to have met with some
comprehensible it will be. Only men of vision can success with Gesu Daraz of Gulbarga, who wrote a
realise this as it is beyond the power of reason. letter condemning as misguided the works of Arabi
Sheikh Sharfuddin Yahya Manairi was a prolific and Sufi poets like Rumi. But the Chishti traditions of
writer. Besides his Maktubat (epistles) and Malfuzat Wahdatul Wujud were the strong for Gesu Daraz. The
(sayings), he wrote several books for the guidance writings of Gesu Daraz did not find much popularity
of the devotees. As a practical mystic he laid special Simnani’s Shuhud ideology received its main setback
emphasis on the service of humanity as a part of when the Shattari order was established by Shaikh
mystic discipline. He said “prayers, fasting and Abdullah Shattari. Travelling as far as Bengal before
voluntary worship are good as far as they go, but returning to Malwa where he died in 1485, Shattari
they are not as useful as making other happy”. At challenged everyone either to teach him. Unity of
another place, he has said,“the nearest way to reach Being if they knew more than him, or to learn about
God for kings and nobles and men of means and it from him.
wealth is to succour the needy and to offer a helping Shah Niamatullah and Makhdum Muhammad
hand to the downtrodden”.To strengthen this view Jilani who lived towards the middle of the fifteenth
he refers to a remark made by a saint—“there are century introduced the Qadiri order established
many paths leading to the bond, but the shortest by Sheikh Abdul Kadir Jilani of Baghdad, in the
is to console the afflicted and to give comfort to 12th century. The latter settled in Ucch and was
the hearts to men”. succeeded by his son Makhdum Abdul Qadir. His
Another exponent of the doctrine of the Unity grandson, Sheikh Hamid Ganj Baksh was a man
of Being was Sheikh Abdul Quddus Gangohi who keen mystical insight. His two sons moved to Agra
died in 1537. By this time, this doctrine had become after the death of their father.
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CHAPTER-7
THE 15TH AND EARLY 16TH CENTURIES
(SOCIETY, ECONOMY AND CULTURE)
REGIONAL CULTURES AND LITERATURES time in giving them patronage for literary purpose

During this period, literary works of high also. Thus we see Nusrat Shah of Bengal getting the
quality were produced in many of the regional Mahabharata and the Ramayana translated into
languages. Amir Khusrav had noted the existence Bengali. The Sufi saints also helped the development
of regional languages. He had remarked that these of regional languages and literatures by using the
languages had applied in every way to the common Bhakti poems in Hindi in their musical gatherings
purposes of life. Many of these languages such as and by putting forward Sufi concepts in a form which
Bengali, Marathi and Hindi trace their origin back could easily be understood by the common man.
to the eighth century or so. Some others such as Hindi
Tamil were much older. Through the influence of Vallabhacharya
In the medieval period, many of them rose to (1479-1531), a school of poets dealing with the
maturity and were employed as beans of literary story of Krishna with a devotional background
works. The reasons for such a development are developed in Brindavana and Mathura and they
not difficult to seek. One of them was the loss of composed mainly in the Brajabhasha speech. The
prestige suffered by Sanskrit as a sequel to the loss greatest of these Vaishnava poets of the Krishna cult
of prestige suffered by the Brahmanas. Secondly, in Brajabhasha was Surdasa (c. 1483-1563). Mira Bai
the regional languages gained popularity on (1492-1546) was another Vaishnava devotee. Her
account of their employment by the Bhakti saints compositions mostly belonged to the next period.
to propagate their ideas. In many parts of the Kutban, who lived as a protege of the Sultan of
country, the early saints fashioned these languages Jaunpur composed his Mrigavati in 1501 A.D., in
for literary uses. Thirdly, some of them such as Awadhi. Maniban composed is Madhu-Malati, before
Marathi, Tamil and Kannada came to be used for A.D. 1532 again in Awadhi. This work is available only
administrative purposes in addition to Sanskrit even in an incomplete form.
before the Turk established their power in India. The eldest book that we have in Punjabi is
This is evident from the fact that we hear of Hindi- prose biography of Guru Nanak known as the Janam-
knowing revenue accountants appointed in the Sakhi which is attributed to one of the disciples of
service of the sultanate. When the Delhi Sultanate Guru Nanak, Bala. This is said to have been written
got disintegrated since the beginning of the 15th shortly after Guru Nanak’s death, about 1538 A.D.
century, the regional languages continued to be Gujarati

used for administrative purposes in many of the Narasimha Mehta (1415-81) inaugurated a new
regional states. Thus, we find Telugu developing in era in Gujarati literature by introducing the Bhakti
south India under the patronage the Vijayanagar school. He composed devotional lyrics in honour of
rulers and Marathi as one of the administrative God conceived in the form of Krishna. He is the first
languages in the Bahmani kingdom and later at the great poet of Gujarat who still lives in the memories
court of Bijapur. Another reason was the patronage and in the lives of the Gujarati speakers. Bhabana
extended to the regional languages by some of the wrote the story of Krishna as in the tenth chapter
Muslim kings who, finding that these languages of the Bhagavata Purana, in short lyrics in Gujarati
reaching a certain stage of development, lost no and occasionally in Brajabhasha.
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Marathi Provincial Architectural Styles
The two centuries following the death of The regional styles of architecture came into
Namadeva, in 1350 A.D., are sometimes described as vogue usually after these states had thrown of the
the dark period of Marathi literature. This was due to allegiance to Delhi and proceeded to develop a form
the continuous fight between the Marathas and the suiting their individual requirements. They were
Muslims which culminated in the establishment of distinct from the Indo-Islamic style practiced at Delhi
Muslim rule in Maharashtra. Confusion became worse and often displayed definitely original qualities. In
confounded by the outbreak of frequent famines. the areas which had a strong indigenous tradition of
Under these conditions, steady literary progress workmanship in masonry, regional styles of Islamic
became almost impossible. The Mahanubhava sect, architrave produced the most elegant structures.
which was at first unpopular on account of the On the other hand, where these traditions were not
concessions it received from the Muslim rulers, so pronounced, the buildings constructed from the
slowly recovered some of its lost prestige. It was a regional states were less distinctive. In some cases
growing desire for rapprochement shown among all
totally novel tendencies, independent of both the
the Hindu sects which were suffering from Muslims
indigenous and the imperial Sultana traditions, are
apathy and hostility. The honour paid to the mythical
also visible.
sage Dattatreya by the Mahanubhava sect spread
also to the followers of the Varkari-Panth. This had Eastern India
resulted in the composition of poems of devotional It is interesting that the development of the
nature among teachers and writers of this age of earliest regional style in architecture should have
transition. The chief among them were Narsimha taken place at the other end of the subcontinent,
Sarasvati and Janardana Swami, the master of
in eastern India. In fact, there did emerge two major
Eknath. A disciple of Narasimha Sarasvati wrote in
strands of architectural style in this region viz., in
verse the history of the sage-god Dattatreya. This
Bengal and in Jaunpur, both of which witnessed
work is held in great respect by both the Varkaris
the rise of regional states.
and Mahanubhavas.
1. Bengal: The establishment of an independent
Bengali Muslim power in Bengal took place within a
The first great poet of Bengal of this period gap of five years since the capture of Delhi
was Krittivasa Ojha Mukhati. He adapted the Sanskrit by the Turks. But an independent building
Ramayana into Bengali (c. 1418). In this work, we style, distinct from the one prevalent at Delhi,
have a gentle and compassionate incarnation of developed at the beginning of the fourteenth
a living deity to whom the loving faith of a simple century and lasted for a period of nearly 250
people could reach replacing the human and heroic years.
Rama of Valmiki’s original Sanskrit epic. The poem
Bengal style spread in all parts of the region,
is mainly narrative. Maladhara Basu took up the
but most of the prominent buildings were
Krishna legend in his Sri Krishnavijaya. This work is
based on the Sanskrit Bhagavata Purana. Bipradasa located within the boundary of the Malda
composed a poem in about 1482 A.D.—using the district which had been the strategic centre
story of Bihula—one of the greatest tales of wifely of the region due to the confluence of the two
devotion and womanly courage through love, as rivers, the Ganga and the Mahananda. Here
its theme. A very great name in medieval Bengal lie the remains of the two principal cities—
literature belonging to the period under survey is Gaur and Pandua—which, in turn, enjoyed
that of world is entirely dependent on God and have the status of the capital seat of the regional
no independent existence. Nimbarka’s theory is thus ruling power. In our effort to understand the
monistic and pluralistic. His views are expressed distinctive features of the architectural style
in a commentary on the Brahmasutras called of this region, we have to depend mostly on
Vedantaparijatasaurabha and in Siddantaratna or the buildings extant in these two cities and
Dasa loka. a few important examples elsewhere.
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THE 15TH AND EARLY 16TH CENTURIES (SOCIETY, ECONOMY AND CULTURE)

The building art of Bengal is generally divided indigenous form of decoration, i.e. terracotta
into the following three phases of which the tiles was adopted.
first two are considered preliminary stages It, thus, becomes clear that nowhere in
and the third, its ultimate development into India did climate and local conditions as
a specific style. well as indigenous building styles affect the
The first phase is from A.D. 1200-1340 (During development of architecture as profoundly as
most of this time Gaur was the capital seat. in Bengal. Its merit lies in its dynamic ability to
Only in the later years it was shifted to Pandua). transform itself by adoption and adaptation.
The second extended from A.D. 1340 to 1430, 2. Jaunpur: The sharqi kingdom of Jaunpur
and; was founded by Malik Sarwar, a noble of Firuz
The third phase from A.D. 1442 to 1576, when Shah Tughluq, in 1394. In the wake of Timur’s
the Mughals captured the province. During invasion and sack of Delhi, Jaunpur took over
this phase the capital was shifted back to Gaur. from the capital as a centre for scholars and
The data in the form of extant buildings for writers. The surviving architecture of Jaunpur
the first phase is scanty. Even where two or consists exclusively of mosques. Moreover, all
three structures survive, they are in a badly the surviving buildings produced under the
ruined state. It is, nonetheless, evident that Sharqis are located in the capital city Jaunpur.
the buildings raised during this period were The Sharqi architecture of Jaunpur carries
wholesale conversions of the existing Hindu a distinct impact of the Tughluq style, the
structures. battering effect of its bastions and minarets
Similarly, the second phase is also deficient in and the use of arch-and-beam combination in
data as it is represented by a solitary example. the openings being the two most prominent
But this building—Adina Masjid at Pandua features. However, the most striking feature
(built 1364)—surpasses all other Islamic of the Jaunpur style is the design of the
structures in Bengal in size. It introduces two facade of the mosques. It is composed of lofty
new features in the architectural style: propylenes with sloping sides raised in the
The “drop” arch, having a span greater than centre of the sanctuary screen. The propylenes
its radii, and centre at the import level. consist of a huge recessed arch framed by
The method of raising the roof in a system of tapering square minars, of exceptional bulk
arched-bays where small domes supported and solidity, divided into registers. The best
by brick-pendentive in over-sailing courses examples can be seen in the Atala Masjid
were raised over each bay. The bricks in these (built in 1408) and the Jami Masjid (1470).
pendentive were set diagonally in each Evidently, the propylene was the keynote
alternate course in such a manner that their of Jaunpur style and occurs in no other
corners project and help in the transition manifestation of Indo-Islamic architecture.
from a square to a circular base. The pillars
were taken from Hindu temples and places Western India

in Laknauti. The regional style of architecture that came
The third phase is the most remarkable as it into being in Western India towards the beginning
depicts the emergence of a semi-indigenous of the 14th century is almost exclusively confined
style in tune with the peculiar environment to Gujarat.
and local condition in Bengal. The result was Gujarat: This regional style flourished for
to translate the native bamboo structures into a period of some two hundred and fifty years,
brick. In the course of time, this special form beginning early in the 14th century. The founders
of curved roof became a fixed convention. of Gujarat style of Indo-Islamic architecture were
In most of these buildings, moreover, an in fact the governors of the Khalji Sultans of Delhi.
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There were three different phases of the The buildings at Dhar and Mandu derive
Gujarat style. many features from the Tughluq architecture such
The first phase lasting for the first half of the as the battered walls, fringed arch and the arch-
14th century marked by the demolition of the beam combination. But soon, we also noticed, the
Hindu temples and their reconversion into Muslim emergence of distinctive features which give Malwa
style of architecture a character of its own. Some of
buildings.
the more prominent features are described below:
The second phase prevailing mostly during
Perhaps, the most important is an innovative
the first half of the 15th century and showing signs
technique by which the two separate structural
of hesitant maturity of a distinctive style. systems of the arch and the lintel have been
Finally, the phase beginning in the latter half of combined in Malwa architecture. In no other early
the 15th century when Gujarat style emerges in its type of architecture has this problem of using
own magnificent form. Most of the typical examples arch and beam as structural elements been more
relate to this period of Gujarat style. artistically solved.
Here it is important to remember that the Another notable feature of the Malwa buildings
Gujarat style of architecture is the most indigenous is the construction of stately flights of steps of
in character. In some of the finer examples of this considerable length leading to their entrances. This
style considerable portions of the buildings are in became necessary due to the use of unusually high
fact adaptations from either Hindu or Jain temples. plinths on which most of the important buildings
The essence of Gujarat style will be easily understood are raised.
if you envisage a scheme of construction where the The most striking impressions conveyed by
structure of a temple is fitted into the sanctuary of Malwa style are not structural but the result of
the mosque in the form of a central compartment. decorative properties. In these buildings, the element
Almost all the mosques from the second and third of colour assumes a significant role. There were two
separate methods for obtaining this colour effect.
phase are composed in this manner.
The first is the use of various coloured stones and
Central India marble, and the second is by means of encaustic tiles.
In Central India, the development of Indo- This architectural impulse died, in 1531,
Islamic architecture remained confined within with the defeat of the last Malwa ruler Mahmud
the Malwa region which became an independent II at the hands of Bahadur Shah of Gujarat. Malwa
kingdom at the turn of the 15th century. But, unlike was temporarily brought under the Mughals by
other regions, the Muslim rulers of Malwa did not Humayun, in 1535 and was finally conquered by
inherit any strong tradition of visual art. The result Akbar, in 1564.
was that, to carry out their building projects skilled Deccan
and experienced artisans were summoned from as The Indo-Islamic architecture that developed
distant a place as Delhi who incorporated various in the Deccan, from 14th century onwards, under the
styles prevalent at Delhi. It was only in the later Bahmanis acquired a definitely regional character
period that original elements of architecture were quite early in its growth. But this architecture
developed and decorative motifs of their own were followed a different pattern in evolution than other
adopted in the buildings of the Malwa rulers which regional styles. As opposed to the growth of regional
gave them a distinctive appearance. styles in northern Indian architecture in the Deccan
Malwa-Dhar and Mandu: The regional seems to have ignored to a very large extent the
manifestations of Indo-Islamic architecture in Malwa pre-Islamic art traditions of the region.
are located essentially within the confines of two In practice, the Deccan style of architecture
cities, Dhar and Mandu, though some buildings consisted basically of the fusion of:
may also be seen at Chanderi. The Sultans of Dhar 1. The architectural system is vogue at Delhi
and Mandu have left a rich architectural legacy, the under the Sultans, particularly the Tughluq
main buildings being mosques, tombs and places. from and
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2. An entirely extraneous source that is the substantive style of architecture was now
architecture of Persia. composed of forms very largely borrowed from
The architectural developments in the Iran, but modified and adopted to suit local
Deccan may be divided broadly into three phases conditions. They did not, of course, abandon
the Indo-Islamic traditions altogether. Some
corresponding on each occasion to a change in the
important features of Bidar style may thus be
seat of the government. The first phase begins in
listed below:
1347 to the capital city of Gulbarga. Second phase
begins in 1425 when the seat of power is transferred Since colour was the characteristic feature of
Indian architecture, palaces at Bidar show a
to the city of Bidar. And finally, with the change of
brilliant scheme of the use of coloured tiles
capital again in 1512 to the city of Golconda, begins
and the mural painting. The glased tiles which
the third phase lasting till 1687, the year of Mughal
covered the exteriors were imported by sea
conquest.
from Iran.
1. Gulbarga: Gulbarga became the seat of There is a distinctive change in the shape of
an independent kingdom, in 1347, under the domes in the buildings at Bidar. They are
Alauddin Bahman. With this began the slightly constricted in the lower contour and
first phase of architectural development in thus become the forerunners of the famous
the Deccan. The early structures, however, bulbous domes of the Mughals. The drums
did not as yet represent a distinctive style of these domes are made tall so as to project
of the Deccan Islamic architecture. Of the the domes in full view.
most part they followed the contemporary
The fall of the Bahmani Sultanate towards
Tughluq architecture of the North. The Jami
the beginning of the 16th century brought the
Masjid (1367) inside the Gulbarga fort was,
first phase of the Deccan style to a close. Soon,
however, different and unique. This structure however, under the Adil Shahi kingdom of Bijapur, a
was conceived and designed by an ingenious new phase of architectural activity was to takeover
14th century architect named Rafi. He was a from where the Bahmanis had left. But this style
native of Qazvin in northern Persia and had developed contemporaneously with the Mughal
taken to service under the Bahmani ruler of style.
Gulbarga. The central designing idea lay in
reversing all the architectural principles of Society, Culture, Literature and the Arts in
mosques with a courtyard. Thus, in the Jami Vijaynagar Empire
Masjid of Gulbarga the conventional design Vijaynagar has an extraordinary history. It was
of the courtyard was filled with small cupolas born out of the incursions into the Deccan and even
supported by arches placed close together. further south of the Delhi Sultanate. The capital,
But this design was never repeated. Possibly the famous Vijaynagar, now deserted, is one of the
the unorthodox plan of this mosque did not most important historical and architectural sites
find favour with the traditionalists. as it is the only Hindu city from the pre-modern
2. Bidar: The Bahmani capital was transferred period of which extensive remains still exist above
to Bidar, a fortress town, in 1425 by ruler ground. The Vijaynagar style of architecture was
Ahmad Shah (1422-36). Soon, the new capital distributed throughout south India, but the finest
saw a flurry of building activity as within its and most characteristic group of buildings is to
walls sprang up palaces with large audience be seen in the city of Vijaynagar itself. This city, in
halls and hammams, mosques, a madarsa, fact, had a great advantage as a site for large scale
and royal tombs. Moreover, this change of building activity in that it abounds in granite and
capital largely eliminated the architectural a dark green chlorite stone, both used extensively
influence of Delhi. The new buildings show as building material. The use of monolithic multiple
a strong contemporary Iranian influence. The piers in the temple at Vijaynagar testify this fact.
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The expanse of the city of Vijaynagar at the core with which is attached an unpressed animal
height of its glory measured some 26 sq. km, and of a supernatural kind resembling a horse or a
it was enclosed with a stone wall. Besides palaces hippogryph.

and temples, the city had extensive waterworks and Another distinguishing feature is the use of
many secular buildings such as elephant stables and huge reverse-curve eaves at the cornice. This feature
the Lotus Mahal. The basic elements of Vijaynagar has been borrowed into the style from the Deccan
style are listed thus. and gives the pavillions a dignified appearance.
The use of pillars for architectural as well as As noted above, pillars form an integral part
decorative purpose is on an unprecedented scale. of Vijaynagar architecture, almost all of which have
Numerous compositions are used in raising ornamental brackets as their capitals. Usually, this
the pillars, but the most striking and also the most bracket is a pendant known as bodegai in local
frequent is one in which the shaft becomes a central parlance. This pendant, in Vijaynagar style, is
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elaborated into the volute teminating in an inverted the Brahmins exercised as predominant influence
lotus band. The occurrence of this pendant is a index not merely in social and religious matters but
reliable of the building in the Vijaynagar group. also in the political affairs of the state. They acted
The glory of the Vijaynagar empire ended, as ministers as well as the political and religious
in A.D. 1565, at the battle of Talikota when the advisors and held key positions in the administrative
combined army of the Sultans of the Deccan inflicted hierarchy of the state. However, the absence of the
a crushing defeat on the Vijaynagar ruler Ram Raya. Kshatriya caste is really surprising. It is believed
that their vitality was made up by the activities
There are many facets to a rich and diversified
of the commercial and agricultural classes. The
society of Vijayanagar. Its importance in the history
mercantile classes comprising ‘Settis’ or ‘Chettis’ had
of the peninsula lies in the fact that it encouraged the
relegated the Kshatriyas into the background. There
evolution of a pattern of society which considerably
were many communities of different professions
conformed to the pattern set up in north India.
who endeavoured to strengthen their material
The period is generally considered as sterile in
base. Certain communities like ‘Vipravinodins’.
its cultural and intellectual manifestations; yet it
Virapancharas and ‘Kaikkolas’ as well as ‘Reddis’
brought about a regionally oriented culture within a
clamoured for more and more privileges as enjoyed
common framework of already existing institutions
by the upper classes. The economic prosperity of
in India. The idea and concepts of ‘Hindu State’ and
Vijayanagar resulted in the upward social mobility
‘Hindu Kingdom’ was, in fact, the manifestation of
as certain lower caste, known as Sat-shudras,
certain socio-cultural and religious practices existing
acquired the privileges of upper castes overtime.
and developing over the social order certainly
The inscriptions and travellers accounts do testify
moved along traditional lines where kings abided
to the existence of slavery in the Vijayanagar, in the
by customs and traditions based particularly on
form of male and female slaves. But the slaves were
‘Varnashram’ system. However, certain practices,
generally treated with kindness and consideration.
also provide a counterpoint to the existing patterns
in giving an individual cultural expression to the The upper strata of the society was generally
whole southern Peninsula, yet within the ambit of very well off.The courtiers and the bureaucracy rolled
dominant ‘Perso-Islamic culture’. in wealth, but with its accompanying vices. Within
city of Vijayanagar, each class of men belonging to
The ancient Vedic concept of Arya-Dharma had their respective profession was said to have shops
undergone far-reaching changes, both in content contiguous to one another. The foreign visitors were
and ideology, in the medieval ages owing to the amased to see the splendore of the empire in terms
dominating influence of the neo-Brahmanical of wealth of its ruling elite and richness of its people.
society. This setup gave unquestioned supremacy The vast quantities of gold, diamonds and material
to the priestly class, mainly Brahmins. The king, as wealth possessed by the Vijayanagar inhabitant
expected, had to abide by the injunctions of the was beyond comprehension and estimation of Paes
Dharmasastra. His chief duty was to enforce the and other foreigners. Paes, the Portuguese traveller,
observance by each caste of its particular Dharma. tells us that ‘the citizen of Vijayanagar’‘high or low’
So, the society of Vijayanagar is supposed to be even down to the artificers of the Bazar, wore jewels
moving along the classical percepts. and gift ornaments in their ears and around their
In terms of its population pattern, the necks, arms, wrists and fingers. But, the material
Vijayanagar society consisted of diverse sections prosperity of the upper classes, however, did not lead
and groups. Hindus certainly constituted a large to innovations and experiments in form and ideas,
chunk of the population and we do witness the particularly in cultural spheres. On the contrary, they
population of a large number of Muslims, Jews, conservatively held to existing patterns.
as well as European traders. The caste system was The Hindu masses practised monogamy,
deeply rooted in the Vijayanagar social structure. The however, the royalty and aristocracy showed laxity
Brahmins, as usual, enjoyed a very high position in in morals. Nicoloi Conti, an Indian traveller, informs
the society. Being held in high esteem by the rulers us that those who could afford, ‘marry as many
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wives as they please’ and they were burnt with translations of ancient scriptures from Sanskrit to
their dead husbands. Thus the practice of sati was Tamil and preparation of commentaries thereon.
prevalent and Brahmins played an important role Works on music, drama, dancing, grammar, logic,
in this kind of self-immolation. Nevertheless, the philosophy etc. received encouragement from the
general conditions of the women in the Vijayanagar emperors and the ministers, in short, the Vijayanagar
empire is said to be fairly good. Women generally empire was a “synthesis of south Indian Culture”.
occupied a high position in the society. Plurality of The period also marked the formative stage of the
wives, however, was a recognised practice especially development of Kannada and Malayalam languages
among the wealthy class and child marriage was too.
the usual custom. The women belonging to upper- Along with this growth of literature, we do
middle class received higher education and some
witness the development of a distinct style of
of them took up to the statecraft. Nuniz makes a
architecture, sculpture, and painting by native
reference to the women scholars, writers, poets,
musicians and singers. He further observes that artists. The Vitthalsvani temple is a fine example of
the monarch of Vijayanagar had judged as well Vijayanagar style. Temple worship involved a variety
as bailiffs and watchmen. The dowries were freely of rituals requiring a cluster of shrines. The gateway
demanded and proudly given. Abdur Razzak, the became the dominant feature of the temple. The
Persian traveller, also refers to the existence of major temples acquired an open pavilion where the
brothels within the capital of Vijayanagar. weddings of gods and goddesses was ostentiatiously
In the field of language and learning, the celebrated. An earlier city was built in Vijayanagar,
Vijayanagar rulers were considered as great patrons. with lavish temples, but what remains shows
In fact, the period marked a period of Renaissance that it was characterised by sumptuous and rich
in the proliferation of Sanskrit language as well in ornamentation. Pillar became blocks of statuary.
the growth and development of various regional As Conti writes: “The circumference of the city is
languages, which was further boosted by the spurt 60 miles; its walls are carried up to the mountains,
sparked by the Bhakti Movement. Many Sanskrit and enclose the valley at their foot, so that its extent
scholars, headed by Sayana reproduced religious is thereby increased. The art of painting attained
scriptures and rewrote commentaries on all the a high degree of excellence, and the art of music
four Vedas and some Brahmanas and Araoyakas. rapidly developed.
Court circles encouraged the writings of historical
Religious practices, beliefs and institutions
narratives and biographies. Krishnadeva Raya was
played a significant role in establishing the regional
himself a great scholar of both Sanskrit and Telugu.
He is said to have contributed five books in Sanskrit, identity of Vijayanagar. Epigraphic and literary
besides the one in ‘Telugu’, Amuktamalayada. evidences clearly show that the rulers of Vijayanagar
Amuktamalayada is not merely of religious interest were of pious disposition and devoted to Dharma.
but also of great historical importance for the reign The kings of Vijayanagar were said to rule on behalf
of Krishnadeva Raya. His poet laureate, Peddana, of a Shaivite deity, Virupakash. The royal patronage,
enjoyed a wide reputation and held a high position hence, strengthened the existing popularity
among Telugu writers. of Shavism in southern peninsula. By now the

The proliferation of literature produced in devotional cult was a recognised part of Hinduism
Telugu. Tamil was next to Sanskrit. The religious and a significant concession to the growing strength
literature in Telugu was produced by Shaivites, of the Bhakti cult was made by Krishnadeva Raya,
Vaishnavites and the Jain scholars. Even the rulers who extended his worship to Vitthoba a popular
of the Aravidu dynasty, patronised poets and deity associated with the Maharashtrian saints.
religious teachers and Telugu literature flourished He respected all sects of the Hindu religion alike,
under them with ‘reinforced vigour’. There were though his personal leanings were in favour of
also authors among the petty chiefs and relatives Vaishnavism, he conferred endowments on temples
of the emperors. The religious literature comprised and Brahmanas.
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Mathadhipati, the leader of a sectarian centre it depended, too, upon, the same sort of favour the
was among the most powerful men of the Vijayanagar most local magnets in their undisputed mastery
age. Many enjoyed royal patronage and confidence over countryside as well as many new towns.
that resulted from serving as the spiritual advisor Thus, a cursory look at Vijayanagar society
of kings and great chiefs of the realm. The head of gives us the impression that the Vijayanagar
a Matha was usually a Brahmin except in the case empire certainly gave culture and linguistic
of Virashaivas whose non-Brahmin head enjoyed identity to a large part of south India. Its socio-
the same high standing among the devotees and
cultural set up permeated the consciousness of
others. Like the Vijayanagar Rayas these heads sent
being the first bastion of Hinduism against the
their agents to where their followers lived, to advise
dominating influence of Islam. However, the patterns
them in spiritual and secular matters to collect funds
and parameters of the existing social order was
for the order, sometimes to initiate, new members
to arbitrate disputes among them, and to preach nothing very distinct, except that certain customs
the doctrines of the sect. and practices were imbued with a strong sense of
religiosity where the beliefs and perceptions of the
Temples and mathas were prime instruments
ruling elites and the local populace were gradually
of Vijayanagar polities. Gods selected as well as
wedded into a common denominator of their much
protected their worshippers, which lent temples
sought out culture of Hinduism. So, the question
their social significance during the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries and made them prised for of importance is—is the ‘Hindu State’ or ‘Hindu
Vijayanagar to win over. The ease with which the Kingdom’—a reality or misnomer of medieval time?
remote sovereignties of the Rayas came to be The claim, however, often appeared to be more
exercised over the Tamils and others depended rhetorical than real as with similar Muslim religio-
upon the favour they showed to Tamil deities; but political claims.
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SINCE-1993
CHAPTER-8
AKBAR

CONQUESTS AND CONSOLIDATION OF calculated policy was devised not only to conquer
EMPIRE these areas but to turn their rulers into allies. With the
exception of Chittor’s Rana Pratap, Akbar managed
Political Unification to secure the allegance of all the Rajput kingdom.
It was during the rule of Akbar that the Mughal A large number of them were absorbed in the
Empire became a political fact and an important Mughal nobility and helped Akbar in expanding
factor in Indian politics. His policies were emulated and consolidating the Empire.
by his successors who added very little to the already
Gujarat
expanded empire except under Aurangzeb. After
overcoming initial problems and consolidating Akbar’s attention towards Gujarat, in 1572, was
his hold on the throne, Akbar started a policy of guided by strategic as well as economic imperatives.
extending Mughal territories. This implied conflict Beset with warring factions/principalities, Gujarat,
with many political powers which were entrenched apart from being a fertile region had a number of
busy ports and thriving commercial centers. Akbar
in various parts of the country. A few of them
first captured Ahmedabad and Surat without any
were well-organised, the Rajputs, though spread
serious resistance. But within a short period, the
throughout the country as autonomous chiefs, had
various rebellious groups regrouped and revolted
major concentration in Rajputana. Afghans had
against the Mughal rule. On receiving the news,
political control mainly in Gujarat, Bihar and Bengal.
Akbar started for Ahmedabad—his march is
In Deccan and south India, the major states were
considered as one of the most outstanding feats
Khandesh, Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golconda and other
of Akbar. For almost a decade, there was peace in
southern kingdoms. In the northwest, some tribes
Gujarat.
held sway. Akbar through a systematic policy started
the task of expanding his Empire. Eastern India
North and Central India Ever since the defeat of Humayun, Bihar and
Bengal were ruled by the Afghans. Daud was a sore
1. The first expedition was sent to Gwalior and
in the Mughal designes in the east. In 1574, Akbar
Jaunpur in 1559-60. Both were annexed.
marched towards Bihar and captured many areas.
2. Malwa was captured by Adham Khan The independent rule of Bengal ended in 1576.
3. Garhkatanga was annexed in 1564. Around 1592, Man Singh brought the whole of
During this period, Akbar had to face social Orissa under the Mughal rule.
revolts in central India. Akbar with the help of Rebellions of 1581
Munim Khan succeeded in suppressing them and
According to Vincent Smith “the year 1581 may
consolidated his position.
be regarded as the most critical time in the reign of
Western India Akbar, if his early struggle to consolidate his power
He realised that to have a stable empire, be not taken into account.”
he must subjugate the large trade under Rajput After the conflict of the nobility which had
kings in the neighbouring region of Rajputana. A lasted till 1567, now again serious conflicts came
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to the surface in Bengal, Bihar, Gujarat and the The first expedition was dispatched to
northwest. At the root was the discontent of the Ahmednagar and in 1595, the Mughal forces seiged
Afghans who were routed everywhere by the Ahmednagar. Chand Bibi gave a valiant challenge to
Mughals. Apart from there, Akbar’s policy of strict Mughals. After heavy losses on both sides, a treaty
administration of Jagirs was also responsible for was formulated. According to this treaty, Chand
this. By this new policy jagirdas were asked to Bibi ceded Berar, but after some time, she attacked
submit the account of their jagirs and a cut was Berar. This time, the Nizamshahis, Qutabshahis and
enforced in military expenditure. The governor Adilshahi troops presented a joint front. Mughals
of Bengal enforced these regulations ruthlessly, suffered heavy losses. Akbar marched to Ahmednagar
giving rise to revolt. Soon, the rebellion spread to which was captured followed by Asirgarh. Adil Shah
Bihar. Meanwhile, the rebels had declared Mirza of Bijapur also expressed allegiance and offered
Hakim, who was in Kabul, as their king. Mughal his daugther in marriage to Prince Daniyal. Now,
forces crushed the rebellions in Bihar, Bengal and Mughal territories in the Deccan included Asirgarh,
adjoining areas. Burhanpur, Ahmednagar and Berar.
Mirza Hakim, to put pressure, attacked Lahore. New Concept of Monarchy
But he retreated after he got the news of Akbar’s
presence in Kabul. Akbar gave the charge of Kabul Monarchy was the keystone of medieval
to his sister and left for Agra (1581). polity. Thus, according to Fazl, “If royalty did not
exist, the storm of strife would never subside, nor
Gujarat also witnessed some rebellion at
around the same time. Muzzaffar Shah again selfish ambition disappear. The nature of the state
troubled Mughal forces but was brought to heel. and complexion of administrative structure of an
empire were determined largely by the theory of
Northwest sovereignty and the policies propounded by the
Various rebellions attracted his attention in king himself. The Mughals could not shake off the
the Northwest. The first and the most important Turks-Mongol tradition of monarchy obtaining in
was the Roshanai movement. They rebelled and central Asia but also took caution to adapt it to local
cut the road between Kabul and Hindustan. The climes. The point here underlines that the theory of
onslaught against the Roshanai cost Akbar dear— sovereignty was absolute monarchy.
Raja Birbal lost his life in the operations. However,
Under Akbar, apart from absolutist monarchy,
with a strong contingent under Raja Todar Mal and
Man Singh, the recalcitrant tribes were suppressed. the divinity aspect was overbearing. While Babur
Akbar also annexed Kashmir, around 1586. Thatta was the shadow of God on earth (Zil al Allah),
was annexed in 1590. Akbar became the ‘light of god’ (Farr-i-Izidi)—this
perception of sovereignity was the zenith that the
Deccan and the South Muslim mind could go.
Akbar’s interest in the Deccan states started Abul Fazal says,“no dignity is higher in the eyes
building after the conquest of Gujarat and Malwa.
of god than royalty. It is a remedy for the spirit of
Earlier contact were limited to the visits of emissaries
rebellion.“ Royalty is a light emanting from God—
and casual contacts. After 1590, Akbar started a
‘farri izddi’ or ‘Kiyan Khwarah’. It is communicated by

planned Deccan policy to bring these states under
Mughal control. Around this time, the Deccan states God to kings without the intermediate assistance
were facing internal strife and regular conflicts. of anyone. Again many excellent qualities flow from
the possession of this light—a paternal love towards
In 1591, Akbar sent a few missions to the
Deccan states asking them to accept Mughal the subjects, trust in God etc. The king was, therefore,
sovereignty. But these missions returned without deemed to be divinely appointed, divinely guided
any success. It was reported that only the ruler and divinely protected.
of Khandesh was favourably inclined towards the The theory of sovereignty propounded by Abul
Mughals. Now, Akbar decided to follow a militant Fazl on behalf of Akbar reflected in his mahzar and
policy. ‘Ain-i-Rahnamuni’ seems to be as close to the central
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Asian and Perso-Islamic concepts as to the Chagtai king and expect him to be their spiritual leaders as
traditions of sovereignty. It is significant that the well, for a king possesses, independent of men, the
absolute tradition of sovereignity and conjunction ray of divine wisdom.”
of spiritual and temporal rulership was developed From hindsight, it can be seen that the new
in many courts as a defence mechanism against conception of monarchy was an exercises in
under encroachment upon kings authority by lesser political expediency. By showering divine states,
mortals. the absolute power of the monarchy was guarded
Alauddin Khilji had tried to abide by the “law from usurpation. Besides, the qualities emanating
of expediency”, Akbar went ahead of him. By the from the divine ordination were seen as important
‘mazhar’, the emperor was certified to be a first ruler plays to garner the support of all and sundry and
(Imam Adil) and was as such assigned the rank of reiterated the benevolence of the monarch and
“mujtahid” (infallible authority); Nay the position his attitude towards his subjects. His conception
of Imam Adil was declared superior to that of a of monarchy was the mainspring of his politico-
mujtahid. The “intellect of the just king” thus became administrative policies which also had a bearing on
the valuable source of legislation. Thus, Abul Fazl the evolution of Akbars unique religious-political
elucidates that “people will naturally look to their outlook.
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Establishment of Jagirdari and Mansab 2. Those with sawar half of more than half of
Systems the number of the zat—4000/3000.
Mansab and jagir systems did not develop 3. Those whose sawar rank was less than half of
suddenly; they evolved steadily through time. These their zat rank—4000/1500.
institutions were borrowed in some form from West The sawar rank was either equal or less than
Asia and modified to suit the needs of the time in the zat. But in unusual circumstances when the
India. The mansabdars were an integral part of the mansabdar was operating in a difficult terrain
Mughal burueaucracy and formed, as Percieval Spear amidst the rebels, the state often increased the
says,‘an elite within elite’. They were appointed in all sawar rank without altering the zat rank. The system
government offices except the judiciary. By virtue was not static and reforms were introduced without
of this system, Akbar welded the civil and military modifying the basic structure. One such reform was
administration of the empire under one institution the ‘mashruta’ rank which meant an increase of sawar
(organize both the nobility and the army). rank, for a temporary period in times of emergency.
The word mansab means a place or position, Modifications in the system came during
implying a rank in the official hierarchy under the Jahangir and Shah Jahan. During Jahangir, there
Mughals. Akbar gave mansabs to both military and was a tendency to reduce the zat salaries. He
civil officers on the basis of their merit or service to introduced a system whereby selected nobles could
the state. He was broadly inspired by the principles be allowed to maintain a large quota of troopers,
adopted by Chengiz Khan (decimal system). Abul without increasing their zat rank. This was the ‘du-
Fazl states that Akbar had established 66 grades of aspah sih-aspah’ system (trooper with 2 or 3 horses),
mansabdars though only 33 grades are mentioned which implied that a mansabdar holding this rank
by him. Mansab denoted three things: had to maintain and was paid for double the quota
of troopers indicated by his sawar rank. Possible
Position – determined the status of its holder
motives for introducing this modification—since the
in the official hierarchy.
sawar rank could not be maximally more than the
Salary – fixed his pay. zat rank, the only way out to increase the number
Obligation – also laid down the obligation of contingents without increasing the zat rank was
of maintaining a specified number of contingents. the du-aspah sih-aspah. Raising of the zat rank
Initially, a single number represent the rank, would have further burdened the enchequer and
personal pay and the size of the contingent of the also cause heartburn among the nobility. A further
mansabdar. After some time, the rank of mansabdar modification during the reign of Shah Jahan was
came to be denoted by two numbers zat and sawar aimed at drastically reducing the number of sawars
(1595-96).‘Zat’ determined the mansabdar’s personal a noble was required to maintain. Thus, a noble was
pay and his rank in the organisation.‘Sawar’ fixed the expected to maintain a quota of only 1/3 of his
number of horses and horsemen to be maintained sawar rank, and in some circumstances only 174th.
and accordingly, the amount the mansabdar would These modifications were not adequate
receive for his contingent. William Irwin thought that enough to counter the growing number of
the double rank meant that the mansabdar had to mansabdars and the consequent strain on the
maintain from his personal pay two contingents treasury on account of several other reasons. Drastic
of troops, while Abul Aziz rejected Irwins theory cut in salaries would have formented disaffection
by stating that it meant the maintenance of one among the nobility. Hence, the quota of troopers, and
contingent and not two. Athar Ali clarified the horses a mansabdar had to maintain out of his sawar
rank was further reduced by a new scaling device.
position as stated above.
Salaries of mansabdars were put on a month scale
They were classified into three groups: saha maha (6 monthly), sih maha (3 monthly)—10, 8,
1. Those with sawar equal to the number of 6, 8 etc. and their obligation for the maintenance of
zat—4000/4000. a quota of sawars were brought down considerably.
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Month scale was applied to cash salaries also. It 2. Mansabdari system helps in strengthening the
was a device to counter the strain on the central foundation of Mughal Empire in India. Since
exchequer and at the same time accommodating mansabdars were central officers, system
new elements within the nobility due to changed helped in maintaining effective central control
political compulsions (Marathas). on entire Mughal Empire.
Granting a Mansab was the prerogative of 3. The mansabdars were appointed on the basis
the emperor and the qualifications could be merit, of merit. Therefore it enabled to get services
loyalty or racial consideration. The most favoured from most meritorious candidates. As a result,
category was the Khanazads, Uzbegs, immigrants efficiency of administration and strength of
from safavid empire and Deccan kingdoms and Mughal administration increased enormously.
Rajputs. Promotions were generally given on the 4. The system helped in widening the social base
basis of performance and lineage. in Mughal Empire because anybody could be
Mansabdar were asked to present their mansabdar without religious or social status.
contingents for regular inspection and physical 5. Mansabdari system played important role in
verification at the office of the Mir Bakshi. It was done painting secular character of Mughal Empire
by a special procedure called “Dagh and Chehra”. because both Hindus and Muslims were
Care was taken that the contingents maintained by appointed as mansabdars.
a mansabdar were of a mixed racial kind to prevent
6. Mansabdars were appointed by emperor and
the forces of parochialism and tribalism. The escheat
thus used to counter the balance of orthodox
system (zabt) was another feature of the mansab
elements, as witnessed during Akbar’s reign.
system.
7. Mansabdari system played important role
Composition of mansabdars – heredity was
in success of Akbar’s Rajput policy because
an important factor.
Rajput nobles could be easily appointed as
Khanazads – 272 (47%) mansabdars.
Zamindars – 81 8. The system encouraged officers to perform
They also welcomed Persian, Chagtai, Afghans, best because good performance was always
Indian Muslims, Marathas, Rajputs and Deccanis. rewarded through promotion.
Merits of the system: Unified administration 9. The mansabdari system enabled ruler to
hierarchy i.e. civil and military administration implement their policy of checks and balances
combined. because Jahangir used to counterbalance
1. Created a centralised administration system. Subhedars.
2. Large forces used for expansion and 10. Mansabdari system led to integration of
consolidation. Mughal civil and military administration
because civil as well as military officers were
3. More loyalty.
granted mansab ranks.
It was a complex system. Its efficient functioning
(a) It helped in imparting uniformity in
depended upon a number of factors, including the
Mughal Empire because mansabdars

proper functioning of the dagh system and of the were appointed in every role and all were
jagirdari system. If the dagh system worked badly, bound by the same rule.
the state would be cheated. If the jama dami was
(b) The system played important role in
inflaced, the jagir system would be in shambles
expansion and consolidation of Mughal
Merits and Criticism of Mansabdari System Empire. It was because of the success of
1. The mansabdari system was most remarkable this system the Mughal Empire could
feature of Mughal state system. It was survive for more than a century.
established by Akbar and it evolved under 11. But by the beginning of Aurangzeb’s reign the
his successors. system developed stress and by the middle of
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18th century system collapsed completely.This Jagir System
failure of mansabdari system was outcome of Jagir was akin to the Iqta system of Delhi
inherent limitations of system itself. Sultanate areas assigned to a mansabdar in lieu of
12. There was central organisation to look after cash salary were generally called jagirs. It was not the
and manage mansabdari system. It depended land which was assigned but the income/revenue
for its successful functioning on personality from the area was given to the jagirdars. The system
of emperor and when Mughal emperors developed over a period of time and underwent
couldn’t pay proper attention towards system, many changes before stablising. However, the basic
it collapsed. framework was developed during Akbar reign.
13. The system resulted in division of loyalty of The estimated revenue from the jagir was
soldier between the emperor and mansabdars. called ‘jama’, calculated in dam, which included land
The soldiers were of crown but they were revenue, inland transit duties, post customs and
maintained by mansabdars. Since mansabdar other taxes which were known as sair jhat. ‘Hasil’
was the permanent commander the soldiers was the income actually collected.
were loyal to him as well. Jagirdars were transferred quite frequently.
14. The difference between Jama and Haasil was It checked them from developing local roots, but
permanent challenge faced by mansabdari discouraged jagirdars from undertaking any long-
term measure for the development of their area.
system because shortfall of salaries made
They were interested in extracting as much revenue
mansabdars to avoid full responsibilities.
as possible in a short time.
15. When Aurangzeb conferred Faujdari power
There were various types of jagirs:
on mansabdars, they started misusing power
to exploit peasants so as to collect maximum (a) Usual – ‘jagir tankha’
possible revenue. As a result peasants suffered (b) Conditional – ‘mashruta’
immensely and serious agricultural crisis had (c) No obligations ‘inam’
developed during latter half of 17th century. (d) Assigned to zamindars in their homelands–
16. Aurangzeb appointed very large number ‘watan’–hereditary
of mansabdars during his reign. These (e) To Muslim nobles under Jahangir – ‘al tamgha’
mansabdars could not get jagir on time and A jagirdar was allowed to collect only
whoever got the jagir got bad jagirs as good authorised revenue (mal wajib) in accordance with
jagirs were few. imperial regulations. He was watched over by the
(a) As a result mansabdars started forming diwan, amin, and helped by the faujdar in collection
groups and alliances so that they could (in the provinces).
get best jagir on time.
Rajput Policy
(b) Such grouping seriously affected
Mughal policy towards Rajputs contributed
efficient functioning of entire system. to the expansion and consolidation of the Empire
During the reign of Aurangzeb, most under Akbar and his successors. For long, it has
of appointments were from Deccan. been held that the Mughal alliance with the Rajputs
This adversely affected homogeneity was determined by personal religious beliefs of
of system. individual rulers. On this basis, Akbar’s liberalism
17. Aurangzeb was busy in Deccan for 25 years. and Aurangzeb’s oxthodoxy were considered the
He couldn’t pay attention to functioning of touchstones of their policy its impact on the political
mansabdari system. All these factors gave rise seen. However, recently the Mughal Rajput relations
to a very serious jagirdari crisis and this crisis are being studied within the framework of Mughal
played a very important role in disintegration nobility as well as tensions within the different
of Mughal Empire. sections of the nobility itself.
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A centralised bureaucratic empire like common even before Babar’s time. These marriage
that of the Mughals was confronted with the were in the nature of political compromise and did
problem of distribution of power between its not imply conversion to Islam and break with Hindu
various components. The vicissitudes of the traditions. Akbar during this phase was only ensuring
Empires were governed to a large extent by the personal loyalty. A personal relationship, it was felt
struggle for supremacy or autonomy by various would best ensure political allegiance. Matrimonial
aristocratic elements—Mughal bureaucracy and the alliances did not lead to any kind of special bond
autonomous rajas and zamindars. The socio-cultural between Hindu Rajputs and Mughals. Nor were
factors and the geostrategic context of the country there alliances intended at counteracting recalcitrant
are equally important to be taken into account. elements or using Rajputs for personal gain.The liberal
Mughal Rajput relations cannot be understood measures of Akbar such as abolition of Jizya. Remission
independently but should be seen as part of pilgrim taxes etc. (1562-64) strengthened people’s
a conflict which has a part history. It developed faith in Akbar as a liberal ruler. But these measures
against the backdrop of the decline of the Delhi did not create an atmosphere of total peace between
Sultanate and the emergence of a new state system the Mughal and the Rajputs. The war with Chittor is
in Rajasthan, Malwa and Gujarat. a glaring example. Akbar proclaimed the conflict as
Jihad and martyrs as Ghazi.The ‘fatehnama’ of Chittor
A word about the motives for a sound Mughal
was couched in such a fanatic verbiage that could put
Rajput alliance that animated the regime of Akbar
any reactionary to shame.
would not be out of place. Apart from ensuring
peace in Rajputana, it secured to the Empire, the During the first phase, his attitude towards
steadfast loyalty of a group of warriors who served Rajputs softened and Rao Dalpat Rai was accepted in
the emperor valiantly in his tasks of expansion the imperial service and given jagir. However, Akbar’s
and consolidation. They were used a counterpoise religious views his public policies and attitude
against the growing pretensions of the Turkish towards Rajputs’ development, along separate lines,
nobility. Incorporation of Rajputana opened up concided only at a later stage.
vital trade routes with Central Asia. Finally, it gave Towards the end of 1590, relations with
greater social legitimacy to the rule of Akbar and Rajputs were further established. A number of
broad-based the social composition of the ruling Rajput rajas were enrolled in imperial service. The
elite. This phenomenon finally culminated in the Gujarat expedition was an important landmark in
growth of a composite culture under Mughals. Babur the evolution of Mughal Rajput relations. Rajputs
and Humayuns’s relation with Rajputs should be were enlisted as soldiers and their salaries were fixed
viewed in the context of the Afghan problem which for the first time. During the Gujarat insurrection of
deterred them from making friendly overture to the Mirzas, Akbar depended largely on the Rajputs.
the Rajput rulers. The battle of Haldighati between Rana of
Three phases can be perceived in the shaping Mewar and Akbar was not a struggle between
of Akbar’s Rajput policy. During the first phase, which Mughals/Muslims and Hindus. As important
ended in 1567-70, Akbar continued with the policy groups from amongst the Rajputs sided with
followed by the Delhi Sultans; in the second phase, the Mughals, this struggle cannot be termed as
Akbar tried to develop and extend the alliances but a struggle for independence from foreign rule.
certain components of the earlier policy were retired It was largely a pronouncement of the idea of
the third and last phase is marked by Akbar’s break regional independence. The power of the Rana
with Muslims orthodoxy. received a serious gall when a large number of
Way back in 1557, Rajputs especially Bhara Mal Rajput principlalities showed loyalty to the Mughals.
had made a favourable impression upon Akbar. It From now on, Rajputs were transformed from war
led to a matrimonial alliance between Bhara Mal’s collaborators into allies of the Mughals.
daughter and Akbar in 1562. But this matrimonial Till the end of the second phase, Akbar’s Rajput
alliance was not unique and such alliances were policy had not acquired a shape which would be
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disapproved by the Muslim orthodoxy or which of a sort of Pax Mughalica (Mughal peace) was
would be threat to the Muslim character of the state. important if the Rajput rajas were to serve in different
This phase is marked by Akbar’s break with parts of the Empire without being bothered about
Muslim orthodoxy which had ramifications in many their homelands. This meant regulation of inter-state
areas. The Mahzarnama and fall of Shaikh Abdun disputes and disputes among the Rajput rajas. The
Nabi were the indicators of the shape of things to Mughal policy of conferring honour on anyone was
come. a part of the process of weakening the aristocracy by
instigating the middle and lower strata to assert their
During Mirja Hakim’s invasion of Punjab, Akbar
independence from aristocracy.Therefore, the Mughals
heavily relied in Rajputs—Man Singh and Bhagwant
enlisted in their service many minor feudal lords who
Singh from now onwards they (Rajputs) became
were is of the Rajput Rajas themselves.
the sword—arm of the empire and became actively
involved in Mughal administration. Akbar tried to The issue of succession had invariably caused
forge close relations with Rajput ruling houses— fratricidal wars in Rajput states. The concept of
especially Kacchwahas and entered into matrimonial Mughal paramountcy implied controlling succession
alliances. In 1583-84, Akbar initiated a new policy to the throne in these states. Akbar had pronounced
of selecting loyal Muslim and Hindu nobles for that the grant of tika was the prerogative of the
performing administration tasks—Todar Mal, Birbal Mughal Emperor and could not be claimed as a
etc. The Kacchwaha Rajputs got the largest share of matter of right. Mughal intervention settled the
appointment among Rajputs. contentions issue of succession without a civil.
By 1585-86, Akbar’s Rajputs policy had become Akbar’s alliance with the Rajputs began as a
fully developed. The alliance with Rajputs had political coalition but latter, it developed into an
become steady and stable. They were now not only instrument of closer relation between the Hindus
allies but were partners in the empire. and Muslims, which formed the basis for a broad
liberal tolerant policy towards all, irrespective
A study of the state structure of the Rajputs
of faith. Thus, the Mughal Rajput relations were
is important for understanding their relation with
seen as the beginning of a secular, non-sectarian
the Mughals. On the eve of Mughal conquests, the
state in which all sections of people would have
administrative structure was based on the ‘bhai bant’
some interest in its continuation. But this was
system—a sort of loose confederation in which a
not in accordance with socio-political reality. The
region was held by a clan. The leading family of
Rajputs refused to enroll themselves in Akbar’s
a clan held only a few parganas or mahals under
Tauhid-i-Ilahi and also did not support Akbar in
direct control in a region and the rest were assigned
opposing sati. Akin to the Rajputs, the Mughal elites
in patta to individual members of the family who
was also generally orthodox. The Mughal elite and
constructed their own fortresses. These holdings
the ulema feared that a broad liberal policy would
were hereditary. When a raja was enrolled in the
be detrimental to their dominant position. Their
imperial services, he was given jagir against his
opposition could be put down only by furthering
Mansab which consisted of mahals where the clan
the Mughal Rajput alliance supported by powerful
members lived. This region was the real watan of
non-sectarian movements. Stressing common points

the raja. Watan jagirs were granted for lifetimes in
between the followers of the two religions. These
Rajasthan.
movements were limited in their influences and the
The change in the state structures of Rajasthan Mughal-Rajput alliance having no powerful bulwark
and the evolution of the concept of watan jagir became strained and collapsed.
which replaces ‘bhaiban’ system is an interesting
phenomenon. Watan jagirs allowed the Raja to Evolution of Akbar’s Religious and Social
consolidate their position vis-à-vis the pattayats Outlook
which was a step towards the evolution of a stable Akbar’s attitude towards religion and religious
and centralised state structure. Rajput rajas were communities is generally evaluated on the basis of
granted jagirs outside their watan.The establishment the measures which he took between 1560-65 and
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which primarily affected the Non-Muslim population Ibadatkhana was opened to Sufis, Shias, Brahmanas,
of the Empire. During this period, Akbar established Jaina, Christians, Jews, Parsis etc. Discussions at
matrimonial alliances with Rajputs, abolished the Ibadatkhana proved to be a turning point as they
pilgrim tax, prohibited the conversion of prisoners convinced Akbar that the essence of faith lay in
of war to Islam and abolished Jizya. These measures “internal convision” based on reason. He made
seem to have given Akbar the image of a “secular” an attempt by proclaiming himself ‘mujtahid’
emperor. However in his personal beliefs, Akbar and declaring himself Imam Adil, to claim the
was a devout Muslim. Gulzar-i-Akbar and Nafais- right to interpret all the legal questions on which
ul-Maasir suggest that Akbar showed deep respect there existed a differences of opinion among the
to the ulema and bestowed favours upon them. ulema. These measures were aimed at curbing the
Encouraged by the Emperor’s bounty, they also predominance of the orthodox elements.
persecuted Shias and Mahdawis. His Tauhid-i-Ilahi is another significant of this
His ‘liberalism’ has been explained in several reign. According to R.P. Tripathi, “Shrewd as Akbar
ways. It is suggested that his upbringing and various was, he must have felt that it was neither possible
intellectual influences moulded his personal beliefs. to melt all religion down into one, nor to launch a
Another view finds Akbar having forsaken Islam new religion which would have added one more to
and being hypocritical in his tolerant attitude. The others. But he felt himself called upon to propogate
current opinion however, favours the view that these his ideas among those who cared to listen to them.
measures were political concessions. In the absence The sect had no sacred book, no priestly hierarchy, no
of any reliable Muslim support, Akbar had little sacred place of worship and no rituals/ceremonies
alternative but to seek alliance with the Rajputs and except that of initiation….. a member had to give a
Indian Muslims. These measure were concessions written promise of having accepted for a grades of
to win their support. entire devotion, viz. sacrifice of property, life, honour
A change in attitude is discernible in 1565.There and religion. It was not a religion and Akbar never
is a marked retrogression in his attitude in matters intended to establish a church …. neither force nor
pertaining to religion. Examples are numerous: money was employed to enlist disciples … It was
document to Munim Khan ordering the collection of entirely a personal matter, not between emperor
Jizya in the vicinity of Agra; the fathnama of Chittor, his and the subjects, but between Akbar and those who
orders to Qazi Abul Samad of Bilgram to check Hindus chose to regard him as their pir or guru”.
from practicing idol worship there.To crown all this, in It seems that Akbar wanted to build-up a
1575, according to Badayuni, Akbar reimposed Jizya devoted band of people around him acting as their
though it did not work. An interesting aspect of this spiritual guide. Thus, Tauhid I Ilahi had nothing to do
phase was that despite an atmosphere of religious with Akbar’s religious or political policy. Thus, we see
intolerance most of the Rajput chieftains paid his that Akbar, in the interest of political consolidation,
service, during the years 1566-79. did not generally resort to religious discrimination.
Yet he never hesitated in taking strong measures
Thus, religion was not the main concern of
against those who threatened his position or
Akbar. The significant issue before him was to
exceeded the limits of social or ideological values

subdue the local chieftains. Religion was used only
regardless of their faith or creed. It should also
as a tool to attain political goals. When the strategy
be voted that stern actions were taken against
did not yield substantial gains, Akbar dropped it.
individuals, and not against religious groups.
Another important fact of his religious political
outlook was the establishment of the Ibadatkhana The Mahzar of 1579
in 1575. Established with the aim of having free The Mahzarnama of 1579 was part of larger
discussions on various aspects of Islamic theology. design of Akbar to repudiate the conceit and pride
Akbar was soon disillusioned with the council of the ulema. The wranglings in Ibadatkhana, the
of the ulema who quarreled incessantly. Though corruption and tyrany of the chief sadar Abdun
initially opened only for the Sunnis, in 1578, the Nabi and the revolts, of 1579-80, in which fatwas
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were issued against Akbar declaring him to be a everywhere to be found why should truth be
heretic had convinced Akbar that the ulema had confined to one religion”. It was not a new religion
far transgressed their role. but a socio-religious order of a brotherhood. Though
The declaration of Mahzar asserted that if there Badayuni terms it as a new religion, the term ‘Din’
were conflicting views among the mujtahids (those or faith was not added to it till 80 years. According
fit to interpret Islam). Akbar, by virtue of being a to Abul Fazal and Badayuni, it was Tauhid-i-Ilahi or
“most just and wise king” and his rank being higher Durine monotheism. It was really an order of sufistic
in the eyes of God than that of the mujtahids, was type without having a priestly heirarchy, scripture,
entitled to choose any one of the interpretations, rituals and ceremonies. Neither force nor honey
which would be of “benefit to the nation and in the was used for making disciples. R.P. Tripathi is closer
interests of good order”.Further, if Akbar issued a new to the truth when he says that it was a personal
order in conformity with the Quran and calculated matter not between the Emperor and subjects but
to benefit the nation, all should be bound by it. Akbar and those who choose to regard his as their
Vincent A. Smith has described the edict as “a pir or guru. In fact, many of the leading noblemen,
decree of infallibility”—a pact of the fit of religions except Birbal, refused to join the order.
frenzy which assailed Akbar at the beginning of Regarding Akbar’s motives, Badayuni says that
1578.“But it is far from the truth. It made Akbar, who it was on account of Akbar’s head being turned by
was the temporal head of the state, the supreme many unworthy flatters who suggested to him that
head of Islamic faith in India. It overthrew the power he was the “INSAN-i-KALIM” or the “perfect man of
of the ulema, since they had sanctioned the edict, the Age”. It was at their instance that Akbar initiated
making the king the supreme arbiter of all causes— the ceremony of pabos or kissing the floor before the
civil or ecclesiastical. The decree was political and sovereign, a ceremony erstwhile reserved for God.
so it did not involve Akbar's repudiation of Islam. In Abul Fazal says that it was natural for people to turn
fact, it was a Muslim king that Akbar could decide to their ruler for spiritual guidance and that he was
between the conflicting views of the muitahids. well-qualified to lead the people to spiritual bliss
Further, it did not invest Akbar with infallibility and and to establish harmony among warring creeds.
to the extent, the scope of the decree was limited. It Din-i-Ilahi had hardly 25 members and it died
only showered Akbar with requisite authority and with its author.The ethical rationalism of Akbar, which
sanction to adopt any one of the conflicting opinions was to have united all, pleased none. In fact, Akbar
and was empowered to issue an order, provided it was far ahead of his times. It neither appealed to
was in consonance with the Quran and was for the the Muslims nor to the Hindus. Badayuni, The Jesuit
ultimate benefit of the people. Missonaries, Vincent A. Smith and Wolsey Haig are
Din-i-Ilahi his worst critics. Vincent Smith has termed Din-i-Ilahi
as a monument of Akbar folly and not his wisdom.
The final stage in Akbar’s red spiritual evolution
It is wrong and unjust. There were many precedents
was Tauhid-i-Ilahi (1582). Unlike other so-called
of rulers combining temporal and spiritual power
liberal measures, it was not a political contrivance.
in their person. Moreover, it was on keeping with
By that time, i.e. 1582, Akbar had consolidated his
the paternalistic nature of his sovereignty wherein

internal position and was now in a position to re-
he also thought of leading people spiritually. There
orient the administrative structures of the empire.
was no force or persecution to accept it. He sincerely
Thus, a religious prop was hardly needed. It had
felt that religion was a personal belief and insofar
nothing to do with his religions or political policy.
as this ideal was concerned, the success or failure
His contact with enlightened men of different of Din-i-Ilahi did not matter.
religions convinced him that there were good
points in almost all religions. Thus, the tauhid was Relations with other Religions
an amalgamation of good virtues from different Jains: He came into contact with jain scholars
religions and was based on simple reason. Thus, quite early, primarily due to his alliance with the
Badayuni says “If some true knowledge was thus ruling families of Rajasthan. Akbar invited one of
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the great living Jain divines, Hira Vijaya Suri, from real ruler. It was also the duty of the ruler to maintain
Gujarat. He was awarded the title of ‘Jagat Guru’ and equilibrium in society by not allowing people of
was ranked by Abul Fazl among the 21 most erudite one rank or profession to interfere in the duties and
men at Akbar court. It was under the influence of obligations of another. Above all, he was not to allow
Jaina doctrines that he forsakes meat consumption sectarian conflicts. All these together constituted
and gave up hunting. the doctrine of Sulh-i-kul. Akbar tried to emphasis
Zoroastrians: It made a deep impact on Akbar. the concept of Sulh-i-kul in other ways as well. He
In 1573, he came into contact with Dastur Mahyarji set up a big translation department for translating
Rana, at Surat. Zoroastrian scholars took part in works in Sanskrit, Arabic, Greek, etc. into Persian.
the religious discussions held at the Ibadatkhana He also introduced a number of social reforms. He
and they received a grant of 200 bighas of land in stopped sati; legalised widow remarriage; raised the
Madad-i-Mash. age of marriage; and restricted the sale of liquor.
Christians: He invited portuguese missionaries With his principle of Sulh-i-kul, Akbar proved
from Goa for expounding Christian doctrines. Jesuits himself to be far in advance of his age. He must
in turn were anxious to ensure that the imperial have received the greatest opposition to his belief
authority extended its support to the introduction in Sulh-i-kul from the orthodox Muslims, for in
of Christian religion in his dominions. Accordingly, religious societies tolerations no virtue. Toleration
3 missions were sent from Goa to Akbars court in was regarded in those times as the symbol, not of
1580, 1591 and 1595. They were permitted to build an enlightened and humane mind, but of laxity of
churches at Agra and Lahore. Later, the missionaries principle, for, if a man would tolerate error, he could
became his ardent critics as they had contemplated not love truth.
conversion of the monarch. They had failed to grasp Composite Nobility under Akbar
his rationalism and quest for the truth.
The evolution of homogenous nobility out of
Theory of Sulh-i-Kul and Religious Policy multi-racial and religiously heterogeneous elements
Sulh-i-kul means peace for all. It was Akbar’s brought about by Akbar, in the 16th century, was
policy. Akbar’s Persian tutor, Mir Abdul Latif Qazvini, a significant aspect of the transformation that
is said to have infused this doctrine into Akbar. came about in the nature and functioning of the
Akbar’s state policy was influenced by this doctrine. institution of the Mughal empire. The composite
The Rajput alliance marked the beginning of a new nobility evolved out of the historical objective to
orientation of state-policy based on Sulh-i-kul. Akbar maintain the political unit and centralised structure
entered into matrimonial relations with the Rajputs. of government by redefining the relationship
Mansabs were given not only to the Rajputs with between the sovereign and the Mughal nobility.
whom he had established personal relationship, In the very heterogeneity of the nobility i.e. in
but also to others on the basis of their competence. the balancing of Hindus, and Muslim nobles, the
Among the latter were Todar Mal and Birbal. Akbar Shaikhzadar, Rajput, Iranians, Turanis. The Mughal
abolished Jizya, pilgrim tax on bathing at holy places saw a great safeguard for royal power by ensuring
such as Benares, and the practice of converting that no one faction dominated the affairs at the
forcibly the prisoners of war. His attitude towards the court.

Hindu subjects were closely linked with his views of It may be pointed out that the whole problem
how a sovereign should behave towards his subjects. of nobility under Akbar is generally sought to be
These views were a mixture of Timurid, Persian and understood in the term of their relation with the
Indian ideas of sovereignty. Akbar thought that king; which is no doubt an important aspect of
a true ruler was distinguished by a paternal love the issue. But equally important are the aspect of
towards his subjects without distinction of sect or pattern of radical and religious alignments within
creed, a large heart so that he wishes of great and the nobility, Tribla & Clan ties among the group
small were attended to, prayer and devotion, and a of nobility, their relation with other section of the
daily increasing trust in God who is considered as the population etc. In brief, factors which determined
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largely the change in the role and standing of the increasing and Akbar was trying to use the non-
nobility. A significant transformation was brought Turani groups particularly Persians to pull down
about in the nature of the working of Mughal empire, the Turani disaffection. A natural corollary of this
by the evolution of a composite nobility under Akbar. situation was the growing tension between the
An analysis of the history of the nobles who Turani and the Persians. Akbar openly supported
accompanied Humayun to Hindustan, in 1555, shows the Persians against the Turani nobles which clearly
that the nobility inherited by Akbar consisted of indicate the trend visible in the fortunes of Persians
chiefly two racial groups—Irani and Turanis. Turani after 1562-67.
enjoyed a predominant position (53%) of the Persian Akbar wanted to organize a centralised state
nobles, with the exception of Bairam Khan and Mirza and for this, he had to rode the Turks-Mongol theory
Hasan etc. The rest could exercise but little influence of kingship and to do that, he had to reduce the
in matter of state. power of the Turani faction who were the major
But for the promotions received by a few obstacle in the way.
persons of Persian origin, the composition of nobility Akbar tried to reduce the power of the nobles
remained unaltered, during the domination of by disfavouring the concentrations of jagirs of a
Bairam Khan. After his fall, the situation gradually particular clan in one region. The Uzbeks in the east
changed. As is evident from the data available, and in Malwa, the Mirzas around Sambhal and the
two elements of local nature entered the imperial Atka Khail in Punjab were of affected Turani class.
service between 1560 and 1575. There were Rajputs On the other hand, the Persians nobles were mostly
chiefs and the Indian Muslims. (mostly Shaikhzadas) individuals adventurers and had no worthwhile clan
belonging to the families living on ‘madad-i-mash’ followings. Akbar also reduced the size of the jagirs
grants or enjoying zamindar (system) rights. and separated fiscal and administrative right and
At the same tine, there was a marked increase jagirs, were given only for revenue collection. He
in the relative strength of the Iranis especially in their tried to realize arrears of the revenue from nobles
higher grades. The net result of this process was and even transfer of jagirs followed during this
the gradual fading away of the Turani complexion period. While the former hit the fiscal power of the
of the nobility as well as the erosion of the chagtai Turanis, the latter checked them from developing
tradition and customs of state organisation. Thus, local base and association.
indirectly facilitating Akbari quest for an alternative In 1560, two nobles—Munim Khan and Atkai—
theory of kingship in the subsequent years. shared the post of Waqil and so the power of the
The Persian nobles seem to have improved post was reduced. During 1562-65, Akbar carried
their position, in the period of 1562-67 mainly by out administrative changes to reduce the power of
earning positions in the course of military operation, the waqil. He was deprived of the control over the
during the revolt of sections of the nobility. It may Dewani, which was placed under a Persian known as
be noted that except for a temporary desertion by Diwan-I Wizarat-i-Kul, another department the Mir
Asaf Khan (1505-66), none of them revolted and for Bakshi was created taking part of Waqil’s functions.
that matter, none else than the Turani section of the From 1562 onwards, there was a definite
nobility were behind every other revolt. Even the tendency to exclude the highly placed nobles
rebellion of the Uzbek officers, which was led by Ali from the central government. It was sought to be
Quli Khan, who himself had a Persian background manned by a set of newly promoted offices mainly
was in reality the rebellion of the whole clan of experts in various fields, who rose to distinction
Uzbek nobles serving under Babur amongst whom solely on the basis of their personal expertise and
but for Ali Quli Khan and his brother, all leading displayed particular zeal in greater centralisation
figures like Sikandar Khan, Ibrahim Khan, Abdullah and standardisation of administration process. In
Khan etc. were Turanis. most cases, prominent nobles Turanis as well as
There is evidence to show that during this time, Persians were being deligated to commands and
the alienation of the Turani nobility from Akbar was charges in frontier regions.
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As Prof. I.A. Khan puts it, these changes most influential and numerous ruling groups of the
apparently aimed at achieving the objective of Indian Muslim population were the Afghan. The
the separation of routine administration from experience of the period 1526-40, had convinced.
military functions and entrusting it exclusively to The Mughals that they could not hope to get the
perfectionally competent persons. support of any considerable section of the Afghans,
As a result of all these developments, a new who were their chief contenders for supremacy
set of officers came to preside over the central over Hindustan.
department. For e.g. the team of ministers running It was, therefore, natural for Akbar to look to
the central Diwani at the time of the introduction of other important ruling groups, obviously, the Rajput
‘Dagh’ consisted of Shahibaz Khan, Mir Guiasuddin, chiefs who at that time controlled autonomous
Rai Puroshotam Das, etc. There were many others principalities as well as zamindars in a major part of
like Todarmal, Abul Fazal, Birbal, Nuzzaffar Khan the empire were the most important of such groups.
etc. had very important position at the court. These However, between 1562-67, none of the Rajputs
men rose to prominence simply on account of their except the Kachchwahas of Amber joined the Mughal
readiness to carry out and develop the policies laid imperial service. But soon after the suppression
down by the king. of the Uzbek rebellion, Akbar’s attitude towards
All these fiscal and administrative reforms Rajputs changes radically, consequently, we find
threatened the independent existence of the Akbar adopting a vigorous policy towards Rajputs
nobility, particularly Turanis and hence the revolt to reduce them into submission by force. There was
of the Turanis from 1563-68. But more important a corresponding shift in the religious policy too,
changes were yet to come. Akbar’s attempt to shown by the efforts at palacating orthodox Muslim
redefine crown’s relationship with the nobility were sentiments. The public manisfestation of Akbar’s
bound to produce reaction amongst the Iranis too. attitude during the seize of Chittor, 1568, describing
Morevoer the Iranis could not have provided the it as a victory of Islam and the reimposition of Jaziya
kind of support he needed. Akbar required a more (1575) can be sighted as evidence.
wide social base and deeper penetration of the After the fall of Chittor (1568) and
Mughals in India, thereby providing as stronger Ranthambhor, it became clear to the Rajput states
economic base as possible. that their independent existence was at stake. It is
In these circumstances, Rajputs and Indian noteworthy that Akbar offered them liberal terms
Muslims came to play very important role. Iranis of peace and they began joining one by one and
having no social base in India, Akbar had to turn in turn Akbar recognised their hereditary territorial
towards the indigenous elements who were going rights. They were granted full independence within
to provide him a solid social base for the expansion their territory, which was termed as watan jagir, a
of the Mughal empire for the development of his non-transferable jagir. Akbar was quite successful
centralised despotism. in his attempts at wining over and for these watan
Soon after coming to the power he followed jagirdars supported the crown right till the end,
a liberal policy towards Rajputs. He entered into until the right to watan jagir itself was questioned
matrimonial alliances with the big Rajput families by Aurangzeb.

and Indian Shaikhzadahs of Delhi and agri pilgrimage Moreover, the Indian Muslims were also
tax was abolished in 1563, practice of conversion was included on an increasing scales under different
stopped and finally Jaziya was abolished in 1564. racial groups. The Muslims, who entered the Mughal
According to I.A. Khan, all these steps were service from the 1560s, improved their position
dictated principally by exigencies of state policy particularly during 1575-80. It is significant that
rather than consideration of religious tolerance during the rebellion of 1580-84, the Indian Muslims
and intellectual influence of anyone. One important and the Rajputs as a body sided with the king. This
reason put forward for the induction of the Rajputs clearly shows that during the year preceding the
in the imperial service is that during this time, the revolt, the Indian noble must have been specially
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cultivated to make them the most steadfast support as a person continued to serve. Moreover, it was
the central authority in a conflict that arose around frequently changed from one place to another in
certain issue regarding the composition of nobility. order to prevent the growth of local association on
The emergence of Indian Muslims as an the part of the individual holder. Thus, the jagirdars
important section of the nobility was also important were entirely an official class, which created more
insofar it must have provided a under support for favourable conditions for the establishment of royal
the empire amongst the Muslim community in absolutism.
India. Apparently, the reorganisation of Department However, the ruling class at the lower level
of Sadarat during 1570s was motivated by Akbar’s consisted of small chieftains and zamindars with
desire to gain and retain the further sympathy of great influence in the rural areas. Akbar integrated
the local Muslim upper class. His attempt at gaining this class into the Mughal governing institution
support of Muslim is also evident from the liberal making them a part of Mughal administrative set
grants to Muslims. up. This class became the social base of the Mughal
The Mahzarnamah of 1579 seems to be the in the rural areas.
outcome of Akbar, eagerness to win recognition According to Abul Fazal, the zamindars were
as the sole head of the orthodox Muslims of India. overwhelmingly Hindus. Between these two ruling
In the Mahzar, the king’s title as the Head of the class upper zamindars, mostly muslims etc. and
orthodox Muslims and as the monarch of Islam lower, there was both unity and contradiction. In a
Badshah-i-Islam, rests on the sanction given by the sense that without the support of the zamindars,
leading Ulema of the realm. While according to the revenue could not be collected and at the same
theory that developed later, kingship is recognised time the zamindars were rival in claims and revenue.
as a divine attribute confirmed upon the later by But nevertheless the system functioned efficiently.
God, without the interpretation of any one. Hence, The sum up, the growth of a composite nobility
the Muhzarnamah was a means used by Akbar for (governing class) under Akbar was marked by cutting
promoting and be friending Indian Muslims. the wings of powerful clan fractions among the
The mansabdari system not only established a nobles and induction of two new elements of local
definite order of precedence among nobles but also origin, Rajputs and Indian Muslims in the nobility,
led to the gradual evolution of a definite convention who shared a major power. Such a development was
regarding pay privileges etc., which changes the mainly facilitated by the gradual indianisation of
value of the nobility. The nobles now came to be the governing class and extension of its social base
regarded as the paid servants of the king. Thus, a resulting from the steady increasing involvement
further step was taken in the bureaucratisation of of zamindars in the offering of the empire.
the nobility.
The governing class at the upper level consisted
The principle of balancing the various ethnic mainly Muslims (though Hindu consequently gained
and regional groups was also sought to be applied strong foothold) while at the lower level, it consisted
by Akbar to the contingents that the mansabdars mainly of Hindus. Thus, the governing class under
were required to maintain. In the initial phase, the Akbar was truly composite in nature brought about
contingents of a large number of the mansabdars by carefully balancing the various multiracial and
consited of tribal levies of their clansmen and fellow multicultural hetrogenous elements.
countrymen. Gradually, definite rules and convention
were developed regarding the composition of the ABUL FAZL, THINKER AND HISTORIAN
nobles contingents. Thus, he forced making, tribal, Abul Fazl was the second son of Shaikh
national and sectarian, exclusiveness were dealt Mubarak Nagori. Beginning his service with marking
in a blow. horses and attending to the mahalli, he managed to
The jagirs were essentially the assignment raise himself to a mansabdar of four thousand and to
of revenue and did not primarily involve any the dignity of wazir. He was introduced into Akbar’s
administrative changes. A jagir lasted only as long court in his seventeenth year. He was imbibing the
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liberal opinions of his father. He styled himself Allani, the cost of a pineapple, from the organisation of
(very learned). He soon ingratiated himself with an army and the grades and duties of nobility to
Akbar by his unremitted devotion to Akbar’s service, the shape of a candle-stick and the price of a curry-
by his temporising disposition, by his duplicity, by comb. None can dispute its originality and unique
his stucked of Akbar’s temper and sentiments and historical value. In the words of V.A. Smith, “Even in
by his boundless flattery. Europe, it would be difficult to find an authoritative
He set himself in opposition to all sects and compilation of a like kind until quite recent times.”
bound the girdle of reform about his loins. It is He further observes, “Abul Fazl is outitled to the
therefore not surprising that he was reviled by the gratitude of later ages for the industry and skill with
faithful as heterodox, as apostate, as heretic, as free- which he handled his embarrassing mass of material”.
thinker, as perverter of truth and deceiver of the Further, the Ain contains an autobiography of Abul
faithful. It has been asserted that he was an infidel. Fazl and the “Happy Sayings” of Akbar.
Some say he was a Hindu or a fire-worshipper. Some Some complain against the long array of bald
still go further and call him an atheist. But others pass details and regard the descriptive part of the Ain
a jester sentence and say that he was the Prophet. as more rhetorical than practical. Still others charge
It may not be correct to say that Akbar’s tolerance, Abul Fazl with plagiarism for the Ain contains an
was due to his influence. For Akbar’s doubts, his elaborate account of Hindu culture in its various
inquiries into the principles of other religions had aspects taken bodily from Alberuni’s treatise without
shown themselves before he was introduced at acknowledgment. In spite of all these, the Ain
court. While it may be true that he did mind, with represents a masterly performance which engaged
feelings and opinions similar to but more decided the serious attention of its author for seven years.
than his own. The second work of Abul Fazl, the Akbar-
In Abul Fazl, he had frequent converse and nama, traces the ancestry of Akbar from Timur
indulged his partiality for theological discussion. and deals in detail with Humayun and the history
The result was that both the emperor and Abul Fazl, of Akbar’s accession to 1602, in which year Abul
mutually influenced each other, progressed through Fazl was murdered at the instance of Prince Salim
various phases of scepticism and credulity, until they (later Jahangir), besides being complete and
finally arrived at the establishment of the so-called chronologically accurate, it represents the work of
Din-i-Ilahi, which was really a religious order. While a talented man of liberal views.
Akbar stood at the head of this order, Abul Fazl Scholars are divided on the question of Abul
came next after him. He believed in the Apostolic Fazl’s veracity as a historian. Abul Fazl is accused of
tradition that a mujaddid (religious reformer) would gross flattery, suppression of facts and dishonesty.
appear towards the end of the first millennium after Some have gone to the extent of saying that he
the Hegira and claimed Akbar to be that religious cannot stand comparison with ministers like, Sully
reformer. and Clarendon who have written contemporary
Abul Fazl, Akbar’s alter ego, is the greatest history either in frankness or simplicity. There is
figure of the age, next to Akbar. He is principal no doubt that he defies Akbar and attributes to
authority for the reign of Akbar. He has given us him powers bordering on the supernatural. His
two valuable work concerning the history of Akbar. veneration tantamount to adoration. He was an
The first is the Ain-i-Akbari or institutes of Akbar. The encomiast like Harisena and Bana, the panegyrists
Ain was compiled about A.D. 1595. It is a detailed of Samudragupta and Harshavardhana respectively.
descriptive and statistical record of the Mughal Further he was not fair to Sher Shah, yet it is widely
empire, in the 16th century, from many points of accepted that he was more a rhetorician than a
view—the various departments of government, flatterer, that he should not be condemned because
the material and human resources of the empire, he came across a real hero, that his intelligent
the revenue system, etc. The data presented in this partiality is pardonable and that he was too great
work range from the revenues of the province to to give a perverted history.
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COURT PATRONAGE OF ART AND They belonged to different castes and religion. They
TECHNOLOGY placed before them one single goal i.e., production
of works of a high quality which would win the
Patronage of Art approval of the emperor.
Paintings: Akbar loved painting, in spite of Calligraphy: Though not a lettered man,
the Quranic prohibition. He thought that painting, Akbar had a taste for calligraphy which was highly
far from making a man irreligious, compels the prised in India at that time. He employed men
painter to turn to God and to seek his help to bestow skilled in penmanship and entrusted them with
individuality upon his work. He was responsible for the work of producing beautiful copies of books
introducing into his court the Persian style which for his library. Abul Fazl tells us that eight modes of
was nothing but a refinement of the Sino-Mongolian calligraphy were in vogue at Akbar’s court. Nastaliq,
style of painting. This style of painting now mingled the eight of its kind, was specially favoured by
with the style of Indian painting. The two styles, Akbar. Muhammad Hussain Kashmiri was the most
Persian and Indian at Akbar’s court began gradually important calligraphist at Akbar’s court. He was
to fuse and in course of time they became one. As given title of Zarin Qalam.
time passed, the foreign characteristics gradually
Closely associated with calligraphy were the
dropped out and eventually, it became purely Indian.
arts of artistic binding of books illuminating the
The process of this evolution can be seen in the
margins and covers of books or illustrating their
unique copy of the Tarikh-i-Khandan-i-Timuria
and a copy of the Badshanama. Akbar’s patronage themes with drawings. Those who were engaged
attracted the best painters to his court. The Hindu in this work were highly valued as painters.
painters formed the ablest and the most numerous Music: Akbar was devoted to music. Abul Fazl
group among them. Of the seventeen master says that Akbar paid much attention to music and
painters of Akbar, thirteen were Hindus. They were was the patron of all who practised this enchanting
experts in portrait painting. They were employed to art. The Ain-i-Akbar gave the names of thirty-six
paint the walls of Akbar’s capital at Fatehpur Sikri first rated musicians at his court, arranged in seven
and also to produce albums. The most important division each division entertaining the emperor
among them were Daswanth, Kesu, Lal and Mukund for one fixed day in the week. Akbar himself was
Basawan. Daswanth was fond of painting pictures a skilled musician and a good performer on the
on the walls. Basawan excelled in the painting of Naggara (kettle drum). He had learned Hindu vocal
background and the drawing of features, distribution music under Lal Kalwant. Tansen, the most notable
of colours and portraiture painting. musician of the time adorned his court. Speaking
Akbar created a separate department of about him Abul Fazl says, "a singer like him had not
painting. Khwaja Abdus Samad, a Persian was placed born in India for the last thousand years”.Tansen had
at its head. He was given the title of Shirin Qalam his training in a school established in Gwalior by Raja
or Sweet pen. The pieces executed by the court Man Singh Tomar. He is credited with the invention
painters were placed before the emperor every week. of some new ragas. Baba Rama was another musician
Rewards were given for excellent pieces. Special ranking next only to Tansen. Baba Hari Das was
grants were made to the master painters whose contemporary of Tansen and Akbar. His name does
paintings were approved by the emperor. Increments not find a place in the list of great musicians given
in their salaries were sanctioned immediately. The by Abul Fazl. It is said that Akbar paid a visit to him
artists were enrolled as royal servants and granted incognition for hermitage in Brindavan. Sur Das,
mansabs, according to their ranks. Abdus Samad one of the greatest Hindi poets of all times, was
was a mansabdar of four hundred. not a musician of Akbar’s court. At his court, Hindu
National Indian School of Painting was and Muslim music, vocal as well as instrumental,
established during his reign, encouraged by mingled and became one. Akbar brought about the
emperor’s interest and patronage. Its members were emergence of a new stint in Indian music through
drawn from all parts of India and even from outside. the fusion of the two diverse systems of music.
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Architecture: Akbar made a conscious effort of marble and sandstone. It is one of most perfect
to amalgamate the Hindu and Muslims styles of architectural achievement in the whole of India.
architecture and thereby laid the foundation of Inside the enclosure of the mosque lies the tomb of
the national school of architecture. A public works Shaikh Salim Chishti which is built in white marble.
department was setup to carry out his plans. Many Another remarkable building, Akbar’s
gigantic forts were built in his time—the Agra mausoleum at Sikandara was planned in his lifetime.
Fort, the Lahore Fort and the Allahabad fort. The Akbar built many sarais, excavated many
Agra Fort was built on the model of the Gwalior tanks, erected many schools and place of worship.
fort. Inside the fort alone hundred buildings of Compared to the other advanced civilisations of
red sandstone were raised. The most important of the period, specially Western Europe and China,
these was Akbari Mahal and the Jahangiri Mahal. India’s technology was remarkably backward. Hence,
According to the critics, the latter was Hindu in famous textiles were manufactures without the aid
design that it can hardly be out of place at Chitor of multi-spindle wheels known China or the water
or Udaipur. The decoration in Lahore fort is more powered throwing mills with 200 spindles of the
vigorous and unrestrained than at Agra. Hindu Italian industry. Its ocean-going ships lacked virtually
craftsman dominated the decorations so much that all modern nautical instrument except the astrolabe.
one is inclined to infer that the supervision of the The massive Mughal buildings were constructed
Mughal overseers must have been of a very tolerant without the use of even such elementary aids to
character. The Zamana in the Allahabad fort shows human labour like the wheel-barrow. India did
that one of the special features of the building was not know the uses of coal as yet. It had no proper
the number of distribution of its pillars with their cast-iron. It had not known the techniques of
superstructures. deep mining. Its chemical industry was primitive.
The greatest architectural achievement of Its shortcomings in fuel resources, metallurgy and
Akbar was his new capital at Fatehpur Sikri. The city chemical industries effectively blocked any prospect
was surrounded on three sides by walls and by an of wide-ranging technological development. It was
artificial lake on the fourth side. It included many not able to produce even such elementary objects
buildings in the style of Gujarat and Bengal. The as screws with proper grooves quite necessary for
most important buildings inside the enclosure are most of the mechanical processes. Watermills and
the Diwan-i-Khas, the Diwan-i-Aam Panch Mahal, the windmills were peripheral to the technology of
so called Jodha Bai palace and the Birbal’s house. The the period. Though India had contacts with both
Diwan-i-Khas with a projecting veranda roof over a Europe and China, there was yet no inclination to
colonnade is distinctly of Hindu design. This Diwan- adopt the printing press. In spite of the dominance
i-Khas, is distinctly Indian character in planning, of non-mechanical bias and the basic simplicity of
construction and ornamentation. The Panch Mahal, Indian technology, one heavy industry appeared
showing continuation of the plan of the Indian to be the most technologically advanced and that
Buddhist Vihara with a pyramidal structure in five was the manufacture of cannon and hand guns.
storeys. The Jodha Bai’s palace is predominantly Under the patronage of Akbar, India produced in
Hindu in character. The Birbal’s house is the mixed the sixteenth century the heaviest cannon—cast of
style, like the four temples of Krishna in Brindavan. bronze—of which the most famous was the Malik
Persian and Central Asian influence can be seen in Maidan which was about 3.7 m in length. Since such
the glased blue stones used for decoration in the pieces were not easily maneuverable, lighter iron
walls or for tilling the roofs. Outside the enclosure cannons were also produced. These however, were
stand the Jami mosque with its lofty portal called mostly made of wrought-iron since the technique
the Buland Darwaza. The Buland Darwaza is built of casting iron was not yet perfected.
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CHAPTER-9
MUGHAL EMPIRE IN 17TH CENTURY
It has been customary to divide the seventeenth Jaunpur and Bihar, and seised the treasury of Bihar

century into two, the first half being dominated which contained thirty lakhs of rupees.
by Jahangir (1605-27) and Shah Jahan (1627- Akbar hastened back to Agra. Eager not to
58), and the second half being under Aurangzeb break with his favourite son, Akbar allotted Bengal
(1658-1707). The first half is generally considered a and Orissa to him. But Salim refused to leave
period of internal peace, economic development Allahabad, and even began to issue coins in his
and cultural growth, and the second half as one name. He was also responsible for the killing of Abul
of growing conflict in various spheres—political, Fazl by the Bundela chief, Bir Singh Deo Bundela
economic and religious, and of cultural stagnation when he was returning to Agra from the Deccan
and economic decline. While not accepting all these at Akbar’s behest. Although Akbar was very angry
assumptions, for purposes of convenience we have and upset, and ordered a relentless pursuit and
adhered to the existing division of the seventeenth punishment of Bir Singh Deo, the latter retreated
century into two almost equal halves for the study into the jungles and evaded arrest. Meanwhile,
of political developments. Economics, social and Akbar’s mother, Gulbadan Begum, softened Akbar’s
cultural development will however, be taken up wrath, and a patch up between the father and son
separately and will include the seventeenth century was effected. However, in 1603, Salim returned to
as an integrated entity. Allahabad, and resumed his old ways.
This was the background to the attempt made
JAHANGIR’S ACCESSION—HIS EARLY by two of the Akbar’s leading nobles, Raja Man Singh
DIFFICULTIES and Khan-i-Azam Mirza Aziz Koka, to supersede
After the death of Akbar in 1605, Salim, who Salim by his son, Khusrau. Man Singh was Khusrau’s
was his eldest son, succeeded to the throne, and maternal uncle, and Aziz Koka’s daughter had been
assumed the title of Jahangir. Two of his younger married to Khusrau. Khusrau had been favoured by
brothers, Murad and Daniyal, had died earlier on Akbar when Salim had been in disgrace. Moreover,
account of drunkenness, but Salim’s accession was Khusrau was cultured and refined, and did not have
not without controversy. Although a favourite of his Salim’s blemishes of character. However, it seems
father who doted on him, Salim had disappointed that neither Man Singh nor Aziz Koka were very
him by his lackadaisical attitude during the campaign serious about the proposal, because they called a
against Mewar to which he had been appointed. meeting of nobles to consider it while Akbar was
Earlier, he had refused to go to Transoxiana or to the on his death bed. As might have been expected,
Deccan. Akbar was also unhappy at his hard drinking the proposal was turned down. It was argued that
which was the besetting sin of the Timurids. He had the succession of a son in the lifetime of his father
occasion to pull Salim up for this and the type of was “contrary to the laws and customs of Chaghtai
company he kept. In 1599, when Akbar was in the Tartars, and shall never be.”
Deccan, Salim was instigated by his companions to Thereafter, the scheme which did not have the
go to Agra to seize the treasury. But better sense backing of Akbar, was dropped. However, we are told
prevailed. Crossing the Jamuna, Salim set himself that to thwart this conspiracy, Shaikh Farid Bukhari
up at Allahabad. He appointed governors at Kalpi, called the Saiyids of Barha and other supporters of
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Salim, to back his claim, and also extracted from him responsible for the construction of the Harmandir
a general promise to defend Islam. There are strong (Golden Temple) at Amritsar, was fined on a charge
reasons to doubt that any such promise was made, of blessing Khusrau by putting a tika on his forehead
or sought to be extracted. Nor does it seem correct and giving him some financial help. The Guru was
to give a religious colouring to the event, because executed for refusing to pay the fine.
Jahangir refused to take any action subsequently Shortly afterwards, when Jahangir was at Kabul,
against Khusrau, or against Man Singh or Aziz Koka. a conspiracy was unearthed by his younger son,
However, it made him worry about the old Akbar Khurram, that Khusrau was plotting the assassination
Shahi nobles. Khusrau was also kept in a state of of Jahangir. Jahangir ordered Khusrau to be blinded
semi-confinement. so that he could no longer be a claimant to the
The matter would have ended, but Khusrau throne.
could not forget his dream of independence, and The future trials and tribulations of Khusrau
six months later, he escaped from Agra with a small need not detain us further, except to note that he
body of 350 men. On the way to Lahore, he was remained a subject of intrigue till his unnatural death
joined by some Badakhshanis, and by Afghans and
in 1620. During this period, there was at least one
Indians so that his forces swelled to 12,000 by the
uprising in his favour.
time he reached Lahore. However, the governor
of Lahore, Dilawar Khan, refused to allow him to The rebellion of Khusrau had made Jahangir
enter the town. Jahangir hastened in pursuit after suspicious and often ill tempered, though that
him. Jahangir was still uncertain of the loyalty of was not his normal character. It led him to try and
the Akbar Shahi nobles and the Rajputs since, as promote those who had been closely associated
he says in the Tuzuk, some of “these short-sighted with him, and whom he could trust. Thus, he gave
ones” imagined that “by making Khusrau a tool they the post of Wazir, and the title of Amir-ul-Umara to
might conduct the affairs of state through him”. Shaikh Farid Bukhari, son of Khwaja Abdus Samad,
Jahangir was suspicious of Badakhshanis whose the famous painter, who had been sent by Akbar
temperament, according to him, was “seditious to Salim to pacify him but had, instead, joined him.
and turbulent”. He says that many of the Aimaqs He had no special qualification for the post, and
or Turkish tribals attached to the royal army were was looked down upon by the grandees. Jahangir
in league with Khusrau. He was also uncertain of promoted Mirza Ghiyas Beg to the post of Joint
the loyalty of the Rajputs, calling Man Singh “an Wazir, with the title of Itimad-ud-Daulah.
old wolf”. Moreover, Rai Rayan, the ruler of Bikaner
who had been close to Akbar, had deserted the
Territorial Consolidation and Expansion of
royal standards on the way to Lahore on the basis The Empire: Mewar, East India and Kangra
of an astrologer’s prediction that Jahangir’s reign While establishing his position on the
would be very brief. throne, Jahangir was faced with the problem of
This may explain the harshness of Jahangir consolidating the empire bequeathed to him by
after he defeated Khusrau in a light skirmish at Akbar. This involved paying attention to the long
Bhairowal, and captured him shortly afterwards continuing dispute with the Rana of Mewar, and
while he was trying to flee to Afghanistan. A double the problem created in the Deccan by Malik Ambar.
row of gibbets was created at Lahore over which In Bengal, the Afghan menace had yet to be dealt
Khusrau’s followers were crucified. Abur Rahim, with fully.
son of Bairam Khan, was tortured brutally but We have already seen how after considerable
pardoned. Itamad-ud-Daulah, father of Nur Jahan, effort and display of political flexibility, in 1615
was imprisoned and released on a payment of a Jahangir was able to settle the contentious dispute
fine of two lakhs, while his eldest son, Muhammad with Mewar. This enabled him to further consolidate
Sharif, was executed. Shaikh Nizam of Thaneswar the alliance with the Rajputs. By 1620, he had also
who had blessed Khusrau was banished to Mecca. been able to shatter the efforts of Malik Ambar
Guru Arjun who had succeeded in 1581 and was to lead a united front of Deccan states against
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the Mughals, and to dispute Mughal control over full control, the provincial capital was transferred
the territories ceded to them by the treaty of from Rajmahal to Dacca which began to develop
1600 with Ahmadnagar. As has been explained rapidly. An attack was launched on the Ahom ruler
elsewhere, Jahangir’s decision not to extend Mughal of Assam, but it failed ignominiously.
possessions in the Deccan beyond this limit was not Like Akbar, Jahangir realised that conquest
on account of military weakness but was deliberate could be lasting not on the basis of force but by
policy. securing the goodwill of the people. He, therefore,
The settlement of Mewar, and containing Malik treated the defeated Afghan chiefs and their
Ambar were substantial achievements, though followers with consideration and sympathy. After
historians have generally been chary of giving due sometime, many of the rajas and zamindars of Bengal
credit to Jahangir for these successes. detained at the court were released and allowed to
return to Bengal. Even Musa Khan was released
A third achievement of Jahangir was the and his estates were restored. Thus, after a long
consolidation of Mughal position in Bengal. spell, peace and prosperity returned to Bengal. To
Although Akbar had broken the back of the power cap the process, the Afghans also now began to be
of the Afghans in this region, Afghan chiefs were inducted into the Mughal nobility in larger numbers
still powerful in various parts of east Bengal. They and promoted to high positions. The leading Afghan
had the support of many Hindu rajas of the region, noble under Jahangir was Khan-i-Jahan Lodi who
such as the rajas of Jessore, Kamrup (western Assam), was placed in charge of the Mughal operations in
Cachar, Tippera, etc. Towards the end of his reign, the Deccan, and enjoyed high favour with Jahangir.
Akbar had recalled Raja Man Singh, the governor Kangra
of Bengal, to the court, and during his absence the
The fort of Kangra in modern Himachal was
Afghan chief, Usman Khan and others found an considered one of the strongest forts of the area.
opportunity to raise a rebellion. Mughal control over the mountainous tracts had
Jahangir sent back Man Singh for sometime been steadly expanding, and many hill rajas, such
but the situation continued to worsen. In 1608, as the ruler of Kumaon, had accepted Mughal
Jahangir posted to Bengal Islam Khan, his close suzerainty and agreed to pay tribute. However, it was
associate, and the grandson of Shaikh Salim Chishti, felt that the various other rajas of the region would
the patron saint of the Mughals. Islam Khan, though not submit unless the raja of Kangra who was proud
young and inexperienced, handled the situation of his mountain fastness was humbled. A campaign
with great energy and foresight. He won over many in 1615 led by Murtaza Khan, the governor of Punjab,
of the zamindars, including the Raja of Jessore to failed. However, in 1620, Raja Bikramjit Baghela was
his side and fixed his headquarters at Dacca, which sent to reduce the fort. The fort surrendered after a
was strategically located. short siege. A Mughal commander to the fort, and a
faujdar was appointed to control the area. In 1622,
He first directed his efforts to the conquest of the ailing Jahangir, while visiting the mountains to
Sonargaon which was under the control of Musa avoid the heat of the plains, visited Kangra. In order
Khan and his confederates who were called the Barah to emphasize that Kangra fort would now be an
(twelve) Bhuiyan. After three years of campaigning, Islamic stronghold, Jahangir had the Khutba read
Sonargaon was captured. Soon afterwards, Musa inside the fort and, after slaughtering a bullock,
Khan surrendered and he was sent to the court ordered a lofty mosque to be built.
as a prisoner. The turn of Usman Khan came next, The determination of keeping hold of the fort
and he was defeated in a fierce battle. The back of of Kangra had the result of the submission of the
the Afghan resistance was now broken and the Raja of Chamba who was the greatest of all the rajas
other rebels soon surrendered. The principalities of of the region and, according to Jahangir, his country
Jessore, Sylhet, Cachar and Kamrup were annexed. was “the asylum of all the zamindars (rajas) of the
Thus, Mughal power was firmly entrenched in east region” and that “uptil now he had not obeyed any
Bengal up to the seacoast. To keep the area under king nor sent offerings.”
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The Rebellions of Shah Jahan and the coup the fort of Ranthambhor should be assigned to
de main of Mahabat Khan him for safeguarding his family. The demands were
By 1621, Jahangir was at the height of his not by themselves unreasonable but Jahangir was
power. The various disturbed regions—Mewar, vexed that the delay would mean the Persians
Bengal and the Deccan had been brought largely consolidating their position at Qandahar. A way
could have been found if Jahangir had accepted the
under control. Relations with the Shah of Iran were
suggestion of Khan-i-Jahan Lodi, the governor of
extremely cordial, and there appeared to be no
Multan, to immediately lead an army for the relief of
cloud on the horizon. Jahangir was only fifty-one
Qandahar.That Shah Jahan’s attitude was not straight
years old, and a long era of peace and prosperity
forward is borne out by his sending his agent, Zahid
appeared to lie ahead. But two developments
Beg, with presents to the Shah of Iran, wishing him
completely transformed the picture—the Persian
good luck in his Qandahar enterprise. Shah Jahan
threat to Qandahar, and the worsening health of
had also arranged for a plentiful supply of money
Jahangir which unleashed the latent struggle for
from the rulers of Deccan and the zamindars of
succession among his sons. The death of the capable
Gondwana for his stay at Mandu.
wazir, Itimad-ud-Daula, early in 1622, led to the
jockeying of power among the nobles. All these Acerbic exchange of letters between Jahangir
factors pitchforked Nur Jahan into the political arena. and Shah Jahan worsened the situation. Jahangir
asked Shah Jahan to send to the court the royal
Khurram (Shah Jahan) was the most competent
officers and forces—especially the Saiyids of Barha
and capable of Jahangir’s sons, and by 1619, had
and Bukhara, the Shaikhzadas, the Afghans and
been marked out as the heir apparent. But it seems
Rajputs if he proposed to come after the rains.
that it was being felt that Shah Jahan was becoming
Sazawals or high level messengers were appointed
too powerful. Hence, in the same year, Khusrau was
to induce the commanders to return to Lahore
released from jail, and the mansab of Parwez, the
where Jahangir was staying. Also Shahriyar was
younger brother of Shah Jahan, raised to 20,000.
appointed to lead the army to Qandahar. Jahangir
Shah Jahan’s demand that Khusrau be handed over
passed orders that Shah Jahan’s jagirs in Hissar and
to him before he would move to the Deccan was not
the Doab should pay for the salaries of these soldiers,
liked since he had made such demands earlier. But
and Shah Jahan was asked to choose jagirs of equal
his demand had to be acceded to. As we have seen,
value in the Deccan, Gujarat, Malwa or Khandesh,
as a check on Shah Jahan’s ambition, Ladli Begum,
wherever he wished.
daughter of Nur Jahan from her first husband, Sher
Afghan, was betrothed to prince Shahriyar. Shah A brush with Shah Jahan’s men at Dholpur
Jahan’s rejoinder was to get Khusrau strangled at with Shahriyar’s men to whom this jagir had been
Burhanpur (Feb. 1621), and put out that he had transferred, led to further bitterness. However,
died of colic. Jahangir was not convinced till that time that Shah
The next stage in the drama came with the Jahan meditated rebellion. Hence, orders were
siege of Qandahar by the Safavid, Shah Abbas, in passed that the subahs of Gujarat, Malwa, the Deccan
1622. Jahangir sent urgent summons to Shah Jahan and Khandesh should be handed over to Shah Jahan
who was then in the Deccan to lead the campaign and that he might set up his habitation anywhere
to relieve Qandahar. Shah Jahan was afraid that he liked and “employ himself in the administration
the campaign against Qandahar would be long of these regions”.
and difficult, and that intrigues would be hatched In his defiance of the Emperor, Shah Jahan was
against him when he was away from the court. supported by most of the great amirs posted in the
Hence, he put forward a number of demands—that Deccan, Gujarat and Malwa. He also had the support
he should be allowed to stay at Mandu with his of powerful nobles such as Abdur Rahim Khan-i-
family for the duration of the rains, that when he Khanan and his son, and other noted military leaders
went to Qandahar he should have full command including Rana Karan of Mewar, and Raja Bikramjit
over the army and control of the Punjab, and that Baghela, the victor of Kangra. In the imperial camp,
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he could count on Asaf Khan, the wazir, and Abdullah now wrote beseeching letters, seeking Jahangir’s
Khan Firuz Jung. Above all, he had the seasoned pardon. Jahangir had no desire to drive his most
soldiers of the Deccan campaign at his disposal. competent son to desperation. Hence, Shah Jahan
Convinced of his superiority, and banking on was pardoned. He was asked to send two of his sons,
the illness of Jahangir and the inability of Nur Jahan Dara and Aurangzeb, as hostages. Balaghat was
to bring together sufficient forces to meet him, assigned to him as his jagir. This was early in 1626.
Shah Jahan moved out of Mandu, and decided to Shah Jahan’s rebellion kept the empire
make a sudden attack on Agra which contained the distracted for four years. It resulted in the loss of
remaining boards collected by Akbar. However, Nur Qandahar, and emboldened the Decann is to recover
Jahan had taken energetic action. Parvez was asked all the territories surrendered to the Mughals by
to hurry with his forces from Bihar, the Rajput rulers Malik Ambar in 1620. It also pointed to a basic
of Amber, Marwar, Kota and Bundi were summoned weakness of the system—a successful prince tended
to the support of the throne, and the veteran military to become a rival focus of power, particularly when
leader, Mahabat Khan, was summoned from Kabul it was felt that the monarch was not able or willing
to lead the imperialists. Asaf Khan was sent off to to wield the supreme power himself. Shah Jahan’s
Agra, ostensibly to bring the hoarded treasures to constant charge was that following Jahangir’s failing
Lahore. Jahangir himself, despite his frail health, health, all effective power had slipped into the hands
moved from Lahore to Delhi. of Nur Jahan Begum—a charge which is difficult to
accept since Shah Jahan’s father-in-law, Asaf Khan,
In the battle at Bilochpur near Agra (March,
was the imperial diwan. Also, though in poor health,
1623), Shah Jahan was decisively defeated, despite
Jahangir was still mentally alert and no decisions
the defection of Abdullah Khan Firuz Jung from the
could be taken without his concurrence.
imperialist side. Shah Jahan now became a fugitive,
and more and more nobles and commanders Perhaps, much of the prejudice against Nur
deserted him. Shah Jahan no longer had any hope Jahan, and the charge of meddling in imperial affairs
of success, but he kept the empire distracted for the leading to disaffection and rebellion, reflected the
next three years, moving from one place to another. deep seated anti-feminist bias of many contemporary
First he sought shelter with the ruler of Golconda historians which has often been repeated uncritically
by a number of modern historians.
who entertained him for sometime only on the
promise of his going to Orissa. Entering Orissa, Shah Mahabat Khan’s coup de main
Jahan took the governor of the area by surprise. It Struggle between the members of the royal
was clear that he and other senior officers of the family was an opportunity for ambitious nobles
region had no heart in offering stout opposition to augment their power, position and privileges.
to the prince. It was also an occasion when the old struggle for
Soon, not only Orissa, but Bengal and Bihar power between the monarchy and the nobles could
came under Shah Jahan’s control. Mahabat Khan resurface. The danger of such a development was
was pressed into service again to meet the threat. demonstrated by Mahabat Khan who had taken
He met Shah Jahan at Jhusi, opposite Allahabad. The a leading role in the struggle against Shah Jahan.
rapidly recruited raw troops of Shah Jahan could His powers and position and close association with
not meet the battle hardened, numerically superior Prince Parvez were considered a potential threat
forces of Mahabat Khan. Shah Jahan suffered a by some sections. To begin with, Mahabat Khan
sharp defeat and retreated into the Deccan. He was appointed governor of Bengal, with Khan-i-
found shelter with Malik Ambar who was busy Jahan Lodi replacing him as a guardian of Parvez.
against the Mughals in Ahmadnagar and Berar. Mahabat Khan was asked to render accounts, and
Ambar assigned to Shah Jahan the task of ousting to surrender the war elephants captured by him. A
the Mughals from Burhanpur. But the commandant strong group of Ahadis was sent to bring him to the
of the fort defended it strongly and Shah Jahan court. Mahabat Khan came with a trusted body of
failed twice. Desperate and humbled, Shah Jahan Rajputs and seised the emperor at an opportune
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moment when the royal camp was crossing the river war with Mewar, his generosity in dealing with the
Jhelum on its way to Kabul. Nur Jahan, who had not Afghan and important zamindar rebels of Bengal
been apprehended, escaped across the river but an which enabled Bengal to embark upon a long
assault against Mahabat Khan failed ignominiously. process of renewed development and growth, and
Nur Jahan now tried other ways. She surrendered his policy of consolidating the gains of Akbar in the
herself to Mahabat Khan in order to be close to Deccan yielded results leading to a growing Mughal
Jahangir. Within six months, taking advantage of alliance with Bijapur and the frustration of a policy
the mistakes committed by Mahabat Khan who of confrontation with the Mughals.
was a soldier but not a diplomat or an administrator, Jahangir broadened the Mughal polity by
and due to the growing unpopularity of his Rajput bringing other Rajput rulers more or less on par with
soldiers, Nur Jahan was able to wean away most the Kachhawas. Thus, early in his reign, Rai Rayan
of the nobles from Mahabat Khan’s side. Realising Rai Singh of Bikaner, Raja Sur Singh of Jodhpur (and
his precarious position, Mahabat Khan abandoned following his death, his son Raja Gaj Singh), and Rao
Jahangir and fled from the court. Sometime later, he Karan of Mewar were all granted mansabs of 5000.
joined Shah Jahan who was biding his time. Raja Man Singh held the personal rank of 7000/7000,
The defeat of Mahabat Khan was the greatest but after his death, in 1614-15, his son, Bhao Singh,
victory attained by Nur Jahan, and it was due, in no was granted the title of Mirza Raja and the rank of
small measure, to her cool courage and sagacity. 4000, which was soon raised to 5000.
However, Nur Jahan’s triumph was short-lived, for He also started inducting Afghans, such as
in less than a year’s time, Jahangir breathed his last, Khan-i-Jahan Lodi to high positions, and made a
not far from Lahore (1627). The wily and shrewd Asaf beginning of enrolling into the imperial service a
Khan who had been appointed wakil by Jahangir, number of leading Maratha sardars, such as Kheloji,
and who had been carefully preparing the ground Maloji, Udaiji Ram etc.
for the succession of his son-in-law, Shah Jahan,
In the sphere of religion, which shall be
now came into the open. Supported by the diwan,
reviewed separately, he more or less continued
the chief nobles and the army, he made Nur Jahan
Akbar’s liberal policy, much to the disappointment
a virtual prisoner and sent an urgent summons
of orthodox elements which had wanted the
to Shah Jahan in the Deccan. Shah Jahan reached
restoration of Islam to a position of hegemony.
Agra and was enthroned amidst great rejoicing.
Earlier, at his instance, all his rivals including his Jahangir was an aesthete, and all his works,
imprisoned brother, cousins, etc. were done to death. whether in the field of architecture, or painting or
This precedent and the earlier precedent of a son gardening showed the highest standards. He, thus,
rebelling against his father, which was begun by made the Mughal court, and the emperor personally,
Jahangir and was followed by Shah Jahan, was to the arbiter of standards. He was ably assited in his
lead to bitter consequences for the Mughal dynasty. field by Nur Jahan who had herself a very refined
Shah Jahan himself was to reap the bitter fruits of cultural taste.
what he had sown. As for Nur Jahan, after attaining The cultural role of the Mughal emperor was
the throne, Shah Jahan fixed a settlement upon another device which linked the ruling elites more
her. She lived a retired life till her death, eighteen closely than over to the throne. The concept of
years later. justice to which a great deal of popularity became
attached by use of the bells, also brought the
JAHANGIR AS A RULER monarchy closer to the masses.
The political achievements of Jahangir, and his Like Babur, Jahangir was also very fond of the
role in consolidating the polity bequeathed to him flaura and fauna of the country which he describes
by Akbar is generally underestimated by historians, with the practiced eye of an expert. After describing
and the role of Nur Jahan as a loyal and trusted some of the flowers of Kashmir, he says “The red rose,
consort distorted. Jahangir’s political flexibility which the violet, and the narcissus grow of themselves,”
enabled him bring to an end the long drawn out and adds “I saw several sorts of red roses; one is
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specially sweat-scented, and another is a flower an accompaniment of dance and music. There are
of the colour of sandal (light yellow) and with an frequent references in his memoirs to such parties
exceedingly delicate scent”. He also mentions black to which nobles were invited.
tulips. He asked the court painter Mansur, to paint In the ordinances which Jahangir issued at
some of these flowers. Jahangir gives a long list of the time of his accession, for two days in a week,
birds, including those not found in Kashmir. Thursday, the day of his accession, and Sunday,
The failures of Jahangir took place, after the day of Akbar’s birthday and because “it was
1621, when his health had begun to fail. This was dedicated to the Sun and also the day on which
compounded by the rebellion of Shah Jahan, and creation began” (according to the Christians), there
growing factiousness in the nobility. was to be no killing or slaughter of animals for food.
Shortly, afterwards, in what were called the Ain-i-
State and Religion in the First Half of the Jahangiri or Jahangiri rules, forcible conversion to
17th Century Islam was forbidden.
The liberal character of the state instituted Jahangir’s attitude towards Akbar’s policy of
by Akbar was maintained during the first half of sulh-i-kul, and of giving respect and freedom to
the 17th century, though with a few lapses under all religions is manifest from his memoirs. Praising
Jahangir, and with some modifications by Shah Akbar, he says:
Jahan.
“The professors of various faiths had room in
At the outset of Jahangir’s reign, there was the broad expanse of his innumerable sway. This
an expectation in orthodox circles that Akbar’s was different from the practice of other realms, for
policy of sulh-i-kul and religious eclecticism would in Persia there is room for Shias only, and in Turkey,
be abandoned, and the supremacy of the sharia India and Turan there is room for Sunnis only.” He
restored. The hopes of the orthodox sections were goes on to say how in his dominions “which on all
raised by some actions of Jahangir immediately sides was limited only by the salt sea”, “there was
after his accession. Thus, he had asked the ulama room for the professors of opposite religions, and
and the learned men of Islam to collect distinctive for beliefs, good and bad, and the road to altercation
appellations of God which were easy to remember was closed. Sunnis and Shias met in one mosque,
so that he might repeat them while using his rosary. and the Europeans (Firangi) and Jews in one church,
On Fridays, he associated with learned and pious and observed their own forms of worship”.
men and dervishes and saints. At the Ramzan Id
Not only did Jahangir follow Akbar’s policy of
which followed his first accession, he went to the
sulh-i-kul, he continued Akbar’s policy of enrolling
Idgah, and several lacs of dams were distributed
murids (disciples) and giving each of them a token,
in charity. However, there was nothing unusual in
or shast, and shabi or likeness of the emperor. At
these actions, and the orthodox elements were
the time of initiation, the disciples were advised to
soon disabused of their expectations. Neither by
avoid sectarian quarrels, and to follow the rule of
temperament nor by training was Jahangir orthodox.
universal peace with regard to religion. They were
Apart from his own fondness of drinking—which
also advised not to kill any living creature with
he sometimes carried to excess—he tells us that by
their own hands, honour the luminaries (sun, light

the time of his accession he had reduced his intake
etc.) which are manifestations of God, and to dwell
of wine from twenty cups of double distilled spirit
constantly on God.
(brandy) to five, and that, too, only at night. Jahangir
felt free to invite his nobles and others to join him in However, the devise of discipleship, which was
wine drinking. When he visited the grave of Babur meant to bind the nobles closely with the Emperor,
at Kabul, he found a basin which could contain seems to have fallen into disuse after sometime.
two Hindustani maunds of wine. Jahangir ordered Jahangir also continued to celebrate the
another such a basin to be built, and every day he various Hindu festivals, Diwali, Holi, Dashera,
ordered to fill both the basins with wine and gave it Rakhi, Shivratri etc. at his court. Jahangir himself
to the servants who were present there. There was participated in them, as also many of the nobles.
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We are told that during the celebration of Diwali, them as an orthodox Muslim ruler. Thus, he declared
Jahangir himself took part in a bout of gambling the war against Mewar to be a jihad, although there
that continued for three nights. was little reason for doing so. During the campaign,
Jahangir also banned cow slaughter in the many Hindu temples were destroyed which, again,
Punjab, and perhaps extended it to Gujarat. Nauroz, was uncalled for because Jahangir had instructed
which was an old Central Asian festival as also the Khurram to treat the Rana as a friend if he was
festival of the Parsis, was celebrated for nineteen prepared to submit. Again, in 1621, the Kangra
days with music and festivity. The Christians, too, campaign was declared a jihad, even though it
were allowed to celebrate Easter, Christmas and was commanded by a Hindu, Raja Bikrmajit. As
other festivals. These practices were a public we have noted, in the presence of theologians a
declaration of a polity of religious freedom to all. bullock was slaughtered in the fort and a mosque
They also provided opportunity for greater social ordered to be erected. From Kangra, Jahangir went
interaction between the ruler and his officials with to the Durga temple at Jwalamukhi. He found that
people of various religious persuations. apart from “infidels whose custom is the worship
of idols, crowds on crowds of the people of Islam,
The position regarding religious freedom
traversing long distances, bring their offerings, and
is set out clearly in one of the early drafts of the
pray to the black (stone) imagine”. No attempt was
Tuzuk where Jahangir says,“I ordered that with this
made to put a stop to this practice. Earlier, while
exception (prohibition of forcible sati), they (the
visiting Pushkar, Jahangir was shocked to find that
Hindus) may follow whatever is their prescribed
the Hindus worshipped Vishnu in the form of a
custom, and none should exercise force or
varaha (boar). He ordered the image to be broken
compulsion or oppression over anyone.”
noting that the Hindu theory of incarnation in ten
There was no ban on the Hindus building forms was not acceptable to him since God could
new temples. Apart from Bir Singh Deo Bundela not be limited in this way. However, none of the other
building a magnificient temple at Mathura, a large temples dedicated to Vishnu were harmed. At Ajmer,
number of new temples were built at Banaras. The Jahangir granted madadd-i-maash in the entire
Christians too, were given land and permission to village of Pushkar to the brahmans of that place.
build churches.
In 1617, Jahangir issued an order in Gujarat that
Jahangir continued Akbar’s policy of giving the all Jain temples should be closed and the Jain
gifts and grants to brahmans and temples. In his saints expelled from the empire because of moral
first Regnal year (1605-06), when marching against reasons: wives and daughters of the devotees visited
Khusrau, he distributed large sums of money to the Jain saints at the temples where they lived. But
faqirs and brahmans. Documents in the possession this order does not seem to have been implemented
of the Vrindavan temples of the Chaitanya sect show because we have inscriptional evidence from Gujarat
how Jahangir went on adding grants to the temples supported by Jain sources that during the period
and their votaries. Thus, between 1612-15, he made when the order was issued, Jahangir continued to
at least five grants to the followers of Chaitanya at have good relations with Jain saints and also gave
Vrindavan. liberal grants for the construction of Jain temples.
In 1621, when going to Kangra, Jahangir There has been a good deal of controversy
went via Haridwar which, he noted, was “one of about Jahangir’s attitude towards the Sikhs, and
the established place of worship of the Hindus his dealing with the Sikh Guru Arjan Dev. In his
where brahmans and recluses retire in lovely places memoirs, Jahangir notes that at Gobindwal on the
to worship God in their own way”. He gave gifts in river Beas, Guru Arjan Dev “posing as a religious
cash and in kind to many of them. guide and instructor” had enrolled as his followers
Despite his liberalism, there were occasions a large number of Hindus and Muslims, that “They
when Jahangir displayed a narrow spirit, perhaps out called him Guru, and from all sides came to him
of a desire to please the orthodox clerical elements and expressed their absolute faith in him.” He goes
who were powerful, or out of a desire to be seen by on to say that this had continued for three or four
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generations. Denouncing the followers of the Guru Like Akbar, Jahangir was always eager to visit
as “fools and fraud-believers,” Jahangir declares that and to discourse with dervishes, saints and religious
“Many times it occurred to me to put a stop to this thinkers of various kinds, and to make grants to
vain affair or to bring him into the assembly of the them. In 1613, Jahangir had started the custom
people of Islam.” that deserving people and dervishes were brought
This statement occurs almost immediately after before him every night so that, after personal enquiry
Jahangir’s accession, and in the context of Khusrau’s into their condition, land or gold or clothes were
rebellion. It is not clear when precisely Jahangir had bestowed on them. There is no reason to believe
contemplated taking action against the Sikhs. If it that these were confined to Muslims.
was during Akbar’s reign, it is well-known that Akbar Jahangir continued Akbar’s practice of inviting
had favoured Guru Angad and Guru Ramdas, and religious divines for personal discussions. It seems
given them a grant of five hundred bighas of land that Jahangir’s main area of religious interest was
and a pond around which the Harmandir and the city monotheism. It was this which made him seek the
of Amritsar grew. If after accession, the period had company of Mian Mir, the famous Qadri sufi of Lahore
to be very brief because Khusrau rebelled barely six and a friend of Guru Arjan Dev. Jahangir was also
months after his accession. Thus, this again appears devoted to Muinuddin Chishti, the patron saint of the
to be an attempt on Jahangir’s part of trying to Mughals. In 1613, when he visited Ajmer, he walked
please the orthodox sections. on foot for a kos before entering the shrine. He was
It is clear that Jahangir took no action against hostile to Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi who denounced
the Sikhs as such, but only against Guru Arjan Dev wahdat-al-wajud or monotheism. As Jahangir says,
on a charge that he had blessed Khusrau by putting he kept him for sometime in “the prison of correction
a tika on his head, and by giving him some money. until the heat of his temperament and the confusion
According to Jahangir’s lights, this was the reason. in his brain were somewhat quenched, and the
He, therefore, summoned him, handed over his excitement of the people should also subside”. The
houses, dwelling places and children to Murtaza greatest satisfaction Jahangir found was among
Khan who was like a kotwal, confiscated the Guru’s votaries of Vedant which he calls “the science of
tasawwuf". In this search, he met Jadrup Gosain
property and commanded that he should be put
at Ujjain in the eleventh year of his reign (1616).
to death.
During the next three years, he met Jadrup seven
It has been argues on the basis of Jesuit and times. Jadrup lived in a hole on the side of a hill
other evidence, including Sikh traditions, that which had been dug out and a door made. Hearing
Jahangir had not ordered the Guru’s execution of his reputation, Jahangir wanted to call him to
but only imposed a heavy fine on him which he Agra, but did not do so on account of the trouble
refused to pay, and that it was due to the tortures it would cause him. Jahangir went one-eighth of
inflicted on him to realize the fine that he dies. a kos or two and a half furlong on foot to see him.
However, this does not exonerate Jahangir from Jadrup made a great impression on Jahangir by his
the charge of awarding excessive punishment to a knowledge and simplicity. Jahangir says “he (Jadrup)
highly respected saint for an inadvertent mistake. His had thoroughly mastered the science of Vedanta”,
action in imprisoning the Guru’s son and successor, and “God Almighty has given him unusual grace, a
Guru Hargovind, five years later for realising the lofty understanding, an exalted nature and sharp
arrears of the fine, and keeping him in prison for intellectual power”.He was free from the attachment
two years, appears even less defensible. of the world, so that “putting behind him the world
It has been pointed out that Jahangir punished and all that was in it, he sits content in solitude
not only the Sikh Guru for taken support to and without want”. Subsequently, Jadrup shifted to
Khusrau but a sufi, Shaikh Nizam Thanesari, who Mathura where Jahangir visited him twice. When
had accompanied Khusrau for some distance. Hakim Beg, brother-in-law of Nur Jahan, who held
However, he was only banished to Mecca, and his charge of Mathura, ill-treated, Jadrup, Jahangir
road expenses paid. dismissed him from service.
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We do not know much about Jahangir’s death. After an enquiry, one of his attendants was
personal religious beliefs. He remained within the found guilty for the outrage. He was put to death,
framework of Islam, but had a good knowledge of the mansab of Muqarrab Khan reduced by half, and
other religions, especially Hinduism and Christianity. he was made to make an allowance to the widow.
Though continuing to follow many Hindu practices However, despite his benevolence, the Mughal
which had become common in India, he specifically emperor remained a despot. Thus, Jahangir had no
rejected idol worship and, as we have seen, the compunction in summarily executing a groom, and
theory of incarnation. stringing two kahars (water carriers) whose sudden
Jahangir had a very exalted opinion of kingly appearance had enabled a nilgai which Jahangir
duties. Echoing Abul Fazl, he says that the just creator was hunting to get away.
bestows sovereignty on him whom he considers fit Liberalism and autocratic benevolence were
for this glorious and exalted duty. It was, therefore, underpinned by a policy of cultural pluralism,
futile for the seditious and the short-sighted to try enabling people of all religions and regions to
and deprive crown and dominion from one chosen contribute. These included not only architecture
by God, the Crown-cherisher. and gardening, but music, painting, literature etc.
For Jahangir, the state was not only to be a The work of making Persian translations of Hindu
liberal institution but to be marked by benevolence religious works, such as the Ramayana, continued.
and justice. The benevolent aspect was emphasised Court patronage was also given to Hindi poets.
by Jahangir in the Twelve Edicts issued by him after The new spirit was reflected in the Hindi poems of
his accession. Thus, road and river cesses imposed Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan in which verses on niti
by the jagirdars for their own profit were abolished; or polity was taken up, along with a strong lyrical
the local officials were not to open the bales of sense of devotion to God in his various incarnations,
merchants on the roads without informing them especially Krishna.
and obtaining their permission; if anyone, whether
unbeliever or a Muslim should die, his property and SHAH JAHAN—CONSOLIDATION AND
effects should be left to his heirs, and if they had no EXPANSION OF THE EMPIRE
heirs, to utilize the proceeds for building mosques, After his accession in 1627, Shah Jahan
sarais, repair of broken bridges, and digging of tanks embarked on a vigorous policy of expansion and
and wells, i.e. works of public benefit. To improve consolidation in order to overcome the distractions
facilities for the merchants, jagirdars and officials of caused by his own rebellion and the failing health
the khalisa were asked to build sarais. Local officials of Jahangir. The first matter to engage his attention
were also told not to take possession of any person’s was the Deccan where all the gains made under
house; and not to take forcible possession of the Jahangir, upto 1621, had been lost. We have already
raiyat’s lands to cultivate them on their own account. discussed Shah Jahan’s Deccan policy, leading to
Hospitals were to be founded in great cities, and the treaties of 1636 with Bijapur and Golconda,
doctors appointed, the expenditure to be met from and the renewed conflict with them towards the
the khalisa establishment. Jahangir also repeated end of his reign.
Akbar’s orders forbidding the cutting off the nose As a result of Mughal expansion in the Deccan,
or ears of anyone as a punishment. the Mughal position in Bundelkhand and Gondwana
Jahangir’s chain of justice is too well-known in modern Central India was strengthened. The
to be repeated here. Only one instance of Jahangir’s most powerful ruler in the area was Bir Singh Deo
emphasis on justice irrespective of one’s position Bundela. In 1628-29, an army had been sent against
may be mentioned. A widow complained that Jujhar Singh, son of Bir Singh Deo Bundela (d. 1627)
Muqarrab Khan, governor of Gujarat, had taken who had been a favourite of Jahangir. With the fall
her daughter by force at Cambay, and kept her in of the powerful fort of Irij, Jujhar Singh surrendered.
his own house, and when she enquired about the He paid rupees fifteen lakhs and forty elephants
girl, he said that she had died by an unavoidable as indemnity. His original rank of 4000/4000 was
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restored, though some of his jagirs were confiscated. Ujjainiya zamindar near Buxar; the zamindar of
He was required to serve in the Deccan with 2000 Ratanpur in modern Jharkhand, the zamindar of
horses, and 2000 infantry. Palamau etc. were subdued and fleeced.
By 1634, Jujhar Singh returned, leaving his son Shah Jahan also forced the rajas of Kumaon
to deputise for him in the Deccan. He embarked and of Garhwal to accept Mughal overlordship
upon a career of conquest at the expense of the (1654, 1656), an earlier Mughal attempt to capture
Gonds of the Gondwana region. He attacked Prem Srinagar, the capital of Garhwal, having failed.
Narayan, the Gond ruler of Chauragarh. Prem Jagat Singh, son of Raja Basu of Mau Nurpur in
Narayan had to vacate his fort after the Mughals the Punjab hills near Chamba, had been a favourite
refused to respond to his plea for help. He was of Jahangir, both father and son having performed
treacherously attacked and killed by Jujhar Singh, useful service, and been appointed faujdar of Kangra.
violating his own promise of safe conduct. Jujhar They incurred Shah Jahan’s displeasure. However,
Singh seised all the hoarded wealth of the Gond unlike Bundelkhand, it did not attract imperial
ruler. Prem Narayan’s son appealed to Mahabat Khan rapacity. Hence, after some hard fighting and after
in Malwa. Negotiations now began between Shah destroying a number of his forts, Jagat Singh was
Jahan and Jujhar Singh. Shah Jahan’s main attempt restored to his imperial mansab. The overall lesson
was to get as much as possible from the hoard of was that in the new setup, even zamindars who had
Prem Narayan, and compensation for the territory served the Mughal emperor earlier, would have to
gained by the Bundela ruler. be more submissive.
Thus, Jujhar Singh was at first asked to More significant was the Mughal attempt to
surrender the territories he had conquered in bring under control the Baltistan area in Kashmir,
Gondwana. Once Mughal military preparations were then known as Greater Tibet (Ladakh being called
complete, Shah Jahan demanded sarkar Biyanwan in the Little Tibet). In 1634, and again in 1637, imperial
place of Chauragarh, and a fine of thirty lakhs. After forces attacked its ruler, Abdal, penetrated upto his
the Mughal campaign, and the killing of Jujhar Singh capital, Skardu, and forced him to submit, and pay
by the Gonds while he was in flight, a portion of the an indemnity of ten lakhs. That the Mughals could
Orchha kingdom was granted to Raja Debi Singh, operate in these difficult and remote areas showed
whose family had been superseded by Jahangir the highest degree of devotion to service which had
earlier while giving tika to Bir Singh Deo. To exclude been instilled into the Mughal commanders and
for all times the claims of Jujhar Singh’s family to troops by this time. The operation was obviously
the gaddi, his sons and grandsons were converted aimed at bringing more closely under imperial
to Islam. control the trade route to Yarkand, Khotan etc.
Thus, Shah Jahan’s Bundela policy was basically Shah Jahan’s attempt to bring the coastal
one of imperial aggrandizement. In order to present areas of East Bengal seem to have some economic
it as a victory of Islam, the maginificent temple built overtones also. Although the Mughals had, under
at Orchha by Bir Singh Deo was demolished, and a Jahangir, captured Jessore and Bakla, the two coastal
mosque erected at its place. districts, they had not been able to revive trade and
Shah Jahan also took action against Rana Raj agriculture of the area due to the piratical activities
Singh of Mewar for refortifying Chittor. We shall of the Portuguese and the Arakanese. Apart from
discuss the significance of this move in the context carrying on trade, the Portuguese raided the coastal
of Aurangzeb’s later breach with the Rajputs. towns and villages, took captives, sold them and
The growing power of the Mughal state was converted many to Christianity.
also reflected in operations against a number of The main Portuguese center was at Hugli and
other zamindars who were wealthy, but had so there had been many complaints against them.
far paid only formal respect to the Mughal power. This was the background to Shah Jahan’s attack
Thus, Kipa of Chanda, called the chief zamindar on Hugli in 1632. The Portuguese fought well, but
of Gondwana, was made to pay eight lakhs; the were no match for the Mughal army. With the fall
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of Hugli, the coastal area upto the sea was freed period of 28 years. The annual cost works out at
of pirates. The Mughal treatment of the captured

10,32,143. According to a recent estimate, 82.9

Portuguese prisoners was very cruel and can hardly percent of the imperial income was assigned as
be justified. They were given the choice of Islam on jagirs. Of the remaining 17 percent, Shah Jahan had
imprisonment, and many of them languished in jail fixed, according to the official historian, Qazwini,
for long periods on their refusal to convert. the Khalisa or imperial establishment at 60 crore
Attempts were also made by Shah Jahan to dams ( 150 lakhs) annually. Out of this, the annual

strengthen the Mughal hold on Sindh, and the lower expenditure varied from 199 to 120 lakhs, Thus,

Indus. For the purpose, campaigns were launched the annual cost of building amounts to 10.33 percent
against the tribals who preyed on trade, and imperial of the annual khalisa expenditure, or 6.45 percent of
thanas were set up. the annual khalisa income as reported by Qazwini.
We may thus conclude:
Apart from these military activities, the power,
wealth and majesty of the Mughal state was sought “The cost of building construction represented
to be demonstrated by the Peacock Throne (takht-i- a significant share of expenditure from the khalisa
taus), the building of the Taj Mahal at Agra, and the under Shahjahan. It does not, however, seem to have
foundation of a new imperial capital at Delhi. The been so excessive as to set a heavy drain on imperial
Peacock Throne struck all the visitors of the time, finance, or to interfere with military expenditure”.
many of whom have described it. We are told by (Shireen Moosvi)
the contemporary historian, Lahori, that out of the Shah Jahan’s Religious Policy
existing jewels in the imperial jewel house, selected There has been a controversy whether Shah
jewels worth eighty-six lakhs of rupees, and pure Jahan continued the liberal policies of Akbar with
gold of one lakh tolas, then worth fourteen lakhs some change in form, or whether he was “orthodox
of rupees, were handed over to the superintendent in his leanings as well as his beliefs and he took
of the goldsmith’s department. The outside of the some measures to show that orthodoxy was back
canopy was to be of enamel work, with occasional in power”. (I.H. Qureshi). Thus, he exempted the
gems, the inside was to be thickly set with rubies, theologians from sijda or zaminbos, the former
garnets and other jewels and it was to be supported implying prostration before the ruler, and the latter
by twelve emerald columns. On top of each pillar putting both the hands on the ground and touching
there were to be two peacocks thick set with gems, them to the forehead. It might be mentioned that
and between each two peacocks a tree with rubies Jahangir had also exempted the high theologians
and diamonds, emeralds and pearls. from sijda. Shah Jahan banned mixed marriages
The throne, which was three yards in length, between Hindus and Muslims in Kashmir which
two and a half in breadth, and five in height took had implied that Muslim girls embraced the religion
seven years to complete, and Shah Jahan sat upon of their Hindu husbands, and vice versa. Earlier,
it for the first time in 1635. Jahangir had also banned this practice, but was
The Taj Mahal, built in memory of Mumtaz unable to stop it.
Mahal, the favourite consort of Shah Jahan, who Perhaps, the most significant step taken by
died in childbirth in 1630, was built over twelve Shah Jahan was that in the Sixth Regnal year (1633),
years at a cost of rupees fifty lakhs which was a big he ordered that no temple whose foundation had
sum for those days. The new city of Delhi, called been laid in Jahangir’s time but had not been
Shahjahanabad, which was commenced in 1638, completed would be allowed to be completed.
took almost ten years to complete and cost rupees Accordingly, 76 temples begun at Banaras were
sixty lakhs. A modern historian, Shirin Moosvi, has destroyed. Temples and churches were also
calculated that all the buildings and gardens of destroyed during the wars. Thus, during the Bundela
Shah Jahan, including renovations carried out in rebellion, Bir Singh Deo’s temple at Orchha was
the Lahore and Agra forts, and the mausoleum destroyed and a mosque built in its place. Christian
of Jahangir, cost a little over 289 lakhs over a

churches at Hugli were destroyed during the clash
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with the Portuguese there. However, it does not Shah Jahan came into conflict with the Sikh
seem that Shah Jahan tried to implement seriously Guru, Hargovind, culminating in a furious battle at
the policy of not allowing new temples to be built. Kartarpur (1631), after which the Guru retreated to
Thus, in 1629, he granted land to Shantidas, the the Kashmir hills.
leading Jain jeweler and banker at Ahmadabad, The Muslim orthodox sections rallied under
to build a resting place (poshala) for Jain saints. Shaikh Abdul Haq of Delhi and Shaikh Ahmad
Shantidas also built a beautiful Jain temple near Sirhindi who was hailed as Mujaddid or renovator
Ahmadabad to which no objection was made. In during the second millennium of Islam. Both of them
1654, when Aurangzeb was the governor of Gujarat, were profound scholars of Muslim jurisprudence,
he converted this temple into a mosque by building theology etc., and laid great emphasis on the strict
a mihrab (niche) for prayer inside it. implementation of the sharia. The point to note here
This was part of Aurangzeb’s policy of breaking is that both of them had a political agenda which
newly built temples in Gujarat. However, on a they tried to implement by winning over the leading
complain from Shantidas, and a ruling from the nobles to their side by writing letters to them. They
noted scholar Mulla Abdul Hakim that Aurangzeb also enrolled students in their seminaries. From an
had flagrantly violated the Sharia by usurping analysis of their letters, it would appear that their
Shantidas’s property, and that, in consequence, the main demands were:
mosque had no sanctity, Shah Jahan ordered the 1. The humiliation of the Hindus which implied
mihrab to be blocked up, and the temple restored breaking of temples, having no social
to Shantidas. The imperial farman also commanded intercourse with them and denying them
that any material taken from the temple should be public service, and if that was inescapable,
restored and compensation paid for any material not to trust them.
lost. Likewise, the magnificent temple built at
Mathura by Bir Singh Deo Bundela during the reign 2. Revival of the jizyah which was the mark of
of Jahangir was not interfered with. the superiority of the Muslims, and was meant
to humiliate the kafirs, and
That Shah Jahan’s ban on new temples was
only a token is conceded by I.H. Qureshi, a leading 3. Exclusion of all practices, which were bidat
historian in Pakistan, saying that the measure was i.e. not strictly within the ambit of the sharia,
“more an assertion of a principle than an effective where they applied to culture (ban on music
measure (it) was more an effective declaration and painting), morality (ban on wine etc.) or
that Islam would again be treated as the dominant social practices (tuladan, jharoka darshan etc.)
religion than an attempt at the suppression of Like Jahangir, Shah Jahan also rejected almost
Hinduism.” all these demands. Even the ban on construction
It has been argued that the building of many of new temples was not implemented strictly, as
magnificient mosques, including the Jama Masjid Aurangzeb found when he was governor of Gujarat.
at Delhi, and the Taj Mahal at Agra, which was The liberal elements came together under the
supposed to replicate the Muslim idea of paradise, slogan of wahdat-al-wajud or monism. The Chisti
also demonstrate Shah Jahan’s new emphasis on the saints, and the Qadiri saint Mian Mir of Lahore, who
power and majesty of Islam. The building of such was backed and supported by Dara and Jahanara,
mosques was not unusual. That broad tolerance led this trend. Shah Jahan did not join either of these
continued was also evident from his confirmation trends, even though some contemporary historians
of the grants given to the Vaishnava temples at gave him the title of mujadid or renovator of Islam.
Vrindavan. Even more significant was his order that Nor did the nobles, as a whole, join either the liberal
the time-gong at the temple may be permitted to be or the orthodox group, remaining eclectic in their
sounded since “a large number of God worshiping approach.
Hindu mendicants are engaged in divine worship We may conclude that Shah Jahan tried to
according to their own religion and custom”. This effect a compromise. While formally declaring the
was an affirmation of Akbar’s policy of sulh-i-kul. state to be an Islamic one, showing respect to the
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sharia, and observing its injunctions in his personal There were no clear traditions of succession
life, he did not reject any of the liberal measures of among the Hindus either. Right from the time of
Akbar, such as jharoka darshan, weighing himself for the Buddha when Ajatshatru had displaced and
gifts (tula dan), etc. Like all the compromises, Shah imprisoned his father, and later during Ashoka
Jahan’s compromise was based not on principle but Maurya’s struggle against his brothers succession
on expediency. As such, it satisfied no party, and had been dependent on military strength. This had
the orthodox elements, feeling themselves to be also been the tradition of the Rashtrakutas, and later
stronger than before, continued the demand of a of the Rajputs. Thus, Sanga had to wage a bitter
state based on a strict implementation of the sharia. struggle with his brothers before he could assert
his claim to the gaddi.
War of Succession
Shah Jahan who had been residing in the
Shah Jahan was fortunate in having four
new city of Shahjahanabad or Delhi which he
sons, all born of his cherished wife, Mumtaz Mahal,
who grew up to capable, hard working and free of had recently constructed, was taken ill with
the Mughal vice of drunkenness. They were given stranguary in September 1657. For sometime, his
administrative responsibilities and high mansabs life was despaired of, but he rallied and gradually,
as they grew up. Shuja, the second eldest, was recovered his strength under the loving care of
appointed governor of Bengal in 1637, and kept Dara. Meanwhile, all kinds of rumours had gained
good control over that turbulent province for currency. It was said that Shah Jahan had already
the next two decades. The youngest, Murad, was died, and Dara was concealing the reality to serve
appointed governor of Gujarat to which Malwa was his own purposes. In December 1657, Shah Jahan
added later on. Aurangzeb was appointed viceroy of was well enough to slowly make his way to Agra.
the Deccan, in 1636, at the young age of eighteen, Meanwhile, the Princes, Shuja in Bengal, Murad in
and held it for the next six years. He was appointed Gujarat and Aurangzeb in the Deccan, had either
viceroy of the Deccan again in 1652. The eldest, Dara, been persuaded that these rumours were true, or
was appointed governor of Allahabad and then of pretended to believe them, and made preparations
Lahore. But he was his father’s favourite, and most for the inevitable war of succession.
of the time, he remained with him at the court. This Shah Jahan had long considered Dara as his
led to resentment against him by the other three
rightful successor. As early as 1654, he had been
brothers who gradually came together in a kind of
given the title of Sultan Buland Iqbal, given a
a coalition which turned against Dara. Thus, in 1652,
golden chair next to the throne, and his mansab
Shuja betrothed his daughter to Aurangzeb’s eldest
son, Sultan Muhammad, and Aurangzeb promised raised progressively till, in 1658, he received the
his daughter to Shuja’s son. Murad also became unprecedented rank of 60,000 zat, 40,000 sawar (of
friendly with Aurangzeb. which 30,000 were du-aspa sih-aspa). Dara was also
nominated as his successor (wali ahd), and the nobles
The very capacity of the princes made the
were asked to obey him as their future sovereign. But
problem of succession more difficult, and threatened
these actions, far from ensuring a smooth succession
to make it long and bloody. There was no clear
tradition of succession among the Muslims. While as Shah Jahan had hoped, convinced the other
the consent of the people had been asserted at the princes of Shah Jahan’s partiality to Dara. It thus
beginning, the right of nomination of a successor strengthened their resolve of making a bid for the
by a successful ruler had come slowly to prevail, throne.
and even accepted by some political thinkers. The conflict between Dara, his father’s favourite,
However, no special rights had been given to the and Aurangzeb the most energetic of Shah Jahan’s
eldest born. The Timurid tradition of partitioning sons, was heightened by Aurangzeb’s suspicion
had not been accepted in India, though it kept on that Dara had consistently used his influence with
raising its head. In the ultimate resort, connections Shah Jahan to try to humiliate and thwart him.
among the powerful military leaders, and military Thus, when Aurangzeb was transferred to the
strength and capacity had become the real arbiters. Deccan from Multan and Sindh after the failure
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of his two campaigns against Qandahar, his jagirs and holding out favours to them. Thus, Aurangzeb
were also transferred a big loss. The Deccan was had been in contact with Jai Singh at least since
also a chronically deficit area. In consequence, the 1636. In a letter to Jai Singh, dated 1647, Aurangzeb
expenses of its government had to be made up acknowledges the Raja’s allegiance to him, though
by cash subsidies from Malwa and Gujarat. Shah outwardly inclined towards Shuja.
Jahan’s constant refrain was that the deficit should On hearing the military preparations of Shuja,
be met by expanding and improving cultivation. Murad and Aurangzeb, and their decision to march
Aurangzeb tried to do so with the help of Murshid to Agra, on the ostensible pretext of visiting their
Quli Khan who was the diwan of the Deccan. But father and freeing him from the control of the
Shah Jahan was impatient, and unfairly accused ‘heretical’ Dara, Shah jahan, at the instance of Dara,
Aurangzeb of negligence and incompetence. He sent an army to the east, led by Dara’s eldest son
accused him of appropriating the most productive Sulaiman Shikoh and aided by Mirza Raj Jai Singh, to
villages in the jagirs allotted to the nobles posted deal with Shuja who had crowned himself. Another
there. Matters reached such a pitch that Shah Jahan army was sent to Malwa under Raja Jaswant Singh to
even accused Aurangzeb of keeping for himself most persuade Murad, who was advancing from Gujarat
of the mangoes from one of Shah Jahan’s favourite after crowning himself to turn back. However, on
mango tree at Burhanpur. arrival at Dharmat in Malwa, Jaswant Singh found
In order to meet his financial difficulties, that the forces of Murad and Aurangzeb had joined.
Aurangzeb tried to persuade Shah Jahan to permit Jaswant Singh had not clear instructions how to deal
attacking Golconda and Bijapur, both for getting with this situation. The two princes asked him to
a part of the treasures they had gathered during stand aside and let them proceed to Agra. Although
their campaigns in the Karnataka, and to gain for a mere noble to fight princes of blood was against
more territory. Aurangzeb felt cheated when Shah
etiquette, and the combined forces of the two
Jahan entered into a compromise with Bijapur and
princes were superior, Jaswant considered retreat
Golconda, whereas Aurangzeb felt he was on the
to be dishonourable. The victory of Aurangzeb at
verge of total victory. In both cases, he accused
Dara of intervention, and of having been bribed by Dharmat (15 April 1658) emboldened his supporters
the Deccani rulers. However, Shah Jahan was in full and raised his prestige, while it dispirited Dara and
control at the time, and there is no reason to believe his supporters.
that he acted primarily at Dara’s instance. Meanwhile, Dara made a serious mistake.
The character and outlook of Dara and Overconfident of the strength of his position, he
Aurangzeb were very dissimilar. Dara constantly had assigned for the eastern campaign some of
associated with liberal sufi and Bhakti saints, and was his best troops. Thus, he denuded the capital, Agra.
deeply interested in the question of monotheism. He Led by Sulaiman Shikoh, the army moved to the
had studied the testaments, and the Vedas, and was east and gave a good account of itself. It surprised
convinced that the Vedas supplemented the Quran and defeated Shuja near Banaras (February 1658).
in the understanding of monotheism. On the other It then decided to pursue him into Bihar as if the
hand, Aurangzeb was devoted to the study of the
issue at Agra had been already decided. After the

Quran and the hagiological literature, and was strict defeat of Jaswant Singh at Dharmat, express letters
in the observance of the various religious rituals.
were sent to these forces to hurry back to Agra.
Dara called Aurangzeb a hypocrite, and Aurangzeb
After patching up a hurried treaty (7 May 1658),
called Dara a heretic. But it would be wrong to think
Sulaiman Shikoh started his march to Agra from
that the difference of outlook between the two led
to a division of the nobility into two camps, liberal his camp near Monghyr in eastern Bihar. But it was
and orthodox. The nobles acted on the basis of their hardly likely that he could return to Agra in time for
personal contacts, interests etc. On their part, the the likely conflict with Aurangzeb.
princes tried to win over the influential nobles and After Dharmat, Dara made frantic efforts to
rajas to their side by establishing personal linkages seek allies. He sent repeated letters to Jaswant Singh,
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who had retired to Jodhpur. The Rana of Udaipur Contemporary correspondence including the
was also approached. Jaswant Singh moved out letters of Aurangzeb show that though Jahanara
tardily to Pushkar near Ajmer. After raising an army was close to Dara in his religious quest and shared
with the money provided by Dara, he waited there his eclectic outlook, she did not close her doors to
for the Rana to join him. But the Rana had already her other brothers. Since she was considered to be
been won over by Aurangzeb. Thus, Dara failed to close to Shah Jahan, the various princes, including
win over even the important Rajput rajas to his side. Aurangzeb, wrote to her, seeking her support and
The battle of Samugarh (29 May 1658) was intermission with the Emperor on their behalf, and
basically a battle of good generalship, the sides on many occasions, she helped them.
being almost equally matched in numbers (about After the defeat and flight of Dara, Shah Jahan
50,000 to 60,000 on each side). In the field, Dara was was besieged in the fort of Agra. Aurangzeb forced
no match for Aurangzeb. The Hada Rajputs and the Shah Jahan into surrender by seising the source of
Saiyids of Barha, upon whom Dara largely depended, water supply to the fort. Shah Jahan was confined
could not make up for the weakness of the rest of to the female apartments in the fort and strictly
the hastily recruited army. Aurangzeb’s troops were supervised, though he was not ill-treated. There
battle hardened and well led. he lived for eight long years, lovingly nursed by his
Not only was Dara no match for Aurangzeb favourite daughter, Jahanara, who voluntarily chose
as a general, he had become arrogant and too self- to live within the fort. She reemerged into public
confident of himself. Thus, he failed to win over the life after Shah Jahan’s death and was accorded great
nobles in general to his side. Nor was he prepared honour by Aurangzeb who visited her regularly,
to need to the advice of others more capable than and restored her to the position of the first lady of
him. It was a fatal error while Shah Jahan was still the realm. He also raised her annual pension from
the reigning sovereign, and had been advised that twelve lakh rupees to seventeen lakhs.
he should himself meet Aurangzeb on the field of According to the terms of Aurangzeb’s
battle if he refused to recant. agreement with Murad, the kingdom was to be
The war between Aurangzeb and Dara was partitioned between the two, with Murad ruling
not between religious orthodoxy on one hand, and Punjab, Kabul, Kashmir and Sindh. But Aurangzeb
liberalism on the other. Both Muslims and Hindu had no intention of sharing the empire. Hence, he
nobles were equally divided in their support to treacherously imprisoned Murad and sent him to
the two rivals. We have already seen the attitude the Gwaliyar jail. He was killed two years later.
of the leading Rajput rajas. Similarly, Shiahs were After losing the battle at Samugarh, Dara had
almost equally divided between Aurangzeb and fled to Lahore and was planning to retain control of
Dara. A recent study shows that among nobles its surrounding areas. But Aurangzeb soon arrived
of 1000 zat rank and above, upto the battles of in the neighbourhood, leading a strong army. Dara’s
Samugarh, 27 Iranis supported Aurangzeb, and 23 courage failed him. He abandoned Lahore without
of them sided with Dara. In this conflict, as in so a fight and fled to Sindh. Thus, he virtually sealed his
many others, the attitude of the nobles depended fate. Although the civil war was dragged for more
upon their personal interests and their association than two years, its outcome was hardly in doubt.
with individual princes. Dara’s move from Sindh into Gujarat and then into
There is little reason to accept the widespread Ajmer on an invitation from Jaswant Singh, the
belief that like the nobles, members of the royal ruler of Marwar, and the subsequent treachery of
family were also divided in their support to the the latter are too well-known. The battle of Deorai
various contending princes, princess Jahanara near Ajmer (March 1659) was the last major battle
being a partisan of Dara, Rausharara a supporter Dara fought against Aurangzeb. Dara might well
of Aurangzeb, and Gauharara a spy for Murad. have escaped into Iran, but he wanted to try his luck
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again in Afghanistan. On the way, in the Bolan Pass, a AURANGZEB’S REIGN AND HIS
treacherous Afghan chief made him a prisoner and RELIGIOUS POLICIES
handed him over to his dreaded enemy. A panel of
jurists decreed that Dara could not be suffered to
live “out of necessity to protect the faith and holy
law, and also for reasons of state, (and) as a destroyer
of the public peace.” This is typical of the manner
in which Aurangzeb used religion as a cloak for his
political motives. Two years after Dara’s execution,
his son, Sulaiman Shikoh, who had sought shelter
with the ruler of Garhwal was handed over by him
to Aurangzeb on an imminent threat of invasion. He
soon suffered the same fate as his father.
Earlier, Aurangzeb had defeated Shuja at
Khajwah, near Allahabad (December 1658). Further
campaigning against him was entrusted to Mir
Jumla, who steadily exerted pressure till Shuja was
hounded out of India into Arakan (April 1669). Soon
Aurangzeb ruled for almost 50 years. During his
afterwards, he and his family met a dishonourable long reign, the Mughal empire reached its territorial
death at the hands of the Arakanese on a charge climax. At its height, it stretched from Kashmir in the
of fomenting rebellion. north to Jinji in the south, and from the Hindukush in
The civil war which kept the empire distracted the west to Chittagong in the east. Aurangzeb proved
for more than two years showed that neither to be a hard working ruler, and never spared himself
nomination by the ruler, nor plans of division of the or his subordinates in the tasks of government. His
empire were likely to be accepted by the contenders letters show the close attention he paid to all affairs
of state. He was a strict disciplinarian who did not
for the throne. Military force became the only arbiter
spare his own sons. In 1686, he imprisoned prince
for succession and the civil wars became steadily
Muazzam on a charge of intriguing with the ruler of
more destructive. After being seated securely on the Golconda, and kept him in prison for 12 long years.
throne, Aurangzeb tried to mitigate, to some extent, His other sons also had to face his wrath on various
the effects of the harsh Mughal custom of war unto occasions. Such was the awe of Aurangzeb that even
death between brothers. At the instance of Jahanara late in his life, when Muazzam was governor of Kabul,
Begum, Sipihr Shikoh, son of Dara, was released from he trembled every time he received a letter from
prison in 1671, given a mansab and married to a his father who was then in south India. Unlike his
daughter of Aurangzeb. Murad’s son, Izzat Bakhsh, predecessors, Aurangzeb did not like ostentation.
was also released, given a mansab and married to His personal life was marked by simplicity. As a pious
another daughter of Aurangzeb. Earlier, in 1669, Muslims, he copied the Quran and even stitched
Dara’s daughter, Jani Begum, who had been looked caps which were sold. But we can hardly accept the
account of some contemporary writers that he met
after by Jahanara as her own daughter, was married
his personal expenses by these means. Aurangzeb
to Aurangzeb’s third son, Muhammad Azam. There
had a number of wives and mistresses, including the
were many other marriages between Aurangzeb’s slave girl, Hira Bai (later entitled Zainabadi Mahal)
family and the children and grandchildren of his whom he met and married in 1652. Udaipuri Mahal,
defeated brothers. Thus, in the third generation, the his favourite, was a Georgian slave girl who had
families of Aurangzeb and his defeated brothers previously belonged to Dara’s haram. All of them
became one. were maintained in an appropriate style.
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Aurangzeb himself was a learned man. Apart influenced the Mughal state policy to some
from memorising the Quran after his accession, he extent.
was well read in the hadis and Muslim jurisprudence. 2. Aurangzeb fought number of battles. In the
He was fond of the works of the orthodox Imam war of succession his main opponent was Dara
Ghazali, as also of Sadi and the liberal sufis, Hafiz Shukoh. He was supported by liberal elements
and Maulana Rum. whereas orthodox elements supported
Historians are deeply divided about Aurangzeb, that is why in 1659 Aurangzeb
Aurangzeb’s achievements as a ruler. According ordered to demolish new Hindu temples so
to some, he reversed Akbar’s policy of religious his orthodox supporters could be convinced
toleration and thus undermined the loyalty that the new emperor was a truly committed
of the Hindus to the empire, in turn, leading to Muslim ruler.
popular uprisings which sapped the vitality of the 3. Some of the orthodox measures initiated by
empire. His suspicious nature and his insistence on Aurangzeb were the outcome of changes in
strictly following the injunctions of the sharia and Mughal Rajput relations.
refusing to give drastic punishments added to his - After 1667, the warmth in Mughal Rajput
problems so that in the words of Khafi Khan,“all his relations had got reduced significantly.
enterprises were long drawn” and ended in failure. Aurangzeb no longer trusted Rajputs
Some modern historians think that Aurangzeb completely.
has been unjustly maligned, that the Hindus had 4. The Mughal Empire was facing a number of
become disloyal and too powerful due to the laxity serious challenges in the form of revolts of
of Aurangzeb’s predecessors, so that Aurangzeb Jat, Satnami and Ahom.
had no option but to adopt harsh methods and
- During this period of crisis, Aurangzeb
to try to rally the Muslims on whose support in
needed greater support of Muslim nobles
the long run the empire had to rest. In the recent and to achieve this objective he issued
writings on Aurangzeb, efforts have been made to orders to prohibit public celebrations
assess Aurangzeb’s political and religious policies of Hindu religious festivals in 1668-69.
in the context of social, economic and institutional Orders were issued to demolish Hindu
developments. There is little doubt about his being temples.
orthodox in his beliefs. He was not interested in
5. Economic challenges being faced by Mughal
philosophical debates or in mysticism—though he
empire were also responsible for some of the
did occasionally visit Sufi saints for their blessings,
orthodox elements. The department of history
and did not debar his sons from dabbling in Sufism.
writing was closed down in 1668 because
It would be wrong, however, to see Aurangzeb’s
Aurangzeb did not want to spend limited
religious policy in a rigid framework, based on his
resources on non-politico-military affairs.
personal religious beliefs. As a ruler, Aurangzeb had
to contend with many political, economic, social 6. The reimposition of Jaziya was outcome of
and administrative problems. While keen to ensure serious challenge posed by Rajput revolt. The
that the state did not violate the sharia, he could Rajput of Marwad had raised the banner of
not forget the political reality that any policy which revolt and refused to accept Ajit Singh.
meant the complete alienation of the numerous (a) To counter this challenge, Aurangzeb
and powerful Hindu nobles, rajas and zamindars needed full support of Muslims and
would be unworkable. to mobilize them behind throne, he
imposed Jaziya.
Factors responsible for Aurangzeb’s (b) Reimposition of Jaziya was the outcome
religious outlook of politico-military factors. It also revealed
1. Aurangzeb was devoted Sunni Muslim. He that Aurangzeb’s decision of removal of
was a man of simple habits. He was free from Jaziya in 1694 to counter the challenge
evils of age. This devoted religious outlook in Deccan.
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For purposes of analysis, Aurangzeb’s religious veena. Thus, the jibe of Aurangzeb to the protesting
policies can be divided into two broad phases, the musicians that they should bury the bier of music
first lasting upto 1679, and the second from 1679 they were carrying deep under the earth “so that no
to his death, in 1707. These two broad phases are echo of it may rise again” was only an angry remark.
divisible into several sub-phases. Aurangzeb discontinued the practice of jharoka
darshan or showing himself to the public from
The First Phase: 1658-1679
the balcony, since he considered it a superstitious
A number of moral and religious regulations practice and against Islam. Similarly, he forbade the
were issued by Aurangzeb shortly after his accession. ceremony of weighing the emperor against gold and
He banned sijda or prostration before the ruler, silver and other articles on his birthdays. This practice
something which the clerics had maintained was
which was apparently started during Akbar’s reign
reserved for God. Aurangzeb also forbade the kalma
had become widespread and was a burden on the
being inscribed on coins—since coins could be
smaller nobles. But the weight of social opinion was
trampled underfoot or be defiled while passing from
too much. Aurangzeb had to permit this ceremony
hand to hand. He discontinued the festival of Nauroz,
for his sons when they recovered from illness. He
as it was considered a Zoroastrian practice and was
forbade astrologers to prepare almanacs. But the
favoured by the Safavid rulers of Iran. Muhtabibs
order was flouted by everybody, including members
were appointed in all provinces. These officials
of the royal family.
were asked to see that people lived their lives in
accordance with the sharia. Thus, it was the business Many other regulations of a similar nature,
of these officials to see that wine and intoxicants some of a moral character and some to instill a sense
such as bhang were not consumed in public places. of austerity, and some to ban practices considered
They were also responsible for regulating the houses against the Islamic spirit, were issued. Thus, the
of ill repute, gambling dens, etc. and for checking practice of the Emperor putting a tika or saffron
weights and measures. In other words, they were paste on the forehead of a new raja was stopped.
responsible for ensuring that things forbidden by Public display of Holi and Muharram processions
the sharia and the zawabits (secular decrees) were, were also stopped. The courtiers were also asked
as far as possible, not flouted openly. However, if the not to wear silk gowns, or gowns of mixed silk and
Italian traveller, Manucci, who lived in India for a long cotton. The throne room was to be furnished in a
time, is to be believed, all these regulations were cheap and simple style; clerks were to use porcelain
flouted openly. In appointing muhtasibs, Aurangzeb ink-stands instead of silver ones; the gold railings in
emphasised that the state was also responsible for the diwan-i-am were replaced by those of lapis lazuli
the moral welfare of the citizens. But the officials set on gold. Even the official department of history
were instructed not to interfere in the private lives writing was discontinued as a measure of economy.
of citizens. Although displaying a puritanical frame of
In the eleventh year of the reign (1669), mind, these measures were promoted, in part, by a
Aurangzeb took a number of measures which have financial crisis which Aurangzeb faced around this
been called puritanical, but many of which were time. Following the setback caused by the civil war,
of an economic and social character, or against for a succession of years after 1660, there was scanty
superstitious beliefs. Thus, he forbade singing in rainfall and crop failure in one province after another.
the court, the official musicians being pensioned After his accession, Aurangzeb had forbidden rahdari
off. Instrumental music and naubat (the royal band) or transit duty and a large number of cesses, rural
were, however, continued. Singing also continued and urban, considered illegal. Although many of
to be patronised by the ladies in the haram, and by these cesses had been prohibited by earlier rulers,
individual nobles. It is of some interest to note that they had continued to be collected by the jagirdars,
the largest number of Persian works on classical and sometimes even in the khalisa or reserved
Indian music were written in Aurangzeb’s reign, and domains. We do not know how seriously these
that Aurangzeb himself was proficient in playing the prohibitions were implemented, but we are told
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that in the khalisa areas alone, rahdari had yielded of worship could be repaired “since buildings
25 lakhs of rupees a year. Another tax was pandari cannot last forever”. This position is clearly spelt
or ground rent for stalls in the bazar in the capital out in a number of extant farmans he issued to the
and other towns. Another vexatious tax which was brahmanas of Banaras, Vrindavan, etc.
abolished, in 1666, was the octroi duty on tobacco. Aurangzeb’s order regarding temples was not
According to the Maasir-i-Alamgiri, the semi- a new one. It reaffirmed the position which had
official history of Aurangzeb, in the thirteenth year, existed during the Sultanate period and which had
it was reported that expenses had exceeded income been reiterated by Shah Jahan early in his reign. In
during the preceding twelve years. Some of the practice, it left wide latitude to the local officials as
measures of economy adopted by Aurangzeb were to the interpretation of the words “long standing”.
“the retrenchment of many items in the expenditure The private opinion and sentiment of the ruler in the
of the Emperor, the princes and the Begums”. matter was also bound to weigh with the officials.
It seems that Aurangzeb was keen to promote For example, after the rise of the liberal-minded Dara
trade among the Muslims who depended almost as Shah Jahan’s favourite, few temples had been
exclusively on state support. In 1665, he reduced the demolished in pursuance of his order regarding
duty on import of goods by Muslim traders from five new temples. Aurangzeb, as governor of Gujarat,
ordered a number of new temples in Gujarat to be
percent to two and a half percent, and two years later
destroyed, which often meant merely defacing the
abolished it altogether. But he had to re-impose it
images and bricking up the temples. At the outset
when he found that Muslim traders were abusing
of his reign, Aurangzeb found that the images in
it by presenting goods of Hindu traders as theirs!
these temples had been restored and idol worship
However, it was kept at two and a half percent for
had been resumed. Aurangzeb, therefore, ordered
the Muslims.
again, in 1665, that these temples be destroyed. The
Similarly, in 1671, he passed orders that famous temple of Somnath which he had ordered
karoris of all crown lands should be Muslims and to be destroyed earlier in his reign was apparently
all governors and local officials were asked to dismiss one of the temples mentioned above.
their accountants (diwan) and clerks (peshkars) Aurangzeb’s order regarding ban on new
and replace them by Muslims. But this led to an temples did no apparently lead to a large-scale
uproar among the nobles, since sufficient competent destruction of temples at the outset of the reign. As
Muslims were not available. According to Khafi Khan, Aurangzeb encountered political opposition from a
the measure was, therefore, withdrawn, a fact which number of quarters, such as the Marathas, Jats, etc.
many historians fail to notice. he seems to have adopted a new stance. In case of
However, these again showed a narrow and conflict with the local elements, he now considered
limited outlook on the part of Aurangzeb, particularly it legitimate to destroy even long standing Hindu
on social and economic issues. temples as a measure of punishment and as a
warning. Further, he began to look upon temples
Hindu Temples as centres of spreading subversive ideas, that is,
We may now turn our attention to some of ideas which were not acceptable to the orthodox
the other measures of Aurangzeb which may be elements. Thus, he took strict action when he learnt,
called discriminatory and show a sense of bigotry in 1669, that in some of the temples in Thatta, Multan
towards people professing other religions. The and especially at Banaras, both Hindus and Muslims
most important were Aurangzeb’s attitude towards used to come from great distances to learn from the
temples, and the levying of jizyah. brahmans. Aurangzeb issued orders to the governors
At the outset of his reign, Aurangzeb reiterated of all provinces to put down such practices and to
the position of the sharia regarding temples, destroy the temples where such practices took place.
synagogues, churches, etc. that “long standing As a result of these orders, a number of temples such
temple should not be demolished but no new as the famous temple of Vishwanath at Banaras,
temples allowed to be built.” Further, old places and the temple of Kashava Rai at Mathura built
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by Bir Singh Deo Bundela in the reign of Jahangir grants to Hindus, such grants continued to be given
were destroyed and mosques erected in their place. to some of the Vaishnava temples at Vrindavan, to
The destruction of these temples had a political the jogis at Jakhbar in Punjab, to the Nath Panthi
motive as well. Mustaid Khan, author of the Maasir- jogis in Sarkar Nagaur, and grant of 100 pakka
i-Alamgiri says, with reference to the destruction of bighas of land to Panth Bharati in pargana Siwana
the temple of Kashava Rai at Mathura, “On seeing in Rajasthan “since he feeds travellers and is worthy
this instance of the strength of the Emperor’s faith of offering prayers”. There are instances of grants
and the grandeur of his devotion to God, the proud to others also. However, there is little doubt that
rajas were stifled, and in amazement they stood like the trend was to limit revenue free grants given to
images facing the wall”. non-Muslims.
It was in this context that many temples On the whole, the atmosphere created by
built in Orissa during the last ten to twelve years Aurangzeb’s restrictive policy towards the Hindus,
were destroyed. But it is wrong to think that there and of his demolition of many temples of old
were any orders for the general destruction of the standing on one ground or another was bound to
early part of the eighteenth century and who had create disquiet amount a large section of the Hindus,
been closely associated with Aurangzeb, asserts leading to disaffection and opposition.
that the motive of Aurangzeb was to “establish
Islam” and that the Emperor ordered the governors
Jizyah
to destroy all temples and to ban public practice Although Aurangzeb had not raised the slogan
of the religion of these misbelievers, that is, the of defending Islam before the battle of Samugarh
Hindus. If Mustaid Khan’s version was correct, it with Dara, and had tried to befriend the Rajput rajas
would have meant Aurangzeb going beyond the as we have seen, there were a number of factors
position of the sharia, for the sharia did not ban the which make it necessary for Aurangzeb to present
non-Muslims from practising their faiths as along as himself as the defender of the sharia, and to try and
they observed certain conditions, such as loyalty to win over the theologians. A principal factor was the
the ruler, etc. Nor have we found any farmans to the popular revulsion against his imprisonment of his
governors ordering general destruction of temples, father, Shah Jahan, and his treatment of his brothers,
as suggested by Mustaid Khan. Murad and Dara, both of whom had the reputation
The situation was different during the periods of being liberal patrons of the poor and the needy.
of hostilities. Thus, during 1679-80, when there was Aurangzeb was shocked when at the time of his
a state of war with the Rathors of Marwar and the second coronation in 1659, the chief qazi refused
Rana of Udaipur, many temples of old standing to crown him since his father was alive. However,
were destroyed at Jodhpur and its parganas, and Aurangzeb was rescued when Qazi Abdul Wahab
at Udaipur. Gujarati gave a ruling that since Shah Jahan was
too feeble to discharge the duties of sovereignty, it
In his policy towards temples, Aurangzeb may
was legitimate to crown him. Aurangzeb rewarded
have remained formally within the framework of
Abdul Wahab by making him the Chief Qazi.
the sharia, but there is little doubt that his stand
in the matter was a setback to the policy of broad Aurangzeb rewarded the theologians not
toleration followed by his predecessors. It led to only by putting down practices considered un-
a climate of opinion that destruction of temples Islamic, as we have noted. He renovated mosques
on any excuse would not only be condoned but and monasteries which had fallen into disrepair,
would be welcomed by the emperor. We do have and appointed imams, muezzins and attendants
instances of grants to Hindu temples and mathas by with salaries. The theologians were obviously the
Aurangzeb. Thus, he gave grant to the gurudwara of main beneficiaries of these measures.
Guru Ram Das at Dehradun. Grants to other temples Another step taken at this time which would
have also been listed. Although an order had been have gladdened the hearts of the orthodox ulama
issued in Gujarat, in 1672, banning revenue-free was the revival of pilgrim taxes on the Hindus at
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Mathura, Kurukshetra etc. thus reversing Akbar’s Nevertheless, jizyah was regressive and bore
policy in the matter. more heavily on the poor than on the more affluent.
However, the major problem Aurangzeb The assess were divided into three classes according
faced was the question of jizyah. Orthodox clerical to property i.e. those with property less than 200
opinion had been demanding its reimposition on dirham, those between 200 to 10,000 dirham, and
the ground that it was wajib (compulsory) according those above, 10,000 dirham. They paid 12, 24 or 48
to the sharia, and also because they felt that jizyah dirham or 3/1/3/, 6/2/3 and 13/1/3 per year. The

was a means of asserting the superior status tax bore most heavily on the first of these, called
of the theologians and Islam, and emphasising tailors, dyers, cobblers, shoe makers etc. since the
the dependent and inferior position of the non- average wage of a worker or artisan in those days
Muslims in an essentially Islamic state. We are told was about 3 per month. However, it should be

that immediately after his accession, Aurangzeb noted that apart from women, the insane and those
considered reimposition of jizyah, but postponed in government service who were exempt, jizyah
the matter due to “certain political exigencies”.That it was not levied on the indigent who is defined as
was reimposed twenty-two years after Aurangzeb’s one who owned no property, and whose income
accession to the throne is a clear indication that its from labour did not exceed his and his family’s
institution was on account of political considerations, necessities. In other words, jizyah was a property
not “to promote the faith and to promote the laws tax, not an income tax.
of the sharia” as was the official explanation and What then, were the motives of Aurangzeb in
has been dutifully reproduced by a number of reimposing jizyah after such a long lapse after his
contemporaries. accession. It would appear that he took this step
According to some English factors and the at a time when he was facing a growing political
Italian, Manucci, Aurangzeb Jizyah which was crisis. By 1676, all the efforts to conciliate Shivaji
sanctioned by sharia, since he had abolished the had failed. After crowning himself, he had gone on
various taxes considered illegal. to make extensive conquests in the South, with the
However, these arguments do not stand up to active aid and support of the brothers, Madanna and
a critical scrutiny. We are told by the contemporary Akhanna, who dominated Golconda. Following the
Khafi Khan that the various taxes remitted by the internal dissolution of the state of Bijapur, Aurangzeb
Emperor, continued to be included in the jama dami had launched a series of wars aimed at its conquest
or the assessed income of the jagirs. In consequence, and the containments of the Marathas. But these
the remissions remained a dead letter. had failed. To the essentially conservative mind of
Second, the income from jizyah was put in a Aurangzeb, he hoped to meet the situation by a
separate treasury the proceeds from which were striking declaration which would rally the Muslims
disbursed among the needy Muslims. Thus, it hardly behind him, especially, if he decided to invade the
relieved the general treasury. brother Muslim rulers of the Deccan, as appeared
likely.
Regarding the economic impact of jizyah on
poor Hindus, it should be borne in mind that the The reimposition of jizyah was not only meant
to serve this purpose but to further cement his
Hindus had the reputation of being very strong in

their faith, this being conceded by sufis, such as alliance with the theologians. Jizyah was to be
Nizamuddin Auliya, many poets and other thinkers. collected by honest, God-fearing Muslims, who were
Although jizyah had been levied and collected since especially appointed for the purpose. Its proceeds
the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, it had not which we are told, amounted to rupees four crores
led to any large scale conversions. Nor did it happen in the entire kingdom, which was a large sum of
during Aurangzeb’s reign, else Aurangzeb would money, and was reserved for the ulama. It was, thus,
have been praised to the skies for his great success. a big bribe for the theologians among whom there
As is well-known, large scale conversions in Sindh, was a lot of unemployment. But the disadvantages
West Punjab, Kashmir and East Bengal had taken outweighed the possible advantages of the step. It
place much before Aurangzeb’s accession. was bitterly resented by the Hindus who considered
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it as a mark of discrimination. Its mode of collection faith”. During the period, the Deccani rulers were
also had some special features. The payee was denounced as “lustful and sinful” for their alliance
required to pay it personally and sometimes in with the Maratha infidels, so that “no respect was left
the process he suffered humiliation at the hands for Islam and its adherents; mosques were without
of the theologians. In the rural areas, amins were splendour while idol-temples flourished.” (Maasir-
appointed for collecting jizyah, but, perhaps, the i-Alamgiri).
amount was collected along with the land revenue. It was during this period that conversion of
In the cities well-to-do Hindus were often harassed individuals, often for petty gains, was made much
by the collectors of jizyah. We, therefore, hear of a of though privately Aurangzeb complained of the
number of occasions when Hindu traders shut their boastfulness and lack manners of some of the new
shops and observed hartal against the measure. converts.
Also, there was a lot of corruption, and it is said that
However, by these means Aurangzeb could
the collectors of jizyah made lakhs. In a number of
neither detach the Deccani rulers from their alliance
instances, the amin or collector of jizyah was killed
with the Marathas, nor were the theological elements
for his extortionate ways.
even in the camp were impressed. Thus, Qazi Shaikul
Jizyah may also be seen as the final step to Islam, the upright and highly respected sadr of the
establish the hegemonic position of Islam in the
imperial army, refused in 1688 to give a fatwa that
state. While this did not necessarily mean oppression
war against a Muslim king, that is the “heretical”
of the non-Muslims, or denying them the regulated
Deccani rulers, was ‘lawful’. He resigned his post,
religious freedom as dhimmis or protected people,
and decided to go to Mecca for a visit. Aurangzeb
it implied giving the Muslims a superior position.
had to appoint a new chief qazi.
Aurangzeb’s religious policies led to a series
of contradictions, which he found hard to resolve. After the conquest of Bijapur and Golconda,
Although Aurangzeb tried as far as possible to Aurangzeb was faced with the task of winning
satisfy the orthodox clerical elements, even he over the powerful rajas, nayaks and deshmukhs
could not fulfil completely the “orthodox” agenda of Telangana and the Karnataka. This led to a
put forward by men like Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi. He modification of his policy of destroying even old
refused to throw the Hindu rajas and others out of standing temples as a reprisal for political opposition.
the service of the state, saying tersely on a petition Thus, the contemporary observer, Bhimsen, noted
“What connection does religion have with worldly “The temples in Bijapur and Hyderabadi Karnataka
affairs”? And what right have matters of religion to are beyond numbering, and each temple is like the
enter into bigotry. For you is your religion, for me is fort of Parenda and Sholapur. In the whole world,
mine. If this rule (suggested by you) was established, nowhere else are there so many temples”. Many
it would be my duty to extirpate all (Hindu) rajas of the famous temples are named and described
and their followers.” In fact, the number of Hindus in detail by Bhimsen. He goes on to say, “From
in the imperial service increased, both in absolute the neighbourhood of Adoni and Kanchi and the
numbers and proportionately at all levels during kingdom of Jinji and the ocean, there is not a village
the second half of his reign, as we shall note. in which there is no temple, large or small”. However,
except in a few cases, little attempt was made by

The Second Phase: 1679-1707 Aurangzeb to destroy them for fear of rousing
Aurangzeb’s modern biographer, Sir Jadunath further opposition.
Sarkar, was of the opinion that “Neither age nor From the beginning of his accession,
experience of life softened Aurangzeb’s bigotry.” Aurangzeb used to send large sums of money to
However, recent research leads us to modify this Mecca to be distributed among the shaikhs and the
opinion. poor. However, he gradually became disillusioned at
Between 1679 and 1687, Aurangzeb tried the corrupt and grasping ways of the theologians,
to project himself as “the asylum of Muslims”, and wrote the Sharif of Mecca, warning him of
who “honours none but the people of the true appropriating for himself the money sent for the
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needy at Mecca. He concluded sadly, “Why should 4000, and 62 from 1000 to 2700, thus for surpassing
it (the money) not be distributed among the poor the Rajputs. However, they were not given important
of this country because the manifestation of God commands or posts, or treated as integral parts of
is reflected in every country”? the imperial service. Nor was any attempt made to
Aurangzeb was unrelenting in his opposition establish personal or friendly social relations with
in giving remissions in jizyah. However, in case of them, on the model of the Rajputs. The Maratha
crop-failure, such remissions were regularly given, Mansabdars generally held three-monthly jagirs
often at the instance of the jagirdars. Finally, in 1704, and, as per the practice since the days of Shah Jahan,
Aurangzeb suspended jizyah “for the duration of even from this one-fourth was deducted.
the war in the south”, since an end to war with the
Marathas was nowhere in sight, it was tantamount
to its abolition in the south. Jizyah was formally
abolished, in 1712, at the instance of Asad Khan
and Zulfiqar Khan, two of the leading nobles of
Aurangzeb.
Some modern writers are of the opinion that
Aurangzeb’s measures were designed to convert
India from a dar-ul-harb or a land inhabited by
infidels to dar-ul-Islam, or a land inhabited by
Muslims. This is not correct. According to sharia,
a state in which the laws of Islam prevailed and The Empire and the Zamindars
where the ruler was a Muslim was dar-ul-Islam. Apart from the Jagirdars, the various other
In such a state, the Hindus who submitted to the classes who appropriated a share in the produce
Muslim ruler, and agreed to pay jizyah were zimmis of the land were the ‘madadi-i-mash’ suyurghal
or protected people according to the sharia. Hence, grantees. It was granted to the class of religious
the state in India had been considered a dar-ul- men who were patronised by the state. These grants
Islam since the advent of the Turks. Even when did not invest the grantees with any right over the
Mahadji Sindhia, the Maratha general, occupied land but were entitled to the prescribed revenue
Delhi in 1772, and the Mughal emperor became a from its produce. These grants were intended to
puppet in his hands, the theologians decreed that create pockets of influence and to develop waste
the state remained a dar-ul-Islam since the laws lands (Akbars policy to grant half cultivable and
of Islam were allowed to prevail and the throne half waste land to improve cultivation). Granted
to Shaikhs and Sayyids, who, in emergency joined
was occupied by a Muslim. Although Aurangzeb
the government forces to crub local disturbances.
considered it legitimate to encourage conversion to
There was a tendency on the part of the grantees
Islam, evidence of systematic or large-scale attempts
to acquire zamindari right in their area—some of
at forced conversion is lacking.
them transformed themselved into small zamindars.
Nor were Hindu nobles discriminated against. By the first half of 18th century, those grants were
Athar Ali’s study has shown that the number of treated as zamindari lands in all transactions.
Hindus in the nobility during the second half of Zamindars were present in practically every
Aurangzeb’s reign almost doubled with the Hindus, part of the empire and held the most significant
including Marathas, forming about one-third of the position in the agrarian structure of Mughal India.
nobility. In the pre-Mughal period, the word was used in the
Aurangzeb inducted large numbers of sense of the Chief of a territory but during Akbar,
Marathas into the service during the latter half of this term was officially used for any person with any
his reign, of the 96 Marathas who held ranks of 1000 hereditary claim to a direct share in the peasants
zat and above between 1679 and 1707, 16 held ranks produce. The areas without zamindar were termed
of 5000 and above, 18 held ranks between 3000 and ‘raiyyati’ lands (peasant held).
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Nurul Hasan: Divides zamindars into three roas, ranas who governed their estates without
categories: any interference from the imperial administration.
1. Primary zamindars who had some proprietary Their obligation to the king did not go beyond
rights over the land. paying him a fixed amount as tribute (peshkash).
Their share in the surplus produce of the peasant
2. Secondary zamindars who held the
amounted to the difference between what they
intermediary rights and helped the state in
collected from the peasant and what they paid as
revenue collection.
‘peshkash’. Irfan Habib says, the difference between
3. Autonomous chiefs had autonomous rights zamindars and autonomous chiefs ‘lay most clearly
in their territory and paid a fixed amount to in the relationship with the imperial power which
the state. allowed autonomy to the chiefs, but made ordinary
Rights: Zamindars did not signify proprietary zamindar mere propertied subjects of the Empire”.
right in land. It was a claim on the produce of the Zamindars had their own footmen and cavalry
soil, co-existing in a subordinate capacity with and had garhis or forts. Abul Fazl estimates that
the land revenue demand of the state. Yet, like the troops of zamindars in the whole Mughal
any article of private property, it could and was empire exceeded 44 lacs. Some of the zamindars
freely bought and sold. It was also inheritable and were designated as chaudhuris for the purpose of
divisible, i.e. the heirs of a zamindar could divide collection of revenue. They were supposed to collect
the fiscal claims and perquisite of their inherited
the revenue from other zamindars of the pargana.
zamindari. Zamindar acquired his rights by virtue of
Apart from the customary nankar, they were entitled
the historical tradition of control he and his kinsmen
to another share in the revenue collected by them
exercised over the inhabitants of particular villages.
(2.5%). He was appointed by the state and could
At same time, the zamindars had settled villages and
be removed.
distributed its land among the peasantry. zamindari
rights therefore, were not created by the ruling Nature of the Mughal State
classes, but preceded them. The king however, could The Mughal Theory of kingship was an
create zamindari in villages, where none existed. A admixture of Mongol, Turkish and Islamic ideals.
zamindar could also be dislodged in extreme cases It brought about a complete change in the theory
of sedition or non-payment of revenue. of kingship advocated by the Turkish Sultan of
Medieval rulers recognised the rights of the Delhi claiming ancestry from the Mongloid Turks.
zamindars, but were equally insistent on treating The Mughals could hardly feel the need of any
them as agents of the government for revenue reference to the Abbasid caliphs as the source of
collection. For this purpose (khidmat), he was entitled their authority. At the same time the destruction
to a percentage of the total revenue collected (10% of the Safavids and Uzbegs, both whom refused
known as nankar). When the administration decided to consider themselves subordinate to any other
to collect the revenue through own agents, by authority made it necessary for the Mughals to
passing the zamindars, the latter was entitled to emphasize on their absolute independence of any
a share in the revenue collected called ‘malikana’ other suzerain power.
(proprietary rights) and was fixed at 10% of the The Mughal Emperors of Indian designated
revenue collected. In the Deccan, it was 1/4th themselves Badshah, a title claimed by one of
(Chauth). Babar’s ancestors and indicative of freedom from
Besides, their principles fiscal claim, zamindars the Caliph’s suzerainty, while the title of Sultan,
also enacted a number of petty perquisites from under the Mughals became synonymous with a
the peasantry. These class of zamindars basically subordinate ruler of price accepting the suzerainty of
resided in the directly administrated territory and of the Mughal Emperor. However, the Mughals retained
whom the administration was anxious that they be the names of the first four Caliphs on their coins
reduced to the status of mere ‘rent gatherers’. Apart and in the Khutba. This was a symbolic expression
from them, there were autonomous chiefs—rajas, of their belief in Islam, but did not amount to an
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acceptance of the Caliph’s suzerainty. The Mughal by Abul Fazl continued to influence Mughal notions
theory of kingship evolved gradually and obtained of sovereignty and kingship until the reign of
final shape under Abul Fazl, the leading light at Aurangzeb who tried to reiterate the fundamentally
Akbar’s court. Babar was essentially a man of action Islamic character of the state during his reign, finally,
and showed little interest in the theoretical aspect Abul Fazl suggested a judicious organisation of
of monarchy. Under Humayun some vague notions the fourfold constituents of the political body
began to emerge. It was held that sovereignty was for realising the aims of good government these
hereditary (a Mongal trait), that it is indivisible and included:
not subordinate to a foreign power (a Timurid trait), 1. Warriors
to these Humayun added the mystic concept of
2. Artisans
the monarch being place like the sun in the solar
system vis-à-vis his nobles. He believed in the divine 3. Intellectuals
origin of kingship and considered sovereignty a 4. Labours
personal possession which could be deligated by He identifies them respectively with fire, air
the sovereign at will. However, these ideas were still water and earth, the four components of life and
in an embryonic form. They were to develop fully considers them as essential for the survival for the
only in the reign of Akbar. state as these four elements are for life; the monarch
Abul Fazl gave an entirely new form of Mughal is to ensure the right balance and harmony among
theory of Kingship. He began by justifying the need these different elements.
of an institution like kingship by maintaining that Late 17th Century Crisis: Revolts
man by nature is greedy, corrupt and evil and it
The word ‘jagir’ is compound of two Persian
needs a monarch to ensure order and peace in
worlds—‘Ja’ or place and ‘gir’ or holding. It means
the universe. To quote him “if royalty did not exist,
an area of land or any other source of income over
the storm of strife would not suside nor selfish
which the king transfers or assigns his right to
ambitions disappear. Mankind being under the
revenue and other taxes to its holder (jagirdar)
burden of lawlessness and lust, would sink into
in lieu of salary. There were precedents in Ancient
the pit of destruction, and the whole Earth would India in the Afghan kingdom of Ghur, the Delhi
become a barron waste. Royalty is a remedy for Sultanate and in the Mughal Empire of this system.
these realty is a light emanating from God, and a But it was under Akbar that the system became well-
ray from the Sun, the illuminator of the universe, the organised so much so that W.H. Moreland described
argument of the book of perfection, the receptacle it as ‘the most prominent feature of Moslem agrarian
of all virtues”. system. However, certain inherent contradictions
Monarchy being a light emanating from and circumstantial development brought about
God and communicated by him directly the king a crisis in the system, by the end of 17th and the
has many inherent qualities such as paternal love beginning of 18th centuries. The causes for this
towards his subjects, large heartedness, daily crisis have been a center of scholarly controversy.
increasing trust in God, prayer, devotion etc. Thus, while Irfan Habib, J.P. Richards and Pearson
Abul Fazl distinguishes between the ‘true king’ see it in context of a crisis of managerial skill, Satish
who is the possessor of the above virtues and is a Chandra sees the same in a broader perspective of
benevolent guardian of his subjects and ‘false king’ socio-economic crisis.
who is a tyranty. He emphasised on the duty of The jagirdars were an entirely official class
the king to follow a policy of universal toleration appointed by the emperor.The jagirs were essentially
(sulh-e-kul). Thus, Abul Fazl goes beyond the limited the assignment of revenue and did not involve
set by Islamic jurists and widens the scope of the any administrative charge. The judicial and police
monarch’s duties and activities. He liberates the dues were assigned to the Qazi and the Jagirdar
monarch from the religious limitations. However, respectively. A jagirdar claim was, thus, confined
his concept is not anti-Islamic. The ideas expounded to land revenue and other taxes (Mai-i-Wajibi-O
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huguqai-i-Diwan). He had no hereditary claim over entrant led to great lamentation in the camp among
land and his jagir lasted as long as he remained those who had waited for an appointment for years.
in service. The idea that the control over the jagir Also, the inability on part of mansabdars to secure
was purely temporary in character, was enforced suitable mansabs for their children and relations
by the frequent transfer of the jagirdars—almost affected the future loyalties of these nobles to the
ones in every 3-4 years. Abul Fazl tells us that the empire.
idea behind it was to prevent the jagirdars from The Mughals adopted a system of frequent
building local connections or claiming hereditary transfer of jagirs (Bernier). Accounts of Bhimsen
right over the land. would make us believe that the frequency of
The revenue from the jagir was to be equivalent transfers increased during Aurangzeb’s reign. Yet, we
to the jagirdar’s salary. But they rarely corresponded. come across many examples of important Mughal
This created a gap between jama and Hal-i-Hasil mansabdars holding their jagirs for as long as 10
which caused problem for the state as the jagirs years. Also, a study made by A.J. Qaiser,‘Distribution
constituted a major portion of revenue assignment. of the revenue resources of the Mughal Empire
In the tenth year of Aurangzeb’s reign, the total among the Nobility’. I.H.C. 1967, finds that large
jamadani was 924 crores dam for in whole empire, mansabdars who accounted for over 80% of the land
out of which 725 crores were assigned to jagirdars assigned as jagir, could not have been transferred so
or placed under Paibaqis (Mirat-al-Alam). Also the frequently. In fact, not so frequent transfers of jagirs
jama figure would be inflated by a stroke of pen by
during the 18th century made the jagirs hereditary
the clerks—such a situation came to surface in the
and led to further strengthening of zamindars as a
reign of Jahangir. By the beginning of Shahjahans
class, asserts Prof Satish Chandra.
reign the problem of the growing gap between the
revenue needed for assignment to the mansabdars Both Bhimsen and Bernier contend that the
and its availability become so acute that the rule of culminative effect of frequent transfer of jagir was
1/3, 1/4 etc and the ‘month scale’ were introduced the growing exploitation of peasants. Agreeing
which considerably diminished the military strength with them Prof. Irfan Habib points out that fearing
of the jagirdars. This is significant as the working transfer at any time, the jagirdars tried to take as
of the Mughal revenue system depended upon much as they could from the soil. But it’s a matter
the ability of the Mughal government and its of speculation whether the jagirdars could actually
representatives to over the jamindars and cultivators put their wishes into practice in defiance to the
with their superior military strength. Emperor. In fact, the system of checks and balances
To add to these limitations was the threat were very shrewedly evolved under the Mughals.
posed to the Mughal rulers as well as the peasantry Significantly, the clause of imperial check is crystal
by the multiplication of mansabdars by five times clear from Aurangzeb’s farman to Rashikdas and
within a short span of time. Figures will speak better Mohammad Hashim.
1,605-2,069 mansabdars (those above 1000 and What is significant, however, is not the
280 nobles. 1,637-8,000 mansabdar (those above oppression of the peasantry but the lack of incentives
1000 and above 576 nobles) and in later half of at both agricultural and non-agricultural levels to
Aurangzeb’s reign—11,456 mansabdars.This Mughal cope with the situation. Remarks S. Chandra that
nobility consisted of regular influx from central Asia, the only manner in which the crisis of the jagirdari
the Khanazada, Rajputs, Marathas (later), Shaikhzada system could have been deferred for a longer period
and some professionals. The induction of new was a rapid development of economy both in the
elements into the nobility adversely affected the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors. But even
Khanazada. Moreover, the working of the central though land was surplus, the landless labourers
machinery of administration was such that there was (comprising of 25% of the population) were not
a great delay in the granting of jagir to new entrants. allowed to gain proprietary rights. Thus, denying
So Aurangzeb’s declaration (after the conquest of them of an incentive to increase production. Irfan
Bijapur and Golconda) that he required no new Habib adds that a jagirdar who could not hope
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to hold his jagir for more than 3-4 years, could the real crisis which was rooted in the structure of
never follow a professional policy of agricultural the medieval society and its working.
development. M. Athar Ali rightly emphasised To stabilise the empire, the Mughals tried
that the lack of technological innovations in non- to forge alliances with local landed elements. The
agricultural sector left India vulnerable to the centralisation of authority and giving impression
incoming threat of industrial revolution of the west. that one group would not be allowed to encroach
Individual emphasis of the scholars over the upon the rights of others created a situation in
reasons for the crisis of the jagirdari system vary. which various sections started working to the
Both Irfan Habib and Athar Ali have explained the central government rather than local chieftains
problem in terms of scarcity of paibaqi land, which for protection and redressal of their grievances. To
made the routine working of the system impossible. add to their confidence was the system of checks
The reason attributed to the Deccan wars and influx and balances. But this social balance was liable to
of large number of people into mansabdari rank. Such be upset on many courts—power struggle at center,
an analysis sees the problem as an administrative disaffection in the nobility, challenge to Empire
crisis. Working within the same framework, both J.P. by regional satraps, augmentation of power of
Richards and Pearson put forward similar arguments jamindars, serious weakening of the position of
with varies modification. Richards sees the crisis as Khud-Kasht etc. This social balance was shaken first
a deliberate creation of Aurangzeb. He argues that in the first half of 17th century or the so-called period
the annexation of Bijapur and Golconda could have of stability. The crisis manifested itself in the growing
generated enough revenue to offset the influx of gap between revenue needed for assignment to
new Deccani nobility into Mughal elite. He estimates the mansabdars and its availability which led to
that while the nobility grew by 23.5%, the Jama grew the application of the rule of 1/3-1/4 etc. Such a
by 23%. But the emperor chose instead to restrict rule was an administrative answer of the Mughal
access to the greater part of the most productive ruling class to socio-economic problem.
tracts to meet his strategic objectives in South. In To conclude, the jagirdari system was a complex
1695 and 1697, Aurangzeb enlarged the Hyderabad phenomenon closely linked to the structure and
Khalisa by transferring few districts with potential working of the village society and the working
revenue of 17 million from paibagi and Khalisa.

of the Mughal system of administration, both at

In fact, to cope with military requirements of the central and local level. The end of the 17th and the
empire, the Khalisa land had been increasing from first half of 18th century, saw a crisis in the structure
1/9th under Jehangir to 1/5th under Aurangzeb. due to the emerging social imbalances. This social
However, it can be forcefully argued that it was imbalance was accompanied by an administrative
not the shortage of paibaqi land because of the and financial crisis. The two acting and reacting on
increasing Khalisa but the manner of demarcation each other to intensify the crisis.
of the Khalisa land which created problems.
Revolt of Jats
The above arguments, though largely correct
1. Revolts of the Jats during the reign of Mughal
do not tell the whole story, Prof. S. Chandra in his two
Emperor Aurangzeb took place under the

articles,‘The Jagirdari Crisis’ and ‘Review of the crisis
leadership of Gokul in A.D. 1669.
of Jagirdari system’ for the first time sees the problem
in a broader perspective of social conflict, which the 2. The Jats organised the first revolt of the Hindus
Mughals were unable to resolve, within the broad against the policy of religious persecution
framework of the class. The allies forged by them of Aurangzeb. The local Muslim officer
and it was reflected in a financial crisis in general. at Mathura, Abdul Nabi destroyed the temples
Prof. Chandra, rightly postulates that the system of the Hindus and disrespected their women.
was not merely an administrative crisis, linked to - In the year A.D. 1661, Abdul Nabi
the lack of sufficient jagirs required for a growing destroyed a Hindu temple and raised a
number of mansabdars. These were incidental to mosque on its ruins.
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3. The Jat under their leader Gokul revolted an opportunity to get rid of the oppressive
against the oppression in A.D. 1669 killed rule of the Mughals.
Abdul Nabi and looted the tehsil of Sadabai.
Evolution of Deccan policy of Mughal rulers
4. In 1670 A.D., the temple of Keshav Rai was
1. Akbar was the first Mughal emperor to
destroyed by the orders of Aurangzeb. It
pay attention to Deccan. His Deccan policy
further inflamed the Hindus and Gokul could
paved entry of Mughals into peninsular India.
collect twenty thousand followers and he Beginning in 1591, Akbar initiated number of
defeated a few small Muslim forces which steps to secure Mughal entrance into Deccan.
were sent against him.
2. Akbar’s Deccan policy was influenced and
- He was, however, defeated and killed at directed by number of politico-military-
the battle of Tilpat. economic factors.
5. The Jats were punished severely. But, the Jats (a) The safety of Mughal rule in Gujarat
remained undaunted. In the year 1686 A.D., required the wiping out of rebellious
they again raised the standard of revolt under activities being organised by Guajarati
their leader Raja Ram gave serious trouble to rebels from Deccani states.
the Mughals for many years, defeated a few (b) When Akbar conquered Gujarat in 1572,
Mughal officers and attacked even Agra. a number of Guajarati nobles took
- Raja Ram was, however, defeated and shelter in Deccani states e.g. Khandesh,
killed in A.D. 1688. Ahmednagar. Subjugation of these
6. But then Churaman, the nephew of Raja Ram Deccani states was essential to eliminate
led the Jats. This revolt of the Jats continued the rebellious activities.
till the death of Aurangzeb and, ultimately, 3. The ports located on the west coast of
the Jats succeeded in establishing their Maharashtra were enjoying immense
independent kingdom with its capital in economic significance.
Bharatpur. (a) Akbar wanted to establish Mughal
Conflict with Satnamis (1672) control over these ports so that Mughal
external trade could be increased. It was
1. The Satnamis formed a Hindu religious sect possible only by establishing Mughal
in the district of Narnaul and Mewat. Most of sovereignty over Deccani states.
them carried on agriculture.
(b) The rising power of Portuguese was
2. Generally they were pious people. However, assuming threatening proportions. The
they would not tolerate any oppression. They Deccani states were small. The Deccani
kept arms and weapons to protect themselves rules didn’t have strength to stand
from any kind of attempt to do wrong to them. against Portuguese so Akbar had turned
3. An innocent Satnami cultivator was murdered his attention towards Deccan.
by a Mughal soldier. Being agitated they rose 4. The sultan of Gujarat used to enjoy a number
in rebellion and killed the local Mughal official. of ceremonial rights over Deccani states. The
4. The Mughal army retaliated with a heavy hand. rulers of this Deccani states used to read
Aurangzeb himself decided to go in person to Khutba in name of sultan of Gujarat.
Narnaul as he apprehended a general revolt (a) After conquering Gujarat in 1572,
of the Hindus in the entire region. Akbar demanded the transfer of these
5. Aurangzeb attacked them with a heavy force ceremonial rights but Deccani rulers
supported by artillery. The Satnamis were refused to comply.
massacred indiscriminately. (b) To ensure the Mughal sovereignty was
6. The rebellion was crushed but the people accepted by rulers of Deccan, Akbar
began to hate the rule and looked forward for turned his attention towards Deccan.
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5. Akbar was an imperialistic ruler. He was - He annexed Ahmednagar in 1636. He
extremely powerful and after completing brought immense pressure on Bijapur
conquest of north India it was quite expected and Golkonda. In 1636, Portuguese state
that Akbar must turn his attention towards accepted Mughal sovereignty. In this way
Deccan. Shahjahan’s Deccan policy was highly
- In 1591, Akbar completed the conquest successful.
of Sindh. There was hardly any other 9. Aurangzeb was one of the most capable
territory left in north India to be Mughal rulers. He had lived in Deccan for
subjugated. many years as Mughal governor. He knew
6. After Akbar, Jahangir succeeded the throne. the geo-political environment prevailing in
Despite the fact that he was not a powerful Deccan very well.
ruler, Jahangir continued the policy of his (a) During the reign of Aurangzeb the
father. nature of Deccan challenge changed
- The objective of his Deccan policy was significantly as a result of emergence of
to maintain Mughal dominance over Marathas under Shivaji.
Ahmednagar and increase pressure over 10. Aurangzeb was under impression that the
Deccani states of Bijapur and Golkonda. Deccani Muslim states of Bijapur and Golkonda
7. Rise of Malik Amber as prime minister of were supporting Marathas against Mughals so
Ahmednagar transformed nature of challenge that Mughals could remain busy in Maratha
in Deccan. land and rulers of Bijapur and Golkonda could
(a) Malik Amber is considered to be one of remain free from Mughal interference.
the ablest administrators and military - Annexation of Bijapur and Golkonda was
strategist in the entire history of India. considered precondition to tackle the
(b) He started guerrilla warfare against challenge of Marathas. As a result of this
Mughals. As a result of this Mughals Bijapur and Golkonda were annexed by
had to struggle hard to maintain their Mughals in 1686 and 1687 respectively.
dominance over Ahmednagar. 11. The Shia-Sunni differences were considered
(c) Ahmednagar declared its independence to have played role in annexation of Bijapur
from Mughal rule, the Mughal forces had and Golkonda. Both of these states were ruled
to struggle hard to restore control over by Shia rulers and Aurangzeb was orthodox
Ahmednagar. Sunni Muslim.
(d) In 1617, prince Khurram forced 12. Maratha king Sambhaji was captured in 1689.
Ahmednagar to accept the sovereignty This was climax of success of Aurangzeb in
of Mughals once again but this success Deccan. Hereafter the Mughals had to face
proved to be short lived. an extremely serious challenge of Maratha
(e) Finally in 1621, Ahmednagar accepted national revolt.
Mughal sovereignty and agreed to pay
60 lac rupiya to Mughals as indemnity. Aurangzeb’s Rajput policy

Jahangir could not get any new success 1. Rajput policies adopted by Aurangzeb were
in Deccan but success in maintaining strict and stern. Aurangzeb reversed the policy
Mughal dominance was no less which was enunciated by Akbar and pursued
significant. by Jahangir and Shah Jahan.
8. Shahjahan had lived in Deccan for long time 2. The Rajputs were the greatest obstacle in
as Mughal governor. He had acknowledged his pursuance of policy against the Hindus.
the geo-political circumstances prevailing in Aurangzeb, therefore, attempted to destroy
Deccan. Therefore he followed very calculated the power of the Rajputs and annex their
aggressive policy against Deccani states. kingdoms.
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3. There were three important Rajput rulers at 10. Aurangzeb offered peace to Mewar and it was
that time, viz. Raja Jaswant Singh of Marwar, accepted. The Rathors of Marwar, however,
Rana Raj Singh of Mewar and Raja Jai Sing continued their fight against the Mughals.
of Jaipur. All the three were at peace with 11. Pursuing his son Akbar, Aurangzeb left for
the Mughals when Aurangzeb ascended the Deccan and could never come back from
throne. there.
- But, Aurangzeb never kept faith in the 12. Marwar fought against the Mughals till the
loyalty of these Rajput rulers. death of the emperor in 1707 A.D., accepting
4. Aurangzeb deputed Raja Jai Singh in the peace in between twice, and finally succeeded
Deccan where, ultimately he died in A.D. 1666. in gaining its independence.
5. Raja Jaswant Singh was deputed to defend 13. Thus, Aurangzeb failed to subdue either Mewar
the northwestern frontier of the empire. Two or Marwar. The only result of his policy against
of his sons died fighting against the Afghan these states was that he lost the support of
rebels and he himself died in Afghanistan in the Rajputs.
1678 A.D. 14. The Rajputs, who were one of the best
(a) Aurangzeb was waiting for this supporters of the Mughal Empire since the
opportunity. At that time, there was no reign of Akbar, revolted against Aurangzeb.
successor to the throne of Marwar. Their services could no more be utilised in
(b) He occupied Marwar immediately and, strengthening the Mughal empire.
with a view to disgrace the ruling family, - On the contrary, it added to the troubles
sold the throne of Jaswant Singh for of the empire. It encouraged other revolts
rupees thirty-six lakhs. also.Thus, the Rajput policy of Aurangzeb
6. It seemed that the existence of Marwar was failed and its failure contributed to the
lost forever. But, Marwar was saved. While failure of Aurangzeb and resulted in the
returning from Afghanistan, the two wives of weakening of the Mughal Empire.
Rana Jaswant Singh gave birth to two sons at THE AHOM KINGDOM
Lahore.
At the time of the advent of the Muslims
(a) One of them died but the other named in Bengal in the early thirteenth century, the
Ajit Singh remained alive. Brahmaputra valley was parceled out into a number
(b) Durga Das, the commander-in-chief of independent principalities, at war with one
of the Rathors came to Delhi with the another. A line of Chutiya (a tribe of mixed Bodo-
prince and requested Aurangzeb to Shan stock) kings ruled over the tract east of the
handover Marwar to Maharaja Ajit Singh. Subansiri and the Disang, while a strip to the south
But Aurangzeb did not agree. and southeast was under the control of some Bodo
7. Ajit Singh was declared the ruler of Marwar tribes. Further west was a Kachari kingdom lying
south of the Brahmaputra and extending probably
and the war of independence of Marwar

began from that time. halfway across the Nowgong district. West of the
Chutiyas on the north bank and of the Kacharis on
8. Rana Raj Singh of Mewar, who realised that it
the south, were the domains of some petty chiefs
was in the interest of Mewar to fight against
called Bhuiyas. To the extreme west was situated
the Mughals, gave support to Marwar. the kingdom of Kamarupa, the western boundry
9. In 1681 A.D., Akbar, son of Aurangzeb revolted of which was marked by the river Karatoya and the
against his father with the support of the eastern boundary varied according to the position of
Rajputs. The revolt of Akbar failed and he fled its hostile neighbours. It was known as the kingdom
to Maharashtra under the protection of Durga of Kamata. The Ahoms, a section of the great Shan
Das. tribe, had appeared as a new element in the history
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of the Brahmaputra valley early in the thirteenth The territorial expansion of the Mughal Empire,
century, and checked the eastern expansion of the which was a process continuing through two
Kamata kingdom, while its western neighbours the centuries, went on a pace in the reign of Aurangzeb.
Muslim Sultans of Bengal, led several invasions into If we exclude the losses of the preceding reign in
its territories with varying results. Qandahar and Central Asia, the conquests of the
Early in the fifteenth century, a strong monarchy Emperors had remained intact, and before the rise
was established in Kamata by the Khens with their of the Maratha kingdom in the south, Aurangzeb’s
capital at Kamatapur, a few miles to the south of “ambitious and enterprising officers” successfully
Cooch Bihar. The Khens ruled over Kamata for about extended their master’s dominion. Palamau was
seventy-five years and their last ruler, Nilambar, was conquered in 1661 by Dau Khan, the governor of
overthrown by Alauddin Hussain Shah, in about A.D. Bihar. On the eastern frontier of the Empire the
1498. After a short period of confusion, Biswa Sinha, officers of Aurangzeb found ample scope for their
of the Koch tribe, which was Mongoloid in origin, energies. In 1661, Mir Jumla, the governor of Bengal,
established a powerful kingdom with Koch Bihar, set out with a well equipped army towards this
modern Cooch Bihar, as his capital, about A.D. 1515. frontier to check the aggressions of the Ahoms.
The greatest ruler of this line was Biswa Simha’s son The people of Mongoloid origin, the Ahoms had
and successor, Nara Narayan, during whose reign migrated from their original home in Upper Burma
and occupied a part of the Brahmaputra valley
the kingdom of Kamata grew in prosperity, and
as early as the thirteenth century A.D. Gradually
reached the zenith of its power. But in 1581 he was
extending their territories to the west, during the
compelled to cede the portions of his kingdom to
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, they established
the east of the river Sankosh to his nephew, Raghu
a dominion which by the end of the seventeenth
Dev. Thus, the Koch kingdom was divided into two
century stretched up to the Bar Nadi river in the
rival principalities, called Koch Bihar and Koch Hajo
northwest and the Kalang river in the southwest.
by the Muslims. Their feuds drew the intervention of
Here they were gradually Hinduised and adopted
the Ahoms and the Muslims, and in 1639 the western
the Hindu religion and customs.
and the eastern States fell under the supremacy of
the Muslims and the Ahoms respectively. At the same time, the eastern limit of the
Mughal Empire had been extended up to the Bar
The Ahoms, a section of the Shan tribe, who Nadi river by the conquest of Koch Jaho, embracing
appeared in Assam in about A.D. 1215, gradually the present districts of Kamarupa and Goalpara.
consolidated their position and established a This made a conflict between the Mughals and the
strong monarchy which lasted for six centuries. Ahoms inevitable. As a matter of fact, the Mughals
During the period under review, they checked the had already had to fight hard with the Ahoms, when
eastward expansion of the kings of Kamarupa and the latter raided the eastern frontier of the Empire
the Sultans of Bengal. The kingdom of the Ahoms during the reign of Shah Jahan, and a peace was
became vulnerable to Muslim attacks only after concluded early in 1639. But taking advantage of
the latter had subjugated Kamarupa. Thus Ala-u- the war of succession, the Ahoms occupied Gauhati
din Hussain Shah of Bengal led an expedition into in 1658 and seised 140 horses, 40 pieces of cannon,
Assam when it was ruled by Suhenpha. In spite of 20 matchlocks and much property. To punish there
the initial success of Muslim arms, this expedition aggressors, Mir Jumla started from Dacca early in
had a disastrous end. There was no Ahom-Muslim November 1661, with a powerful army of 12,000
conflict for more than thirty years, till the second cavalry and 30,000 infantry, provided with artillery,
phase of it began when invasions into Assam were provisions for siege and a number of armed boats,
conducted by some local Muhamadan chieftains of which were indispensably necessary for carrying
Bengal. But their attempts also failed by September on war in those parts. His early operations were
1533. Thus the attempt of the Muslims of Bengal to successful. He conquered both Cooch Bihar and
conquer Assam ended in failure by the thirties of Assam, and sharing with the common soldiers all
the sixteenth century. the hardships which the “opposition of nature and
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man” could impose during his “triumphant march”,he could not be wholly eradicated. It continued to
reached Garhgaon, the capital of the Ahom kingdom, harass the people of eastern Bengal, till late in the
on the 17th March, 1662. The Ahoms now offered eighteenth century.
little resistance and left their capital and property
Shivaji and the Early Maratha Kingdom
to the mercy of the imperialist, who got enormous
spoils. During the first half of the seventeenth century,
when the Mughal empire was at the height of its
But nature soon fought for the Ahoms. With
glory, the rise of the Marathas under Shivaji gave
the commencement of the rainy season, Mir Jumla’s
a severe jolt to it. In the next half century, most of
army suffered terribly from the unhealthy climate
the military resources of the Mughal empire had
and lack of provisions and medicine. Emboldened
to be deployed against the Marathas: so much so
by this, the Ahoms, who “had been scared away and
that the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb had to spend
not crushed”,soon resumed the offensive and began
the last twenty five years of his reign in the Deccan
to harams the Mughals, whose suffering increased
owing to the outbreak of pestilence and famine in desperately fighting the Marathas. The nearly
their camp. But, undaunted by the odds, the Mughal half-century long struggle against the Marathas
governor continued to fights and resumed the proved disastrous for the Mughal empire. Four
offensive after the rains. Considering that further generations of the great Mughals, from Akbar to
resistances would be of no avail, the Ahoms Aurangzeb, had spend the resources of the empire
concluded a treaty of peace with the imperialists. in establishing their hegemony over the Deccan; but
Thus, “judged as a military exploit”, remarks Sir J.N. when it became a near reality, the Marathas washed
Sarkar,“Mir Jumla’s invasion of Assam was a success”. out all their achievement in the latter half of the
The Ahom king, Jayadhvaj, promised to pay an seventeenth century. They emerged as the most
annual tribute, and a heavy war-indemnity, a part of formidable power in India, till they were decisively
which was to be delivered immediately and the rest defeated in the third battle of Panipat, in 1761.
was to be cleared off during the next twelve months The history of the Marathas can be divided into
in three equal instalments. The Mughals were also two well-marked phases namely the earlier phase
to occupy more than half the province of Darrang, from the later half of the seventeenth century till
rich in elephants. But this success was purchased the death of Aurangzeb i.e. the period of Shivaji,
at a great cost. It caused immense hardships to Sambhaji, Rajaram and Tarabai and the letter
the Mughals and the loss of many lives, including Mughal phase, when the Peshwas became the de
that of Mr Jumla himself, one of Aurangzeb’s best facto rulers and the Maratha empire turned into a
generals, who died on the 30th March, 1663, on his loose confederacy of the Maratha chiefs under the
way back to Dacca. It was also short-lived. A few leadership of the Peshwa. During the later phase,
years later the Ahoms reoccupied Kamarupa. The the Maratha king was completely relegated into the
Mughal government carried on a long desultory background and his status was reduced to mere
warfare, but with no permanent advantage. ‘flag king’. It was during this phase that the Maratha
Shaista Khan, son of Asaf Khan, and maternal influence spread like a ‘conflagration’ from the far
uncle of Aurangzeb, was appointed governor South to Northwest frontier of India and they began
of Bengal after the short and unsuccessful to dream of themselves as true successors to the
administration of an acting viceroy, which Mughals. This within half a century the Marathas
immediately followed the death of Mir Jumla. He emerged as a bridge between the great Mughals
held this post for about thirty years, with a break of and the rise of the British power in India.
less than three years, and died at Agra, in 1694, when The rise of the Marathas in the latter half
he was more than ninety years old. He chastised the of the seventeenth century, however, was not a
Portuguese pirates, annexed the island of Sondip “sudden conflagration”, as described by Grant Duff.
in the Bay of Bengal, which had been a stronghold A number of diverse factors, including geography,
of pirates, and conquered Chittagong (1666) from polity socio-religious and cultural influences and
their ally, the King of Arakan. But the evil of piracy conditions, played an equal part in their rise as the
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most formidable challenge to the Mughal power Ranade lays great stress “on the close
in India. connection between the religious and political
upheaval in Maharashtra”. The spread of the Bhakti
Factors Leading to the Rise of the Marathas
movement in Maharashtra inculcated the spirit
The popular maxim of Indian history that of oneness among the Maratha. Shivaji’s father
“unproductive lands and difficult terrain produce teacher Ramdas Samarth (1680-82) (or Samarth Guru
brave and sturdy warriors” is equally applicable to the Ramdas), the author of the book ‘Dasbodh’, taught
Marathas. The broken rocky nature of the Maratha the philosophy of action or karma and exhorted
country kept the population down, for cultivation Shivaji’s son Sambhaji to unite all Marathas and to
was comparatively difficult and geography served as propagate the ‘Maharashtra dharma’. By Maharashtra
a barrier to trade and commerce. The mountainous dharma, he meant a liberal religion which was free
country provided security to the Marathas, on one from caste discriminations, raised the status of
hand, and made them hardy soldiers with a spirit of women, preferred Bhakti to rituals and checked
self-reliance and capacity for hard work, on the other. the excesses of polytheism. This was the dharma
The broken ranges of hills provided the Marathas preached by the saints from the days of Jnaneshvar
“nature-made and easily defensible rock forts”. Sir and Namdev to Tukaram, and Samarth Ramdas
Jadunath Sarkar says,“the nature developed in the gave expression to this noble vision in his work
Marathas self-reliance, courage, perseverance, a Anandavana Bhuvana. The ‘elevated teachings’ of
stern simplicity, a rough straightforwardness, a social the saints played a significant role in provoking and
equality and consequently pride in the dignity of
sustaining a new national spirit among the Marathas
man as man”. There were different ethnic elements
and provided a fresh spiritual background for their
in the Maratha population representing Aryan,
political activities.
Dravidian, foreign and tribal elements. The civil
institutions as also the religious systems maintained Politically speaking, the ground for
an equilibrium in the composite society, free from establishment of an independent Maratha state
the shackles of rigidity. The literature and language was prepared by the advance of the Mughal armies
of the Marathas also acted as a unifying force. in the south. The fall of Khandesh, the gradual
disappearance of Ahmadnagar and the creation of
Western Maharashtra and Konkan, the actual
the Mughal viceroyalty in the Deccan affected every
homeland of the Marathas, remained almost free
aspect of Marathi life, which induced an awakening
from Muslim political influence. The hold of the among the Marathas as a nation under leadership
Bahmani Sultans of Bijapur and Golcunda—over of Shivaji and others that followed him.
this region was superficial. Even before the rise of
Shivaji, the Marathas occupied a privileged position Shivaji (1647-80)
in administrative and military fields. Many Maratha Shivaji, born in 1627, in fort of Shivner, belonged
silahdars and mansabdars were employed in the to the Bhonsle clan and his grandfather, Maloji rose
Bahmani kingdom and its successors, namely, to the prominence in the Nizamshahi kingdom of
Adilshahi kingdom of Bijapur and Nizamshahi Ahmadnagar. Maloji’s eldest son, Shahji, father of
kingdom of Ahmednagar. Malik Ambar of Shivaji, married Jijabai, daughter of a Nizamshahi
Ahmadnagar made friends with the Marathas and noble named Lakuji Jadav Rao, a descendant of the
using their best talent and cooperation, both for Yadavas of Devagiri. Shahji played an important part
war and administration, he improved revenues in the political and military affairs of Nizamshahi
of that kingdom and successfully opposed the kingdom and fought for Ahmadnagar in its final
Mughal advance for a quarter of a century. In this struggle against the Mughals in 1636. He then
grand political struggle Shivaji’s father, Shahji, and entered in the service of Bijapur and subsequently,
grandfather, Maloji, were closely associated with had to flee for life to Karnatak after entrusting his
Malik Ambar in such a manner that they gradually paternal jagir of Poona and the care of his wife
realised their strength and asserted their power in Jijabai and her young son Shivaji to his trusted
course of time. agent Dadaji Kondadeva who was earlier an officer
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of the Adilshahi kingdom. Probably in 1637 or 1638, resistance, Shivaji negotiated for submission and a
Dadaji became the guardian of Shivaji and the treaty was concluded at Purandhar (1665), by which
administration of the Jagir remained under Dadaji’s Shivaji was allowed to retain twelve of his forts,
de facto control till his death in 1947 when Shivaji including Raigah, on condition of obedience and
assumed full charge. The jagir entrusted by Shahji service to the Mughals and surrender to twenty-three
to the care of Dadaji extended over the regions of his forts. After the treaty of Purandhar, Shivaji’s
known as the Mavals. visit to the Mughal court at Agra, his confinement
Shivaji’s early campaigns were directed against there and his great escape are well-known facts of
the Adilshahi kingdom of Bijapur. He took care to history. After returning to Deccan in 1666, Shivaji
maintain peace with the Mughals because he was took no aggressive measures and devoted a year
or two in reorganising his resources. On the other
not strong enough to fight on two fronts. In 1653,
hand, Muazzam, the Mughal viceroy in the Deccan,
he captured Kalyan, an important city and wealthy
also adopted a conciliatory policy and Aurangzeb
mart of the Adilshahis on the west coast. From 1657
conferred the title of ‘Raja’ on Shivaji and his son
to 1660, Shivaji repeatedly attacked and plundered Sambhaji was granted a mansab and jagir in Berar.
the Adilshahi territories. Thereupon the widowes But the three-year long peace (1667-70) was broken
queen of Muhammad Adil Shah decided to take when Aurangzeb attacked a part of the jagir in Berar.
vigorous measures to put down Shivaji’s power by Now Shivaji, with a second sack and plunder of Surat
capturing him dead or alive. In 1660, Afzal Khan, in 1670, renewed his attacks against the Mughal and
a front-rank noble and general of the Adilshahi the Adilshahi territories. In 1674, he arranged his
kingdom was entrusted with the command of an grand coronation according to the Vedic rites at his
expedition against Shivaji. Afzal Khan proposed capital Raigarh. On this occasion he announced the
an interview with Shivaji, promosing him pardon formation of his sovereign state. He also introduced
and grant of territory. But his actual plan was to a new era of his own, dating from his coronation.
arrest Shivaji. At the said meeting, when Afzal Khan With all the splendour and demonstration
while embracing Shivaji attacked him with a dagger, of Shivaji’s coronation and the lofty titles of full
the latter promptly killed him with the tiger-claws sovereignty assumed by him, his actual dominion
(baghnakh). was hardly more than two hundred miles in length
Meanwhile Aurangzeb deputed his maternal and far less in breadth. Even the whole Maratha
uncle Shayista Khan to the Deccan to annihilate country had not come under his control. The Siddis
Shivaji. Early in 1660 a joint attack was launched of Janjira and the Portuguese were his constant
against Shivaji, the Mughals advancing from the enemies on the west coast. The Mughal pressure
north and the Bijapuris from the south. For three from the north was increasing. Even his brother,
years (1660-63), Shivaji was so hunted from all Vyankoji, in the south had imitated him and
directions that he became a homeless wanderer. announced his sovereignty at Tanjavur in a similar
At this juncture, he launched a night attack at the coronation ceremony. Expansion of his dominion
well-guarded mansion of Shayista Khan who was thus became a necessity for Shivaji. It was against this
wounded in the attack and whose son was killed.This background that Shivaji marched for his longest and
incident gave a rude shock to the Mughal prestige last campaign, in 1677, which took him to Karnatak
in the Deccan, leading to the recall of Shayista Khan and Tamil Nadu. The objective of his campaign was
and the appointment of Aurangzeb’s son Muazzam the subjugation of the Adilshahi kingdom of Bijapur,
as viceroy in the Deccan. The next blow to the for which he entered into a secret pact with the
Mughal prestige in the Deccan was the sack of Surat Sultan of Golcunda through the good offices of
by Shivaji in 1664, which was followed by plunder Madanna and Akanna, the two Brahmin ministers
of Ahmadnagar. In 1665, Aurangzeb entrusted the of Golcunda. As per the terms of treaty between
task of suppressing Shivaji to Mirza Raja Jai Singh the Marathas and Golcunda, it was decided that the
of Amber who opened the campaign with the siege conquered Adilshahi territories would be divided
of Purandhar. Driven to desperation after months of between the two parties and both would cooperate
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in resisting the Mughal invasions against either of 3. The waqia-navis or the mantri. His duties were
them. During the course of this campaign, Shivaji similar to those of a Home Minister of today.
conquered Gingee, Madurai, Vellore etc. and about 4. The Dabir or the Sumanta. He was in-charge
199 forts in Karnatak and Tamil Nadu. He also settled of foreign affairs.
the affairs with his brother Vyankoji, who was ruling
5. The shru-navis (surnis) or the sachiv. He looked
at Tanjavur. In order to further extend his kingdom
to the coastal region, he seised certain territories to after the royal correspondence.
the south of Goa and conquered the island of Janjira 6. The pandit rao. He was the minister of religion.
(70 km south of Bombay) from its Abyssinian ruler 7. The sar-i-naubat or the senapati. He was the
called the Siddis. The Karnatak expedition proved commander-in-chief and in this capacity he
to be Shivaji’s last great achievement. maintained the army.
The last two years of Shivaji’s life were tragic. 8. The nyayadhish. He was the Chief Justice
In December 1678, his son, Sambhaji, escaped with exercising jurisdiction over all civil and
his wife, Yesubai, and joined Diler Khan, the Mughal criminal cases in the kingdom.
governor in the Deccan. It was nearly after a year
Besides performing the departmental duties,
that he returned to the Maratha dominion. During
three of the ministers the Peshwa, the sachiva and
this period, the Mughals exerted great pressure on
the mantri were put in-charge of extensive provinces.
the Marathas. All these events had a shattering effect
Moreover, all ministers, except the pandit rao and the
on Shivaji’s health from which he never recovered
nyayadhish, had to serve in war whenever necessary.
and died on April 4, 1680.
In his departmental duties each minister was assisted
Shivaji’s Administration: Shivaji was the by a staff of eight clerks:diwan (secretary), majumdar
master of extensive territories in Maharashtra, (auditor and accountant), fadnis (deputy auditor).
Karnatak and Tamil Nadu. His empire was divided Sabnis or daftardar (office-in-charge), karkhanis
into two parts: swaraj (own kingdom) or mulk-i-
(commissary), chitins (correspondence clerk), jamdar
qudim (old territory), and an undefined belt of land
(treasurer) and potnis (cashier).
legally part of the Mughal empire which paid chauth
but was not subject to Shivaji’s administration. There were eighteen departments in the state,
Shivaji Hinduised the administration by appointing which were looked after by the ministers under the
Hindus to high offices and by replacing Urdu and guidance of the king. The swaraj territory, which was
Persian by Marathi as the language for official work. directly under the rule of Shivaji, was divided into a
A dictionary of official terms, entitled ‘Raja Vyavahara number of prants (groups of district) which were all
Kosha’, was prepared by a panel of experts under aggregated into three provinces, each being placed
the supervision of Raghunath Pandit Hanumante. under a viceroy. The system of jagirs was abolished
At the time of his coronation, he announced the and the officers were paid in cash, a practice which
scheme of his administration with regulations and resulted in great administrative efficiency. Though
duties of his Council of Ministers (known as ashta the Maratha bureaucracy was well adapted to meet
pradhan mandal). the needs of the time, it contained within itself the
seeds of dissolution. All members of the Council,

The eight ministers were: except the pandit rao and the nyayadhish, were
1. The Peshwa or the mukhya pradhan. He was expected to be like the Mughal officers, military
the king’s principal minister. He performed commanders who, when they got an opportunity,
all tasks of administration, put his seal on tried to set up their own independent power, as
official letters and documents and made happened during the later period of Maratha history.
arrangements for the preservation of the Shivaji guarded against this danger by making a rule
conquered districts. that none of these offices should be hereditary, but
2. The Mazumdar or the amatya. He was the after his death this practice was departed from with
minister for finance and revenue. the result that all his plans were upset.
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Revenue Systems: Shivaji’s revenue system Ranade, Chauth was a military contribution in lieu
was based on the principles followed by Malik Amber of protection against the invasion of a third power.
in the Ahmadnagar kingdom. The provinces in the But Jadunath Sarkar does not agree with this view.
swaraj region were, for revenue purposes, divided He says that the payment of chauth merely saved a
into a number of prants, each consisting of two or place from the unwelcome presence of the Maratha
more districts. The number of prants in Sahu’s time soldiers and civil underlings; it did not impose on
was thirty-seven; some of these might have been Shivaji any corresponding obligation to guard the
created after Shivaji’s death. district from foreign invasion or internal disorder.
Shivaji did away with the hereditary revenue S.G. Sardesai says that chauth was a military tribute
officers, such as the patil, the kulkarni, the deshmukh realised from hostile on conquered territories.
and the deshpande in the districts. The work of The sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10
collection of revenue was entrusted to officers percent which Shivaji demanded on the basis of a
appointed by the king. The officer in-charge of legal fiction that he was the hereditary sardeshmukh
a prant was designated as subahdar, karkum or (Chief Headman) of Maharashtra. According to
muhkya deshadhikari. Sometimes, several prants Ishwari Prasad, desai is the corrupt form of the
were placed under a supervising officer called Sanskrit word deshwami also called deshmukh.
sarsubahdar. Those who were given assignments of The sardeshmukh stood above several desais or
revenue in lieu of cash salary were not empowered deshmukhs, and his duty was to look after the work
to exercise administrative authority over the of the latter. He was paid for his services, and this
peasants. Shivaji discouraged the revenue farming payment was called sardeshmukhi. Shivaji claimed
system and introduced direct management. The to be the hereditary sardeshmukh of his country.
old division of the country into subahs, sarkars,
parganas and mauzas was replaced with a fresh Administration of Justice: The administration
division into mahals, prants, tarafs and mauzas. He of justice was of a primitive kind. There were no
abolished the farming of revenue and in certain regulate courts and no systematic procedure. In
cases resumed the lands given to temples and other villages, the elders held panchayats to settle the
religious and charitable institutions. The system disputes submitted to them. Trial by ordeal was
of payment in cash was enforced throughout the common and we read of men fearlessly grasping red
kingdom. The land was carefully surveyed by means hot iron or plunging their hand into boiling water
of a kathi or measuring rod, and a record was kept or oil. Criminal cases were heard by the patel who
of fields, and annual kabuliyats were taken from was an officer having the qualifications of a modern
those who held them. The state demands was the tahsildar. Appeals in civil and criminal cases were
first fixed at 30 percent, but later it was raised to 40 heard by the Brahmin nyayadhish, whose decisions
percent by Shivaji, when all other taxes and cesses were based upon the ancient Smritis. The final court
had been abolished. The peasant was not left in of appeal was the hazir majlis who seems to have
a state of uncertainty; he knew what he had to disappeared after Shivaji’s death.
pay and, as Pringle Kennedy rightly observes, he Military Organisation: Shivaji was a born
seems to have been able to pay it without any great general and captain of war. He organised the
oppression. The accounts were carefully kept and military system, which he had inherited from his
examined by officers under the king’s personal predecessors, and effected several improvements
control. Agriculture was encouraged; and in times in it. The forts formed a special feature of his military
of famine, grain and money for buying seed were administration. The chronicles mention that there
advanced to the peasants, and this amount was were about 280 forts in his possession. In fact,
realised in installments according to the means of the hill fort with the adjoining territory under a
the debtor. havaldar formed the unit of Shivaji’s government.
Chauth and Sardeshmukhi: The two most He spent a large sum of money in repairing some
important taxes in the Maratha taxation system of the more important forts like Rajgarh, Raigarh,
were chauth and sardeshmukhi. According to Torna and Pratapgarh, and no effort was spared to
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keep their defences in good condition. Each fort under the command of a hazari, and over seven
was under a Maratha havaldar with whom were hazaris was placed a sar-i-naubat.
associated a Brahmin subahdar responsible for civil The army consisted of both Hindus and
and revenue administration, and an officer of the Muslims and no distinction was made. In time of
Prabhu (Kayastha) caste, who held charge of the need Shivaji could also call the feudal forces of the
grain and fodder supply and of the military stores. Maratha wattandars, but he did not place reliance
The havaldar had a garrison under his command, upon them. Soldiers was paid in cash or by an
recruited from the various castes. Shivaji’s political assignment on the district governments. They had
wisdom is reflected in the caste balance which he full confidence in their leader and loved to follow
tried to maintain in order to prevent conspiracy and him to the field of battle. Those who served him
revolt on the part of his officers. loyally were rewarded, and the children and widows
Shivaji maintained a regular, standing army of those who fell in battle were well looked after by
and provided quarters for it during the rainy the state. Shivaji’s liberality attracted men from far
season. At the time of his death, his army, which and wide, and even veteran warriors felt the magic of
was originally a small force, consisted of 30,000 to his powerful personality and regarded it a privilege
40,000 cavalry, and one lakh infantry drawn from the to follow him. His military camp was much better
ranks of the peasantry. He had an elephant corps, than that of latter times. He was always anxious to
which according to the Sabhasad Bakhar, numbered maintain discipline in the army and never allowed
1,260 and also a fleet which contained about 200 anything which might lower the morale of his troops.
men of war. The strength of his artillery arm is not During the conduct of his military campaigns, Shivaji
precisely known, though Orme writes that “he had maintained a very high moral and ethical standards,
previously purchased eight pieces of cannon and as the Mughal historian Khafi Khan writes:
lead, sufficient for all his matchlocks from the French “…. But he made it a rule that whenever his
Director of Surat”. The Sabhasad mentions the use followers went plundering, they should do no harm
of firearms in battles, and says that the enemies to the mosques, the Book of God, or the woman of
were attacked with rockets, musket shots, bombs anyone. Whenever a copy of the sacred Quran came
and stones. into his hands, he treated it with respect, and gave it
The army had the same gradation of officers to some of his Muslim followers. When the women
as obtained in the civil administration. The cavalry of any Hindus or Muslims were taken prisoners by
was divided into two classes the bargirs and the his men, he watched over them until their relations
shiledars. The former were supplied with horses and came with a suitable ransom to buy their liberty.”
arms by the state, while the latter had to find their The same writer says at another place:“Shivaji
own equipment. One unit in the cavalry was formed had always striven to maintain the honour of the
to twenty-five troopers; over them was placed a people in his territories. He persevered in a course
havaldar, and five havaldars formed one jumla under of rebellion, the plundering caravans, and troubling
a jumladar. The jumladars made a hazari charge, and making; but he entirely abstained from other
five hazaris were placed under a panjhazari. Who was disgraceful acts, and was careful to maintain the
given a salary of 2,000 huns. The panjhazaris were honour of women and children of Muslims when
under the command of a sar-i-naubat. For every they fell into his hands. His injunctions upon this
twenty-five troopers, a farriers and a water-carrier point were very strict, and anyone who disobeyed
were provided by the state. the received punishment.”
The infantry army was similarly organised. It Shivaji was a born leader. From the son of
was divided into regiments, brigades and divisions. a small jagirdar of Ahmadnagar, he rose to be an
The smallest unit was formed by nine soldiers who independent king and a formidable foe of the
were under the command of a naik. Over five such Mughal empire. His greatest contribution was that
naiks was placed a havaldar, two or three of whom he united the Marathas and instilled in them the
formed the charge of a jumladar. He jumladars were sense of self-pride, sacrifice and chivalry.
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Sambhaji (1680-89) Rajaram (1689-1700)
The death of Shivaji (1680) was followed by At the time of Sambhaji’s death, his son, Sahu,
internal dissensions in the newly created Maratha was only seven years old. Rajaram, the younger son of
kingdom. There was a dispute about succession Shivaji and stepbrother of Sambhaji, who had been
between the two sons of Shivaji from his two kept in prison by the latter, was proclaimed King
different wives Sambhaji and Rajaram. Finally, after by the Maratha Council of Ministers and crowned
deposing Rajaram from the throne, Sambhaji or at Raigarh in February 1689. But soon thereafter,
apprehending a Mughal attack, Rajaram left Raigarh
Sambhuji ascended the throne on July 20, 1680.
and moving from one place to another, ultimately
For more than a year aftwerwards, however, his
reached Jinji or Gingee (South Arcot district, Tamil
position continued to be insecure. As a matter of Nadu). The Maratha Council of Ministers and other
fact, his whole reign was distributed by frequent officials also joined him at Gingee which, till 1698,
conspiracies and desertions among his officers and became the center of Maratha activity against the
rebellion among his vassals. His character failed to Mughals.
inspire the loyalty of the old and trusted servants of Shortly after Rajaram flight to Gingee, the
the state. Distrust of the Maratha leaders led him to Mughals under Zulfiqar Khan captured Raigarh
place his confidence in a Brahmin whom he invested in October 1689 and all members of Sambhaji’s
with the supreme control of the administration and including his son Shahu, fell into Mughal hands.
the title of Kavi-Kalash. In 1680-81, when Aurangzeb Although Sahu was given the title of Raja and grated
was engaged in the Rajput War, Sambhaji renewed a mansab, he virtually remained a prisoner in the
war with the Mughals raided Burhanpur and even hand of the Mughals till the death of Aurangzeb
attempted an attack on Ahmadnagar. While these (1707). Thus at the close of 1689, the situation in
raid were going on Aurangzeb’s rebellious son, Akbar the Maratha kingdom had completely changed.
arrived in the Deccan and sought protection from The royal family was virtually immobilised, the
Sambhaji, which led to the arrival of Aurangzeb Maratha country no longer had a common head
in the Deccan and his stay there till his death. or a central government and the whole of the
Sambhaji made a grandiose plan to install Akbar Deccan was divided into different spheres of
on the Mughal throne after removing his father. influence under various Maratha commanders.
But instead of making any concrete preparations With a nominal Maratha king living at a distance
to the end, he merely frittered away his energy from the Maratha homeland, the resistance to
and resources in fights with the Siddis of Janjira the Mughals in the Deccan was organised by the
and the Portuguese. At long last, the disillusioned Maratha leaders and commanders. This situation
Akbar left for Persia, in February 1687, Sambhaji also changed the basic character of the Mughal-Maratha
struggle into a civil war or a war or independence.
did not utilize the opportunity to improve his own
The continuing Mughal threat produced four able
position, when Aurangzeb was busy with Bijapur and
leaders: Nilakantha Moreshwas Pingle (the Peshwa),
Golcunda. After the annexation of these kingdoms
Ramchandra Nikantha Bavedekar (the amatya),
and Akbar’s flight from India, Aurangzeb was free to
Shankarji Malhar (the sachive) and Prahalad Niraji
deal exclusively with the Marathas. Politically isolated Ravji (the son of the late chief justice). Three other
after the fall of Bijapur and Golcunda distracted by men, who had hitherto served in unimportant
internal conspiracies and uprisings, dependent solely posts, came to the front by virtue of their abilities:
upon Kavi-Kalash whom the Marathas regarded as a Dhanaji Jadhav, Santaji Ghorpare and Parashuram
‘foreigner’, Shambhaji completely lost his grip on the Trimbak. Ramchandra Bavdekar was made dictator
affairs of state. While absorbed in cautious merry- (hukumatpandh) with full authority over the Maratha
making he was captured, along with Kavi-Kalash, by commanders and other officials in head and a central
a Mughal officer in February 1689 and after cruel government among the Marathas, as every Maratha
torture for more than three weeks, they were hacked captain with own retainers fought and raided in
to pieces; limb by limb, on March 21, 1689. a different quarter and on his won account.” This
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situation, along with the grant of jagirs by Rajaram de facto ruler of the state. She saved the Maratha
to different Maratha commanders, subsequently state during a period of grave crisis. The succession
led to the formation of the ‘Maratha confederacy’. to the throne was in dispute, personal jealousies
The return to the Mughal-Maratha struggle divided the Maratha leaders. Several thousands of
during the reign of Rajaram, the Maratha movels (Maratha hill infantry) were in the Mughal
commanders with their plundering hosts ravaged pay. Aurangzeb, after the fall of Gingee, concentrated
the country, cut off the Mughal convoys and all his resources on the siege of successive Maratha
spread terror and confusion everywhere. Towards forts. In this situation, Tarabai played a role with
the middle of 1690, the Marathas won their first elicited high praise from the hostile Muslim historian
important victory, when the Mughal General Sharza Khafi Khan who says, “under Tarabai’s guidance,
Khan was captured near Satara with his family, horses Maratha activities began to increase daily. She
and the entire beg and baggage of his army. In 1692 took into her son hands the control of all affairs,
there was a conspicuous success; the recovery of such as the appointment and change of generals
Panhala. Throughout 1694 and 1695 the Mughals the cultivation of the country and the planning
were worn down by desultory fighting and the end of raids into the Mughal territory. She made such
of 1695 Santaji defeated and killed two top-ranking arrangements for sending troops to ravage the ‘six
Mughal Generals, Qasim and Himmat Khan. In 1696- subahs’ of the Deccan the winning the heart of her
97 the Maratha cause was weakened by a civil war officers, that all the efforts Aurangzeb against the
which had its origin in the rivalry of Sanataji and Marathas down to the end of his reign failed.”
Dhanaji for the high office of senapati (commander- Tarabai moved from place to place with a
in-cheif ). In Gingee fell to the Mughals and after view to guiding the Maratha operations against
fleeing from there Rajaram reached Vishalgarh the Mughals. In 1703, the Marathas attacked Bears.
near Maharashtra. In 1966 he formed plans for an In 1706, they invaded Gujarat and sacked Baroda.
extensive raid through Khandesh and Berar and In the same year, the Marathas threatened the
started from Satrara which had become the Maratha camp of Aurangzeb at Ahmadnagar. The province
capital after the fall of Gingee. But soon afterwards of Aurangabad was ravaged on main occasion. In
Rajaram died in March 1700. the midst of this confusion and disorder, Aurangzeb
died on March 3, 1707, while Tarabai was still power,
Tarabai (1700-71) during the nearly half century long Mughals-
After Rajaram’s death, his minor son by his Maratha struggle. Aurangzeb’s grand political
wife, Tarabai, named Shivaji II, was placed on the designs has been frustrated, his armies shattered
throne. Tarabai’s energy and ability made her the and his resources exhausted.
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CHAPTER-10
ECONOMY AND SOCIETY, 16TH
AND 17TH CENTURIES
These estimates received wide acceptance.

POPULATION OF MUGHAL INDIA
It was, however, hard to rest content with an Nevertheless, Moreland’s basic assumptions
admission that a definitive demographic history of (and therefore his figures) are questionable. For
India from c. 1601 to 1872 is impossible. No phase of estimating the population of northern India, he
makes the assumptions that
economic history can be studied without allowing
for demographic factor. For pre-modern societies, 1. Measurement was made of the cultivated
population growth is often considered as a major land only; and
index of economic growth. It is, therefore, legitimate 2. It was carried out by the Mughal administration
to attempt estimating the Indian population on the to completion in all localities for which any
basis of quantitative data of diverse kind that are figures are offered.
available to us. It has been shown on the basis of textual as
On the basis of the Extent of Cultivated Area well as statistical evidence that the arazil of the Ain
was area measured for revenue purposes which
William Harrison Moreland made the first
included, besides the cultivated area current,
attempt to estimate the population with the help
fallows and some cultivable and uncultivable
of the data of the Ain-i-Akbar. He tried to determine
waste. Moreover, measurement by no means was
the population of northern India on the basis of the
completed everywhere.
figures given in the Ain. This work gives figures for
arazi (measured area) which he took to represent the Thus, Moreland’s estimate of the population of
gross cropped area. Comparing the arazi with the northern India loses much of its credibility. It is weaker
gross cultivation at the beginning of this century and still for Deccan and south India. The army:civilian
ratio not only arbitrary but undependable; the
assuming a constant correspondence between the
comparison with the pre-World War I. France and
extent of cultivation and the size of the population
Germany seems, in particular to be quite inept, since
right through the intervening period, he concluded
the military: civilian ratios maintainable in modern
that from “Multan to Monglyr” there were 30 to 40
states and economies are so variable. Any of these
million people at the end of the 16th century.
can by no stretch of the imagination be used to set
Applying Civilian: Soldier Ratio limits for the range military:civilians ratios in pre-
For the Deccan and south India, Moreland took modern regimes in the tropical zones. This is apart
as the basis of his calculating the military strength from the fact that Moreland’s count of the number
of the Vijaynagar Empire and Deccan Sultanates. of troops in the Deccan kingdoms was based on
Taking a rather arbitrary ratio of 1:30 between the very general statement by European travellers.
soldiers and civilian population, he estimated the However, Moreland has given inadequate
poulation of the reign at 30 million. Allowing for weight to the areas outside the two region. To make
other territories lying within the pre-1947 limits of an appropriate allowance for these regions, Kingsley
India but not covered by his two basic assumptions, Davis raised Moreland’s estimate for the whole
he put the population of Akbar’s Empire in 1600 at of India to 125 millions in his book Population of
60 millions, and of India as a whole at 100 millions. India and Pakistan. This notification, reasonable
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insofar as it goes, does not, of course, remove the and wages given in the Ain and, then, of all-India
more substantial objections to Moreland’s method average prices and wages of the early 1960s. The
indicated above. yields and crop-rates by Abul Fazl provide him with
In spite of the various objections to the a means of measuring the total food consumption
estimates of Moreland, it still remains legitimate to in Akbar’s time which was 1/5th of what it was in
use the extent of cultivation to make an estimate of the 1960s (cultivation was then concentrated in
population. The arazi figures of the Ain can provide the areas with highest yields). He found that the
the means of working out the extent of cultivation productivity per unit of the area should have been
in 1601. 25 to 30 percent higher in 1595 than in 1961. This,
Making allowance for cultivable and in turn, enables him to estimate the productivity
uncultivable waste included in the arazi and per worker in agriculture at a level twice as high in
establishing the extent of measurement in various 1595 as in 1961.
parts of the Mughal Empire, Shireen Moosvi in Basing himself on the statistics of consumption
her book—Economy of the Mughal Empire— in the 1960s, Desai extrapolated the level of
has concluded that the area under cultivation in consumption, in 1595, and found that the
Mughal Empire, in 1601, was about 55 percent of consumption level was somewhere between 1.4
the cultivated area in the corresponding region, in and 1.8 times then modern level. He then proceeds
1909-10. to breakdown the average consumption at the end
This estimate receives further reinforcement of the 16th century for each major agricultural item.
from the extent of cultivation worked out by Ifran With these figures at hand and taking into
Habib from a detailed analysis and comparison of account other relevant modern data, Desai worked
the number and size of villages in various regions out the area under the various crops per capita
of the Empire, in the 17th century and in 1881. Irfan which he then mutlplied by the revenue rates, to
Habib suggests that the area under plough, in the estimate per capita land revenue.
17th century, was more than one-half but less than Dividing the total jama (which Desai treats as
two-thirds of the ploughed area in 1900.
the total land revenue) by this estimated per capita
On the basis of the above mentioned revenue, the population of the Empire works out
analysis, Shireen Moosvi makes the following three at about 65 millions which confirms Moreland’s
assumptions: estimate.
1. The total cultivation, in 1601, was 50 to 55 Desai’s assumptions and method have been
percent of what it was during the first decade criticised by Alan Heston and Shireen Moosvi.
of the present century. Heston’s main objection is that the yields for 1595
2. The urban population was 15 percent of the have been overestimated. While Shireen Moosvi
total and, thus, the rural population was 85 makes some more serious objections, namely, he
percent of the total population. used modern all-India statistics to compare with
3. The average agricultural holding in 1601 was 16th century data. Since the prices and wages in the
107 percent larger than in 1990. Ain are those of the imperial camp and, therefore,
She gives the estimate of the population of apply to Agra (and possibly to Lahore), it is surely
India in the 17th century as between, 140 and 150 inappropriate to compare these with modern all
millions. India average. In the same way, the Ain’s standard
crop-rates applied either to the immediate vicinity
Using Total and Per Capita Land Revenue of Sher Shah’s capital, Delhi or at the most to the
Another significant attempt to estimate region where the later dastur-ul amals (schedules of
population, by using different kinds of data was revenue rates) were in force, i.e., mainly Uttar Pradesh,
made by Ashok V. Desai.This required rather complex Haryana and Punjab. These are thus not comparable
assumptions. Desai compared the purchasing power to all-India yields. Moreover, Desai divided the total
of the lowest urban wages on the basis first of prices jama of the Empire by the hypothetical land-tax per
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ECONOMY AND SOCIETY, 16TH AND 17TH CENTURIES

capita without making any distinction between the Comparison with Contemporary Europe
zabt provinces (for which the various cash-revenue The accompanying tables gives population
rates had been framed) and the other regions where growth rates (compound) calculated from estimates
the tax incidence might have been at a different of European countries (1600-1700):
level altogether. Another assumption of his which
requires correction is that the jama was equal to Spain and Portugal 0.12
the total land revenue whereas, given the purpose Italy 0.00
for which it was fixed, it could have only been an France 0.08
estimate of the net income from tax-realisation by
the jagirdars to whom the revenue were assigned. British Isles 0.31
Moreover, the pattern of consumption in Germany 0.00
Akbar’s India was not comparable to that of 1960s Switzerland 0.18
because the Mughal Empire was mainly confined Russia 0.12
to wheat-eating region, and oil-seeds consumption Total 0.10
could not possibly be as high as in 1595 as in the
1960s. These estimates show that compared to the
European demographic experience, the Mughal
Shireen Moosvi makes use of the basic method
suggested by Desai but modified his assumption Empire was by no means exceptionally sluggish in
for 1870s to meet the objections raised. She uses raising its population. The rate of 0.21 percent on the
the data available for 1860-70 for purposes of contrary suggest an economy in which there was
comparison and extrapolations first, working out some room for ‘national savings’ and net increase in
the population for five provinces of Akbar’s India food production, although the growth, on balance,
that were under zabt and then assuming that the was slow. The slowness must have come from the
population ratio of these provinces to that of the natural calamities like famines as well as the man-
Empire, and of the latter to the whole of India, made factors (of which the heavy revenue demand
have remained constant since 1601, estimates the could have been one). If one had data for estimating
population of Akbar’s Empire at 100 millions and populations of some intermediate points such as
that of India (pre 1947 boundaries) at 145 millions. the year 1650 and 1700, one could perhaps have
Average Rate of Population Growth worked out the rate of population growth for shorter
Taking the population of India to be around period and obtain a closer view of the efficiency
145 millions in 1601 and 225 million in 1871— of Mughal economy within those periods. Such
this being the total counted by the first census of estimates would have been helpful, too, in indicating
1872 as modified by Davis to allow fuller territorial whether the rate of population growth in the 18th
coverage the compound annual rate of growth of century (period of the dissolution of the Mughal
the country’s population for the period 1601 to 1872 Empire signified any different movement in the
comes to 0.21% per annum. Adopting this rate and economy than the one for the 17th century the
given the two population figures for 1601 and 1872, classic period of that Empire).
one gets for 1801 a population of some 21 millions.

This offers a welcome collaboration of our estimates; Implications of the Rate of Growth
the most acceptable estimates for 1801 based on An overall annual rate of growth of 0.2 percent
quite different arguments and calculations range for the period 1601-1801 suggests some interesting
from 198 millions to 207 millions. inferences about the Mughal Indian economy. If
The rate of population growth among the last population growth is regarded as an index of the
three decades of the 19th century (1872-1901) was efficiency of a pre-capitalistic economy, the Mughal
0.37 percent annum—a rate higher than the one economy could not been deemed to have been
we have deduced for the long period of 1600-1801, absolutely static of stagnant for the population
but not in itself a very high rate of growth. tended to grow between 36 and 44% in two hundred
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years. Davis, on the basis of the arguments that AGRICULTURAL AND CRAFT
have been heavily criticised, believed in a stable PRODUCTION
population of 125 millions continuing for practically
through the two hundred years from 1601 to 1801, Agricultural Production
thus yielding a zero rate of growth. India has a very large land area with diverse
climatic zones.Throughout its history, agriculture has
Composition of the Population: been its predominant productive activity. During the
Rural and Urban Mughal period, large tracts of land were under the
There is again no direct data about the plough. Contemporary Indian and foreign writers
proportion of urban population. Ifran Habib has praise the fertility of Indian soil.
made an attempt to estimate the urban population Extent of Cultivation
on the basis of the pattern of consumption of In the absence of relevant data, it is difficult
agricultural produce. The Mughal ruling class tended to find out the exact area under the plough.
to lay claim on one half of the total agricultural Nevertheless, the available data helps us to have
produce, but all of it was not taken away from the an idea about the cultivable land during Mughal
rural sector. Assuming that about a quarter of the period.
total agricultural produce was reaching towns, and, Abul Fazl in his Ain-i-Akbar provides area
making allowance for the higher ratio of raw material figures for all the Mughal provinces in north India
in the agricultural produce consumed in the towns, except Bengal, Thatta and Kashmir. In the case
he assumes the urban population to be over 15 of most of the provinces, like Delhi, Agra, Awadh,
percent of the total population. Lahore, Multan, Allahabad and Ajmer, separate
figures are provided for each paragana (with a few
Estimated Population in Various Towns exceptions).
Nizamuddin Ahmad in his Tabaqat-i-Akbari The figures of the Ain-i-Akbar belong to the
(c. 1593) records that in Akbar’s Empire there were year c. 1595. The area figures for the 17th century
120 big towns and 3,200 townships. Taking the for various regions are available in an accountancy
total population of Akbar’s Empire to be nearly 100 manual of A.D. 1686. The same figures have been
millions and the urban population as 15 percent of reproduced in a historical work Chahar Gulshan
it, the average size of these 3,200 towns works out (1739-40). This manual provides measured area
at about 5000 each. However, in the Mughal Empire figures for each province; total number of villages
there were quite a few big towns. The European in each province and a breakup of measured and
travellers provide estimated population of some unmeasured villages.
major cities as follows: As stated earlier, the Ain provides area figures
in most cases for each pargana but it is difficult to say
Town Year Estimate to what extent the pargana was actually measured.
Agra 1609 500,000 The set of figures available from Aurangzeb’s region
Delhi 1659-66 500,000 provide a better picture. These show that almost
fifty percent of the villages were not measured till
Lahore 1581 400,000
A.D. 1686.
Thatta 1631-35 225,000
The figures for Aurangzeb’s reign show that
Ahmedabad 1663 100,000-200,000 the measured area increased compared to the
Surat 1663 200,000 Ain (1595). But it is difficult to say that the total
Patna 1631 20,000 increase in the measured area was due to extension
of cultivation. This may as well have been due to the
Dacca 1630 20,000
inclusion of some of the earlier unmeasured area
Masulipatnam 1672 20,000 under measurement.
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There is a debate among historians as to what of ploughs must be expected from a light plough
these measurement figures actually represent. The that could be carried by the tiller upon his shoulders,
questions raised are: whether these figures are for to the heavy one meant for harder soil. Again, for
the area actually under crop, or cultivable land or the soft soil, the iron plough share or coulter could have
total measured area? W.H. Moreland was of the view been dispensed with, more so as the price of iron
that these figures represent the total cropped area. was high. Many contemporary European travellers
Irfan Habib holds that it would have included noted with surprise that India plough just turned the
cultivable measurement area which was not sown soil and that deep digging was not done, it seems
and also area under habitation, lakes, tanks, parts that this suited to Indian conditions because deep
of forests, etc. Shireen Moosvi agrees with Irfan digging would result in the loss of moisture in the
Habib and has calculated this cultivable waste as ten soil. Moreover, it was only the upper layer which
percent of the measured area. But she feels that even was more fertile.
after decucting this ten percent, the remaining area A separate devise was used for breaking the
cannot be take as net cropped area because large clods of lumps of Earth. This was done with the help
tracts of cultivated areas were not measured. She of wooden boards called patella in parts of north
also thinks that many a times she land under kharif India. Like plough this flat board was also harnessed
and rabi crops was measured separately and, after to a pair of oxen. Generally, a man would stand on the
adding the two, it was recorded as measured area. board to provide weight. The patella was dragged
In such a situation, measurement figures of Mughal on the field by oxen.
period alone are not of much help to ascertain the The sowing of seeds was generally done
extent of cultivation. Irfan Habib and Shireen Moosvi through scattering by hand. In 16th century Barbosa
have taken the help of other available data such also refers to the use of a sort of seed drill in the
as detailed figures of some areas available in some coastal region for sowing rice.
revenue papers, jama figures and dastur rates. These
Efforts were made to increase the fertility of
have been compared with the figures of actually the soil through artificial means. In south India, flocks
cultivated area in the beginning of 20th century. of goat and sheep were widely used. Generally, flocks
According to their estimates the cultivated of these cattle were made to spend a few night
area between the end of the 16th century and the in the agricultural field for their droppings were
beginning of the 20th century almost doubled. considered good manure. It was assumed that if a
The increase in Bihar, Awadh, and parts of Bengal flock of 1000 spend five or six nights in one kani of
is ascribed to the clearance of forest. In Punjab and land (1.32 acres), it was enough to keep land fertile
Sindh the spread of canal network also contributed for 6 to 7 years. (Cambridge Economic History of
to the extension in cultivation. India, I, p. 231). The same practice was commonly
used in northern India also. Fish manure also seems
Means of Cultivation and Irrigation
to have been used in coastal areas.
The Indian peasant used a variety of
Rotation of crops was used for the optimum
implements and techniques for cultivation, utilisation of land throughout the year. It was also
depending on the nature of soil and need of the
considered good to maintain the productivity of the

crops. Similarly, irrigation was done through various soil. Peasants through the experience of generations
means in different regions. had acquired some knowledge of using rotation of
Means and Methods of Cultivation crops for the good of the soil. They would decide
Tillage was performed by harnessing a pair of which crop to be replaced by another in a particular
oxen to the plough. The latter was made of wood field for a better yield.
with an iron ploughshare. Unlike in Europe, neither A semi-circular sickle was used for cutting
horse nor bullock-drawn wheeled plough nor mould the crop.
board were ever used in India. Regional variation, in The harvested crop was spread on the ground
a sprawling country like India, in the size and weight for threshing. Our sources refer to two methods: in
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the first method the crop was beaten with sticks; in 3. In the third method, the rope-pulley was used
the second method the animals were made to move with the addition of the employment of a pair
on the spread out crop. The weight and movement oxen. The use of animal power in his method
of the animals treaded the grain. helped in irrigating larger areas.
The threshed out matter was put in open 4. The fourth device worked on a lever principle.
baskets and the contents were thrown outside the In this method, a long rope is lashed to the
basket at a controlled speed. The chaff got scattered fork of an upright beam or trunk of a tree to
by the wind and the grain fell on the ground. put it in a swinging position. The bucket was
fastened to rope tied on one end of the pole.
Means of Irrigation The pole’s other end carried a weight heavier
Indian agriculture was heavily dependent on than filled bucket. One person is required to
rains for irrigation needs. The major criterion for operate it.
selecting the crops of sowing was availability of rain 5. The fifth method required the use of a wheel.
water in a particular region. Apart from rain water, a In its earlier form, the pots were attached to
number of devices were used for artificial irrigation. the rims of the wheels which was to rotate
Well-irrigation was the most common method with the help of animal power. It was used to
employed throughout the length and breadth of lift water from shallow surface and was of no
the country. A number of methods were used to use for wells.
lift water from wells depending on the watertable The use of wheel for lifting water from the
and technology available. well as also made. In this form, a garland of pots
In northern plains, both masonry and non- was used with 3 wheels, a gear mechanism and
masonry wells were dug. The non-masonry wells animal power. With the help of this device regular
were not durable and some digging was required supply of large amounts of water could be ensured
every year. for irritating large fields. This was also helpful for
The masonry wells were durable and were lifting water from deep wells. The complex machine
suitable for fixing better water lifting devices. The and animal power would have made the device
masonry wells had raised walls and enclosures or expensive. If, therefore, would have been accessible
to the peasants with substantial means.
platforms. Both bricks and stones were used to
construct wells. These wells were usually set inside Lakes, tanks and reservoirs of water were also
with terracotta rings. These are also known as ring used uniformly in all parts of the country. In south
wells. India, this was the most prevalent method used
for irrigation. Here the dams were made over the
A number of devices were used for lifting
rivers. Construction of such reservoirs was beyond
water from the walls.
individual means. It was, therefore, the responsibility
1. The most simple method was to draw water of state, local chiefs and temple managements to
with rope and bucket by hand without any create such facilities. The massive Madag lake built
mechanical aid. Due to its limited capacity, this by Vijaynagar rulers is a marvel of civil engineering
device could not have been used for irrigating of the time. It was built on the Tungabhadra with
large fields. three earth embankments to bridge the gaps in
2. The second method was the employment the hills. When full, this lake was 10-15 miles long.
of pulleys over the wells. The same rope and Each of the three embankments had sluices built
bucket was used over the pulley to lift the to huge slabs of hewn stones.
water. With the help of pulley larger amounts Rajasthan is another region where large
of water could be drawn with less effort than reservoirs for storing water abound. The Dhebar
our first method. Both the above devices were lake in Mewar, according to the Ain-i-Akbari, has
used for the supply of water in domestic use a circumference of 36 miles. The Udaisagar is said
or for irrigating small plots. to have circumference of 12 miles; Rajsamand and
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Jaisamand were other important lakes built in different crop were absent. Here, on wet lands one
Mewar in the 17th century. Similar reservoirs created paddy (rice) crop was in the fields from June/July
with the help of dams in Marwa and Amber regions to December/January and another from January/
were Balsan and Mansagar respectively. February to April/May. In north Arcot, dry crops
Almost every cluster of village had smaller (kumbu, red gram, horse gram, castor) were sown
reservoirs and lakes where rain water was stored. from May to September, October and harvested
Our sources inform us that in the 1650s, Mughal from August to December/January on the wet
administration proposed to advance 40,000 to

lands, in August/September the ragi and cholam
50,000 to the cultivators in Khandesh and Berar for in February and in February/March the paddy crop,
erecting dams for irrigation. It is interesting to note were harvested.
that a wide network of such small dams in Khandesh Rice and wheat were the two major food
is still in use, and they cover the basins of the five crops throughout the country. The regions with
major rivers in this region, viz., Mosam, Girna, Ken, high rainfall (40° to 50°) accounted for the bulk of
Panjbra and Shivan. rice production. The whole of northeast, eastern
In northern plains, canals figure prominently India (Bihar, Bengal, Orissa with parts of Eastern
as a means of irrigation. We have read about canals U.P.), southern coast of Gujarat and south India,
constructed by Sultan Firuz Tughluq, during 14th were rice producing areas. As indicated above, in
century. The trend seems to have continued under south India there were two main seasons of rice
the Mughals. The Nahr Faiz built during Shah Jahan’s cultivation kuddapah-kar and samba-peshanam.
reign was around 150 miles in length. It carried the They were names after the variety of rice cultivated
water from the Yamuna to a large area. Another during the summer and winter seasons.
canal, around 100 miles long, was cut from the river Rice cultivation also reported from irrigated
Ravi near Lahore. Remains of a number of canals areas of Punjab and Deccan. Every region had its
are available in the whole Indus delta. Irfan Habib is own variety of coarse to ordinary to find quality
of the opinion that the main deficiency of Mughal of rice. Regions of Bengal and Bihar produced the
canals was that they did not often run above the finest quality of rice.
surrounding plain, and so the water that could be Like rice, wheat also had specific regions.
obtained from them for irrigation was limited to Punjab, Sind, western Uttar Pradesh and other regions
what could be lifted from them. The network of with little rainfall produced wheat. References to its
canals in the region kept on increasing. Canals are production in Bihar, Gujarat, Deccan and even some
not reported for south India. parts of Bengal are also available.
Apart from these two major crops, barley was
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE
grown extensively in the Central plains. The Ain-
India with extensive land area, different types i-Akbar refers to barley production in Allahabad,
of soils and varying climatic conditions, could boast Awadh, Agra, Ajmer, Delhi, Lahore and Multan etc.
of a large variety of agricultural products. For the
Millet is reported with some exceptions mainly
convenience of study, we will discuss the agricultural
from wheat producing zones. Jowar and bajra were
produce under three heads—food crops, cash crops
the two main millet.

and fruits, vegetables and spices.
Pulses are reported from different regions.
Food Crops Important ones are gram, arhar, moong, moth, urd
The majority of seasonal crops in north and khisari (the latter was grown extensively in
India were grown in two major crop seasons Bihar and the regions of present Madhya Pradesh).
kharif (autumn) and rabi (spring). In some areas, However, Abul Fazl says that its consumption was
the peasants tended to grow even three crops injurious to health.The same is confirmed by modern
by producing some short-term crops in between. researches.
Rice was the main kharif crop and wheat was rabi. It was believed for long that maize (makai or
In south India, these distinct crop-seasons with makka) was not known in India during 17th century.
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Some recent works establish beyond doubt that it Cultivation of tobacco seems to have spread
was grown definitely in Rajasthan and Maharashtra in India in short time. The Ain-i-Akbari does not
and possibly other regions also during the second mention it as crop in any of the dastur circles or
half of the 17th century. other regions. It seems to have been introduced in
India, during the 16th century by the Portuguese.
Cash Crops
Its cultivation was noticed in almost all parts of our
Crops grown mainly for the market are study as a common beverage.
commonly termed as cash crops. These are referred
San or sunn-hemp, a fibre yielding plant, was
in Persian records as jinsi kamil or jinsi ala (superior
cultivated in all the core provinces of the Mughal
grade crops). Unlike the seasonal food crops, these
Empire (Awadh, Allahabad, Agra, Lahore, Ajmer etc.).
occupied the fields almost the whole year. The major
cash crops in 16th-17th centuries were sugarcane, Sericulture (rearing of silkworms on a mulberry
cotton, indigo and opium. plant) was carried on in Bengal, Assam, Kashmir
and western coast. However, Bengal was the main
All these crops were known in India from
region of production.
historical times. However, in the 17th century their
demand increased due to enhanced manufacturing The plants whose seeds were used for
and commercial activities. During this period, a large extracting oil come under the category of food as
foreign market also opened for these commodities. well as cash crops. The main oil yielding crops listed
The Indian peasant, quick to follow the market are rapeseed, castor, linseed. Rapeseed is reported
demand, increased the cultivation of these crops. in all provinces from Allahabad to Multan as also
in Bengal. Cultivation of other oilseed plants was
Another cash crop grown throughout the
relatively less widespread.
country was cotton. The region with large scale
cultivation were parts of the present day Maharashtra, Fruits, Vegetables and Spices
Gujarat and Bengal. Contemporary sources refer to Horticulture seems to have reached new
its cultivation in Ajmer, Allahabad, Awadh, Bihar, heights during the Mughal period. The Mughal
Multan, Thatta (Sind), Lahore and Delhi. Emperors and the nobles planted lavish orchards.
Indigo was another cash crop widely cultivated Almost every noble of consequence had his gardens
under the Mughals. The plant yielded a blue dye on the outskirts of the towns where they resided.
(neel) which was much in demand in India and Orchards and groves were laid down with careful
European markets. Its presence is recorded in the planning. A number of fruits available today were
dastur circles of Awadh, Ajmer, Delhi, Agra, Lahore, introduced in India during 16th and 17th centuries.
Multan and Sind. Its cultivation is referred in Gujarat, Pineapple (anannas) is one such fruit which was
Bihar, Bengal, Malwa and Coromandal in south India brought from Latin America and introduced in
and Deccan. India by the Portuguese. In a short period of time
The varieties high in demand were those of it became popular and was extensively cultivated
Bayana and Sarkhej. Bayana, a place near Agra, was all over the country.
considered as producing the best quality of indigo Papaya and cashew-nuts were also introduced
and fetched high price. Sarkhej, near Ahmedabad, through the same agency, but their spread was
was considered second in quality and also fetched a bit slow. Leechi and guava seem to have been
a high price. Other notable places for quality indigo introduced later. Cherries were brought from Kabul
were regions around Khurja and Aligarh (in U.P.), and grown in Kashmir through grafting. The practice
Sehwan (in Sind) and Telingana (in Deccan). of grafting was in order to improve the quality of
Cultivation of opium is reported from a number a number of fruits. Quality of oranges and other
of places in India. The Mughal provinces of Bihar and types of citrus fruits, apricots, mangoes and a host of
Malwa seem to have produced good opium. It was other fruits was greatly improved through grafting.
also cultivated in Awadh, Bihar, Delhi, Multan, Lahore, Coconut was grown not only along the coastal
Bengal, Gujarat, Marwar and Mewar in Rajasthan. region but also inland.
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Seeds of different variety of melon and grapes carts. The banjaras (migrant trading community) are
were brought from Kabul and successfully grown said to have maintained flocks of a few hundred to
in the gardens of Emperors and nobles. Ordinary thousand animals. Flocks of thousands of sheep and
melons were grown everywhere in riverbeds by goats were also reared.
the peasants.
Craft Production
A large variety of vegetables were grown all
India had a high level of craft production
over the country. The Ain-i-Akbari provides along
during the period of our study. This craft production
list of vegetables in use at that time. Potato and
was linked with the pattern of trade and commerce.
Tomato seem to have been introduced in the 17th
We find that the manufacturing activity was brisk in
century and after.
and around the main commercial centers.
For centuries, India was known for its spices.
Craft production was basically governed by
The southern coast of India witnessed large scale the demand and consumption in the home market.
spice export to various regions in Asia and Europe. The increase in demand in overseas markets, in the
Pepper, clove, cardamom were plentiful. Ginger 17th century, as so great that it started influencing
and turmeric were grown extensively. The Dutch the production activity.
and English purchased large quantities for export.
In this unit, we will take into account the major
Saffron grown in Kashmir was celebrated for its
crafts, their centre, law materials used and, wherever
colour and flavour. Pan (betel leaf ) was produced
possible, the techniques of production. We will
in many areas. The Maghi Pan of Bihar and various
also discuss the availability of minerals and their
other varieties from Bengal were famous. Betel-nut
production. We will also analyse the organisation
was also produced in coastal regions.
of production in some selected crafts.
Large forest tracts supplied a number of
commercially important products. Lignum used Agro-based Production
for medicinal purpose and lakh were exported in It should be noted that the term agro-based
large quantities. industries in the present time is used altogether for
a different type of industries. We are using it here
Cattle and Livestock simply to indicate the crafts where raw material
The cattle played a very important role in the came from agricultural produce.
agricultural production of our period. They were The most widespread production of
employed in important agricultural activities like commodities during the period of our study was in
ploughing and irrigation, and their dung was used a sector where the basic raw material was obtained
for manuring. Besides, dairy products contributed from agricultural produce. India had a high level
substantially to the agriculture-related production. of production of cash crops like cotton, sugarcane,
The peasant in general along with some specialised indigo, tobacco etc. It was, therefore, natural that
castes were involved in the rearing of cattle. crafts related to these would flourish.
Large scale involvement of cattle in agricultural
operations suggests the presence of large cattle TEXTILES
population. With high land-man ratio, grasing Cotton: Cotton textiles were manufactured
fields would have been available in abundance. practically all over the country since with the
Contemporary European travellers refer to large exception of sub-Himalayan region, cotton could
numbers of cattle in Indian fields. Irfan Habib be grown almost everywhere. Abul Fazl gives a list
suggests that the per capita cattle population in of important centers of production of cotton textiles.
Mughal India compares favourably with modern Gujarat emerges as one of the important
statistics. Abundance of butter or ghee is said to be region of textile manufacture. Here, the main centers
the diet of the common people; this also suggests were Ahmedabad, Broach, Baroda, Cambay, Surat etc.
a large cattle population. Oxen were used for In Rajasthan, we could mention Ajmer, Sironj and
transporting goods as pack-animals or for bullock many small town. In U.P., Lucknow and a number of
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small towns around it. Banaras, Agra, Allahabad etc. cloth. Chintz (chhent) was cotton cloth with foral or
were prominent centers. Other areas in the north like other patterns printed or painted. Khasa was a kind
Delhi, Sirhind, Samana, Lahore, Sialkot, Multan and of muslim. It was expensive cloth of a fine quality.
Thatta produced textiles of good quality. In Bengal, (Irfan Habib has provided a detailed glossary of
Bihar and Orissa, Sonargaon and Dacca, Rajmahal, textile terms).
Qasimbazar and a number of towns, Balasore, Patna Some clothes were names after the placed
and a number of small towns around it were famous or production, such as Dariabadi and Khairabadi,
textile centers. Samianas (Samana), Lakhowries (Lakhowar near
In Deccan, Burhanpur and Aurangabad Patna), etc. Some regions specialised in a particular
produced cotton cloth of a fine variety. On the variety, Bafta from Gujarat and muslin from
western coast of Maharashtra, Chaul and Bhivandi Sonargaon and thereafter from Dacca in Bengal are
had a flourishing weaving industry. The Qutab examples of this specialisation. In the seventeenth
Shahi kingdom was also famous for its textiles. century, significant changes were notices due to
Masulipatnam and Coromandal also produced the intensified activities of the European trading
cotton textiles. In the south, Coimbatore and Malabar companies whose numbers now increased with
were also known for producing good quality cotton. the arrival of the English, Dutch and French East
Many centers specialised in producing only India Companies etc.
yarn which was taken to weaving centers and However, the most common cotton cloth mush
even exported. Spinning of yarn, thus, became a in demand was superior quality white calico cloth
specialised occupation. In and around all the major called by different names such as Ambartees (in
centers of textile production, many peasants and Bihar, Bengal etc.), Bafta in Gujarat, etc. Other famous
women took it up as an additional source of earning varieties were fine muslim of Bengal called Khasa,
and supplied yarn to weavers. Chintz, a printed cloth and fabric made with mixing
Women in large number spun yarn in Mysore, silk yarn. Ahmedabad acquired fame for its printed
Vizagapatam and Gunjam. Broach, Qasimbazar and cloth known as chintz (Chheent).
Balasore were prominent markets for selling yarn. The manufacture of cotton textiles involved
Gujarat supplied yarn to Bengal in the second half a number of steps. The first was ginning, that is,
of the seventeenth century. separating seeds from cotton. Later, the carder
The fine yarn required to Dacca muslim was (dhuniya) cleaned cotton with the bowstring. Next,
spun by young women with the help of takli or yarn was spun on the spinning wheel. The yarn was
spindle. sued in looms by the weavers. The most common
There was a considerable variation in quality. loom was horizontal, the pit-loom with foot treadles.
Hameeda Naqvi has listed forty-nine varieties of The cloth, thus, woven was as yet in a raw state.
clothes, produces in five major prodction centers of The next step was to get it bleached or dyed before
the Mughal Empire. The European accounts mention being used. These functions were performed by a
more than one hundred names. It is very difficult to separate group of people. Though these processes
list all the varieties of cotton textiles produced in were performed everywhere, some centers became
the country. Every region had their own specialities. prominent. Broach in Gujarat was supposed to be
A few important varieties may be explained the best bleaching place because of the special
there. Bafta is described in the Ain-i-Akbari as a type quality of its water. The English East India company
of high quality calico normally white or of a single sent baftas purchased in Agra, Lahore etc. to Broach
colour. The word calico was commonly used by and Nausari (Gujarat) for bleaching before exporting
Europeans for all kinds of cotton cloth. It also meant them. Ahmedabad, Surat, Patna, Sonargaon, Dacc,
white cloth of a thick variety. Tafta was a silk cloth Masulipatam etc. were other towns where textiles
sometimes inter-woven with cotton yarn. Zartari were bleached in large quantities.
was a cloth which was inter-woven with gold or Bleaching involved soaking of cloth (as in the
silver thread. Muslin was a very fine quality of thin fine fabrics) or boiling it in a special solution. After
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this, it was washed and dried. Indigo was used for The tents used mostly by royal establishment
bleaching (whitening). and nobles were also manufactured. Abul Fazl
Dyeing and printing also became specialised mentions eleven types of tents. Their size varied
profession. Rangrez (dyers) had specialised in it and a great deal.
were considered a separate caste. Vegetable dyes Embroidery on all types of textiles with cotton,
were generally used. Red dye was produced by chay silk or silver and gold thread was also an allied craft.
or lac and blue by using indigo. Large number of craftsmen were involved in it.
Silk: Silk was another important item for the Indigo: The demand for it in the country and
manufacture of textiles. Abul Fazl mention Kashmir for export was very high. Except for the hilly regions,
where abundant silk textile was produced. Patna and indigo was available in all parts of the country. The
Ahmedabad were known for silk fabrics. Banaras best variety was secured from Bayana, near Agra. The
was equally famous. In the seventeenth century, next best variety was from Sarkhej near Ahmedabad.
Bengal produced the largest amount of raw silk Being a basic dye (blue), it was in great demand in
which was exported abroad as well as to other parts India as well as abroad.
of India. In Bengal, silk fabrics were manufactured at In Gujarat other centers where indigo dye
Qasimbazar and Murshidabad. Around the middle could be had were Jambussar, Broach, Baroda etc.
of the 17th century, the total annual production In north India, Agra and Lahore were two other
was estimated around 2.5 million pounds. Around cities where indigo dye could be purchased in vast
75 million pounds were carried away in raw form by quantities. On the Coromandal coast, Masulipatam
the Dutch alone. In 1681, the London silk weavers was another important mart for this dye.
petitioned to the British Parliament to ban its import Sugar, Oil, etc.: Since sugarcane was cultivated
by the English East India Company. The import of widely, sugar was also manufactured all over the
Bengal silk fabrics was stopped in 1701. Nevertheless, country. Generally, we get reverences to three types
Bengal remained the premier centre in India for of sugarcane product; the gur or jaggery; the powder
producing silk textiles and raw silk. sugar and the finer quality grains called candy. The
Wool: Wool was another important material jaggery was made in all sugarcane producing areas
used for manufacturing textiles. The most famous and was mainly consumed locally. The other two
was the Kashmiri shawl, exported all over the world. qualities were manufactured mainly in Bengal,
The fine wool used in these shawls was imported Orissa, Ahmedabad, Lahore, Multan and parts of
from Tibet. Akbar promoted its manufacture northern India. Writing about Deccan in the 17th
at Lahore but it could not match the quality of century they remarks that every peasant who grew
Kashmiri shawls. Finer varieties of woolen textiles sugarcane had his own furnace. Abul fazl records
were generally brought in by the Europeans for the price of powder sugar around 128 dams for one
the upper classes. Blankets were made from wool man, while that of the candy 220 dams.
almost all over north India. The method of extracting sugarcane juice
Other textile items included cotton durries, involved the cane-press which was operated
carpets (of silk and wool), tents and quilts, etc. manually or with animal power. The jaggery or finer
Carpet weaving was yet another branch of textile quality was obtained by boiling it over in pans or
production. Bihar (Daudnagar, Obra etc.), Delhi, Agra, open furnace. It was during the process of boiling
Lahore and Mirzapur were famous centers in the that different qualities were obtained. Bengal sugar
north. Warrangal in the south was also famous for was considered the best and was in great demand
carpet weaving. The carpet weaving was also done for export to Europe and Persia.
in Masulipatam along the Coromandal coast. The Extraction of oil was also mostly a village-
output of carpet weaving was not very large and based industry. The oil seeds were put to a simple
Persian carpets continued to be in use. Akbar took oil-press operated manually or by animal power.
special interest in developing the manufacture of The specialised caste involved in extracting the oil
silk carpets in the royal Karkhana after the Persian was called the telis. The residual product was used
variety. for animal feed.
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MINERALS, MINING AND METALS Most of the silver requirements were met
Deep mining was not carried out in the 16th through imports. Gold and silver were used for
and 17th centuries in India, but surface mining for a minting of coins. A large amount was used for
large number of minerals and metal was practised. making ornaments and for hoarding purposes as
We will deal with both in this. precious metal.
Mineral Production: The salt was the essential Rajasthan was the main centre for copper
commodity in which India seems to have been self- production where copper mines existed (at Khetri).
sufficient. The sources of salt were the Sambhar lake The bulk of the copper was used for minting copper
in Rajputana, the Punjab rock-salt mines and sea- coins. Small and big household objects were also
water. Sea salt was made mainly in Sind, the Rann manufactured.
of Cutch, other coasts of Gujarat, Malabar, Mysore Iron was the most commonly found metal.
and Bengal etc. Since salt was not available in all the Iron mines were widely distributed in the north,
parts of the country, it was one of major articles of east, west, central and southern parts of the country.
trade at regional and inter-regional level. Abul Fazl records Bengal, Allahabad, Agra, Bihar,
Salpetre was one of the most important Gujarat, Delhi and Kashmir is iron producing regions.
mineral products. It was in great demand by the Chhotanagpur in Bihar and adjoining regions of
Europeans. It was primarily used as ingredient for Orissa also produced large quantities. The iron found
gun powder. Initially, saltpetre was extracted at in the south was converted into steel.
Ahmedabad, Baroda, etc. But since the supply could Iron was used for making ploughs, axes, nails,
not meet the demand, it started to be made even the screws, swords, daggers. The steel made in the south,
Delhi-Agra region. However, by the second half of especially in Golconda, was used for the manufacture
the seventeenth century, Patna, in Bihar, became an of Damascus swords, admired all over the world.
important centre for procuring saltpetre. Saltpetre, Some other metals, though in small amount,
collected from the nearby places of Patna was then were also produced. Lead was found in north and
sent by boats down the Ganges to Hugli and sent western India.
to Europe.
Diamond Mining: Diamond mining was
The methods of obtaining saltpetre from salt carried out in some parts of India, but the diamond
earth was a simple one. Shallow reservoirs were miners of Golconda were most famous. Other places
made on the ground and salt earth was mixed in included Biragarh in Berar, Panna in Madhya Pradesh,
water. The salt dissolved in water and Earth settled Khokhra or Chhotanagpur in Bihar.
down. This salt water was then boiled in large pans,
the water evaporated and saltpetre was obtained. Wood-based Crafts
Indian artisans used earthern pans for boiling. The Wood provided the basis for a large number
Europeans used iron or copper pans for boiling. of crafts. The means of surface transport made of
According to one source, the total production in a wood included palanquins and bullock-drawn carts.
year (1688) was around more than two lakhs mans Both were made in a wide variety of styles and the
of raw saltpetre from Bihar alone. ones used by rich were carved and decorated. Large
Other minerals such as alum and mica were number of boats and sea-going ships were always
produced on small scale. needed since India has a long coast line and north
Metals: India did not have gold and silver India is criss-crosse crossed by a large number of
mines in the proper sense. The famous gold mines of navigable rivers.
Kolar were not explored. However, small quantities The boats were built in various sised: from small
of gold were obtained from river beds, but the cost one for pleasure trips to large ones for transporting
of procurement was more than its value. Fitch (1584) hundreds of kilograms of goods over long distance.
has described the method of washing the river sand The ports on the Arabian sea well as the
and finding gold dust in Bihar. Similarly, gold was Bay of Bengal, such as Thattah Surat, Bassein,
found in river beds in some other regions. Goa, Cragnore, Cochin, Masulipatam and the
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neighbouring, Naraspur Hariharpur, Satgaon and Class manufacturing was also undertaken in
Chittagong were important shipbuilding centers. several parts of the country.
When the Europeans intensified their activities, Other miscellaneous items produced by Indian
they got their ships repaired at these places. They craftsmen included soap, objects of ivory and shell,
found Indian ships better suited for eastern waters articles of horn, etc.
and, hence, they purchased ships built in India. Thus,
Several crafts were forest-based. Among
shipbuilding industry received a considerable boost
them, lac was used for the manufacture of bangles,
because of the rising European demand throughout
varnishing doors and windows and toys and for
the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries.
preparing a red dye. It was extracted from forests in
Other uses of wood were to make doors, Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Orissa, Malwa, Gujarat, Malabar,
windows, and a large number of household furniture etc. Bengal lac was considered to be the best. In
such as boxes, bed stead etc. The rich had their Surat, bangles and toys were made of lac. It was
furniture made from high quality wood. also used for sealings.
Miscellaneous Crafts Various contemporary authorities refer to pearl
fisheries being practiced in the sea waters along
Each and every region had its highly specialised
the southern coast.
crafts. Here, it would not be possible to go into the
details of all these crafts. We will describe some ORGANISATION OF PRODUCTION
important crafts only. All forms of production from independent
Stone-cutting was an important craft as stones artisan level to the karkhanas existed in India. The
were widely used in the construction of houses, organisation of production varied in different crafts
palaces, forts, temples, etc. Indian stone-masons and industries in accordance with the needs and
were known for their skill. requirements of that craft.
Other items of non-agricultural production Village Artisans: The artisans in rural areas,
were leather goods such as shoes, saddles, who produced articles of daily use, formed a regular
bookcovers, etc. manufactured all over the country. part of the village establishment called jajmani
system. The most crucial services were those of the
Paper
blacksmiths, carpenters, potters and shoemakers.
Paper was manufactured during the period Generally, they were paid in kind for providing
under review in a number of centers, such as the basic tools, agricultural implements and their
Ahmedabad paper was of several varieties and maintenance needs. The system was much more
was exported to Arabia, Turkey and Persia. The paper organised in Deccan and Maharashtra where village
from Kashmir was also famous. artisans and servants were called balutedars. There
Pottery was one more group of workers in Deccan called
alutedars which were also included in some regions.
The contemporary records refer to the use
With the money economy penetrating into
of earthenwares by people for cooking, storing
the rural areas and also the increasing demand, the
water and grains, etc. Besides, most of the houses

situation in this subsistence-oriented system started
had earthen tiled (Khaprail) roof. The demand for
changing. According to Tapan Ray Chaudhuri, “By
earthenware must have been great. Every large
the seventeenth century, if not earlier, exchange
village in India had its potter and pottery for every had made significant inroads into the subsistence-
day use was made all over the country. oriented system of manufacture by collectively
Apart from the above coarse pottery, fine maintained artisans. Payments in cash and kind for
crockery was also made. Manucci (1663) mentions additional work, or entirely on a pice work basis,
the manufacture of earthen crockery which was co-existed with the more widespread practice of
finer than glass and lighter than paper. Marshal allocating fixed shares of the rural produce and/or
(1670) also noticed fine crockery. land to the artisan families”.
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Tapan Ray Chaudhuri adds that probably by system. In dadni the money was advanced to artisans
the mid-eighteenth century the entire production by the merchants and the artisans promised to
for the long and medium distance trade was deliver the goods at a given time. Here the merchant
dependent on artisans who were fully weaned from was in a position to dictate his specifications. The
the jajmani system. practice in textiles sector became so widespread
With the increase in demand, it seems the rural that it was difficult to obtain cloth without making
artisan catered to urban markets also. The village advance payment to the artisans. In the seventeenth
artisan seems to be quite mobile and would move century, the weaving industry in Deccan was found
from one village to another or to the nearby towns. to be dominated by merchants. In south India,
according to Alaev, “The subjection of crafts to
Production for Market merchant capital was widespread. Practically, all
Production for the market was mainly done at the artisan settlements along the Coromandal coast
the independent artisan-level production. Almost were under the control of one trader or another. In
every craft had specialised artisans manufacturing the 17th century, the biggest of them (merchant)
articles for sale. Pelsaert, a Dutch traveller (1623 was Kasi Viranna, who had in his hands all the
A.D.) mentions that around 100 specialised coasts from Madras to Armagaon except Pulicat.
categories of artisans work in different crafts. The Weaver settlements of this region were known as
high level of specialisation is most evident in the ‘the Viranna village’.” (The Cambridge Economic
textile manufacture. Almost every operation was History of India, Vol. I, p. 320.)
performed by a different group of workmen like The system of Dadni empowered the buyer
carding, spinning of yarn, winding silk thread, to dictate the quality and quantity of the goods
weaving of cloth, bleaching, dyeing, printing and produced. The artisan got the much needed money
painting of cloth, etc. Peasants in villages played a to buy raw material with the guarantee of the sale
significant role by taking up various manufacturing of the goods made, but he lost his control over sale.
activities. In almost all the agro-based crafts like
indigo, sugar and others like spinning of silk and Manufacturing
cotton yarn, manufacture of salt and saltpetre, were In 1620-21, the English factory at Patna
at the core of manufacturing activity. established probably the first such unit for winding
The localisation of manufacture was a silk yarn and employed around 100 workmen. The
significant feature. Different regions specialised Dutch, at Qasimbazar, employed 700-800 weavers in
in the production of certain crafts. The European their silk factory. But such instances are just sporadic.
traders tell us that they had to go from place to place (see A.J. Qaisar, ‘The Role of Brokers in Medieval
to procure the desired commodities. Masulipatam India’).
and Benaras each are said to have around 700 Another specialised area where large number
weavers. Similarly, Qasimbazar had around 2500 of workmen were assembled to work at one place
silk weavers. were shipbuilding and building construction. Almost
At the individual artisan-level production, the all the shipbuilding centers in Deccan and south
artisan himself procured the raw material and tools, India had large number of artisans working on each
performed the manufacture and also retailed the ship under one single supervision. Building activity
products. The working place was invariable the also like shipbuilding required large number of
house of the craftsman or artisan. The artisans had artisans working under one single supervision. (A.J.
little capital to work with. Therefore, the individual Qaisar, ‘Shipbuilding in the Mughal Empire during
output was small and merchants had to make great the Seventeenth Century’ and Building Construction
efforts to procure it. The quality also differed. in Mughal India. The Evidence from Painting)
There were two other production sectors
Dadni where large number of Golconda and Deccan
These problems gave rise to a revised form had around 30,000 to 60,000 people working at
of production called dadni or a sort of putting-out periodical season of mining. Here, the plots of land
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were taken on rent from the ruler by the prospectors. these lines of enquiry has been done in the West.
Each of them used to employ 200 to 300 miners to Unlike this, however, the study of urban history in
work on their plots. The miners were paid wages India is still in the developing stage.
per day. Similarly, in Bihar around 8000 men used The town, in contrast to a village, is now, by
to come to diamond mines in the season of mining consensus, seem to posses two basic features:
(December-January). These people were generally dense concentration of population within a defined
peasants and workers who came to work here after and also limited space, and a predominantly non-
sowing their fields.
cultivating character of this population. A town, thus,
The second case of assemblage of large has a definite man-space ratio and an essentially
workers was in the production of saltpetre. In this heterogenous occupational pattern.
case also large number of people worked under
For the emergence of towns, in medieval India,
one master in small groups. In Bihar they were
several explanations have been put forward. The
called nooneas. With the increasing demand, the
causative factors inherent in these explanations
Dutch and English established their own units for
refining saltpetre. The workmen in their refineries postulate the emergence of mainly four types of
were to work with the equipment provided by these urban centers:
European companies. 1. Administrative
2. Religious
Karkhanas
3. Military/strategic
A unique feature of production in the period of
our study was the karkhanas. These karkhanas were 4. Market
in operation even in the 14th–15th centuries. These The administrative towns obviously functioned
karkhanas were part of the royal establishment primarily as seats of governance. For the Mughal
and also of the nobles. They produced things for Empire, towns like Delhi and Lahore, come under
the consumption of the royal household and this category.The religious centers were pre-eminent
the court. Many high nobles also had their own pilgrim attractions, e.g. Varanasi and Mathura. The
Karkhanas. Generally, expensive and luxury items military or strategic towns developed essentially
were produced here. Skilled artisans were employed as military cantonment, and in due course of time
to work under one roof to manufacture things attracted civilian population also. The town like
needed. They were supervised by the state officials. Attock and Asirgarh fit this description. Finally,
The need for such karkhanas arose because the there were urban centers as the focus of large
artisans on their own were not in a position to invest scale commercial activities were predominantly
huge amounts required for royal needs. Because of the production centers. Sometimes both these
valuable raw material, the state also did not want to activities together characterised an urban center.
give these to artisans to work at their own places. We have, for the Mughal Empire, towns like Patna
As summed up by Tapan Ray Chaudhari, and Ahmedabad falling under this category.
“The organisation of manufacture in Mughal India Here, two things should be noted. An average
did not remain unchanged. A lot was happening, town in the Mughal Empire was in fact an extension
but on a limited scale, and the sum total of new of the village in the sense of social unities and
developments did not amount to a break with the attitudes. This rural-urban continuum is, thus, a
past. Continuity was still the dominant characteristic. notable feature of urbanisation during the Mughal
Yet, the changes in this organisation were more period. Moreover, given the diversity of urban
basic than those in technique”. economies in the Mughal Empire, the stereo type
of an Indian town would be a misnomer. Thus, the
Development of Towns in Mughal India other important thing to note is that the character
Urbanisation has been seen by scholars both of two apparently similar cities (at least functionally)
in terms of the physical growth of a town as well as would often be different. The emergence of an
particular way of life. Of late, much work along both urban center, therefore, was dependent on a variety
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of factors relating to its geographical location and religious and charitable grants were given in the
historical situation. vicinity of towns. Besides, a large number of poets,
Even while accepting the caveat about musicians, physicians also made their abode in
Mughal towns as stated in the preceding section, towns because here money could be earned or
it is possible to identify some common features. We patronage of the king and nobles was available.
discuss them below: Artisans, workmen and labourers formed
one of the biggest groups in towns having large
Composition of Population (Urban Classes)
commercial activities.The people working as artisans
The urban population was not a homogenous in various crafts may be divided in many groups:
one. In our sources we come across various categories
1. The individual artisans working at their own
of people residing in towns. These can be classified
places and selling their wares;
into four broad groups:
2. Artisans working in the karkhanas of the kings
1. Nobles and their retainers, officials of the state
nobles, and in large scale building construction
and troops;
undertaken by the kings and nobles.There was
2. Persons engaged in mercantile activities a large workforce of semi-skilled and unskilled
(merchants, sarrafs, brokers, etc.) workmen who would assist artisans or work
3. People involved with religious establishments, in such large scale enterprises as shipbuilding,
musicians, painters, poets, physicians, etc. and diamond-mining, saltpeter and salt making.
4. Artisan, menials and workmen of sundry sorts. A number of workmen were employed as
The composition of different categories of domestic help and daily wage labourers.
people in different town depended on the nature The Dutch East India Company
of towns, i.e. administrative centers, or commercial
The Dutch East India Company was formed, in
centers. In case of imperial headquarters, perhaps the
1602, through a charter. The Dutch were primarily
biggest group was that of the retainers and troops
interest in spice trade. Therefore, they paid more
of the king and nobles. Bernier (1658) estimated the
attention to the far East. India was just a trading
total strength of Shah Jahan’s great camp around
depot for them. They established their first factory
3-4 lakh.
at Petapuli North Coromandal in 1606, followed
The situation in other administrative by another at Masulipatam in the same year.
headquarters was also the same. The provincial Gradually, they realised that Indian textiles could
governors, high nobles and other administrative be the best commodity for exchange with the spice
officers all had their contingents, official hangers- islands (Indonesian Archipelago). This necessitated
on, servants, slaves and their families. expansion of their network in India. They established
As most of the big town were commercial their factories at Pulicat (1610), Cambay (1620), Surat
centers of importance, the mercantile community and Agra (1621), Hariharpur (1633), Patna (1638),
of the towns was quite important. At Ahmedabad it Dacca (1650), Udaiganj (1651), Chinsura (1653),
was estimated that there were around 84 castes and Qasimbazar, Barangore, Balasore and Negapatam
subcastes of Hindu merchant alone. In 1640 there (1659-60).

were 600 brokers in Patna. Our sources mention They had two factories in the interior of the
that in big towns all the roads were lined with Golkunda territories—one at Nagalavancha and
shops for miles. The number of grocers in Patna, a another at Golkunda. The former was established
moderate town, was around 200. In a comparatively in 1670, but owing to political unrest the Dutch
smaller town, Jodhpur, more than 600 were owned withdrew from there in the 1680s. In Golkunda they
by Mahajans. established their factory in 1662. Once again, owing
Another important group in town comprised of to the political disturbances (Mughal-Golkunda
people associated with the professions of medicine, clashes, 1684-87) they withdrew from Golkunda
learning, literature, art and music. Generally, the also in 1684. By 1675 Hugli rose into prominence. It
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undermined the importance of the Dutch factory at Conditions were more favourable to establish
Pipli (on the Orissa coast), and finally they abandoned a factory in the South as there was no strong Indian
it in 1675. Similarly, in 1658 the Dutch factories at state in that part. Vijaynagar had faded away ever
Dacca and Udaiganj were two more factories were since their defeat in 1565. In the South, the English
established by the Dutch in 1669 (Khanakul) and opened their first factory at Masulipatam in 1611. In
1676 (Malda), but both had to close down soon. 1626, another factory was opened at Aramgaon. In
The rising power of the Dutch was looked 1639, they got Madras on lease from the local Raja.
upon as a threat by the English to their own vested Soon, they fortified it which came to be known as
interests. When the English established a factory Fort St. George. They acquired the islands of Bombay
at Masulipatam and opened trade at Petapuli, the in 1668 and fortified it soon after. It was soon, to
supercede Surat (by 1687) as the headquarters of
Dutch interest lay in not allowing English to have
the company on the west coast.
a share in the Pulicat trade. This conflict of interests
continued. However, in 1619, the Dutch managed The English penetration in the East was
to have a truce with the English and both agreed comparatively late. They established their first
to become, copartners in Indian trade. The English factory in Orissa at Hariharpur and Balasore, in 1633.
Company was allowed to share the Pulicat trade In 1651, they got permission to trade at Hugli. Soon
provided they bore half the maintenance cost of the they also opened their factories at Patna (Bihar) and
Qasimbazar (Bengal). In 1690, an English factory was
Dutch fort and garrison there. But it did not last long.
opened at Sutanati which was later (1696) fortified. In
In 1623 and again in 1653-54, the Dutch attacked
1698, the English acquired the zamindari of Sutanati,
the English ships. Between 1672-74 the Dutch again
Kalikata and Govindpur, where they built the Fort
tried to obstruct English settlements at Surat and
William. Soon it grew into a big city and came to be
Bombay and captured an English vessel in the Bay
known as Calcutta.
of Bengal. The English realised the supremacy of
the Dutch over the Eastern Islands. They decided The French East India Company
to drive them away from their Indian possessions. The French were latecomers to the Eastern
To fulfil their designs, the English joined hands with trade. The French East India Company was founded
the Portuguese in India. Finally, they succeeded in in 1664. The first French factory was established, at
defeating them at Bedara (1759) which weakened Surat, in 1668.This was the place of prime importance
the Dutch opposition in India greatly. Since then to the English. But the Mughal-English armed clash
the Dutch confined themselves to “country trade” at Hugli caused a serious setback to the English
in India. Whatever small possessions they had at possessions and trade in India. It also provided an
Nagore and Negapatam were surrendered in 1773. opportunity to the French to strike roots in India. In
By 1795, the English succeeded in expelling the 1669, the French established their second factory
Dutch completely from their Indian possessions. at Masulipatam. In 1673, they got Pondicherry, and
Even their hold on the Cape of Good Hope loosened in 1674 the Nawab of Bengal granted them a site
in favour of the British. near Calcutta where in 1690-92 they built the town
of Chandranagore.
The English East India Company The French, had to face the Dutch and English
In 1559, the ‘English Association of the rivalry very soon. The Dutch merchants convinced
Merchant Adventures’ was formed to trade with the ruler of Golkunda about the aggressive designs
the East. This company (popular known as the East of the French. Thus, Golkunda in coordination with
India Company) got a Royal Charter with her trade the Dutch power, decided to expel the French from
monopoly in the East by Queen Elizabeth on 31st St. Thome (1674). Finally, the French had to surrender
December, 1600. In 1608 the English merchants St. Thome.
decided to open their ‘first’ factory at Surat. By 1619, Later, in the early 1690s, when the war
they succeeded in establishing factories at Agra, broke out between France and the Netherlands,
Ahmedabad and Broach. their Indian counterparts also raised their arms
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against each other. In 1693 the Dutch captured was responsible to the Central Board of Directors
Pondicherry from them. The Dutch blocked the known as “Gentlemen XVII who met for six years in
French commercial activities at Hugli. By 1720, the succession at the Chamber of Amsterdam followed
French control over Bantam, Surat and Musulipatam by two years at the Chamber of Zeeland.
got loosened: “even it started selling is licenses to A ‘factor’ was appointed at each station (factory).
others.” But a revival came about in 1721. A new These factors used to send regular reports to Batavia
Company was reconstructed soon (1725) at Mahe regarding trading activities of the region, the list of
(on the Malabar coast). In 1739, they opened their ships, commodities exported and imported etc.
factory at Karikal. The Ducth factories at Coromandal were
There was fierce rivalry between the English administered by a Directorate headed by a Director
and the French. Clashes in India began with the war (designated as governor in 1615), at Pulicat. Prior
between the two countries (France and Britain) in to 1655, the Dutch factories in Bengal were
Europe, in 1742, leading to the three ‘Carnatac wars’ controlled and administered by the Coromandal
(1746-48; 1749-54; 1758-63). The decisive battle was ‘factor’. However, in 1655, a separate ‘Directorate’
fought a Wandiwash (January 1766).The French were independent of the ‘government’ at Pulicat was
defeated and lost almost all their possession in India. formed at Hugli. This gave great impetus to the
Now, the English supremacy over other Dutch trade in Bengal. In the 1690s, the seal of the
European companies was complete. The Portuguese Dutch administrative machinery in Coromandal also
had to be content with Goa, Daman and Diu, while shifted from Pulicat to Negapatnam.
the French were confined to Pondicherry, Karikal In India, each factory was administered by a
and Mahe. The scene was not left open for English Council consisting of the director, a senior factor,
aggrandizement. the in-charge of the Company’s trade-books, a law
enforcement officer, the in-charge of the warehouses,
Other European Trading Companies
the in-charge of the loading and unloading of the
The Danes entered as traders, in 1616, but with ships and six junior factors, one of whom acted as
no ambition to establish an Empire. They managed the secretary to the Council. Their salaries were not
to secure the Trancquebar port from the Nayak of very lucrative.
Tanjore, in 1620 and built a fort there. But the overall
resources available to them were extremely scanty. The English
They also established their factories at Masulipatam, As for the interval management of the
Porto Novo and Serampur (1755). However, their English Company, it was administered by a ‘Court
success was limited, and ultimately they sold off their of Committees’ whose nomenclature later was
factories to the English and finally quit India in 1845. changed to ‘Court of Directors’ in 1709. It consisted
The Swedish East India Company was formed of a governor, a deputy governor and 24 members
in 1731, but its activities were directed exclusively to be elected annually by a general body of the
towards China rather than India. The Flanders merchants forming the Company. Besides, there
merchants established the Ostend Company, in was a secretary and a treasurer. Its members were
known as Directors. The Company’s superior body
1722, but their activities were also limited in India.

‘Court of Directors’ was based in London while its
ADMINISTRATION OF THE EUROPEAN subordinate body was in Asia. The directors were
COMPANIES to be annually elected by the shareholders of the
Company meeting in a ‘Court of Proprietors’. Each
The Dutch shareholder, irrespective of the value of the share,
The Dutch East India Company’s chief had only one vote. The membership of the Company
administrative centre was at Batavia. This was not confined to shareholders only. But it could
establishment was headed by the Governor- be secured through inheritance or presentation by
General of the Dutch East Indies and a Council. It paying an entrance fee through apprenticeship,
controlled all the Dutch factories in Asia. The Council services etc.
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The Company enjoyed extensive powers to king. All the colonial officers were subordinate to
issue orders and to make laws in accordance with the Council.
the laws and customs of the realm. The Company One notable feature of the French India
also possessed judicial powers to punish its servants Company was the constant quarrels and jealousies of
for their offences by imprisonment or fine. the French officials in India, which ultimately affected
In India, each factory was administered by a the smooth development of French interests in India.
Governor-in-Council.The governor was the President In the 1670s, Caron got envious of the remarkable
of the ‘Council’ with no extra privileges. Everything success of his fellow Frenchman, Marcara. Though,
was decided in the ‘Council’ by majority votes. ultimately Marcara succeeded in convincing the
The members of the ‘Council’ consisted of senior French government about the baselessness of the
merchants of the Company. charges, the seeds of conflicts and clashes thus sown
While the ‘Court of Directors’ was the supreme from the very inception of the French factories in
authority in framing policies for the Company, the India proved harmful. Similarly, in 1726, Dupleix
was suspended from his office and it was only in
rights and its prerogatives in Asia were limited.
1730, that the suspension order was withdrawn
Generally, various day-to-day matters were
and he was appointed ‘Intendant’ or Director of
directly referred to the sub-committees unless the
Chandranagore.
matter was for the consideration of the Court. The
Presidents and the members of the Council in Asia THE INDIAN RULERS AND THE
could communicate directly with the ‘Court’ or the EUROPEAN COMPANIES
Secretary of the Company at home (London). But
The Mughals and the Indian rulers were
this freedom and privilege were rarely given to the
interested in the development of India’s overseas
factories under the authority of the presidencies. As
trade. They wanted as it would have increased their
a measure of check, the Court at London encouraged
revenue resources. Therefore, in spite of all the odds,
the senior officials to report separately on various
the Mughal Emperors and the local Indian rulers, in
subjects. Thus, information generally got duplicated
general welcome foreign merchants. However, the
and discrepancies could be checked.
Mughals and other Indian rulers were weak on the
The maintenance and implementation of the seas. To ensure smooth sailing of the Indian ships,
policies of the Company obviously rested upon the it was necessary from them to align with one or the
Company’s President and Council in India. other powerful European power who were masters
The administration of the English factories of the seas. You will notice so long as the Mughals
of the Eastern coast was governed from Fort St. were strong, the European merchants followed the
George (Madras) having their President and Council policy of seeking concessions through petitions
stationed there. The Council advised the governor and presents. The Companies also combined
in administrative matters. trade and diplomacy with war and control of the
territory where their factories were situated. With
The French the weakening of the Mughal power, the European
The French East India Company’s headquarters Companies started imposing their will on the Indian
in India was at Surat, which was later shifted to rulers to get monopolies and concessions. They also
Pondicherry. The supreme body was known as took full advantage of the internal conflicts.
‘Superior Council of the Indies’ and headed by a
Director-General. He was the overall incharge of The Dutch
the French affairs in India. The Supreme Council The Dutch got favourable response from the
composed of five members was presided over by rulers of Golkunda. They granted them concession
the governor. The entire administration was in his to trade on payment of 4 percent customs duty
hands. Though laws were enacted in the name of the on their exports and imports. The Company was
French king, the governor and the counselors could also given exemption from duty on cloth (which
be removed without any reference to the French amounted to about 12 percent). In 1612, the duty
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of 4 percent was commuted into a fixed payment of transit duties along the Pipli-Agra route. In 1662,
of 3000 pagodas annually. Aurangzeb confirmed all the privileges granted by
The chief feature of the Company’s relation Shah Jahan to the Dutch in Bengal. This was followed
with the Indian rulers was that in spite of getting by another farman, in 1689, by which Aurangzeb
concessions from the Indian rulers, the local officials permitted all the concessions enjoyed by the Dutch
constantly used their power to evade the orders and in Golkunda which was shortly occupied by the
imposed duties on Company’s trade. It frequently Mughals. Shah Alam (1709) even reduced customs
resulted in clashes with the local officials. In June duty from 3½ percent to 2½ percent at Surat and
1616, the Dutch had to close down their factory at Hugli. He also granted total exemption to the
Petapuli owing to the exorbitant demands of the local Company from paying transit dues throughout the
havaldar. In 1619 also the Dutch were virtually on the Mughal Empire. But, owing to the hindrances posed
brink of closing down their factory at Masulipatam by the local officials, the Dutch factors sometimes
owing to the local havaldar’s oppression, but the could not avail of the rahdari exemptions. Similarly,
Golkunda ruler acted promptly and replaced Mir to oblige the local officials, they had to spend a
Qasim, the local havaldar. In 1636, the Dutch had to handsome sum. But the Company often misused
abandon their factory at Hugli owing to harassment their privilege of carrying duty-free goods. Instead of
by the local officials and rivalries of local merchants, carrying their own goods, the Company often helped
etc. (the factory was later reopened in 1645-50). Indian merchants in evading customs at Hugli. In
They were also exempted from the custom dues 1712, Jahandar Shah confirmed all the privileges
at Masulipatam on payment of 3000 pagodas. In granted by Aurangzeb in Coromandal. However,
1657, they got from the Golkunda king the right the local authorities were not ready to surrender
to mint coin in the Pulicat mint. They collected the the privileges granted by Jahandar Shah. A major
mint duty of 5.38 percent. By the farman of 1676, conflict broke out at Palakottu and Drakshavaram
the Golkunda ruler granted the Dutch complete in 1725-30, and the Dutch factory was attacked and
plundered (1728).
freedom from tariffs in Golkunda.
In the 1680s, the Dutch had to resort to The English
arms owing to their conflict with the Golkunda It was during Jahangir’s reign that the first
minister Akana. In 1686, they occupied the port of English envoy reached the Mughal court and
Masulipatam. The siege continued for two months. received a royal farman in 1607. In 1608, when
Ultimately, Golkunda had to come to terms and the the English established their first factory at Surat,
king agreed to restore all previous privileges. Captain Hawkins was sent to Jahangir’s court for
In 1690, the Nayak of Tanjore allowed the securing trading concessions. Jahangir, initially,
Dutch to pay only half of the toll in all parts of his welcome the English envoy and a mansab of 400
kingdom. They also got the right to keep other zat was bestowed on him by the Emperor. Though
European out from the ports of Tanjore. They also in 1611 Hawkins got permission to open trade at
received the right to mint coins at Nagapatam. The Surat, later, under the Portuguese influence, he was
Bijapur ruler also confirmed all the privileges granted expelled from Agra. The English realised that if they
to them by the Nayak of Jinji in 1651. wanted any concessions from the Mughal court, they
For trade along the west coast, the Dutch had to counter the Portuguese influence. It resulted
succeeded in getting farman from the Mughal in armed conflict between the two at Swally near
Emperor Jahangir. They were exempted from tolls Surat (1612, 1614). It bore fruits. The Mughals wanted
from Burhanpur to Cambay and Ahmedabad. Shah to counter the Portuguese naval might by joining
Jahan also issued two farmans granting them hands with the English. Besides, they also wanted
permission to trade in Bengal (1635) and at Surat. benefits for Indian merchants who could aspire to
In 1638, the Company got another farman from gain better profits in getting a royal farman (January
Shah Jahan to trade in saltpetre as well. In 1642, 1613) to open factories in the west coast—Surat,
Shah Jahan exempted the Dutch from the payment Cambay, Ahmedabad and Goa.
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In 1615, Sir Thomas Roe was sent to Jahangir’s were more than a match to a small trading company.
court. He tried to take advantage of the naval It resulted in the latter’s humiliation. They had to lose
weakness of Indian rulers. They harrased the Indian all possessions in Bengal. Their factories at Surat,
trader and ships. These pressures resulted in the Masulipatam and Vishakhapatam were seised and
issue of another farman by which the English their fort at Bombay was besieged.
merchants got the right to open factories in all Realising the Mughal might they again went
parts of the Mughal Empire. The English success back to their old policy of ‘petition and diplomacy’.
led to an English-Portuguese conflict from 1620 They again turned humble petitioners and agreed
to 1630 to the advantage of the English. After that, to trade under the protection of the Indian rulers.
the Portuguese gradually lost almost of their Indian
Soon, the Mughals pardoned them considering
possessions except Goa, Daman and Diu. In 1662, the advantage of increasing foreign trade. Aurangzeb
they gave the island of Bombay to king Charles II granted them permission to trade on payment of
of England in dowry.
1,50,000 as compensation. In 1691, the English

During the closing year of Jahangir’s reign, Company succeeded in getting exemption from
when the English Company tried to fortify their the grant of custom duties in Bengal on an annual
factory at Surat, they were imprisoned by the Mughal payment of 3000. In 1698, the English king sent

officers. When the Company’s rival group of English a special envoy Sir William Noris to Aurangzeb’s
merchants attacked Mughal ships, the President court to secure the formal grant of the trading
of the Company of Surat was imprisoned by the concessions and the right to exercise full English
Mughals and could only be released on payment jurisdiction over the English settlements. In 1714-17,
of £18,000. another mission was sent under Surman who was
In 1651, the English East India Company got able to procure three farmans from Farrukh Siyat
a nishan from Sultan Shuja, the son of Shah Jahan, that exempted them from paying custom dues in
the then governor of Bengal. By this nishan, they Gujarat and Deccan as well. In Bengal so long as
received trading privileges in return for a fixed Murshid Quli Khan and Ali Vardi Khan remained
annual payment of 3000. By another nishan in

on the scene, they strictly checked the corruption
1656, the English Company was exempted from of any of the privileges granted to the Company.
custom dues. However, after Shuja’s withdrawal But immediately after their departure (1750s), the
from Bengal his successors ignored his orders for Company got an opportunity to intrigue and soon
the obvious reason that it affected the treasury. But succeeded in defeating the Nawab of Bengal, in
later Shaista Khan (1672) and Emperor Aurangzeb’s 1757, at the battle of Plassey.
farman finally ensured a custom-free English trade. The rulers of Golkunda also maintained friendly
During Aurangzeb’s region, we notice relations with the English Company. In 1632, the ruler
some changes in the Mughal-English Company’s of Golkunda issued a farman by which they were
relations. By this time, the English Company with allowed to trade freely in the ports belonging to
fortified settlements at Madras and Bombay felt Golkunda on payment of 500 pagodas irrespective
of the volume of trade. This certainly gave a great
more strong. Aurangzeb himself was busy in his
boost to English trade in the Coromandal region.
Deccan campaigns. Now they would well think of

abandoning their role as humble petitioners. By The French
the use of force, they could now dictate prices and The French had to face the wrath of the
acquire a free hand in trade. They were planning Marathas (Shivaji) as early as 1677. French
to establish trade monopoly by gradually driving commander (later Director General of French affairs
out all other European powers from competition. in India) Martin readily acknowledged the authority
In 1686, the English declared war against the of Shivaji and agreed to pay him an amount in
Mughal Emperor and sacked Hugli. However, they lieu of a license to trade in his dominions. Shivaji
were highly mistaken in assessing the Mughal might. accepted the French request on the condition that
Unlike their counterparts in south India, the Mughals they would not participate in military operations
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against him. In 1689, the French got the permission exchange and lending of money were important
to fortify Pondicherry (from Sambhaji). The French ones. Trading partnership and insurance were also
also succeeded in getting a farman from Aurangzeb in vogue.
as early as 1667 to open their factory at Surat. In
Personnel of Trade
1688, the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb ceded
Chandranagore village to the French. The French In this section, we will discuss the merchants,
maintained close ties with Dost Ali the Nawab of sarrafs, moneylenders and brokers operating in
Carnatic. On the basis of a strong recommendation Indian markets. Increasing commercial activities
by him, the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah attracted a large number of people to these
issued a farman granting permission to the French professions. However, the above trading groups
to mint and issue gold and silver currency bearing were not necessarily divided into watertight
the stamp of the Mughal Emperor and the name of compartments. At times the same person did two
the place of minting. or more tasks at the same time. Here we will study
them in separate groups according to the roles
A change in the political situation in South
performed by them in trade and commerce of the
provided the French with an opportunity to interfere period.
in the internal affairs of Indian rulers. In 1738, civil war
broke out at Tanjore following the death of Venkaji’s Merchants
grandson Baba Sahib. Sahuji, another claimant to Theoretically, vaisyas were supposed to indulge
the throne, approached the French governor M. in commercial activities, but in actual practice people
Duman for help. In return, the French got Karaikal from a wide range of background could and did
and Kirkangarhi. Sahuji’s reluctance to cede the participate in it. During the period of our study we
promised territory provided the opportunity to notice that certain groups and castes dominated
Chanda Sahib, (son-in-law of Dost Ali, Nawab of in particular regions.
Carnatic) to act promptly and he promised the
Banjaras
French Karikal and Kirkangarhi if they allowed him to
occupy parts of Tanjaur. But soon Chanda Sahib had In our sources we get innumerable references
to face the wrath of the Marathas which compelled to the banjaras as a trading group who carried on
him to seek the French help. Muhammad Shah on trade and towns in a region and even at inter-regional
hearing about the successful French resistance to level. They were an important link for rural-urban
Marathas granted M. Dumas the title of Nawab and trade. The banjaras confined their trading activities
bestowed upon him a mansab of 4500/2000. The to some limited commodities like grain, pulses,
French involvement in the affairs of the principalities sugar, salt etc. They procured a number of animals
of south India ultimately resulted in Carnatic wars (mainly oxen to carry the load) and moved from
place to place buying and selling goods. Jahangir
and the defeat of the French.
in his Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri records:“In this country the
INDIAN MERCANTILE CLASSES— Banjaras are a fixed class of people, who possess a
BANKING, INSURANCE AND CREDIT thousand oxen, or more or less, varying in numbers.
They bring grain from the villages to the towns,
SYSTEMS and also accompany armies”.The Banjaras generally

A broad spectrum of merchants padding at the moved with their families and household in groups.
local level to the big traders involved in overseas These groups moving together were called a Tanda.
commerce were to be found in all parts of the Each Tanda had its chief called Nayaka. At times a
country. In the whole commercial process, certain Tanda could have upto 600-700 persons (including
specialised groups of merchants, brokers and sarrafs women and children), each family having their oxen.
played their role at various levels. The Banjaras were both Hindus and Muslims.
Large scale trading operation strengthened Some scholars divide them into four groups on the
some of the existing practices and institutions and basis of commodities they traded in: grain, pulses,
gave rise to new ones. System of banking, bills of sugar, salt and wood and timber.
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The Banjaras operated in many parts of north The Bohras were important merchants of
India, but there were other similar traders known by Gujarat. They were mostly Muslims. They were an
different names. The Nahmardis was one such group urban community mainly based in Gujarat and other
of traders operating in Sindh. Another such nomadic western parts. Apart from Gujarat, they had some
traders were the Bhotiyas operating between the settlements in Ujjain and Burhanpur. The Bohar
Himalayas and plains. merchants like Mulla Muhammad Ali and Ahmed
Merchants in Different Regions Ali had assets or millions of rupees. Among Muslims,
An important vaisya subcaste, that is, the other merchants communities operating on the
Baniyas were the leading merchants in north India western coast were Khojahs and Kutchi Memons
and Deccan. They belonged to the Hindu and Jain of Gujarat.
(mainly in Gujarat and Rajasthan) communities. South India
Their counterparts were the Khatris in Punjab and
In the southern part of the sub-continent,
Kornatis in Golkunda.
various merchants groups played prominent roles.
The word Baniya is derived from a Sanskrit
The Chetti was one such group. This term is derived
word vanik meaning merchant. Many of the Baniyas
from Sanskrit Shreshthi (Seth). Perhaps, the Chetti
carried surnames pointing to the place of their
were very wealthy merchants. The merchants along
origin. The Agarwals came from Agroha (present
the Coromandal coast up to Orissa were known as
Haryana) and the Oswals from Osi in Marwar. Marwar
Kling. The Komatis were the merchants belonging
gave probably the highest number of traders who
are generally referred to as Marwaris. They were to to a trading caste. They mainly worked as brokers
be found in all parts of India and were the most for textiles and were suppliers of various products
eminent merchant group during the period of our from hinterland to the port towns on southern coast.
study. There was a close caste bond between these They were mainly Telugu speaking.
merchants. They had their councils (mahajan). Like the Chetties, another merchants group
Contemporary European travellers (Linschoten, called Chulias were also divided into four sub-
1583-89; Tavernier, 1656-67) marveled at the skills groups. Of these, the Marakkayar were the wealthiest
of the Baniyas as merchants and had all praise for merchants dealing in the coastal and southeast
their accounting and book-keeping. The Baniyas Asian trade. This was a very mobile group and many
unlike Banjaras were involved in all sorts of trading had settled in Ceylon, the Maldives, Malacca, Johore,
activities. At the village level, they traded in grain Javanese coast, Siam and Burma. In India, they were
and other agricultural produce. They also acted most active in south Coromandal, Madura, Cuddalore,
as moneylenders, giving loans to peasants and Porto, Nova, Nagole, Nagapatnam, Koyalpatnam etc.
other people including state officials and nobles. They mainly dealt in textiles, arecanuts, spices, grain,
In towns, they dealt in grain; textiles; gold; silver; dried fish, salt, pearls and precious metals.
jewels; spices; and sundry other commodities. Some
Chrutian Paravas were active in trade from
of them possessed assets of million of rupees. They
Coromandal to Malabar and Ceylon. They specialised
owned ships also. The community as a whole was

in coastal trading and brokerage.
known for simplicity and frugality.
In the region of Punjab, the Khatris were a Among the Muslims, the Golkunda Muslims
major trading community. Guru Nanak, the founder were involved in overseas shipping. They were
of Sikh religion, was also a Khatri. Many of them were prominent in south of Madras and were the main
converted to Islam. This community had in its fold merchants in Bay of Bengal region. The Mopilla
Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs. Muslim of Indo-Arab origin, were also important
The Multanis were an important trading merchants in the region.
community of Delhi, parts of Punjab and Sindh in Some Gujarati merchants had also established
the 13-17th centuries. themselves in the Madras region.
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Foreign Merchants activities and transactions. With increasing inter-
We get a large number of references to regional and foreign trade they became crucial.
the presence of foreign merchants in almost all Merchants from foreign lands and distant regions
commercial centers of the period. Among other heavily depended on them. According to A.
foreign merchants, the Armenians were the Jan Quaisar, the foreign merchants, who were
prominent. They dealt in all sorts of commodities unacquainted with the centres of production,
from textiles to tobacco. They were settled in Bengal, pattern of marketing and language had to depend
Bihar and Gujarat. The Khorasanis, Arabs and Iraqis on the native brokers for their trading transactions.
also frequented Indian markets. The need for brokers in India was mainly due to
1. Centres of production for the same
Moneylenders and Sarrafs commodities were scattered all over the
In large parts of northern India, the traditional country;
merchants played a dual role as traders as well as 2. Individual output of these centers was
moneylenders. In villages we hear of traditional small (some centers specialised in particular
Baniya lending money to individual peasant to commodities only), and
pay land revenue. In towns and bigger places also 3. Large number of buyers competing for the
merchants acted as moneylenders. same commodities in the same markets. We
Another category among the personnel of get innumerable references to the transactions
trade which played a significant role was that of done through broker. The English East India
the sarrafs. They performed three distinct functions: Company records refer to brokers being
1. as money-changers; employed at their different factories. Fryer
(late 17th century) says that “without brokers
2. as bankers, and neither the natives nor the foreigners did any
3. as traders of gold, silver and jewellery. business”. Ovington (1690) also commented
The first two functions need some elaboration. that “For buying and selling company’s goods
brokers are appointed who are of the bania
As money-changers, they were considered
caste and are skilled in the rates and value of
as experts in judging the metallic purity of coins
all the commodities”.
as well as their weight. They also determined their
current exchange rate. According to Tavernier, “In We hear from Manrique (1640) that there were
India, a village must be very small indeed if it has around 600 brokers and middlemen at Patna. Their
number might have been much larger in bigger
not a money-changer called “Chenab” (Sarraf ), who
commercial centers like, Surat, Ahmedabad, Agra
acts as banker to make remittances of money and
and other coastal towns.
issue letters of exchange”.
Indian brokers were to be found in foreign
The sarraf was also a part of Mughal mint
ports also. They were operating at Gombroon
establishment. Every mint had a sarraf who would (Bandar Abbas), Basra, Bandar Rig. etc. Sometimes,
fix the purity of bullion. He also verified the purity the whole family worked as brokers in partnership.
of coins after minting.
Bhimji Parak, a prominent broker, had a joint business

As bankers, they would receive deposits and with his brothers. He had 8 shares, Kalyandas 5, Kesso
give loans on interest. They used to issue bills of and Vithaldas 4 each. A. Jan Qaisar divides brokers
exchange or hundis and honour the ones issued into 4 categories:
by others. 1. Those employed by companies or merchants,
Brokers 2. Those who worked for several clients,
Dallals or brokers as specialised mercantile 3. Those who worked on an ad hoc basis as
professional trading group seem to have been active broker-contractors, and
in the wake of the Turkish conquest of north India. 4. State appointed brokers at commercial centers
They worked as middlmen in various commercial to register sale and purchase of article.
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The brokers operating independently can hundis were simply drawn and honoured against
be divided in various groups on the basis of their other hundis without the intermediation of actual
areas of partnerships. Some dealt only one specific cash payments”. In this process, it became a medium
commodity like silk, saltpetre, cotton, textile, indigo of payment.
etc. Others dealt in more than one commodity. The use of hundi was so widespread that even
Some worked as sub-brokers or under brokers for the imperial treasury and state were using it. In 1599,
a well-established broker. the state treasury sent 3,00,000 to the army in

Brokers’ fees or commission was not strictly Deccan through a hundi? Tributes paid by Golkunda
fixed. It depended on the commodity and the efforts ( 10,00,000) and Ghakkar Chief ( 50,000) to the

of the broker to strike the deal or the labour involved Mughal Emperor were also transferred through
in procuring the commodity. In ordinary dealings,
hundis.
the brokerage was two percent of the value of
transaction. One percent was changed from each We get quite a few references where provincial
of the parties (buyers and sellers). official were instructed to transfer the revenue
Brokers who were in regular employment were through hundis. Even the senior nobles would take
paid fixed salaries and also some commission in the help of the sarrafs to transfer their personal
some deals. We do not have much information on wealth. Muqarrab Khan, the governor of Bihar, when
their total emoluments. However, a few references in transferred to Agra, gave 30,000 to the sarraf at

English Company records show the salaries of their Patna to be delivered at Agra.
brokers between 10 and 38 per month.

Many big merchants also issued hundi. Such

Besides helping their clients in procuring and merchants and sarrafs had their agents at important
selling goods, and brokers played a key role in the commercial centers. At times, member of one family
organisation of production. Most of the money (father, son, brother, nephew) worked as agents for
advanced (dadni) to the artisans were made through each other. Big firms had their agents even outside
brokers. the country.
COMMERCIAL PRACTICES A commission was charged by the sarrafs on
each hundi. The rate of exchange depended on the
Bill of Exchange (Hundi) rate of interest prevalent and the period for which it
During this period, hundies or bills of exchange was drawn. The period was calculated from the date
became an important from of money transaction. of issue to its presentation for redemption. The rate
Hundi was a paper document promising payment fluctuated as it also depended on the availability of
of money after a period of time at a certain place. money at the time of issue and maturity. If money
To begin with, the practice started because of the supply was good, the rate would drop. In case of
problems involved in carrying large amounts of scarcity, the rates rise. According to Irfan Habib, “a
cash for commercial transactions. The merchants
sudden spurt of payment in any direction might
interested in carrying cash to a particular place
create pressure upon the sarrafs for cash at one
would deposit with a sarraf who would issue a hundi
place, while leaving more in their hands at another,

to the merchant. The merchant was to present it
a situation that they could rectify by discouraging
to the agent of the sarraf at this destination and
encash it. This started as a safe and convenient remittance from the former to the latter and
method of transferring money. In due course, encouraging reverse remittance by modifying the
hundi itself became an instrument of transaction. exchange rate”.
It could be presented against a transaction. It could To give you a rough idea, a few rates are
also be freely bought or sold in the market after provided. In normal times 1½ percent was charged
endorsement. for hundis from Patna to Agra and 7-8 percent from
According to Irfan habib,“the negotiability of Patna to Surat. For the hundi drawn at Ahmedabad
hundi led to a situation in which large number of for Burhanpur, 7¼ percent was charged in 1622.
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Banking The rate of interest for Patna, in 1620-21, is
The sarrafs, apart from issuing bills of exchange, given as 9 percent per annum, while around 1680
also received money or safe deposit. This was it seems more than 15 percent. At Qasimbazar
(Bengal), the rate of interest, in 1679, is given as
returned to depositor on demand. The depositor
high as 15 percent per annum while the rates for
was paid some interest on his deposits. The rate of
the corresponding period for Madras (8 percent
interest payable to depositors kept changing. The
per annum) and Surat (9 percent per annum) were
rates available for Agra, for 1645 and Surat for 1630
much less. The English factory kept a vigilant eye on
works out around nine and half percent per annum. the interest rate and would supply money to their
The bankers in turn would given money on loan factories in various region after taking loan from the
to the needy on a higher rate of interest. We get places where interest was lowest. The rates at Agra
a number of references where state officers gave and Surat, during the 17th century, ranged between
money from treasury to these bankers and kept the 6 and 12 percent per annum. On the Coromandal
interest with them. Tapan Roy Chaudhuri writing coast, much higher rates (18 to 36 percent) seem
about the Jagat Seth of Bengal says that “their rise to have prevailed.
to financial eminence was partly due to the access The difference in interest rates in various
they had to the Bengal treasury as a source of credit”. regions suggests that the integration of financial
Sujan Rai (1694) says that this sarrafs who market had not taken place.
accepted deposits were honest in dealings. Even Bottomry
stranger could deposit thousands for safe keeping
A number of uncertainties and risks were
and demand it any time.
involved in long distance sea voyages. These
Usury and Rate of Interest uncertainties gave rise to a new practice called.
Money lending for personal needs and ‘avog’ or bottomry. It was a type of speculative
commercial purposes was an established practice. investment which was quite popular during the
period of our study. In bottomry, money as lent
Much of trading was conducted through the
at high rates ranging between 14 to 60 percent.
money taken on interest. Generally, the sarrafs
The money was lent to be invested in a cargo for a
and merchants both indulged in moneylending.
particular destination. The rate of interest depended
Sometimes, the moneylender were called Sah, a on the risks involved. The lenders were to bear all
distinct category. The loans were taken for various the risks of voyage.
purposes. The money was taken on loan by peasants
for paying revenue and repaid at harvest. Nobles Partnership
and zamindars would take it for their day-to- In partnership, the merchant pooled their
day expense and repay it at the time of revenue resources to carry on trade. Some persons formed
collection. Moneylending for business purposes joint ventures for overseas trade. We hear of two
was also very common. nobles, Nawab Qutbuddin Khan and Nawab Qilich
The rate of interest for smaller loans is difficult Khan having built a ship and taken to trading
jointly during Akbar’s reign. Banarsidas described

to ascertain. It depended mainly on the individual’s
his partners trade in jewels during 1611-16. Even
need, his credit in the market and his bargaining
brokers at times, carried their joint ventures. In 1662,
power. Tapan Roy Chaudhuri shows that peasant
two brokers Chhota Thakur and Somiji of Surat,
took loans at a high rate of 150 percent per annum
bought a ship (Mayflower) in partnership and fitted
in Bengal in the eighteenth century. For commercial
her for a voyage.
loans, the rate of interest differed from one region
to another. Our sources generally refer to interest Insurance (Inland and Marine)
rates per month. Irfan Habib says that the rate of Another important commercial practise
interest expressed for the month suggests that the prevalent in India on a limited scale was that of
loans were generally for short periods. insurance or bima. In many cases, the sarrafs used to
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take responsibility for the safe delivery of goods. The took their help in matters of conflicts and disputes
English factory records also refer to the insurance or to seek support for administrative policies. The
of goods, both inland and overseas. At sea, both the merchant organisation were strong and fought
ship and the goods aboard were insured. The rate against high-handedness or repressive measures
of insurance are also quoted in factory records. By of the officers of towns and ports. We get a number
the 18th century, the practice was well-established of references where traders organisations gave
and widely practiced. The rates are also available calls of hartal (closing business establishments
for different goods for different destinations. The and shops) against administrative measures. The
rates for sea voyages were higher than goods going huge loss of revenue made administrators respond
through land. to the protest. One such serious conflict arose in
Surat, in 1669. Here, a large number of businessmen
Merchants, Trading Organisations and the
along with their families (a total of 8000 people)
State left Surat to protest against the tyranny of the new
The taxes were charged by the state on trading governor. They settled at Broach and sent petitions
activities. The merchants were also charged customs to Emperor Aurangzeb. The trading activities in the
and toll taxes on movements of goods. However, town came to a halt. The Emperor quickly intervened
the income from these sources was very small as and the problem was resolved. In 1639, Shah Jahan
compared to land revenue. invited Virji Vohra, one of the biggest merchants of
Since towns were the centers of commercial Surat, to enquire into the grievances of merchants
activities, the administrative officers there looked against the governor of Surat. During the war of
after the smooth conduct of trade. The maintenance succession among Shah Jahan’s sons, Murad raised

of law and order and providing peace and security 5,50,000 through Shantidas, the nagar seth of
were important for better business environment. Ahmedabad. After Murad’s death, Aurangzeb owned
This was the responsibility of the kotwal and his the responsibility for paying it.
staff in the towns. The merchants in spite of huge resources (Virji
The rules and laws governing the day-to-day Vohra is said to have left an estate of 8,00,000 at

business were generally framed by the business his death) did not take much interest in politics.
community itself. Merchants had their own guilds While merchants kept away from court politics,
and organisations which framed rules. We get the nobles did venture into trading. Many big nobles
references to such organisations in our sources. used their official position to corner the profits
In Gujarat, these were called mahajan. In the first from trade.
quarter of the 18th century, we get evidence of Shaista Khan tried to monopolise a number
53 mahajans at Ahmedabad. The Mahajan was of commodities, especially saltpetres. Mir Jumla,
the organisation of traders dealing in a specific another prominent noble, was diamond merchant.
commodity in a particular area irrespective of their A number of subordinate officers at local level
castes. The term mahajan was at times used for big also indulged in business activities using coercive
merchants also probably because they were the methods.
heads of their organisation. There were separate The Banjaras played their role at regional and
caste based organisation also. inter-regional levels. They, with a large number of
The most influential and wealthy merchant pack animals, moved in groups buying and selling
of the town was called nagar seth. Sometimes it mainly grain, salt and sugar etc.
was treated as hereditary title. Nagar seth was a In different regions of the country various
link between the state and the trading community. merchants groups and castes operated. Prominent
If there were certain disputes among the Indian merchants groups were the baniyas, bohras,
merchants, the mahajans resolved them. Generally khatris, chettis, komattis, etc. The English, Dutch,
their decisions were respected by all. The Mughal French, Portuguese, Armenians, Khurasanis and
administration also recognised these mahajans and Iraqis were important foreign merchants.
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Brokers, sarrafs and moneylenders was the peasantry. Due to this, the burden fell more
specialised groups. System of bills of exchange heavily on the poor peasants. The village community
and moneylending was very well-developed. The further perpetuated their divisions by levying lower
interest rates were quite high. revenue rates on khudkasht peasantry and calling
Merchant guilds and organisation were upon the Rexa raiya to meet the deficit thus arising
well-established. They generally made rules and in the total revenue claim.
regulations for trading and commercial activities. Economic inequalities were not the only
basis of division within the peasantry. They were
Condition of Peasants and Famines
also between permanent residents of the village
Peasantry consistuted the primary class in (khudkasht) and the temporary residents (pahikasht),
rural society and the revenue collected from them caste associations and kingship ties (bhaichara),
sustained the whole state apparatus. Bulk of them even as they served as linkages that afforded supra-
levied at the subsistence level. They had all the local affinities were also source of divisiveness.
rights over the land as long as he cultivated the
Below the peasantry existed a large population
land. Zamindar or the state had no right to evict
of menial workers (balahars)—cheap source of
the peasant as long as he cultivated the land and
labour—reduced the cost of production which
paid revenue. It seems that proprietary rights in
enhanced the surplus produce of the peasantry
land were not quite developed during the Mughal
and thus allowed a greater exploitation of land
period. Peasant mobility was another feature of the
revenue by the ruling power. In the suppression of
agricultural structure (due to oppression, natural the menial workers, the state, the zamindars and
calamities). peasants were equal collaborators.
It was not a homogenous class and
stratification was due to inequalities in wealth Agrarian Relations
and social status. Peasantry with larger resources Both the Jagirdar and the zamindar fed upon
could acquire headship of a village (muqaddam) the surplus produce of the peasantry and both
and enjoy a superior share in the produce of other acted as each other collaborates in the exploitation
peasants. The divisions were so well-established of peasantry. Yet, the zamindar being permanently
that they are differently designated even in official based would not allow exploitation that went
account books and records. Richer peasants were beyond the alienation of the surplus produce, for
called ‘khudkasht’/gharuhalas (Raj)/mirasdars that would lead to exodus of peasantry the desertion
(Maharashtra) poor peasants were “Reza Raiya”/ of agricultural operations which would, in turn affect
Kunbis (Maharashtra). his own fiscal claims during the following years.
One major reason of this can be found in Jamindars attitude is best reflected in Bernier’s
the wide prevalence of the cash nexus. Since land account (mid 17th century)—because of their
revenue in the larger part of India had to be paid in frequent transfers, they were not bothered about
cash, peasantry was forced to carry their produce to the deplorable state of the peasantry. They were
the markets or sell it to merchants/moneylenders only interested in exploiting the peasantry to the
on the eve of harvests. In such a situation, those maximum even at the cost of then desertion.
peasants who could shift to cash crops would be Irfan Habib writes that “as for the peasants, the
placed in a better position because of the higher Jagirdar claimed powers to detain them on the land
prices they fetched in the market than those who like serfs, and bring them back, if they ran away.”
owing to their scarce resources, could only cultivate In the second half of the 17th century, due to the
food crops which fetched a relatively low price. uncertainity of holding a jagir for a stipulated period,
Not all peasantry could shift to cash corps since the jagirdars oppressed the peasantry having no
it involved much expenses. The regressive nature regard for their welfare. They resorted to short term
of the land revenue demand was another major maximisation of revenue ‘such pressure not only
factor that caused and intensified divisions within inhibited extension of cultivation, but also envolved
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the Mughal ruling class in a deepening conflict with powdered bones with flour. The flesh of dogs was
the two major agrarian classes—zamindar and the taken for meat by the ignorant people. Abdul Hamid
peasantry.’ Lahori says “Destitution at length reached such a
The divisions within the peasantry, as also pitch that men began to devour each other and
the deep contractions that existed between the the flesh of a son was preferred to his love. The
peasantry and agricultural workers, acted as severe number of the dying caused obstructions in the
constraints and weakened the capabilities of this roads and every man whose dire sufferings did not
class. Disjointed and truncated, this class was quite terminated in death and who retained the power
incapable of confronting medieval despotic states. to move wandered off to the towns and villages
It did, however, revolt for two reasons: one when of other countries. Those lands which had been
the revenue demand appropriated more than the famous for fertility and plenty now retained no
surplus produce of the peasantry, thereby cutting trace of productiveness.” Peter Mandy, the European
into their subsistence basket. Peasants revolts in traveller, has described the condition in these words:
these circumstances never went beyond asking “The highways were strewn with corpses which
for a reduction in revenue demand. Peasantry also emitted intolerable stench. In the towns, especially,
revolted as follower of a zamindar who was revolting they drag them (dead bodies) out by the heels stark-
against the state or jagirdar mostly on the question naked, of all the ages and sexes, till they are out of
of his claim to the produce of the soil, either in the gates and there they are left, so that the way is
the hope that the end of the revolt would lead to half-bared up.” The condition was so serious that
better conditions of living for them or simply as crowds of people shouted: “Give us food or kill us.”
rendering a service to their overlord. Peasantry The famine had disastrous effect on trade. Indigo
revolts of this nature were actually zamindari revolts became scarce. The price of cotton cloth went up.
(led by zamindars). All business came to a standstill. Roads were full of
robbers. It became difficult to take goods from one
Famines place to another.
There were many famines during the Mughal
Between 1635 and 1643, general scarcity
period. Badaoni tells us that a famine broke out in
was felt by the people. There was famine also in
the neighbourhood of Agra and Biyana in 1555-56.
certain parts of India. However in 1645-46, there
He writes thus about that famine:“Men ate their own
was an intense famine on the Coromandal Coast.
kind and the appearance of the famished sufferers
The situation was so serious that the people were
was so hideous that one could scarcely look upon
willing to become slaves in order to save their lives.
them. The whole country was a desert.” There was
There was great misery on the Madras Coast as a
another serious famine, in 1573-74 in Gujarat. The
result of the failure of rains in 1646. In 1650 again,
prices shot up and the people suffered terribly.
there was deficiency of rains in all parts of India.
Another famine lasted for four years, from 1595 In 1658, the prices of provisions doubled at Surat.
to 1598. On that occasion, “Men ate their own kind Famine and disease swept away a large number
and streets were blocked up with dead bodies and of people. There was great distress in Sindh. Khafi
no assistance could be rendered for the removal.” Khan wrote in 1659 that prices had gone up on
The famine was followed by epidemic and floods.

account of the failure of rains and movement of the
It is pointed out that Akbar was the first ruler who
armies. It is true that there was no serious famine
provided relief to those who had suffered from
in the reign of Aurangzeb but the people suffered
famines.
terribly on account of perpetual wars. Cultivation
There was no serious famine in the reign was neglected. Industries suffered. The lot of the
of Jahangir. However, a terrible famine broke out people became miserable.
in the reign of Shahjahan, in 1630. The territories
affected were the Deccan, Gujarat and Khandesh. Condition of Women
Mira Amin Qazwini tells us that great distress Women occupied a high position in the family.
prevailed everywhere.The grocers and traders mixed They commanded respect. Most of them led a life of
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dignity and respect. They lived devoted lives. They a storekeeper and he performed his duties very
lived a life of sacrifice. The welfare of the family honestly. In 1949, he got enlightenment in the River
depended upon their care, love, benevolence and Baen near Sultanpur. After sometime, he gave up
dedication. Polygamy was very common among his job and became an ascetic.
the Muslims. In some cases the Hindus also married For about 30 years, Nanak wandered about
many wives. Talaq or divorce and remarriages were learning and teaching on the way. His first tour lasted
common among the Muslims. There was no Talaq for about 12 years. He visited Eminabad, Kurukshetra,
among the Hindus. Hardwar, Banaras, and Kamrup or Assam. During his
Sati was common among the Hindus. Here is second tour, he visited the Deccan and Ceylon. His
an eyewitness account of sati left by a European third tour was to Kashmir and the Kailash Mountain.
traveller. “The husband of a girl of eighteen died. He is said to have visited Baghdad, Mecca and
She announced that she would burn with the body Medina. His last tour was confined to the Punjab.
of her husband. Dressed like a bride she proceeded He visited Pakpattan, Depalpur, Kasur, Patti, Variowal,
to the governor’s house with a musical band to Pasrur and Dera Baba Nanak. His last days were spent
obtain his permission. The governor took great at Kartarpur near Dera Baba Nanak. He died in 1538.
pains to explain to her, it was futile to die as sati; It is stated that once upon a time Guru Nanak and
he even went so far as to offer her an annuity of Mardana, his disciple, were arrested and thrown

500 only if she abandoned the idea of peishing into prison by Babur. However, they were released
with her dead husband. When she remained firm, when Babur came to know that the person arrested
the governor permitted her according to the royal was a saintly man.
Farman. Then she proceeded towards the funeral Reformer or Revolutionary
pyre. She removed her ornaments as she came near There are two views regarding the work of
the pyre, she handed them over to her relations. Guru Nanak. According to one school of thought,
She kissed her child, after which she mounted the Nanak was a reformer of Hinduism. This view is held
pyre and was burnt to death along with her dead by writers like Dr. G.C. Narang and Payne. According
husband.” to the other view, Nanak was a revolutionary and the
advocates of this view are Teja Singh, Khan Singh
EVOLUTION OF SIKH COMMUNITY
and Macauliffe.
Guru Nanak (1469-1538) According to the first view. Guru Nanak
Guru Nanak was the founder of Sikhism. He belongs to the bhakti school of thought in India.
was born, in 1469, at a village called Talwandi, now His teachings are practically the same as those of
called Nankana Sahib, in West Punjab. The name of the other Bhakti reformers such as Kabir. Nanak
his father was Mehta Kalu and that of his mother did not attack the fundamentals of Hinduism but
was Tripta. The name of his sister was Nanki. When merely those bad practices,which had crept into the
he was seven, he was sent to the village school but Hindu society in the course of centuries. He did not
it is stated that the child was always contemplating show any disrespect to Hindu avtars and divinities.
and consequently, neither the Hindu nor the Muslim He merely challenged the high position given to
teacher were able to teach him much. His father the Hindu gods. He put more emphasis on God
asked him to look after his cattle and land, but he than his incarnations. He attacked the Vedas and
failed. He tried to put him in some trade but the the Puranas but did not question the wisdom and
son was more after Sacha Sauda or true bargaining philosophy found in them. He wanted the people
that after making money. Instead of doing any to incorporate into their lives of teachings of the
business, he distributed the money among the scriptures rather than merely make a show of them.
needy persons. With a view to taking his son away To quote Banerjee,“One must realize the difference
from his unworldly tendencies, his marriage had no between an attack on scripturalism and one of
effect on him and he was sent to Sultanpur where the scriptures themselves”. Most of the teachings
his brother-in-law was working. He got the job of of Nanak were identical with those of the Bhakti
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reformers. The teachings of Hindu reformers like Punjab and improved the moral and spiritual one of
Namdev and Kabir were incorporated into the Adi the whole people.” According to John Clark Archer,
Granth itself. According to Payne, the aim of Guru “He was a historic person. He is also a theological
Nanak “was not to sweep away Hinduism but to construction. He is what India and the world, in
restore it to its ancient purity. Like Luther, he came to general think he is, also what Sikhs think of him. He is
protest against the idolatry, the blind superstitions a historical theological figure to them, a real person
and the empty rituals, which had so long estranged and also a creature of religious fancy”. Guru Nanak
religion from morality and the hearts of men from has been compared to Luther. So far as spiritualism
their creator.” was concerned, Guru Nanak was far ahead of Luther,
According to the other view, Guru Nanak was but it cannot be denied that the influence of Luther
a revolutionary who “aimed upsetting the cherished was much greater than that of Guru Nanak. While the
institutions of the society in which he was born, teaching of Luther spread all over the Europe those
bringing about social cataclysm and building a of Nanak influenced mainly the Punjab. According
new order on the ruins of the old”. He condemned to Sewa Ram Singh,“The legend of Guru Nanak’s life
the caste system which was the very basis of will always bring into activity the tender feelings of
Hindu society. He also suggested positive steps to human soul, and all men will proclaim that among
ignore the caste system altogether. He started the sons of men, none was born greater than Nanak”.
institution of Langar or common kitchen in which Cunningham sums up Nanak’s achievements
all the persons, irrespective of the castes, were to sit in these words:“Thus, Nanak extricated his followers
together and eat together. Guru Nanak condemned from the accumulated errors of ages and enjoined
asceticism, which was the basic feature of the upon them devotion of thought and excellence
Hindu religion. He did not attach any importance of conduct as the first of duties. He left them erect
to penance and fasting. He repudiated the Hindu and free, unbiased in mind and unfettered by
mythology and questioned the utility of idol worship rules, to become an increasing body of truthful
and the custom of going on pilgrimages. worshippers. His reform was in its immediate effect
It is not possible to accept completely either of religious and moral only; believers were regarded as
the two views. It must be conceded that Guru Nanak ‘Sikhs’ or disciples, not as subjects; and it is neither
did not deliberately set up a new religion. However, probable, nor is it necessary to suppose, that he
his preaching and the work of his successors possessed any clear and sagacious views of social
amelioration of political advancement. He left the
ultimately led to the rise of a new religion in the
progress of his people to the operation of time: for
form of Sikhism.
his congregation was too limited, and the state of
Nanak’s Place in History society too artificial to render it either requisite or
It goes without saying that Guru Nanak possible for him to become a municipal law-giver,
occupies a place of pride not only in the history to subvert the legislation of Manu, or to change the
of the Punjab or India but also of the whole world. immemorial usages of tribes on races. His care was
Guru Nanak was one of the prophets of the world. He rather to prevent his followers contracting into a
gave to the world the gospel of love, goodwill and sect, and his comprehensive principles narrowing
reconciliation. He profoundly influenced the history into monastic distinctions.”

of the Punjab. According to Dr. Gokul Chand Narang, According to Dr. Tara Chand, “The religious
“Nanak left the Hindus of the Punjab immensely movement started by Guru Nanak continued to
better than he had found them. Their belief had gather momentum under his successors. Its stern
been ennobled, their worship purified, the rigidity ethical tone and its definite Puritanism were
of caste considerably relaxed, their minds greatly elements, which distinguished it from similar
emancipated; and they have now become more fit movements in India. Its spirit of non-compromise
to enter on the career of natural progress to which carries within its possibilities of martyrdoms and the
Nanak’s successors were destined to lead them.” seeds of an organised church. The unsettled political
Again,“It leavened the whole Hindu thought in the conditions of the latter period of the Mughal Empire
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gave these possibilities their opportunity, and the more pronounced and the Sikhs began gradually to
seed bore fruit. The later Gurus were inevitably drift away from the orthodox Hindu society and form
drawn into the whirl of politics and they transformed a class, a sort of new brotherhood by themselves”.
the church into a militant society. But although
Guru Ram Das (1575-81)
the Sikhs changed their organisation their religion
retained almost unaltered the impress of Guru Guru Amar Das was succeeded by his son-in-
Nanak’s teachings.” law called Ram Das. He had very cordial relations
with Akbar, who granted 500 Bighas of land in
Guru Angad (1538-52) the neighbourhood of modern Amritsar at a very
Guru Angad was nominated as his successor nominal price. The Emperor also remitted the
by Guru Nanak. It is stated that if Nanak had not revenues of the Punjab for one year. Guru Ram Das
appointed his successor, the Nanak panthis or Sikhs built a new town called Chak Guru of Ramdaspura
would have been absorbed into Hinduism in due which later on came to be known as Amritsar. He
course of time. Angad popularised the Gurumukhi started the excavation of two tanks, Amritsar and
alphabet. A biography of Nanak was complied. Its Santokhsar. He sent his agents everywhere to collect
sayings were also collected at one place. The Udasis money for the above purposes. Sikhism gained
were turned out from the Sikh fold. Strict discipline popularity during his period.
was maintained among the disciples and those who Guru Arjan Dev (1581-1606)
were rebellious were severely dealt with. It is stated Guru Arjan Dev was the head of Sikhism for
that Humayun came to Angad to get his blessings. a quarter of a century and he accomplished a lot
Guru Amar Das (1552-74) during his regime. He completed that construction
of Amritsar and founded other cities like Taran and
Guru Angad was succeeded by Amar Das.
Kartarpur. He constructed a Baoli at Lahore.
Before his conversion to Sikhism, Amar Das was
a devotee of Vishnu. His succession was disputed The most important work of Guru Arjan Dev
by the sons of Nanak and Angad. However, the was the compilation of the Adi Granth, the Bible of
opposition died out in course of time on account the Sikhs. He collected together all the available
of the patient sufferings of Guru Amar Das. The new material and dictated the whole thing in the form of
Guru constructed a Baoli at Goindwal, which became verses. This work was completed in 1604. It includes
an important place pilgrimage for the Sikhs. He the hymns and teachings of the five Sikh Gurus, 16
reformed the institution of Langar and gave more Hindu Bhakts and saints like Kabir, Farib, Nad Dev,
importance to it. He divided his spiritual empire Rai Das, etc. the verses of Bhats, etc. According to
into 22 parts called Manjlis. Each Manji was put Khushwant Singh,“The Granth is a unique historical
under the charge of a Sikh. Separate ceremonies to document. It is perhaps, the only kind of writing
be performed at the time of birth and death of the of the religious literatures. It has saved the literary
Sikhs were prescribed. These were different from works of other poets the time from the vagaries of
those of the Hindus. He prohibited the customs human memory. The Granth Sahib is the central
of Sati. He asked his followers not to take wine. object of Sikh worship and ritual.” Again,“The Granth
He condemned purdah for women. According to Sahib is not like the idol in a Hindu temple or the
Indu Bhushan Banerjee, Sikhism, “forged its own cross in a Catholic Chruch. It is the source and not the
weapon, hedged itself’ behind newer forms and object of prayer or worship. Sikhs revere it because
customs, in short, developed individuality of its it contains the teachings of their Gurus. It is more a
own. It was under his auspices that the rudiments book of divine wisdom than the word of God”.
of a separate organisation were given to the Sikhs, Guru Arjan introduced the Masand system.
and new forms and practices were introduced to The Sikhs were asked to pay one-tenth of their
supersede the old and bind the neophytes more income to the Guru in future. The Guru appointed
closely together.” Again,“It was under Amar Das that his representatives to collect the money. All this
the difference between a Hindu and a Sikh became money was sent to Amritsar on the Baisakhi day.
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The Guru also encouraged the Sikhs to engage volunteers and even Pathans were welcomed to
themselves in horse trade. join. Guru Hargobind’s policy of armed resistance,
Relation between Guru Arjan and Akbar were has been criticised by certain writers. It is that the
cordial but the things changed after the accession lure of politics and glamour of arms led the Guru
of Jahangir. Ultimately, the Guru was tortured to away from the true path of religion and spiritualism.
death in 1605. Many reasons have been given for However, according to Banerjee,“Both externally and
this tragedy. It is stated that Jahangir was annoyed internally, the situation was changing and the policy
because Guru Arjan gave his blessings to his rebel of the Guru had perforce to be adjusted to the new
son. Prince Khusru, Jahangir also did not like the environment. The organisational development of
growing popularity of Sikhism. He took strong Sikhism had mostly taken place during the tolerant
objection to the conversion of Hindus and Muslims days of Akbar who had never interfered with it.
to Sikhism. To quote Jahangir,“They called him Guru He had, on the contrary, even helped the Gurus in
and from all sides, stupid people crowed to worship various ways. But the execution of Guru Arjan and
and manifest complete faith in him. For three or Hargobind’s imprisonment definitely showed that
four generations of spiritual successors, they kept sterner days were ahead and that the policy of mere
their shop warm. Many times, it occurred to me to peaceful organisation no longer sufficed. Guru Arjan
put a stop to this vain affair or to bring into the had foreseen and Guru Hargobind also clearly saw
assembly of the people of Islam.” It is also stated that it would no longer be possible to protect the
that Chandu, the Diwan of Lahore, wanted to marry Sikh community and its organisation without the
his daughter to the son of Guru Arjan but the latter aid of arms; and the way in which he proceeded to
refused. Chandu could not put up with the insult secure this end speaks a good deal for sagacity and
and poisoned the ears of Jahangir who ordered Guru his shrewd political sense”.
Arjan to pay a fine of 2 lakhs and to erase from the
Jahangir could not tolerate the militant policy of
Granth all those hymns, which were objectionable Hargobind and consequently the latter was arrested
to the Muslims and Hindus. The Guru refused to do and imprisoned in the fort of Gwalior. The Guru was
so and hence was tortured to death. released after a few years on the intervention of
According to Teja Singh, the manner in which Mian Mir and Wazir Khan. The relations between the
Guru Arjan was put to death “convinced the Sikhs Guru and Jahangir became friendly afterwards, and
that they must arm themselves and fight, if they continued to be so. During the region of Shahjahan,
wanted to live”. The martyrdom of Arjan gave the relations became bitter once again Shahjahan
strength to the Panth. It was the turning point in was intolerant. He destroyed the Sikh, Baoli at Lahore.
the history of Sikhism. They were not to be merely The quarrels which originally started over hawks or
devotees but were also to become warriors. horses between the Mughal officials and the Sikhs,
subsequently, led to risings on a large scale and were
Guru Hargobind (1606-44) responsible for death of thousands of persons on
Guru Arjan was succeeded by his son, both sides. Battles were fought at Amritsar, Kartarpur
Hargobind. From the very beginning, he was the and other places. Ultimately, Guru Hargobind retired
deadly enemy of the Mughals. He asked his followers to the hills where he spent the rest of his life.
to keep arms and fight against the Mughal tyranny. Guru Hargobind was a teacher and protector of
He himself took up the title of Sachcha Padshah. He his disciples. He realised the gravity of the situation
adopted the emblems of royalty, viz. an umbrella and prepared his followers for the coming struggle.
sword and a hawk. He put on the dress of a soldier. He He created a war-like spirit among his followers.
put on two swords one of which indicated his spiritual
authority and the other his temporal authority. Guru Har Rai (1644-61)
Instead of accepting money from his followers, he Guru Hargobind was succeeded by his
asked them to offer horses and weapons to him. He grandson, Har Rai. The new Guru followed a policy of
fortified Lohgarh. He built the Akal Takht, the throne peaceful propaganda. His relations with the Mughal
of Almighty. He enrolled a large number of armed emperor were all right. However, Prince Dara asked
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for military aid and the blessings of the Guru and the Another version is that the orders for the arrest of
Guru obliged him doing the same. The result was Guru Teg Bahadur were issued because he had laid
that when Dara was defeated, Aurangzeb became waste the whole of the Punjab. According to Indu
his bitter enemy. He summoned the Guru to his court Bhusha Banerjee, the Guru suffered not because
but the Guru excused himself and sent his eldest son. of political reasons but because of his religious
Aurangzeb asked him to explain certain passages activities. The Guru was of a peaceful disposition
in the Sikh scriptures, which were against Islam. The and he led the life of a saint. It is too much to believe
Guru’s son satisfied the Emperor by changing certain that he was responsible for laying waste the whole
words in the Granth Sahib. This was resented by the of the Punjab and action had to be taken against
Guru, who, disinherited his son and appointed Har him on account of that.
Krishan, a minor, as his successor. According to Dr. G.C. Narang, “His execution
Guru Har Krishan (1661-64) was universally regarded by the Hindus as a sacrifice
for their faith. The whole of the Punjab began to
Har Krishan was only five when he became
burn with indignation and revenge.”The execution
Guru. He died three years after. He was called by of Guru Teg Bahadur revolutionised the life of his
the Emperor to Delhi, where he was attacked by son, Guru Gobind Singh.
small pox and died.
Guru Gobind Singh (1675-1708)
Guru Teg Bahadur (1664-75)
Guru Gobind Singh was the 10th and the
Guru Teg Bahadur was the 9th Guru. He last Guru. He was given thorough training in arts of
inherited the hostility of Aurangzeb and it was peace and war by his father. When he became Guru,
mainly on account of the intervention of Mirza he found that his followers were divided and had
Raja Ram Sing that Aurangzeb did not take any not the capacity and courage to fight against the
serious action against him. Different accounts are Mughals. He began to give them training in the art
given regarding the reasons, which were ultimately of warfare and even recruited Pathans in his army.
responsible for the action taken against him by He came into conflict with the hill Rajas and fought
Aurangzeb. One view is that the Guru became the the famous battle of Bhangani. Gobind Singh did
target because he took up the cause of the Kashmiri not do well in the beginning but he ultimately came
Brahmins who approached him to save them from out victorious. He made Anandpur his headquarter.
religious persecution. Many attempts were made to subdue him but they
It is stated that Mughal Governor of Kashmir failed as the adviser of the Mughals, Prince Muazzam,
had converted a large number of Hindus to Islam and who was in charge of the operations, admired the
murdered those who had resisted. Consequently, Guru.
the Kashmiri Brahmins approached Guru Teg In 1699, on the Baisakhi day, Gobind Singh
Bahadur for protection. After a lot of thinking, the created the Khalsa. He is stated to have sought the
Guru asked the Kashmiri Brahmins to go to Delhi blessings of Durga for strength, but Sikhs do not
and tell Aurangzeb that Guru Teg Bahadur was the believe in the story. He summoned a big assembly
protector of the Hindus and if he became a Muslim, of the Sikhs at Anandpur and selected five persons
the other Hindus would also follow him.The Kashmiri who came to be known as Panj Piaras. They took the
Brahmins did as they were asked to do. Aurangzeb water of immortality. After baptising them the Guru
sent his messengers to bring the Guru to Delhi. The asked them to initiate him. In this way, the Guru was
Guru took sometime to reach Delhi as he met his merged into the Khalsa and the Khalsa was merged
followers on the way. This created suspicion in the into Guru. The followers of Nanak were turned into
mind of the Mughals. A search was made for him soldier-saints. The Sikhs were given a distinct dress
and he was arrested at Agra and brought to Delhi and they were required to keep on their person five
where he was put in prison. Aurangzeb asked him things beginning with K, viz. Kesh, Kripan, Kachha,
either to embrace Islam or show some miracle. On Kangha and Kara. The Sikhs followed a policy of
his refusing to do so, the Guru was put to death. fighting Muslim fanaticism with Sikh fanaticism.
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The hill chiefs took strong objection to the a hundred times also! For thy sovereignty! Strange,
activities of Guru Gobind Singh and they all joined strange, is the decree! Smite not any one mercilessly
hands against him. The result was that, in 1701, he with thy sword. Or a sword from on high shall smite
fought the first Battle of Anandpur in which the hill you. O man, be not reckless, fear God. He is the
chiefs were defeated and the Guru was successful. emperor of earth and heaven. He is the creator of
However, they appealed to Aurangzeb for help. The all animals from the feeble to the strong elephant.
latter sent instructions to the Mughal officials in He is the protector of the miserable, and destroyer
the Punjab to take action against the Guru. Wazir of the reckless. What though my four sons were
Khan the Governor of Sirhind, sent his forces against killed? I remain behind like a coiled snake. What
the Guru. In 1703-04, he fought the second Battle bravery is it to quench a few sparks of life? Thou
of Anandpur. The Sikhs put up a stiff resistance art merely exciting a raging fire. I will not enter thy
but ultimately, they had to surrender Anandpur. presence, nor travel on the same road with thee,
Two of the sons of the Guru were captured and but if God so will it, I will proceed against thee.
bricked up at Sirhind. Another battle was fought at When though looks to thin army and wealth. I look
Chamkaru, where two more sons of the Guru were to God’s praises. Though are proud of thin Empire,
killed. Another battle was fought at Khidrana or while I am proud of the kingdom of the Immortal
Muktsar in 1706. After this battle, the Guru settled God be not heedless; this caravan serai is only for a
few days. People leave it at all times. Even though
at Talwandi Sabo or Dam Dama.
thou at strong, annoy not the weak. Lay not the axe
Aurangzeb died in 1707 and was succeeded to the kingdom.”
by his son, Bahadur Shah. Guru Gobind Singh had
cordial relations with the new Emperor and agreed Estimate
to accompany him to the Deccan. A Pathan stabbed Guru Gobind Singh was a builder par
the Guru in October 1708. The last words of the excellence.“He bought a new belief into being and
Guru were: “I have entrusted you to immortal God. released a new dynamic force into arena of Indian
Ever remain under his protection and trust none History”. He was the saviour of Hinduism. He came
besides. Wherever there are Sikhs assembled know to the help of the Hindus when Aurangzeb was
that I am in the midst of them. Henceforth, the Guru determined to convert Dur-ul-Harb (Land of Infidels)
shall be in the Khalsa and the Khalsa in the Guru. I into Dar-ul-Islam (Land of the Faithful). He infused
have infused my mental and bodily spirit into the a new spirit among his followers and but for that
Granth Sahib and the Khalsa.” spirit, most of the Hindus in northern India might
It is interesting to reproduce the last letter have embraced Islam. It is true that he protected
addressed by Guru Gobind Singh to Aurangzeb. Hinduism from Islam but this does not mean that he
This is known as Zafar Nama and read thus: “I have hated the Muslims. He was merely opposed to the
not a particle of confidence in these. I was focused tyranny of the Mughal Emperors and not to Islam
to engage in the combat and fought to the utmost as such. He had his friends among the Muslims who
of my ability. When an affair passed beyond the actually saved his life when he was being hunted
region of diplomacy, it is lawful to have recourse by the Mughals.
to the sword. If thou come to the village of Kangar, Guru Gobind Singh was not a military or
we shall have an interview. Thou shalt not run the political leader. He was essentially a man of God.
slightest danger on the way, for the whole tribes He was made to infuse a militant spirit into his
of Bairars are under me. I am a slave and servant of followers on account of the force of circumstances.
the King of Kings and ready to obey his order with The Guru was a scholar and a poet. He composed a
my life. If though have any belief in God, delay not large number of verses in Punjabi, Hindi and Persian.
in this matter. It is thy duty to know God. He never He was a patron of learning. He composed a large
ordered thee to annoy others. Thou art seated on number of verses in Punjabi, Hindi and Persian. He
an Emperor’s throne; yet how strange are thy justice, was a true democrat. He did not appoint any person
thane attributes and they regard for religion! Alas, who was to succeed him as a Guru of the Sikhs. He
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asked the Sikhs to have general meetings and make and Kapuri were looted. At Shadhura, Banda won a
their decision by Gurumata on the deliberations decisive victory. In 1710 A.D., he conquered Sirhind.
and resolutions of the council. The Battle of Sirhind was bloody one. Banda was
According to Cunningham, “The last apostle helped by thousands of Sikhs from Malwa and Majha
of the Sikhs did not live to see his own ends as they wanted to punish the Governor of Sirhind
accomplished, but he effectually roused the who was regarded as the murder of the sons of Guru
dormant energies of a vanquished people, and Gobind Singh. Wazir Khan himself was cut to pieces.
filled them with a lofty although fitful longing for Thousands of Muslims were butchered. The city was
social freedom and national ascendancy, the proper plundered. According to Lafif, the Sikhs “butchered,
adjuncts of the purity of worship which had been bayoneted, strangled, hanged, shot down, hacked to
preached by Nanak. Gobind saw what was yet vital, pieces and burnt alive every Mohammedan in the
and he resumed it with Promethean fire. A living place”. Even “the mosques were polluted and burnt
spirit possesses the whole Sikh people and the down and the Mullas Maulvis and Hafised were
impress of Gobind has not only elevated and altered subjected to the greatest indignities and tortures”.
the constitution of their minds, but has operated The dead body of Wazir Khan “was hanged on a
materially and given amplitude to their physical tree and left to the tender mercy of the crows and
vultures”.
fames.”
After the conquest of Sirhind, Banda Bahadur
Again “Gobind was equally bold, systematic
and sanguine, but it is not necessary to suppose him appointed Baj Singhs as the Governor of Sirhind.
either an unscrupulous impostor or a self-deluded Coins were struck in the name of the Guru in 1710.
enthusiast. He thought that the minds of men might He abolished zamindari system. The Sikhs revolted
be wrought upon the great purposes, he deplored at Saharanpur, Behat and Jalalabad and the Mughals
the corruption of the world, he resented the tyranny cound not subdue them. The same was the case with
which endangered his own life, and he believed the the Sikhs of the Doab who could not be crushed by
time had come for another teacher to arouse the the Faujdar of Jullundar. The Sikhs captured, Amritsar,
latent energies of the human will. His memory was Kasur, Batala, Kalanaur and Pathankot.
filled with the deeds of primeval seers and heroes The above activities of the Sikhs forced
his imagination dwelt on successive dispensations Bahadur Shah to take action against them. All the
for the instruction of the world, and his mind was Muslim Faujdars and Nazims were ordered to join
not perhaps untinged with a superstitious belief in hands to take a concerted action against them.
his own earthly destiny.” More than 60,000 soldiers were sent under Amin
Khan against Banda who was ultimately besieged in
Banda Bahadur (1670-1716 A.D.) Lohgarh. There was bitter fighting and ultimately the
Banda Bahadur was a Dogra Rajput. He was fort had to be surrendered in December 1710. Banda
born in 1670 A.D. His original name was Lachhman escaped and retired to the hills. Farrukh Siyar sent
Das and he was very fond of hunting. Later on, the Abdul Samad to crush Banda. Elaborate preparations
became a Bairagi and went away to the Deccan. were made in 1716 and ultimately was fought the
It was in the Deccan that Guru Gobind Singh met famous Battle of Gurdas Nangal.
him in 1708 and made him his own Banda or slave. The Sikhs put up a stiff resistance. Their rations
He asked him to go back to the north and wreck were exhausted. They ultimately surrendered when
vengeance on the enemies of the Khalsa. The Guru they were in great distress. Banda was arrested and
also sent instructions to the Sikhs of the Punjab to he along with other Sikhs sent to Delhi where they
rally under his banner. were all paraded in the bazars. For the Muslims of
When Banda Bahadur entered the Punjab, the Delhi, it was a great Tamasha but the Hindus and
Sikhs from all quarters flocked under his banner. A Sikhs felt it as a great humiliation. The other Sikhs
large number of persons also joined him in the hope and Banda were executed in June 1716. To begin
of getting booty. Kaithal, Samana, Shahabad, Ambala with, the son of Banda was cut to pieces. After that,
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the flesh of Banda was torn with red-hot pincers. more zealous Sikhs, and they may have caused the
Thus ended the career of a great man. memory of an able and enterprising leader to be
generally neglected”.
Estimate
To the Hindus and Sikhs, Banda Bahadur The Sikhs after the Death of Banda Bahadur
appeared as a great champion of their faith. He took There was a division among the Sikhs after the
up the cudgels against the tyranny of the Muslims. death of Banda Bahadur in 1716. They were divided
He took revenge for the murder of the sons of Guru into two parts known as the Bandais and the Takht
Gobind Singh at Sirhind. The Muslim writers describe Khalsa. The former were the followers of Banda and
him as “one of the most sanguinary of monsters” or the latter were the orthodox Sikhs. Through the
“ruthless blood-sucker”. It is pointed out that Banda efforts of Bhai Mani Singh, the differences between
was neither a free-bootee nor a tyrant like Attila the two were composed in 1721.
and Chingiz Khan. To begin with, he led the life of Zakriaya Khan, Governor of the Punjab, from
a saint, but it was the force of circumstances that 1726 to 1745, followed a policy of persecution of
made him fight against the tyranny of the Mughals the Sikhs. Tara Singh Van and his 21 followers were
in the Punjab. According to Dr. G.C. Narang, “Guru killed by the Mughal troops. The Mughal Governor
Gobind Singh had diverted the attention of the appealed to Muslim fanaticism and the Haidari flag
followers from the plough to the sword. He had was hoisted. However, the Sikhs were able to defeat
sown the seed. Banda reaped the harvest. The Guru the Mughal forces at a place near Bhilowal. After this,
had enumerated principles; Banda carried them the Mughal Governor tried to placate the Sikhs, but
into practice. Gobind Singh had destroyed the awe the latter organised themselves into the Dal Khalsa.
inspired by Mughal despotism; Banda completely There were two main divisions of the Dal Khalsa
broke the charm of its invincibility.” known as the Budha dal and the Taruna Dal. The
Banda Bahadur was a great organizer. Budha Dal consisted of the army of the elders and
According to Dr. Ganda Singh, “It was through the Taruna Dal consisted of the army of the young.
him that the path of conquest and freedom was The Taruna Dal was divided into 5 Jathas, each under
discovered by the people of the Punjab. He was the a separate Sardar. Each Jatha had 1,300 to 2,000 men.
first man to deal a severe blow at the intolerant rule Both the Dals worked under the common leadership
of the Mughals in the Punjab and to break the first of Nawab Kapur Singh. The members of the Taruna
sod in the conquest of that province by the Sikhs”. Dal were a source of nuisance to the Mughal forces.
The exploits of Banda Bahadur created a will in the They overran the whole of the Bari Doab and some
ordinary masses of the Punjab to resist tyranny and of them crossed the Sutlej and helped Ala Singh to
to live and die for a national cause. Banda failed set up a small state in Malwa.
on account of his desertion by the Sikhs and the In 1739, the Sikhs fell upon the rear of the
superior forces of the enemy. army of Nadir Shah when he was retreating from
According to Cunningham, “The memory of Delhi along with his booty. They were able to snatch
Banda is not held in much esteem by the Sikhs away a lot from the Afghans. Nadir Shah is stated to
he appears to have been of a gloomy disposition, have remarked thus to the Mughal Governor:“Take
and he was obeyed as an energetic and daring care, the day is not distant when these rebels will
leader without being able to engage the personal take possession of the country”.The result was that
sympathies of his followers. He did not perhaps Zakriaya Khan decided to destroy the Sikhs root and
comprehend the general nature of Nanak’s and branch. Prised were offered too those who helped
Gobind’s reforms, the spirit of sectarianism possessed him in his work. He who cut off the hair of a Sikh
him, and he endeavoured to introduce changes was given a blanket and a bedding. He who supplied
into the modes and practices enjoined by these information about the whereabouts of Sikhs was
teachers, which should be more in accordance with given 10. He who caught or killed a Sikh got 50.

his own ascetic and Hindu notions. These unwise The Sikhs were hunted like wild beasts and they
innovations and restrictions were resisted by the retired to the hills and the jungles. In 1742, Haqigat
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Rai was put to death. Mehtab Singh, Buta Singh, and Punjab in 1764. Instead of facing him, the Sikhs ran
Bhai Taru Singh were executed. The Sikhs hit back. away to the hills and jungles and consequently no
They attacked Sialkot and murdered all those Qazis harm could be done to them. Abdali invaded Punjab
and Mullahs who had a hand in the execution of again, in 1766-67, but the Sikhs were not crushed.
Haquiqat Rai. They plundered Gondlanwala and its There were many reasons why the Sikhs could
Faujdar was killed. They were given a crushing defeat not be crushed. Between 1748 and 1766, there
near Basoli hills and about 7,000 of them were killed was going on a struggle for power in the Punjab
and 3,000 were taken prisoners. This is known as the between the Mughals, the Afghans, the Marathas
first Ghalughara and it happened in 1746. and the Sikhs. After the Battle of Panipat in 1761,
There was a civil war in the Punjab, in 1746-47 the Marathas and the Mughals were eliminated.
and ultimately, Shah Nawaz became the Governor The struggle remained only between the Sikhs and
of the Punjab. Mir Mannu as Governor of the Punjab Afghans. Ultimately the Sikhs emerged triumphant
succeeded him soon after. He also followed a policy from their deadly struggle of the past 30 years and
of persecuting the Sikhs. the long drawn agony of their subjections came
In spite of the persecutions of Mir Mannu, Sikhs to an end and the dream of their independence
remained unsubdued. The greater the persecution, was realised. The tenacity of purpose of the Sikhs
the greater became their fanaticism.“The common helped them to fight successfully against their rivals.
danger and their strong religious feelings kept them Moreover, Ahmad Shah Abdali did not come to
under discipline and made every Sikh obey his India to establish an empire in this country. He was
leader in order to work for the cause of the Panth”. merely interested in plunder and the result was that
Since all of them were suffering, they were brought after his withdrawal the Punjab was left in a chaotic
together against the Muslim tyrant. There were also condition and the Sikhs took full advantage of the
prospects of getting money if the Muslims were same. The Sikhs also took advantage of the vacuum
turned out from the Punjab. Diwan Kaura Mal who created in the Punjab politics after the withdrawal
was trusted by Mir Mannu, was also a Sikh by faith. of the Afghans. The dual policy of Adina Beg also
He exerted his influence to save the Sikhs. helped the Sikhs. Adina Beg sometimes played
After the death of Mir Mannu in 1753, his the Afghans against the Sikhs and sometimes the
widow, Mughlani Begum, captured all the power Sikhs against the Afghans. The result was that the
in Punjab. She was a woman of loose character and Sikhs were saved. It is pointed out that Ahmad Shah
resulted in chaos in Punjab. She was imprisoned Adbali became overconfident after the Third Battle
and Adina Beg was appointed the Governor of the of Panipat in 1761 and underestimated the power
Punjab. Adina Beg made an alliance with the Sikhs and strength of the Sikhs. The result was that no
and invited the Marathas. However, he died in 1758. adequate action was taken against the Sikhs. The
guerilla tactics of the Sikhs also helped them. They
Ahmad Shah Abdali attacked India many times.
were wise enough to avoid the blunder committed
In 1761, he defeated the Marathas in the Third Battle
by the Marathas in 1761. There is every reason to
of Panipat. However, when he was going back, the
Sikhs who also gave a lot of trouble to the Afghan believe that they would have been completely
Faujdar harassed him. The Sikhs won a victory at crushed if they had fought pitched battles against
Gujranwala and occupied Lahore. Abdali came back Ahmad Shah Abdali.
in 1762 and inflicted a crushing defeat on the Sikhs. Reference may be made to some of the effects
He ordered a wholesale massacre of the Sikhs and of the invasions of Abdali on the history of the
this is known as the second Ghalughara in Sikh Punjab. It is pointed out that his invasions paved
History. The Hari Mandir (Amritsar) was destroyed. the way for the rise of the Sikhs in the Punjab. The
However, the Sikhs recovered their prestige by frequent invasions of the Afghans added to the
defeating Abdali in the Battle of Amritsar and confusion and anarchy in the Punjab and thus the
the latter was obliged to run away. As the Sikhs Sikhs were able to set up their Misls. Life became
continued to harass the Afghans, Abdali attacked the insecure in the Punjab and there was a population
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Punjabi saying to this effect: “Khada pita lahe da, dependents agreeably to the general custom to
rahnda Ahmed Shah da”. (the only property that we sub-infeudation”.However, Banerjee does not accept
hold is what we eat and drink, the rest belong to this view. According to him, the Misls “really formed
Ahmad Shah). Another effect of Abdali’s invasions a confederacy which was democratic in composition
was that the Punjabis became war-like. They learnt and religious in its cohesive principle”. The Misls
to take up arms to defend their hearths and homes. were associations of warriors united by ties of
religion. According to Ibbetson, the organisation
The Sikh Misls of the Misls was “a curious mixture of theocracy,
The term Misl is Arabic word which means democracy and absolutism”. The Sikh Sardars and
equal or alike. According to Payne.“As membership the soldiers all fought for the Guru, and when they
in such a Jatha or group conferred political, religious assembled at Amritsar before the Guru Granth, they
and social equality on all its members. They began to did what that religious gathering decided. It was
be designated as Misls.”The Misls came into existence demarcation because every soldier or member of
at a time when there was complete anarchy in the Misl enjoyed social and political equality. But as
Punjab and Sikhs grouped themselves under certain there was no regular machinery to check the Sardar,
leaders and each one of them came to be known it was virtually absolutism.
as a Misl. Ordinarily, reference is made to 12 Misls, Gurmatta
viz. Singhapuria or Faizapuria Ahluwalia, Ramgarhia,
The central organisation of the Misl was the
Bhangi, Kanheyia, Sukarchakya, Pulkian, Dallewalia,
Gurmatta. The literal meaning of this term is,“advice
Karorshinghia or Panjagarhia, Naishanwalia, Nakkai
of the spiritual Guru”. It is stated that after the death
and Shahid. However, according to Sir Lepel Griffin, it
of the tenth Guru, the Sikhs assembled at Amritsar
is not proper to say that there were 12 Misls because
on such occasions as Diwali, Dussehra or Baisakhi
some of the confederacies were insignificant,
and in the presence of the Adi Granth, they discussed
e.g. Nishanwalias, Nakkais, the Karorshinghia or
their common plans of action at Akal Takhat. Their
Panigarhias and the Shahids. Ibbetson also does
decisions were put in the form of resolution or
not put them in the category of Misls and calls
Gurmattas.The Gurmatta performed political, judicial
them merely Dehras or camps. According to him,
and deliberative functions. According to Maleolm.
there were only 8 Misls and 4 Dehras. The Dheras
“When the chiefs met on this solemn occasion, it
had small tracts of land in the Malwa region of the
is concluded that all private animosities cease and
Punjab. It is to be observed that all the Misls did not
that every man sacrifices his personal feelings at
come into existence at the same time and also did
the shrine of the general good; and actuated by
not flourish at the same time. Sometimes, one Misl
principles of power patriotism, think of nothing but
gave birth to another Misl. Jassa Singh Ahluwalia
the interests of religion and the commonwealth to
served under Nawab Kapur Singh of the Singhapuria
which he belongs”. The last Gurmatta was held in
Misl but later on set up his own Misl known as the
1805. After that it ceased to be a political institution,
Ahuwalia Misl. Likewise the Bhangi Sardars and the
there was no regular machinery to enforce the
Sukerchakya Chiefs who worked under Jassa Singh,
decisions of the Gurmatta except that of religion.
set up their separate Misl later on.
For the sake of the honour of the Panth, the Sikhs

According to Cunningham, the Misls were were determined to enforce those decisions.
“theocratic feudalism”. The Misls were loosely knit
together by the institution of gurmatta, which met Misl Organisation
in times of danger. “The obvious feudal or military Every Misl had a Sardar or Misldar at its head.
notion of chain of dependence was acknowledged He was practically supreme in his affairs. However,
as the law and the federated Chiefs partitioned he did not interfere in the day-to-day affairs of his
then joint conquests among themselves and followers. According to Griffin,“All that a Sikh Chief
divided their respective shares in the same manner demanded in those days from a follower was a horse
among them own leaders of bands, while these and a matchlock. All that a follower sought was
again subdivided their portions among their own protection and permission to plunder in the name
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of God and the Guru under the banner of the chief. increased under Ranjit Singh. The backbone of the
There was little question of pay”.According to George armies of the Misls was the cavalry. There was no
Thomas, “Within his own dominion each chief is regular training for the soldiers. There was regular
lord paramount. He exerts an exclusive authority organisation of the forces of these Misls. The
over his vassals, even the power of life and death weapons commonly used by them were swords,
and to increase the population of his districts, he spears, matchlocks, sabers, etc. The soldiers of the
proffers a ready and hospitable asylum to fugitives Misls believed more in guerrilla warfare than in
from all parts of India”. The Misl administration was pitched battles.
essentially village administration. Every village was
a small republic. There was a panchayat in every THE TWELVE MISLS
village.“The Panchayats of council of elders restrain Faizalpuria or Singhpuria Misl
the stronger and the weaker against any aggression”. Ahluwalia Misl
The common plea was that God acted through
The Bhangi Misl
Panchayats (Panchayat men Parmishwar). Villages
were of two kinds, those directly administered and Ramgarhia Misl
those under Rakhi of protection only. From the Kanheyia Misl
former, one-fifth of the produce was taken. A similar Sukarchakya Misl
charge was made from the village under the Rakhi Phulkian Misl
system. The Rakhi system of the Sikhs was similar
to the Chauth system of the Marathas. Dallewalia Misl
It is difficult to calculate the exact fighting Nishanwalia Misl
strength of the Sikh Misls. Different writers have Karorshingha Misl
made various estimates but it is generally believed Shahids’ Misl or Nihangs’ Misl
that their total strength was about one lakh. It Nakai Misl
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CHAPTER-11
CULTURE IN THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
PERSIAN HISTORIES AND OTHER literary fashion of the time, but could complete

LITERATURE only a few; for example, Nal Daman. Faizi’s prose
works included a Persian adaptation of Lilavati, his
Persian was the official language of the
epistles and Persian translations of Hindu religious
Mughal Court. Babur, the first Mughal ruler, was
books. According to some critics, Faizi enjoyed great
an accomplished poet and he wrote his memoirs
prestige in Turkey and it was his influence, which
in Turki, which was later, translated into Persian carried the Indo-Persian poetry beyond the borders
by Abdur Rahim Khan Khanan. Babur also wrote of India.
a didactic work known as Mathnavi Mubin. His
Abdur Rahim Khan Khanan, an accomplished
chief contribution to the development of Persian
scholar and talented poet, lived during Akbar
literature in India lies in having brought with him a
and Jahangir’s reigns. His fame chiefly rests on
number of Persian poets. The major influx of Persian
maintaining a library that contained more than four
writers into India started with the return of Humayun
thousand books. He was known for his patronage
from his exile in Iran. It was at Shah Tahmasp’s court,
extended to numerous writers like Naziri Nishapuri,
in Iran, that he met a number of poets and artists, Urfi Shirazi and Mulla Abdul Baqi Nihawandi.
some of whom he persuaded to accompany him to
Shah Jahan has been acclaimed as one
India. When he later set up his own court, he was
of the greatest patrons, who according to the
able to coordinate the works of the indigenous poets
contemporary Persian poet, Ali Quli Salem, enabled
and writers with those of the talented immigrants.
the full flowering of Persian poetry in India. Abu Talib
The stream of Persian poets who visited India, Kalim of Hamadan succeeded Qudsi as Shah Jhan’s
during the 16th and 17th centuries created a rich court pet and completed, beside his own diwan,
synthesis in a new genre of Persian literature known as epic poem entitled Padshahnama describing
as (Sabaq Hindi) (‘Indian style’). The patronage given Shah Jhan’s achievements. The greatest Persian
to the exponents of this particular school continued poet of this period was Mirza Muhammad Ali Saib
from Akbar to Shah Jahan, which included notable of Tabriz, who was known to have created a new
Indian and Persian writers like Faizi, Urfi, Naziri, Talib style in Persian poetry. On his return to Isfahan, he
Amuli, Kalim, Ghani Kashmiri and Bedil. recorded his indebtedness to India by calling her
The Mughal Emperors and princes often as a second paradise. Thus, the patronage of the
themselves composed poetry in Persian; for example, Mughal ruling class not only created a new genre
Humayun composed a Persian diwan. Abul Fazl of Persian literature, it also increased the excellence
writes that thousands of poets resided at Akbar’s in prose writings.
Court. Apart from Faizi, there was Ghazali Mashnadi In the South, Persian literature received
who was known to have been an extremely talented generous patronage from the Adil Shahi rulers of
man. He wrote many mathnavis. Faizi succeeded Bijapur. The court of Ibrahim Adil Shah II (1580-
Ghazali Mashhadi. His principal work included a 1627) attracted a large number of poets and
diwan named Tabashir al Subh, which consisted writers—both from North India as well as Central
of Qasidas, Ghazals, Elegies, Qit’as and Ruba’is. He Asia. Malik Qummi (d. 1640) was one of the best-
had planned to write a Khamsah according to the known poets patronised by the Adil Shahi Dynasty.
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His contemporary Mulla Zuhuri was decidedly the cultivated by the Muslims, the greatest innovation
greatest of the Persian poets who flourished in the being the evolution of literary Urdu language. Other
Deccan. Known to possess a distinct style in both languages modeled on Persian tradition are Punjabi,
poetry and prose, he wrote a book called Saginama- Pushtu, Sindhi, Baluchi and Kashmiri. All these share
based on the model of the Gulistan of Sadi. a written script with Persian.
The Qutab Shahis of Golconda were also Hindi and other Religious Literatures
known as great patrons of Persian scholarship and
Hindi language as known today developed
literature under whose patronage varied works
over a long period of time. A number of dialects
were executed in Persian. In 1651, Muhammad
spoken in various regions of northern India
Hussain Tabrezi’s Persian dictionary Burhan Qati contributed to its development. The main dialects
was compiled under the patronage of Abdulla Qutab from which Hindi emerged are Brajbhasa, Awadhi,
Shah. Bustami’s Hadiqal Salatin—a collection of the Rajasthani, Maithili, Bhojpuri, Malwi, etc. Khari Boli,
lives of eminent Persian poets—was completed in a mixed form of Hindi, also came into existence in
1681. the 15th-16th centuries.
Four historical chronicles of the Qutab Shahi The origins of Hindi date back to 7th and 10th
dynasty were rendered into verse during the reign centuries. It was during this period that Hindu was
of Muhammad Quli Qutab Shah. An encyclopedic evolving out of Apabharansha. The early period of
work of considerable merit (Abu Imad’s Khiraqatul Hindi poetry is called Virgatha Kala (age of heroic
‘Alam) in six volumes testifies to the interest in and poetry). During this period, the exploits of Rajput
contact with Persian culture that was maintained Kings and chieftains were narrated in poetic form.
through the warm hospitality that the Qutub Shahi Some of the famous poems are Prithiviraja Raso,
rulers offered to the Persian scholars visiting their Hamir Raso, etc.
kingdom. As a result, Persian as the regional court
The form of poetry, which developed during
language at Bijapur and Golconda gained a niche
the subsequent period, was devotional (Bhakti).
in the South.
Kabir was the most famous exponent of this form.
Another category of literary works mostly The same tradition continues during the 16th and
written in Persian is mystical or Sufi literature. Under 17th centuries.
this category come; the treatises written by the Sufis Derived from a broken form of Sanskrit known
on mysticism; collection of letters written by Sufis; as “Maghadi-Prakrti”, the Hindi literary language
Malfuzat (discourses by sufi saints); biographic of bloomed under the pervasive influence of the Bhakit
Sufis and collection of sufi poetry. Movement. The new poetry found its best creative
Sakinatul Uliya written by Prince Dara Shukoh expression in the writings of Goswami Tulsidas. The
is a biographical account of the sufi Miya Mir and poet born in eastern U.P., around 1523, became a
his disciples. The Majm’aul Bahrain (Mingling of two mendicant and began to write his masterpiece.
oceans) is his other work related to Sufism. In this Ramcharita-Manasa in 1574. The popularity
work, he has compared the Islamic sufi concepts of this work rested on its language, which closely
with Hindu philosophical outlook. resembled Tulsidas’ native Awadhi dialect. Tulsidas
During the period, the Mughal Emperors took up the life of Rama as that of an ideal man
enriched Persian literature by getting classical Indian and built around it this philosophy of ‘Bhakti’. His
texts translated into Persian. During Akbar’s period observations touched the lives of common men.
Singhasan Batisi, Ramayana and Rajtaringni of Among the many works that Tulsidas wrote,
Kalhan were also translated. Badauni was associated Vinaya-Patrika or a prayer book brings out his
with all these translations. philosophy best. Though he preached pure devotion
The Persian literature produced at the Mughal to an almighty God, in his personal life he clung to
court exercised a tremendous influence in the a single deity investing him with all the necessary
formation of regional literature, especially those attributes of a culf figure.
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Tulsidas inspired a number of other writers— foundation of a new style of architecture in India
like Agradas and Nabhajidas—who composed the had already been laid in the thirteenth century with
Bhakta—a well-known account of the Vaisnava the introduction of the arcuate technique where
saints dating back to the ancient period. Devotion to spaces were covered with domes and entrances
Krishna rather than Rama as the highest incarnation were made with the help of arches. The Mughal
of the Supreme Being was propagated by another carried this tradition and created a synthesis of the
set of poets who were known as Ashtachapa. These pre-Turkish technique, viz., trabeate with the arcuate.
eight men were all disciples of Vallabhacharya, The final result, however, of all this blending was the
among whom Surdas, who wrote between 1503- emergence of a distinct style of their own.
1563, was considered the best. The exceptional Babur did not have enough to devote to big
personality who brought a new appeal to the architectural projects. He, nevertheless, laid out
Krishna hymns was Mirabai. several gardens in India of the pattern of his culture-
A Rajput princes turned into a mendicant, area. In his memoirs (Baburnama), he claims the
Mira herself became the heroine of many romantic credit for some pavilions also. Unfortunately, very
legends. Her songs addressed Krishna as a lover and few of his buildings survive today.
portrayed the final subjugation of a ‘Bhakta’ to the Humayun, Babur’s successor was plagued by
Supreme Being. These songs originally composed continuously eroding political authority. Within a
in the Marwari dialect of Rajasthan were altered decade of his assuming power, he was dethroned
through the usage of Brajabhasha, which was and sent into exile in Persia. The buildings dating
popular mainly in Gujarat and parts of Northern from this period, therefore, do not show any
India. distinctiveness. Humayun survived for only one
year after his return to India, in 1555. However, the
The Awadhi dialect of Hindi was enriched by
impact of a long contact with the Persian culture
a number of Sufi poets who used popular tales to
can be seen in the designing and execution of
explain their mystic messages. Mostly, these dealt
his mausoleum; under the supervision of his wife,
with the themes of love. Among the writers in this
Hamida Banu Begum.
genre was Maulana Daud the author of Chandayan,
and Kutaban the composer or Mrigavati.The greatest The flowering of the Mughal architecture in
was, however, Malik Muhammad Jayasi whose reality took place under Akbar. He encouraged a
famous work Padmavati was composed between hybrid style, containing foreign as well as indigenous
A.D. 1520-1540. It is a detailed mystic analysis of the elements. Akbar particularly appreciated the
popular legend of queen padmini of Chittor and resources of the indigenous artisans and got them
Alauaddin Khilji. The work though better known translated in the buildings of Fatehpur Sikri.
for its theme, should also be acclaimed for the Akbar’s son, Jahangir, was not a notable
excellence of the Awadhi language in which it was builder, but Jahangir’s son, Shah Jahan, was one of
composed. Some Muslim poets belonging to the the greatest patrons of the building art. Some of
17th and 18th centuries are Osman Shaikh Nabi, India’s finest monumental heritage dates from Shah
Kasim and Mir Muhammad. Jahan’s reign. Marble replaced red sandstone as the
principal building material, and the decorative art of

Literature in Brajabhasa flourished under the
inlaying achieved distinction with the introduction
patronage of Akbar and was enriched by poets
of semiprecious stones as only material, called pietra
and musicians and his court including Tansen and
dura (prachin kari). Shah Jahan also introduced
Abdur Rahim- Khan-i-Khana who composed lyrics
the bulbous domes and convoluted arches in his
on the ‘leela’ of Krishna.
buildings.
Mughal Architecture Aurangzeb’s temperament did not respond
The Mughal rulers were men of acute aesthetic to the style prevailing from his father’s reign. His
awareness and, as patron of art and culture, they buildings, therefore, show a change: they are austere
built beautiful cities and buildings in India. The in both material and style.
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Beginning of Mughal Architecture Humayun’s return to Delhi, in 1555, was short
The history of architecture, during the 16th- lived. There are in fact no notable buildings of this
18th centuries, is in fact an account of the building time. Mention may; however, be made of Humayun’s
activities of Mughal Emperors, except for a bride tomb as a structure which was inspired by the Persian
interregnum of a decade and a half when Surs ruled culture imbibed by Humayun during his exile. This
in Delhi. building is in fact a landmark in the development of
It is true that the Mughal style of architecture the Mughal style of architecture. The construction
took a concrete form during the reign of Akbar, began, in 1564, after Humayun’s death under the
yet the basic principles of Mughal architecture patronage of his widow, Hamida Bano Begum. The
were provided by Babur and Humayun, the two architect of the building was Mirak Mirza Ghiyas, a
predecessors of Akbar. native of Persia. He brought many Persian craftsmen
to Delhi to work on the structure and their skills
Buildings of Babur and techniques were liberally employed. The tomb
Babur had a short reign of five years, most has, thus, become the representative of an Indian
of which was spent in fighting battles for the rendition of a Persian concept. It may be noted that
consolidation of the newly born Mughal state. He Humayun’s tomb, strictly speaking, is a building of
is, however, known to have taken considerable Akbar’s reign. But because of peculiar features, it
interest in building secular works. It is unfortunate has been treated separately.
that very little of this work is extant today. The
Humayun’s tomb is one of the earliest
only standing structures of Babur’s reign are two
specimens of the garden enclosure and is raised
mosques, built in 1526, at Panipat and Sambhal.
high on an arcaded sandstone platform. The tomb
But both these structures are commonplace, and
is octagonal in plan and is crowned by a high dome,
possess no architectural merit.
which is actually a double dome. It has two shells,
Babur’s secular works mainly comprise the with an appreciable space in between. The inner
laying of gardens and pavilions. In one of the shell forms the vaulted ceiling to the inner chambers,
miniatures, he has been depicted inspecting the and the outer shell rises like a bulb in a proportion
layout plan of a garden of Dholpur. Today, only with the elevation of the main building. To the center
the excavated ruins of this garden are visible. Two of each side of the tomb is a porch with a pointed
more gardens, Ram Bagh and Zahara Bagh at Agra, arch providing entrance to the main chamber. The
are also attributed to him. But the present layout interior of this building is a group of compartments,
of these gardens seems to have undergone many the largest in the centre containing the grave of the
alterations. None of Babur’s pavilions have been Emperor. The smaller ones in each angle were meant
noticed as surviving today. to house the graves of his family member. Each
Buildings of Humayun room is octagonal in plan and they are connected
The surviving buildings of Humayun’s reign by diagonal passages.
have the same inconsequential character as that Interregnum: The Sur Architecture
of Babur. The Mughal domination over India was
The Mughal rule is India was interrupted by
too unsettled for the production of any great

Sher Shah Suri in 1540. For the next fifteen years
work of architecture. Moreover, Humayun had to
the Empire came under the sway of the Surs who
spend fifteen long years of his life in exile, in Persia,
during the ascendance of the Sur dynasty in Delhi. embarked on profound architectural projects. Their
However, two mosques from among several other building, in fact, laid the groundwork on which the
buildings erected during the first phase of his reign Mughals built.
survive. One of these lies in ruinous conditions at The architectural heritage produced under
Agra. The other is at Fatehabad (Hissar). But both diverse conditions and in two separate localities
these structures are devoid of any architectural of the Surs may be divided into two separate and
distinctiveness much in the same manner as the distinct periods. The first phase emerged at Sasaram
mosques of Babur. (Bihar), under Sher Shah, between 1530 and 1540.
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Here, a group of tombs was built illustrating the other, each with an open archway recessed within it.
final fulfilment of the Lodi Style by which it has The façade is richly craved in black and white marble
been inspired. The second phase lasted from 1540 and red sandstone, and the central arch is flanked
to 1545, when Sher Shah had wrested control of the by narrow, fluted pilasters. The rear carriers of the
Empire from Humayun. Under his patronage, several mosque have five stair turrets with rich windows
architectural innovations were adopted which got carried on brackets.
reflected in mature form in the consequent Mughal One notable feature in this building is the shape
style. of the arches—there is a slight drop, or flatness, in the
The first phase is represented by a group of curve towards the crown. It is indicative of the last
tombs, three belonging to the ruling family and one stage before the development of the four-centred
to Aliwal Khan who was the architect of these tombs. “Tudor” arch of the Mughals.
The buildings reflect the ambition of Sher Shah
Architecture Under Akbar
to create the monuments grander than anything
found in Delhi. The first project of this scheme was Akbar’s reign can be taken as the formative
the construction of the tomb of Hasan Khan, Sher period of Mughal architecture. It represents the finest
Shah’s father, in 1525. But this was a conventional example of the fusion of Indo-Islamic architecture.
exercise in Lodi design. The major representative Structural Form
of this group was the tomb of Sher Shah (Sasaram),
The architecture of the reign of Akbar
an architectural masterpiece. Here, the architect
represents encouragement of the indigenous
considerably enlarged the normal proportions of
techniques and a selective use of the experiences
the earlier building and set it in a beautiful tank
of other countries. The chief elements of the style of
approached by a causeway. In addition to this, he
architecture that evolved under Akbar’s patronage
increased the number of stories, thus, producing
can be listed thus:
a beautiful pyramid cal structure in five distinct
stages. This monument was constructed of the finest 1. The buildings mainly used red sandstone as
Chunar Sandstone. the building material;
Sher Shah’s tomb stands on a stepped square 2. A widespread use of the trabeated
plinth on a terrace appreciated through a gateway construction;
via a bridge place across the tank. There is an error 3. The arches used mainly in decorative form
in orienting the lower platform of the tomb on the rather than in structural form;
main axis. But it is corrected by skewing the axis of 4. The dome was of the ‘Lodi’ type, sometimes
the super-structure built over the lower platform. built hollow but never technically of the true
The main building comprises an octagonal chamber double order;
surrounded by an arcade. There are domed canopies 5. The shafts of the pillars were multifaceted and
in each corner of the platform. The proportions of the capitals of these pillars invariably took the
diminishing stages and the harmonious transition form of bracket supports; and
from square to octagon and to sphere are elements
6. The decoration comprised of boldly carved

which speak highly of the capabilities of the Indian
or inlaid patterns complemented by brightly
architect.
colored patterns on the interiors.
The second phase of development took place
in Delhi. Sher Shah built the Purana Quila intended Building Projects
to be the sixth city of Delhi. Today, only two isolated Akbar’s building projects can be divided into
gateways survive. Far more important, however, was two main groups each representing a different
the Qilai Kuhana masjid, built about 1542, inside the phase. The first group comprised buildings of forts
Purana Qila citadel. In the architectural scheme of and a few places mainly at Agra, Allahabad and
this mosque, the façade of the prayer hall is divided Lahore. The second group related basically to the
into five arched bays, the central one larger than the construction of his new capital at Fateh-pur Sikri.
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1. The First Phase: One of the earliest The same style is manifested in the other
building projects of Akbar’s reign was the place-fortresses at Lahore and Allahabad. Only
construction of a fort at Agra, conceived the fort at Ajmer represents a different class.
actually as a fortress-place. Its massive walls Since it spearheaded the advancing frontier
and battlements convey an effect of great of the Empire, the walls of the fort were thickly
power. Inside the fort, Akbar had built many doubled.
structure in the styles of Bengal and Gujarat.
2. The Second Phase: The second phase of
Except the Jahangiri Mahal, however, all the
Akbar’s architectural scheme coincides with
other structures were demolished by Shah
the conception and creation of a ceremonial
Jahan as part of a later phase of remodeling.
Today, the Delhi Gate of the fort and Jahangiri capital for the Empire at Sikri, nearly forty
Mahal are the only representative buildings kilometers west of Agra. The new capital was
of Akbar’s reign. named Fatehpur.
The Delhi Gate of Agra Fort probably It is one of the most remarkable monuments
represents Akbar’s earlier architectural effort. in India. In its design and layout, Fatehpur
It formed the principal entrance to the fort.The Sikri is a city where the public areas like the
architecture of the gate shows an originality courtyards, Diwan-i-Am and jami Masjid form
signifying the start of a new era in the building a coherent group around the private palace
art of India. The gate follows a simple plan; the apartments. The city was built in a very short
different components are: span of time (1571-1585) and as such does
(a) A front consisting of two broad octagonal not follow any conscious overall plan. The
lower by the sides of a central archway; buildings were sited to relate to each other
(b) A back having arcaded terraces topped and to their surroundings. An asymmetry
by kiosks and pinnacles; and seems to have been deliberately incorporated
into the setting-out and design of the
(c) An ornamentation consisting of patterns
complex. All the buildings are in characteristic
in white marble inlaid against the red
sandstone background. rich red sandstone, using traditional trabeate
construction. The pillars, lintels, brackets,
The Jahangiri Mahal was built by Akbar
tiles and posts were cut from local rocks and
and is conceived as a robust building in red
assembled without the use of mortar.
sandstone. It is the only surviving example in
the fort of the domestic requirements of the The buildings in Fatehpur Sikri may be resolved
ruler and is a fine specimen of the fusion of into two categories; religious and secular
the Hindu and Islamic building designs. It is character. The religious buildings comprise
planned in the form of an asymmetrical range (a) the Jami Masjid;
of apartments. The facade on the eastern side (b) the Buland Darwaza; and
has an entrance gateway leading to a domed
(c) the tomb of Shaikh Salim Chisti.
hall with elaborately caved ceiling. As one
crosses this hall, one reaches a central open The buildings of secular nature are more varied
courtyard. On the north side of this courtyard and thus numerous. These can be grouped
is a pillared hall with a roof supported on piers under
and cross beams with serpentine brackets. (a) places;
The southern side, too, has a similar hall. (b) administrative buildings; and
This symmetry is, however, broken on the
east side by a set of chambers that lead to a (c) structures of miscellaneous order.
portico facing the river Yamuna. The entire It is a curious fact that the religious building
construction is mainly in red sandstone with are invariably built in the arcuate style while
the combination of beam and bracket forming in secular buildings dominates the trabeate
its principal structural system. order.
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The Jami Masjid uses the typical plan of a were originally enclosed by screens of red
mosque—a central courtyard, arcades on three sandstone. But none remain intact now. An
sides and domed skyline. The western side has interesting feature is that the columns on
the prayer hall with three separate enclosed which the five storeys have been raised are
sanctuaries, each surmounted by a dome all dissimilar in design. Of the administrative
and linked by arcades. The usual entrance to buildings, undoubtedly the most distinctive
the masjid is form the east where stands the is the Diwani Khas. The plan of this building
structure of a big gateway projected in the is in the form of a rectangle and is in two
form of a half hexagonal porch. stories from outsides. It has flat terraced roof
In 1596, the southern gateway was replaced with pillared domed kiosks rising above each
by Akbar with a victory gate, "The Buland corner. Inside, there is a magnificent carved
Darwaza". It is constructed in red and yellow column in the centre, having a huge bracket
sandstone with white marble inlay outlining capital supporting a circular stone platform.
the span of the arches. The loftiness of the Form this platform radiate four railed ‘bridges’
structure is enhanced by a flight of steps on along each diagonal of the hall to connect
the outside. The entrance has been formed by the galleries surrounding the upper portion
a piercing huge central arch which is crowned of the hall. The main architectural object in
by an array of domed kiosks. The Buland- this interior is the central column. The shaft
Darwaza was built to commemorate Akbar’s is variously patterned and branches out, at
conquest of Gujarat in 1573. the top, into a series of closely set volute and
pendulous brackets which support the central
The tomb of Salim Chisti stands in the courtyard
platform.
of the Jami Masjid in the northwestern quarter.
It is an architectural masterpiece as it exhibits Architecture under Jahangir and Shah Jahan
one of the finest specimens of marble work Akbar’s death, in 1605, did in not way hamper
in India. The structure was completed in 1581 the development of a distinctive Mughal architecture
and was originally faced only partly in marble. under his successors. A secure Empire and enormous
The serpentine brackets supporting the eaves wealth in ligeancy in fact permitted both Jahangir
and the carved lattice screens are remarkable and Shah Jahan to pursue interest in the visual arts.
features of this structure.
The palace complex in Fatehpur Sikri comprises New Features
a number of apartments and chambers. The In the sphere of the building art, Jahangir and
largest of these buildings is known as the Shah Jahan’s reigns were an age of marble. The place
Jodha Bai Palace. The palace is massive and of red sandstones was soon taken over by marble
austere in character. The wall outside is plain in its most refined form. This dictated significant
with principal buildings attached to inner side, stylistic changes which have been listed below:
all facing an interior courtyard. On the north 1. The arch adopted a distinctive form with
side is an arcaded passage and a balcony. foliated curves, usually with nine cusps;
There are rooms in the upper storey in the

2. Marble arcades of engrailed arches became
north and south wings. They have ribbed roofs
a common feature;
covered with bright blue glased tiles from
Multan. 3. The dome developed a bulbous form with
stifled neck. Double domes became very
A unique building of the palace complex
common;
is the Panch mahal, a five storeys structure,
located south-east of the Diwani Khas. The 4. Inlaid patterns in coloured stones became
size of the five stores successively diminishes the dominant decorative form; and
as one goes upwards. At the top is a small 5. In the buildings, form the latter half of
domed kiosk. Some of the sides in this building the Jahangir’s reign, a new device of inlay
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decoration called pietra dura was adopted. of this structure to varying degree. Particular
In this method, semi-precious stones such as mention may be made of the tomb of Jahangir at
lapis lazuli, onyx, jasper, topaz and cornelian Shahadara near Lahore and of Nur Jahan’s father
were embedded in the marble in graceful Mirza Ghiyas Bet at Agra.
foliations. The tomb of Itimadud Daula, built in 1522-8, by
Major Buildings Nur Jahan, on the grave of the father Mirza Ghiyas
Beg marks a change in architectural style from Akbar
The account of the major buildings of this
to Jahangir and Shah Jahan. The transition from the
period begins with a remarkable structure, that
robustness of Akbar’s buildings to more sensuous
is, the tomb of Akbar, located at Sikandra, eight
architecture of the later period is evident in the
kilometers from the Agra on Delhi road. It was conception of this structure.
designed by Akbar himself and begun in his own
lifetime but remained incomplete at the time of his The tomb is square structure raised on a low
platform. There are four octagonal minarets, at each
death. Subsequently, it was completed by Jahangir
corner, with domed roofs. The central chamber is
with modifications in the original design. As it stands
surrounded by a verandah enclosed with beautiful
today, the entire complex is a curious mix of the
marble tracery. The main tomb is built in white
architectural schemes of both Akbar and Jahangir.
marble and is embellished with mosaics and pietra
The scheme of this complex envisages the dura. The central chamber contains the yellow
location of tomb in the midst of an enclosed garden marble tomb of Itimadaud Daula and his wife. The
with gateway in the centre of each side of the side rooms are decorated with painted floral motifs.
enclosing wall. Four red sandstone gateways enclosing a square
The tomb building in the centre is a square garden provide splendid foil for the white marble
structure built up in three stories. The first storey is tomb at its centre.
in fact an arcaded platform making the basement. It should be noted here that Jahangir was a
Within the platform vaulted cells surrounded the much greater patron of the art of painting. His love
mortuary chamber and a narrow inclined corridor of flowers and animals as reflected in the miniature
in the south leads to the grave. The middle portion painting of his period, made him a great lover of the
is in three tiers of red sandstone pavilions trabeated art of laying out gardens rather than building huge
throughout. The two storey, of white marble in monuments. Some of the famous Mughal gardens of
contrast to the red sandstone elsewhere, had an Kashmir such as the Shalimar Bagh and the Nishat
open court surrounded by colonnades with screens. Bagh stand as testimony to Jahangir’s passion.
The tomb is linked by causeways and canals to the
In contrast to Jahangir, his son and successor,
gateways in the enclosure wall. But it is the one in the
Shah Jahan, was a prolific builder. His reign was
south which provides the only entrance, the other
marked by an extensive architectural works in his
three being false gateways added for symmetry.
favourite building material, the marble. Some of
The southern gateway is a two-storey structure these were:
with circular minarets of white marble rising above
1. The palace-forts, e.g. the Lal Quila at Delhi;
the corners. The entire structure of the gateway is

ornamented with painted stucco-colored stone 2. The mosques, e.g. the Moti Masjid in the Agra
and marble only. Interestingly, the decorative Fort and the Jami Masjid at Delhi; and
motifs include, besides the traditional floral designs, 3. The garden-tombs, e.g. the Taj mahal.
arabesques and calligraphy, gaja (the elephant), We shall describe here only the more important
hamsa (the swan), padma (the lotus), swastika and and representative buildings of Shah Jahan’s reign.
chakra. The Lal Quila is a regular rectangle with the
The architectural importance of Akbar’s tomb north wall following the old course of the Yamuna
at Sikandra can be gauged from the fact that several River. There are two gateways—the Delhi and
mausoleums built subsequently reflect the influence Lahore Gates, and massive round bastions at regular
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intervals along the wall. The gates are flanked by lofty entrance gateway in the middle of the southern
octagonal towers with blind arcades and topped by side. There are octagonal pavilions, six in all, at the
cupolas. A moat runs all along the fort wall except the corners and in the eastern and western sides. The
riverside. Inside, there are several notable buildings main building of the Taj Stands on a large marble
of which particular mention may be of Diwani-Am, platform. To the west of this structure is a mosque
Diwani-Khas and Rang Mahal. The Diwani-Am and with a replica on the east side retaining the effect
Rang Mahal are arcaded pavilions with sandstone of symmetry.
columns is pairs, plastered with powdered marble. In We are told that prominent artisans were
the eastern wall of the Diwani-Am is built the throne invited from various countries to help in designing
platform for the Emperor having curved corniced and constructing the Taj. The final plan of the Taj
roof in the style of the Bengal architecture. Behind was prepared after a lot of discussion and many
this structure on the eastern side in located the Rang variations. To begin with, a model of the Taj was
Mahal fronted by an open courtyard. Further north, prepared in wood and this was followed by the
in alignment with the Rang Mahal is the Diwani- artisans. The Taj was constructed under the guidance
Khas. All of these buildings have floral decorations of Ustad Isa and he was paid a salary of 1,000 per

on the walls, columns and piers. month.

In the Moti Masjid, in the Agra Fort, Shah Jahan On the authority of Father Manrique of Spain, it
made experiment with an alternative scheme—an is contended that the Taj was designed by Geronimo
open arcaded prayer hall. Moreover, in this mosque Veroneo, a Venetian. There is nothing impossible
the designer has also dispensed with the minarets. or surprising in Shah Jahan’s taking the advice
In their place, chhatris have been used on all four from a Venetian architect. However, it is strange to
corners of the prayer hall. There are three bulbous maintain that the Taj was designed by a foreigner.
domes rising over a cusped arcades. The entire Father Manrique did not get his information directly
building has been built in white marble with black from the Venetian. No other European writer of the
marble calligraphy, heightening the elegance of Mughal period mentions the fact that the Taj was
the structure. designed by a foreigner. Even Peter Mundy does not
The Jami Masjid, at Delhi, is an extended and make a mention of this. The same is the case with
larger version of the Jami Masjid at Fatehpur Sikri Travernier and Bernier. None of them maintains that
and thus becomes the largest building of its kind the designer of the Taj was a venetian. Thevenot, a
in India. It is built on a raised platform surrounded French traveller, who visited the Taj in 1660, wrote
by arcades that have been left open on both sides. thus: “This superb monument is sufficient to show
The main entrance is on the eastern side with an that the Indians are not ignorant of architecture, and
ascending flight of steps increasing the effect of thought the style may appear curious to Europeans,
loftiness. There are two smaller gateways in the it is good taste and one could only say that it is very
middle of the northern and southern wings. Within fine”. Likewise, no contemporary Indian writer says
the mosque follows a plan similar to the Jami Masjid that the Taj was designed by a foreigner. According
at Fatehpur Sikri—colonnade running along the to Abdul Hamid Lahori, “It may be observed that
three sides and sanctuary on the fourth side. Three bands of sculptors, lapidaries, inlayers and fresco-
bulbous domes made of marble rise above the makers came from the different parts of His Majesty’s
sanctuary. The building material used here is red dominions. The experts of each art together with
sandstone with white marble for revetments and their assistants busied themselves in the task”. It is
for inlaying the frames of panels. pointed out that even a critical examination of the
The Taj Mahal is undoubtedly Shah Jahan’s building itself shows that it is in Asiatic style. As a
grandest and most well known project. The matter of fact, there is more of Persian influence than
construction work began in 1632, and most of it of European influence. Havell was of the opinion that
was completed by the year 1648. The plan of the there was nothing to support the view that the Taj
complex is rectangle with high enclosure will and was designed by a Venetian.
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It took 22 years to complete the work of designed in the form of three cupolas in the same
construction of the Taj. There are writers who give alignment.
a different duration. It was estimated to have cost The mausoleum of his wife at Aurangabad, is
about 3 crore. According to Abdul Hamid Lahori

an attempt at emulating the Taj Mahal. But a serious

“The cost of building several edifices which are miscalculation on the part of Aurangzeb’s architects
detailed above, and which were completed in nearly in providing the corners of the mausoleum, too, with
12 years under the supervision of Makramat Khan minarets upsets the harmony of the entire building.
and Mir Abdul Karim amounted to 50 lakhs". It may

These minarets, which are superfluous in the overall

be pointed out that the inscription at the entrance of scheme of the building, are the only major deviation
the Taj is dated A.D. 1647. This also comes to about in copy from the original scheme of the Taj Mahal.
17 years. The period of 22 years is given by Travernier.
The Safdar Jang’s Tomb
We are told that Shah Jahan assigned to the
Taj landed property which was expected to give After Aurangzeb’s death, in 1707, the collapse
an annual income of 1 lakh. An equal amount

of the Empire was only a matter of time. The few
was to be got from the rents of the shops, inns and buildings that were built during the first half of
bazaars, graceful arches, columns and minerals, the eighteenth century amply testify the decadent
high and well-shaped domes, elegant and chaste conditions that ensued.
ornamental designs, cubic inscriptions of a high The Safdar Jang’s tomb, at Delhi, is the most
order and sparing use of Hindu motifs. important building of this period. It is located amidst
a large garden and copies the plan of the Taj Mahal
Buildings of Aurangzeb
in the same manner as was done in the Rabia ud
Aurangzeb had none of his father’s passion Dauran’s tomb. One major change in the design,
for architecture. Under him, the generous however, is that the minarets rise as an adjunct to the
encouragement given by his predecessors to main building and not as independent structures.
the arts was almost withdrawn. The architectural The main building stands on an arcaded platform.
works during the reign of Aurangzeb were less It is double storeyed and is covered by a large and
numerous and a lower standard than those executed almost spherical dome. The minarets rise as turrets
under any previous Mughal ruler. In Delhi itself, and are topped by domed kiosks. The building is in
the capital city of the Empire, very few buildings red sandstone with marble paneling. The cusps of
are associated with his name. The major buildings
the arches are less curved, but synchronise well with
include the mausoleum of his wife Rabia ud Dauran
the overall dimensions of the building.
in Aurangabad, the Badshahi Masjid is comparable to
the Delhi one is size and architectural composition. MUGHAL PAINTING
It has a vast court, a freestanding prayer fall and
The emergence of the Mughal School of
minarets at each corner of the hall. There are four
painting as distinct from all other styles was mainly
smaller minarets at each angle of the sanctuary. The
due to the deep interest Akbar took in the promotion
cloisters run on the both sides with arched entrances
of this art.
at regular intervals. There is only one portal. The
building material is red sandstone with the use of Akbar’s views on the Art of Painting
white marble as a relief to the red sandstone. Atop Drawing the likeness of anything is called
the prayer hall, three bulbous domes in white marble tasvir. His majesty, from his earliest youth, has
rise beautifully. shown a great predilection for this art, and gives
The other important building of this period is it every encouragement, as he looks upon it as a
the Moti Masjid in the Lal Qila, Delhi. The marble used means, both of study and amusement. Hence the
in its construction is of a very fine quality. The plan art flourishes, and many painters have obtained
is similar to the Moti Masjid built by Shah Jahan in great reputation. The works of all painters are
Agra fort; only the curves are more prominent. The weekly laid before His Majesty by the Daroghas
three bulbous domes cover the prayer hall which is and the clerks; the then confers rewards according
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to excellence of workmanship, or increases the four artists have worked. The painting was, thus, a
monthly salaries. Much progress was made in the collaborative team work. The sketching of figures
commodities required for painters, and the correct and colouring were done by a team of two different
prices of such articles were carefully ascertained. The artists. In cases where three artists have worked the
mixture of colors has especially been improved. The outlining was done by one artist, the other artist
pictures thus received a hitherto unknown finish. coloured the faces and a third one coloured the
Most excellent painters are now to be found, and remaining figure. It is however not known to us as
masterpieces, worthy of a Bihzad, may be placed at to how was such a complex arrangement worked
the side of the wonderful works of the European out. Probably in such a team work the sketching
painters who have attained worldwide fame. The and colouring were done by separate artists. (Cf.
minuteness in detail, the general finish, the boldness S.P. Verma, op. cit.)
of execution, etc., now observed in pictures, are As has been noted above, the atelier was
incomparable; even inanimate objects look as if they supervised by daroghas with the assistance of
had life. More than a hundred painters have become clerks. They were responsible for making materials of
famous masters of the art, whilst the number of painting easily available to the artists and to oversee
those who approach perfection, or of those who the progress of their work. They also arranged for
are middling, is very large. This is especially true of periodical presentation of the artists’ works before
the Hindus; their pictures surpass our conception the Emperor.
of things. Few, indeed, in the whole world are found
equal to them. — Ain-i-Akbari (Abul Fazal) Style and Technique
The illustration done at Akbar’s court are
Establishment of Royal Atelier considered as representative works of the Mughal art.
The first major project undertaken during Notably, however, in these paintings, there is evident
Akbar’s regime was that of illustrating the Hamza a gradual evolution in the style and technique. The
Nama. It began, in 1562, for which several artists illustrations of the early phase are clearly influenced
were employed at the court. by the Persian tradition, the identifying of which
The place where the painters worked was are listed below:
known as Tasvir Khana. Although Abul Fazal 1. Symmetrical compositions;
enumerates the names of only seventeen artists, we 2. Restricted movement of figures;
now know that the number was very large. S.P. Verma 3. Fineness of the lines of drawings;
(Art, Material Culture in the Paintings of Akbar’s 4. Flat depiction of architectural columns; and
Court, Vikas, New Delhi, 1978) has prepared a list
5. Profuse embellishment of buildings in the
of 225 artists who worked at Akbar’s atelier. These
manner of jewels.
artists belonged to different places, but among them
Later, the paintings acquired a distinctive
the majority were Hindus. Interestingly, several low
character of their own. They assumed a more eclectic
caste people, due primarily to their artistic skill, were
character composed mainly of the Persian and
also raised to the status of royal artist. The case of
Indian traditions with touches of European influence.
Daswant, who was the son of a Kahar (palki-bearer),

may be especially cited. The painters were assisted Distinctive Features
by a set of gilders, line-drawers and pagers. The The Mughal style became recognizable within
artists were salaried employees. S.P. Verma opines a span of fifteen years since the setting up of royal
that the lowest paid worker in the atelier received atelier under Akbar. In the next decade or so, i.e.
an amount between 600 to 1200 dams. (40 dams by about 1590 it acquired a distinctive form which
= one rupaya). was marked by:
There are paintings which bear the names of 1. Naturalism and rhythm
two artists. Sometimes even three artists worked on 2. Clothing objects of daily use assuming Indian
a single painting. On one painting from Akbarnama forms
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3. Picture space having subsidiary scenes set in Tutinama c. 1570-1580
background
Tarikh-I Khandan-I c.1570-1590
4. Extraordinary vigor of action and violent
Timuriya
movement
Baburnama c. 1570-1590
5. Luxuriant depiction of foliage & brilliant
blossoms Akbarnama c. 1570-1600
It should be emphasised here that the identity Tarikh-I Alfi c. 1570-1600
of the Mughal paintings under Akbar was as much Razmnama 1582
made of an original style as a fusion of the Persian
and Indian traditions. Specific mention may be made Developments under Jahangir and
here of the depiction of action and movement which Shahjahan
is not be found in either the pre-Mughal art of India During Jahangir and Shahjahan, Mughal
or the art of Persia. (S.P. Verma in Art & Culture, eds. painting achieved its zenith. Jahangir took a deep
A.J. Qaiser & S.P. Verma, Jaipur, 1993). interest in painting even as a prince. He maintained
Painting under Akbar’s period distinguishes his own studio apart from Akbar’s large atelier.
itself as a tradition from Persian painting as well as Jahangir’s preference was for paintings of hunting
from Indian styles particularly by the presence of scenes, birds and flowers. He also continued the
historical subject matter. The most commonly used tradition of portraiture. Under Shahjahan the colors
themes are: of the paintings became more decorative and gold
1. Daily events of the court, and was more frequently used for embellishment. In
2. Portraits of leading personalities. the following sub-sections, we shall study the
introduction of new styles and thematic variations in
While portrait painting was known in Persia,
Mughal paintings during Jahangir and Shahjahan’s
painting as a chronicle of actual events was certainly
reign.
a new emphasis. Painters used familiar formulas for
hunting or battle scenes regardless of the fact that Introduction of New Styles
the literary reference for the scene was historical or In the period of Jahangir’s rule (1605-07),
purely imaginary. Moreover specific events in the manuscript became less important than individual
earliest known historical manuscript of this period, pictures. Milo Cleveland Beach (Mughal and Rajput
‘recording’ quite different events in the earliest Painting, Cambridge University Press, 1992) is of the
known historical manuscript of this period, the opinion that Jahangir, with his personal involvement,
Timur Nama of about A.D.1580. Possibly, painters may have functioned effectively as the head of
conceived scenes according to a repertoire of the royal studio. Therefore, the artistic decisions
types e.g. the seize of a fortress, crossing a river, an were made by the Emperor himself consequently
audience or battle scene. In the working of whole introducing his own stylistic preferences in the
volumes such as the Akbar Nama, the artists seem paintings. Two important new elements in the
to have reworked or adapted these compositional
style of Mughal painting during the first half of the

types. Painters usually created new compositions seventeenth century have been identified as below:
only when no prototypes existed, and only a few
1. Jahangir’s paintings seem to accentuate a
artists were capable of such invention.
formalist style, i.e., making the work realistic
We have listed below, in chronological order and preferring the precise recording of
famous illustrated manuscripts of this period: contemporary reality.
Manuscript Date 2. The paintings of this period have broad
Hamzanama c. 1562-1580 margins which are gorgeously decorated with
Anwar-I Suhaili 1570 the depiction of flora and faces of human
figures, etc. designs from plant motifs.
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Thematic Variations reinterpreted, sometimes, by Mughal painters. At the
Jahangir was a keen naturalist. Whenever he same time, many original prints from Europe were
came across a strange animal or bird, his artists collected and preserved in the albums of Jahangir
painted the same immediately. We have paintings and Dara Shikoh and several Mughal nobles. (A.J.
of birds and animals in the most realistic fashion. Qaisar, Indian Response to European Technology
& Culture, Oxford, 1982).
Shah Jahan was a great patron of architecture,
but he did not neglect the painting. Under him, the The contact Mughal court painters had with
previous tradition of doing portraits, preparing European paintings prompted them initially to make
albums, and, illustrating books, was continued. exact copies in their own hands. Such imitations,
Additionally, we find the paintings depicting as noted by contemporary European travellers,
charming love scenes and portraits of female were impeccably done. But Mughal painter also
members. Another important theme chosen for made experiments by making new paintings on the
painting was super imposition of animals and the subjects chosen from European paintings.
scenes of performing acrobats. One important feature that becomes noticeable
in some Mughal paintings is the attempt to make
Final Phase
them three-dimensional. Clearly it speaks of the
Aurangzeb, who succeeded Shahjahan, had impact of European technique. Another European
begun his rule on a bitter note by executing his convention acceptable to Mughal painters was the
brothers and imprisoning his father. The arts were effect of light and shade, mostly utilised in fight
ignored during his regime. Painting did not stop scenes. The depiction of motifs like ‘hals’, winged
altogether, though it lists the patronage of the angles and roaring clouds in Mughal paintings was
emperor and became confined to the studios of again under the influence of European paintings.
the nobles. There exist some commissioned portraits One important technique that of oil painting from
of the nobles and their relations from the courts of Europe, somwwhat did not attract the Mughals.
the Rajput principalities. Large number of karkhana There is no work from this period that was executed
records (on paintings) are located in the Rajasthan
in oil.
State Archives, Bikaner. There also exist a few
interesting pictures of the emperor himself during PROVINCIAL ARCHITECTURE AND
his campaigns. The skill of the painters is evident, PAINTING
though the paintings are more formal and seem to
have lost their earlier liveliness. Painting in the Deccan
Later, under Muhammed Shah (1719-48), A distinct style of painting emerged in the
interest got renewed in depicting pleasure-loving kingdoms of Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golconda in
scenes. But this time, many of the painters of imperial the Deccan, in the late 15th century and predates
studio had begun migrating to provincial courts. the Mughal painting. But the greatest patronage
The loss of the Mughals, thus, was the gain of the to painting in these kingdoms was given in the
provincial styles. sixteenth century under the impact of the Mughal
tradition. Here we shall trace the developments in
European Impact on Mughal Painting

the Deccan painting, during the 16th-17th centuries.
The elastic nature of the Mughal School of
Painting has been discussed in the Unit earlier. In Court Patronage
its later phases, especially during the Seventeenth Ali Adil Shah who had several painters working
Century, the Mughal painting was influenced by the at his court. But the greatest of the Bijapur line, and
European art. Some of the themes of European art perhaps of all the rulers of the successor states,
were incorporated by Mughal painters and they also was Ibrahim Adil Shah (1580-1627) who was an
adopted a few of the techniques of European artists. accomplished painter and a calligraphist. Towards
According to A.J. Qaisar, a large number of European the close of the 16th century, there had emerged
paintings were either copied or adapted or even a new tradition of painting in Ahmadnagar and
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Bijapur, known as the Ragamala painting. Under 4. Exaggerated swirl of the girdle and stole,
Ibrahim’s patronage this tradition reached the especially in the case of feminine figures, and
highest point of its growth. 5 Intersection of diagonals so as to form an arch
There is another category of paintings in the around the principal figures.
Deccan style which depict the pomp and grandeur
of the royal processions. Several paintings of this
Rajasthani Painting
type have come down to us from the reign of The Rajasthani paintings have a distinct
Abdulla Qutb Shah (1626-72) of Golkonda. aesthetic quality. The emergence of this style, in the
opinion of Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, from the earlier
In the 18th Century patronage of painting
pre-Turkish traditions reached its consummation
in the Deccan passed to the Asf Jahi dynasty of
around 1600. In its early phase, it showed a great
Hyderabad. The painting of Azam Shah returning
vigour, though it absorbed Mughal influence later.
from bird-shooting and approaching his pleasure
After the collapse of the Mughal power, it reemerged
garden at the foot of the Golconda fort, and the
and flourished under the patronage of different
album of Himmatyar Khan, a noble of the Nizam’s
Rajput kingdoms. In the following sub-sections,
court, are some of important surviving examples of
we shall discuss the main style and themes of the
the Deccani painting from Hyderabad.
Rajasthani schools as also the main centers where
Style and Themes the art flourished in the 17th and 18th centuries.
Numerous influences seem to have affected Style and Themes
the formation of the Deccani tradition. Many of the
Rajasthani painting, since its beginning,
rulers of Deccan kingdoms were connoisseurs of
adopted nature as the main theme. The illustrations
Persian painting and built up good collections of
are almost like landscape paintings where human
miniatures and manuscripts. The influence of the
figures seem to play only subordinate roles. Some
Persian tradition is thus evident in the paintings
of the main elements of nature depicted in these
done at their courts. It should, however, be noted
paintings are:
that this assimilations is not precise and disciplined.
Consequently, many of the features have been 1. A variety of tree forms;
taken over without the refinement of the Persian 2. A dense foliage;
paintings. Another significant influence on the 3. Singing birds and frolicking animals;
Deccan paintings is that of the Mughal school. 4. Rivers full of lotus blossoms; and
Contacts between Deccani and Mughal traditions
developed in many ways. There were exchanges 5. Drops of rain falling from deep blue clouds.
of artists between the two courts as also gifts of The Rajasthani miniatures are also known for
paintings. the intensity of colors used. Deep blue for clouds,
But the Deccan paintings cannot be analysed streaks of gold showing flashes of lightening, and
primarily on the basis of various derivative influences. emerald green for foliage are some of the most
The best specimens of Deccan paintings creatively prominently used colors. The major themes selected
reshape extraneous suggestions and become by painters of this genre are:

aesthetically original. Thus, the features typical of 1. Hunting scenes;
Deccan paintings are: 2. Portraits; and
1. Hierarchical scaling, i.e. the principal figure 3. Musical seasons.
being bigger than the subordinate figures; Another characteristic of the Rajasthani
2. Richness of the palette, in which white and paintings, particularly of the 17th century, is the
gold are used as they are in no other Indian use of compartmental pictures in which space is
miniatures; divided into bends and rectangles and used as
3. Typical jewellery, e.g. plaque of the necklace; frames for figures and groups.
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Main Centres in the Mughal state. However, historical information
1. Mewar School: The house of Nisar Din (1606) on the development of fine arts is scanty, and the
stands out as the earliest known group of following narrative is based on piecemeal records.
Rajasthani painters. Subsequently the same Classical Music
tradition was carried further by Shaib Din,
Centres of musical study and practice, as stated
who worked from 1627 to 1648. This phase
above, were located in regional kingdoms. In the
represents the Mewar School at its height.
South, a system of parent and derivative modes,
The illustrated series ran into hundreds
i.e., Janaka and Janya ragas, existed around the
covering a very wide range of life, including
middle of the 16th century. The earliest treatise
mythology. Under the patronage of Jagat
which deals with this system is titled Swaramela
Sing I (1628-52), a long series of illustrations
kalanidhi. It was written by Ramamatya of Kondavidu
called Nayakabheda was executed by a
(Andhra Pradesh), in 1550. It describes 20 janak
number of painters in a poetic and sentimental
and 64 janya ragas. Later, in 1609, one Somanatha
style. However, in the subsequent half-a-
wrote Ragavibodha in which he incorporated some
century period, the influence of the Mughal
concepts of the North Indian style. It was sometime
style gradually weekend the vitality of the
in the middle of the 17th century that a famous
Mewar school, and it gradually became more
treatise on music, called Caturdandi-prakasika was
and more subdued.
composed by Venkatamakhin in Thanjavur (c. 1650).
2. Bundi School: It has an almost parallel history, The system propounded in the text has come to
except that there seem to have been two form the bedrock of the Carnatic system of music.
important periods in it, viz., 1620-35 and
The development of music in North India
1680-1700. During the 18th century, the Bundi
was largely inspired and sustained by the bhakti
School took a new turn. While retaining its
movement. The compositions of the 16th and 17th
originality of expressions, it followed the
century saint poets were invariably set to music.
Mughal School in subject matter and technical
In Vrindavan, Swami Haridas promoted music in
details. The main emphasis now was on the
a big way. He is also considered to be the teacher
display of feminine grace in which it seemed
of the famous Tansen of Akbar’s court. Tansen
to excel.
himself is considered one of the great exponents
3. Kishangarh School: The Kishangarh style of North Indian system of music. He is given credit
was lyrical and sometimes sensuous. It was for introducing some famous ragas viz., Miyan ki
encouraged by Maharaja Sawant Singh, Malhar, Miyan ki Todi and Darbari. Raja Mansingh of
popularly known as Nagari Das at the turn Gawalior (1486-1517) played a distinguished part in
of the 18th century (1699-1764). Although the growth and perfection of Dharupad, a variant
Mughal secular influence in painting affected style of the North Indian music.
every court in Rajasthan, in Kishangarh deep
In the 18th century, music in North Indian
Hindu devotionalism seems to have survived.
style received great encouragement at the court of
Under Sawant Singh’s patronage, there was a
the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah. Sadaranga
spurt in the art of painting based on the love-
and Adaranga were two great composers of khayal

lore of Radha and Krishna. The Kishangarh
gayaki at his court. Several new forms of music
paintings are mostly the work of the talented
such as Tarana, Dadra and Ghazal also came into
artist Nihal Chand. The elegant forms of the
existence at this time. Moreover, some folk forms of
Kishangarh females, with their sharp noses,
music were also incorporated in the courtly music.
almond eyes and arched mouths, set up a
In this category mention may be made of Thumri,
new tradition in Rajasthani painting.
employing folk scales, and to Tappa developed from
Fine Arts the songs of camel drivers of Punjab.
Fine arts, during the 16th-18th century seem to In passing, it should be noted that while in the
have developed more in the regional kingdoms than South the texts of music enforced a stricter science,
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in the North the absence of texts permitted greater treasures in exchange for him, I should gladly have
liberty. There were, thus, several experiments in entered upon such profitable traffic and bought that
mixing the ragas carried out in the North. A loose precious jewel cheap.” He is credited with having
code of North Indian style of music is a feature that invented some mechanical devices and also the
has continued to the present day. introduction of a ‘true’ solar calendar (called Ilant)
at Akbar’s order in 1584. But he did not propound
Dance and Drama
any new scientific theory or formula distinct from
Evidence of dance and drama in the medieval the traditional ones in India at that time.
period is scattered. The more important sources
Indians were exposed to European learning.
are the texts on music, dance and drama, and the
Abul Fazl was aware of the discovery of America by
creative works of literature in the different languages
Europeans; he gives the Persian term alam nau for
of India.
the “New World”.But this knowledge does not appear
The textual material is mainly from Orissa, to have become a normal part of the teaching of
south India and from the court of the Mughal geography in India. Galileo’s discovery (in contrast to
Emperor Muhammad Shah. Abhinaya Chandrika Ptolemy’s world-view) that it is the Earth that moves
by Mahesvara Mahapatra and Sangit Damodara round the sun did not reach the Indian scientist.
by Raghunatha are the two 17th century texts on Similarly, Newton’s three Laws of Motion as well
dance and drama from Orissa. From south India as his law of Gravity were unknown in India at this
we have Adi Bharatam, Bharatarnava, Tuljaraja’s time. Bernier, a French physician, who came to India
(1729-1735) Natyavedagama and Balaravarman’s during the second half of the seventeenth century,
(1753-1798) balaramabharatam. There is the Sangita claims to have been in the company of Mughal
Malika treatise on dance and music from the court noble Agha Danishmand Khan for five or six years,
of Muhammad Shah. to whom he used to explain the new discoveries of
Science and Technology Harvey and Pecquet concerning circulation of the
blood. Bernier held a very poor opinion of the Indias’
No breakthrough was made in scientific knowledge of anatomy. Our hakims and vaids did
studies concerning physics, chemistry medicine, not show any interest in Harvey’s discovery.
geography and mathematics. The traditional
knowledge continued to be taught, discussed and Agricultural Technology
re-written in the form of commentaries without We do not find any radical change during
adding anything worthwhile. The Indian and the the Mughal period insofar as the plough, iron
Greco-Arabic views on scientific issues held sway. A ploughshare, irrigational devices, methods of sowing,
French traveller, Careri, observes about the Muslim harvesting, threshing and winnowing are concerned
scholars in India. However, for sowing appear from broadcasting
“As for sciences, they can make no progress in and seed-drill, we get evidence for dibbling also.
them for want of Books; for they have none but some This method was employed especially for cotton
small manuscript works of Aristotle and Avicenue cultivation; a whole was made into the ground with
in Arabic.” a pointed leg, the seed was put into it and covered
But we should not deny the fact that there with earth. As for threshing, besides using oxen,
corn ears were also beaten with stocks.
were some very learned and able scientists during
the period of our study. One of them was Mir One remarkable development during
Fathuallah Shirazi who joined Akbar’s court at Agra this period was the introduction of some new
in 1583 (d. 1588). Abdul Fazl opines,“If the old books crops, plants and fruits. Europeans, especially the
of wisdom had diappeared, he could have laid a new Portuguese, brought many of these. The Mughal
foundation (of knowledge) and would not have elite had started growing Central Asian fruits in
wished for what had gone”.Akbar mourned his death India from the days of Babur.
in these words: “Had he fallen in the hands of the Tobacco, pineapple, cashew nuts and potato
Franks (Europeans), and they had demanded all my were the most important crops and fruits that
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came from America. Tobacco led to huqqa-smoking like Gujarat, Malwa and Deccan. But fire-arms on a
(Hubble-bubble). Besides, tomato, guava and red regular basis developed through the agency of the
chillies were also brought from outside. Maize is Portuguese, from A.D. 1498, in south India, and by
not listed in Abul Fazl’s Ain-i-Akbar. It seems that Babur, in the North, in A.D. 1526. Babur used guns and
Europeans, too, introduced this, from Latin America. cannons in battles against the Rajputs and Afgans.
The seeds of numerous varieties of melons and These guns were actually matchlocks. Europe
grapes were grown around Agra, were brought from knew of two more devices to fire a gun: wheel-
Central Asia. Cherries were introduced in Kashmir lock (1520s) and flint-lock (1620s) in which match
during Akbar’s reign. cord was dispensed with. Abul Fazl claims the
Fruits of better quality were grown by seed manufacture of handguns without match cord in
propagation. It is doubtful whether the art of Akbar’s arsenal, but he is silent on the alternative
grafting in horticulture was extensively practiced mechanism. This could be a flintlock because wheel
during the Delhi Sultanate. P.K. Gode thinks that lock even in Europe was employed for pistols. At any
grafting became prevalent in India only after A.D. rate, these handguns (flint-locks) were produced on
1550. This skill was well known in Persia and Central a limited scale, most probably for Akbar’s personal
Asia. However, mangoes of the best quality were use only because we are told that Indians in North
exclusively produced in Goa through grafting by India were scarcely familiar with this technique
the Portuguese. Some European travellers to India during the early decades of the seventeenth century.
paid glowing tributes to the delicious mangoes In fact, Mughal paintings regularly depict matchlocks
of Goa called Alfonso, Our Lady, Joani Perreria, etc. down to Aurangzeb’s times.
Alfonso is still a celebrated variety in India. European pistols were available at Burhanpur
Among the Mughal Emperors, Shah Jahan for sale as early as A.D. 1609. Sometimes Europeans
alone takes the credit for getting two canals dug gave pistols in gifts to Indians. But the Indians did not
(Nahr Faiz and Shah Nahr) learn the art of wheel lock. Cannons of various sised
were manufactured in India for the Indian rulers.
Textile Technology
We need not go into details about the
The Turks brought,spinning wheel to India. In
numerous traditional weapon—offensive and
fact, no radical addition or improvement seems to
defensive—like swords, spears, daggers, bows and
have been made during the seventeenth century.
arrows, shields and armours, etc. It is interesting to
However, two developments must be highlighted;
know that the Indians in general preferred curved
first, carpet weaving under Akbar’s patronage swords, in contrast to the European’s straight double-
at Lahore, Agra and Fatehpur-Sikri; and second, edged rapiers. The Marathas, however, late in the
production of silk and silk fabrics on a large scale. seventeenth century took a liking to European
The Europeans did not bring their own textile swords.
techniques to India, at any rate during the first For cleaning gun-barrels, Abul Fazl writes:
half of the seventeenth century. Actually, they did “Formerly a strong man had to work a long time
not possess any superior technology in this area
with iron instruments in order to clean matchlocks.

during this period, except perhaps to the English His Majesty (Akbar), from his practical knowledge,
Company to send silk dyers, thrusters and weavers has invented a wheel, by the motion of which sixteen
to Qasimbazar in Bengal. Italian silk filatures were barrels may be cleaned in a very short time. A bullock
introduced into Indian in the 1770s. turns the wheel.
Military Technology At another place, once again, Abul Fazl credits
Stirrup, horseshoe and gunpowder were Akbar with the invention of a mechanism by which
introduced into India by the Turks. Fire-arms were seventeen guns were joined in such a manner as
used sporadically for the first time, during the second to be able to fire them simultaneously with one
half of the 15th century in some regions of India matchcord.
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Shipbuilding was generally carried out at places, which were
The entire vessel in medieval times everywhere near the source of wood supply.
was constructed of wood. Various methods were 2. The smelters used small furnaces, which
employed to join the planks. One of these was perhaps did not have refractory or heat-
rabbeting which was widely practiced in India. This resistant clay.
was basically on the tongue-and-groove principle: 3. The bellows were rubles and small which did
the ‘tongue’ of one plank was fitted into the ‘groove’ allow efficient air-blast to generate very high
of another. The next step was to smear the planks temperature in the finances to reduce the ore
with indigenous pitch or tar, and lime with the double to a totally liquefied state.
purpose of stopping up any fissures and preserving
4. In case of iron and bronze, the metal was
the timber from sea worms. Fish-oil was also used
melted in diverse small furnaces (sometimes
for duding the planks. The Indians did not adopt
eight in number) wherefrom the molten
the European method of caulking–a technique for
making joints or seams of the planks tight or leak material went to the mould. Since the quality
proof by forcing oakum (made of loose fiber or of the molten metal in each furnace was not
untwisted old ropes, etc. mixed with melted pitch) necessarily the same, the fabricated object
between parts that did not fit tightly. The reason was could not have always been of high quality.
caulking did not have any technical superiority over Abul Fazl describes the technique of making
the indigenous method for performing the same iron cannons and handgun barrels at Akbar’s arsenal.
task. Moreover, caulking was more expensive than Perhaps, these techniques were newly invented. We
the Indian practice. do not know whether improvements were made
Prior to the European advent, the planks of during the subsequent period. Cannons were made
ships and boats were joined together by stitching or of bronze, brass and iron.
sewing them with ropes made of coir, or sometimes Zinc metallurgy seems to have started in India
with wooden nails. The Europeans were using iron somewhere around twelfth century A.D. Abul Fazl
nails and clamps, which made their vessels stronger mentions Jawar (modern Zawar) in Rajasthan where
and durable. The Indians lost no time in adopting the zinc was procurable.
new technique. Around A.D. 1510, Varthema noticed Archaeological studies near Zawar have
“an immense quantity of iron nails” in Indian ships at revealed the presence of sealed clay retorts for
Calicut. Abul Fazl (A.D. 1593-94) informs us that for a zinc distillation (which, condensed/cooled, yielded
ship of Akbar 468 mans (maund) of iron were used. the metal).
Some Mughal paintings establish the presence of Copper mines were located at Khetri in
iron nails, strips and clamps for constructing vessels. Rajasthan. Tin was not a natural product of a country:
Similar positive response to European iron It was imported from other Asian regions. Bronze
anchors is evidenced during the seventeenth was in use right from the days of the Indus valley
century. Earlier, anchors were made of big stones. culture. Alloys like brass (coper and zinc or tin) were
The Indians used buckets to bail out the leaked fabricated in India.
water in the ships. However, the European iron chain-
One must mention here the production of the

pumps started to be used in India, though not widely, true “wootz” iron in India from c. 400 B.C., especially
during the second half of the seventeenth century. in Andhra Pradesh. Probably,“wootz” is a corruption
But these were not manufactured in India: they were of Telugu word “ukku”. It was exported to centers
purchased or borrowed from Europeans. of sword making like Damascus in Syria (called
Metallurgy Damascene swords).
We give below the main features of Glass Technology
metallurgical practices in India: Glass is a complex artificial industrial
1. The fuel for smelting consisted of wood substance. We should not confuse it with crystal,
charcoal (coal was not known). Thus, smelting quartz, obsidian glass, glaze and faience. That glass
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was not scare in India has been ably shown by or Arabic scripts during a discussion with the Jesuits,
M.G. Dikshit (History of Glass), but he admits that whereupon the latter promptly showed him a copy
Indian glass objects “did not range or of beyond of the Arabic version of the gospel, probably printed
the manufacture of tit-bits like beads and bangles.” at Vatican in A.D. 1591. Jahangir did not bring up
With the arrival of Muslims, pharmaceutical this topic again.
phials, jars and vessels of glass came to India from In 1670s A.D., Bhimji Parak, the chief broker of
the Islamic countries, but there is no evidence to the English Company at Surat, took a keen interest
show that Indians had started fabricating these in this technology. A printer was sent to India in A.D.
objects in imitation. 1674, at Bhimji’s request, along with a press at the
During the 16th and 17th centuries, the latter’s expense. Bhimji intended to contrive types
Europeans brought a variety of glass articles to in “banian characters after our English manner”, but
India. All these were new for us: for example, looking- it could not be feasible since the English printer did
glasses (mirrors made of glass). We know how to not know type cutting and founding. No type cutter
make mirrors of metals (bronze and copper) but was sent from England to assist Bhimji. Nevertheless,
not of glass. Another object was a spectacle made Bhimji persisted in this endeavour to realize his
dream of a printing press with Devanagri fonts.
of glass lenses. The Europeans gave these things
He employed his own men; obviously Indian’s to
to Indians as gift and, sometimes, they also sold
do the job. The English factors at Surat testify (A.D.
them (but the market was very limited). Thus, the
1676/77) that,“we have seen some paper printed in
Indians started using European glass articles without
the banian character by the persons employed by
manufacturing them during the period under study.
Bhimji which look very well and legible and shows
It seems that the technique of fabricating sand the work feasible”. But then, at that crucial moment,
or hourglass was known in India during the 15th Bhimji lost hear and abandoned the midway.
century, but the Mughal paintings exhibit European-
made sandglasses only, which were brought to India Time-Reckoning Devices
by the Europeans. However, the positive evidence The history of horology unfolds a variety of
for its manufacture in India comes from the second devices adopted by mankind in different countries.
half of the seventeenth century. Among them, gnomons, sundials, clepsydras (water-
Apart from these, we got from Europe clocks), sand-glasses, mechanical clocks and watches
drinking-glasses, magnifying or burning glasses stand out as the most significant contrivances for
and prospective glasses (telescopes). Since the latter time-reckoning with varying degrees of accuracy.
were made of glass lenses like the spectacles, there In India, during the sixteenth and seventeenth
was no question of their indigenous manufacture centuries, clepsydras of the sinking-bowl variety
during the seventeenth century. appear to have been the most commonly used
device for measuring time, at any rate, in urban
Printing Press centers. The Persian term for the bowl was tas, while
It is amasing that the Chinese knowledge tas gharial – denoted the whole mechanism (bowl
of wooden-block printing did not evoke even a and gong). The Indian word gharial is derived from
ripple of response in India in spite of frequent the gong that was struck with a mallet to announce
communication between the two countries in the the time indicated by the sinking-bowl. Water-clock
past. The Portuguese brought European movable is mentioned during the Delhi Sultanate in Afif’s
metal types to Goa, around A.D. 1550. The latter Tarikh-I Firuze Shahi which related the installation
started printing books of Christian saints, sermons, of a tas gharial by Sultan Firuze Shah Tughlug at
grammars and vocabularies in the Marathi and Firuzabad during the second half of the fourteenth
Konkani languages and dialects, but in Roman script century. Babur also describes the mechanism in the
rather than in the Devnagari script. Baburnama. Abul Fazl, too, takes note of the details.
Emperor Jahangir is once reported to have Much before the Mughals, the Europeans
expressed doubt about types being cast in Persian had invented the two most essential features of an
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ordinary mechanical clock – the weight-drive and Horse-drawn carriages were very rare: they
escapement. Europeans’ clocks and watches were were meant only for passengers. Sir Thomas
often given gift to Indians, especially the elite groups Roe presented to Jahangir an English coach
(Jahangir was presented a watch by Sir Thomas Roe, drawn by four horses. The Emperor enjoyed
but the Emperor’s memoirs does not mention this a ride in it (he called it rath farangi). The
fact). The Jesuit church at Agra had a public clock- sovereign, and some nobles got such coaches
face with a bell whose “sound was heard in every built by Indian carpenters for their use. But
part of the city”. Notwithstanding the exposure of this interest was short-lived; it did not catch
a substantial cross-section of Indians to European on during the seventeenth century.
mechanical clocks and watches for a long time, there 4. One chemical discovery was made in the
is no evidence to indicate its acceptance among early years of Jahangir’s regin. It was the rose-
any social group of Indian society for general use. scent (‘itr Jahangir). The Emperor records in
These were mere toys, and novelties for the Indians his Memoirs (Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri):
who received them “diplomatic” or ordinary gifts.
The one important reason for non-acceptance was – This ‘itr is a discovery which was made
the incompatibility of the Indian time-reckoning during my reign through the efforts of
system with that of Europe at that time. In Europe, the mother Nur Jahan Begum. When
the system of twelve equal double-hours prevailed, she was making rose water was poured
while the Indian system consisted of 4 quarters from the jugs. She collected this scum
(pahr) in the day from sunrise to sunset, and another little by little; when much rose water was
4 quarters in the night from sunset to sunrise. obtained a sensible portion of the scum
was collected. There is no other scent of
Further, each pahr was divided into gharis
equal excellence to it. In reward for that
of 24 minutes each. Thus, the Indian system had
invention, I presented a string of pearls
60 “hours” (of 24 minutes) to the full day, and the
to the inventress Salima Sultan Begum…
European consisted of 24 hours of 60 minutes each.
gave this oil (roghan) the name of ‘itr
Miscellaneous Jahangiri.
1. True Arch, dome and lime-mortar were 5. Another chemical discovery was the use of
already introduced into India by the Turks. salpetre for cooling water. Abul Fazl comments
No significant development took place in that saltpeter, which in gunpowder produces
building technology during the seventeenth the explosive heats, is used as a means for
century. However, we may take note of one cooling water. He also gives the details of how
practice, that is, preparation of sort of “blue to do so.
print” of the building to be constructed. 6. Emperor Akbar is reported to have invented
This was called (outline) in Persian, which an oxen-drawn cart which, when used for
consisted of drawing on a thick sheet of traveling or for carrying loads, could grind
paper by employing “grid of squares” (graph corn also. For the latter purpose, however,
sheet) for indicating proportions. We may watermill was scarcely used in India under the
also mention that Indian buildings did not Mughal rule. One Mughal painting (A.D. 1603)
have windowpanes and chimneys, which depicts an undershot watermill to illustrate a
Europeans used back home. story set outside India proper. Even windmill
2. The Indians did not employ metallic (copper) (asiya-I bad; pawan chakki) for grinding corn
boilers to refine saltpeter like the Europeans; was very rare; one was erected at Ahmedabad
the former continued with earthen pots to do in the seventeenth century whose partial
the job. remains could be seen there. Ordinarily, hand
3. Oxen-drawn carts were in common use, mills made of two stones were used for this
especially for transporting commercial goods. purpose. It was a very old practice.
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MYSTIC ECLECTICISM: DARA SIKOH had to exert himself to win the grace of God,
Mysticism is an offshoot of religion. All while the Tenkalai held that God’s grace by itself
the Islamic religious movements arose out of conferred salvation on the soul that entered the
controversies about GOD’s attributes and decrees path of surrender. The position of the first school
and their impact on the universe. Religious and is commonly summed up in the phrase Markata
spiritual movements in Islam contain an element of kisoranyaya, the rule that the young monkey clings
political implication. Various founders of religious to its mother with an effort. The position of the other
movements, therefore, sought state support school is called Marjarakisoranyaya, the rule of the
to strengthen their ideologies. There had been kitten which is carried by its mother in her mouth.
from the very early days a close combat between There are other differences between the two schools.
the upholders of Ilm-ul-Kalam (the science of The Tenkalai have a decided preference for Tamil as
defending orthodoxy by rational arguments) and against Sanskrit.
the philosophers, who absorbed a lot from the Generally the Tenkalai sect is more liberal than
Greek philosophy and laid more emphasis upon the Vadakalai. It provides for the teaching of the
the identification of the Being. The orthodox eight-syllabled formula om namo Narayanaya to
theologians in spite of all their efforts neither could all classes of people, while the Vadakalai sect omits
stop studies in philosophy nor could persuade the the syllable om from the formula when taught to
rulers to abstain from extending patronage to the non-Brahmanas. The Tenkalai sect favours equal
philosophers. Sufi doctrine was the third element treatment of all castes. Varadacharya or Nadadur
which presented yet another viewpoint of Islamic Ammal was the leader of the Sri Vaishnavas for
philosophy. the first three quarters of the thirteenth century.
The Quadiri order found a great devotee in Vedantadesika (1269-1370 A.D.) is the most
Prince Dara Sikoh who visited a saint of this order, important of the northern school of Sri Vaishnavas
Miyan Mir (1550-1635), at Lahore along with Shah belonging to this period. The southern school took
Jahan and was much impressed by his saintly upon Pillai Lokacharya as its founder.
personality. After the Shaikh’s death, Dara became Nimbarka was the founder of the school of
the disciple of his successor, Mulla Shah Badakhshi. Vaishnavism supporting the cult of Bhakti against
The influence of the Wahdat-ul Wujud concept is the doctrine of Maya. He is said to be a Telugu
evident in the mystic works of the prince, namely Brahmana residing at a village of Nimba, which has
the Safinat-ul Auliya, Sakinat-ul Auliya, Risala-i-Haq been identified with Nimbapuri in the Bellary district.
Numa, Majma-ul Bahrain, etc. His father was a Bhagavata by name Jagannatha. The
doctrines of the Nimbarka school of Vaishnavism
VAISHNAV BHAKTI AND MAHARASHTRA resemble in some respects those of Ramanuja’s
DHARMA school. But Nimbarka preached bhakti in its original
sense of love and gave exclusive prominence to the
Sri Vaishnavas conception of Krishna attended by the cowherdesses
We have seen earlier that Ramanuja had headed by Radha. For him, Radha is not merely
built up a philosophy which reconciled devotion the favourite mistress of Krishna but his eternal
to a personal god (bhakti) with the philosophy of consort who lives with him for ever in the Goloka, the
Vedanta and took steps to spread the doctrine of highest heaven. Nimbarkan school has not accepted
bhakti among Hindus and other outcastes. After Ramanuja’s theory about the Supreme Soul being
his death, the Sri Vaishnavas were divided into two a composite personality and developing into the
schools. Vedakalai (the schools of northern learning) animate and the inanimate world. Instead it regards
and Tenkalai (The school of southern learning). Both the Supreme soul, the individual soul and the world
agreed as to the necessity of Prapatti or Saranagati as identical and at the same time from one another.
(self surrender into God). They are identical in the sense that the individual
But they differed in their interpretation of soul and the inanimate soul are dependent on God
prapatti. The Vadagalai held that the devotee and have no independent existence. Nimbarka’s
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theory is thus monistic and pluralistic. His views was due to his connection with the Varkari sect,
are expressed in a commentary on the Brahma- a sect that has an important place in the history
sutras called Vedantaparijatasaurabha and in of Maharashtrian devotionalism. The main cult of
Siddhantartna or Dasa loka. the Varkari-Panth is the twice-a-year pilgrimage
to Pandharpur. Vittobha of Pandharpur is the God
Madhva’s School
of this Panth. The Varkari Panth differed from most
Bhakti is the centre of the religion taught by other sects in several ways. Its members cut across
Madhva, born in a Brahmana family at Kalyanapura the whole caste structure and their most important
in the Udipi talum of South Kanara district, some aid to religion was the society of saints by which term
64 km west of Sringeri. Madhva became a sanyasi was meant their brothers and sisters in the faith and
while he was still quite young. Like Ramanuja, he the saints who had died but had left their immortal
had his early training in the system of Sankara. But songs behind. The name Jnaneswara is associated
before his training was over, he broke away from with the spread of this intensely devotional cult.
the system and evolved a system of his own based
Another great name connected with the
chiefly on the Bhagavatapurana. He claimed to be
Bhagavata school, in Maharashtra, is Namadeva
the incarnation of Vayu. He taught that the universe
(1270-1350). He was a tailor by caste who had
is governed by god as two persons—Vishnu and
taken to wandering before becoming a saint. But
Lakshmi and that the souls in the world are eternally
he was a gifted poet. He authored several simple
distinct from him. The relation between God and the
and passionate lyrics or kirtanas as ‘flowers’ to the
individual souls is like that between the master and
Lord of Pandharpur and took a vow that he and his
the servant. By serving and worshipping God, the
associates would compose a hundred crore abhangs.
individual souls become like God in most respects.
One of his pungent but well meaning statements
The centre of his religion is bhakti to Lord Krishna
was,“Hindu is blind and so is Mussalman, the Hindu
as taught in the Bhagavata. Radha has no place in
worships in temple and Muslim in the mosque. But
it. All avatars are revered. Siva is also worshipped.
Namadeva offers his worship to Him, who needs
Maharashtra Dharma neither temple nor mosque.” His personal attendant
The development of Vaishnavism based on was Janabai, a Sudra woman. She too was well-
the Bhagavata led to the rise of a number of poet- versed in the art of composing abhangs. She spend
saints towards the close of the 13th century. The her life in the service of Namadeva and also of Lord
popular songs of these poet-saints stirred the life of Vitthala. Her dedication is seen in her poems. Her
Maharashtra as those of the nayanmars and alvars abhangs are known for their simplicity, depth of
had stirred the Tamil country centuries before. The feeling and all-absorbing devotion.
earliest of them was Jnaneswara popularly called Namadeva’s fame spread far and wide and in his
Dnyandeve Dnanoba (1271-96). Jnaneswara wrote a own days he had the great, privilege of being quoted
long commentary in Marathi on the Bhagavad Gita, in the Granthsaheb of Guru Nanak. Namadeva’s tours
called Bhavarthadipika and more commonly as the to propagate the cause of Bhagavata dharma and
Jnaneswari, the fountain head of Maharashtrian his melodious kirtanas were responsible, for the
creation of a school of poetry in Maharashtra and
bhakti. More than a commentary, Jnaneswari

constitutes a religious sermon in the form of a song the poet saint, Tukaram, belonged to this school.
composed in a rhythmic prose which should be Namadeva lived to a ripe old age of 80 and
chanted. Though initiated in the Natha sect, which his remains were buried at the great door of the
explains his learning towards monism, his bhakti Pandharpur temple—a great honour indeed.
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CHAPTER-12
THE 18TH CENTURY
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE DECLINE Emperors and their nobles. Sarkar had analysed

OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE the developments of this period in the context of
law and order. He, therefore, held Aurangzeb as the
The Mughal Empire held sway over a large
arch culprit. According to Sarkar, Aurangzeb was a
part of India for nearly three centuries, but a drastic
religious fanatic. He discriminated against sections of
decline in its power and prestige came about by the
the nobles and officials on the basis of religion. This
first half of the eighteenth century. Not only did the
led to wide scale resentment among the nobility. He
political boundaries of the Empire shrink, the decline
argued that Aurangzeb’s successors and their nobles
also saw the collapse of the administrative structure
were mere shadows of their predecessors and were
so assiduously built by rulers like Akbar and Shah
thus unable to set right the evils of Aurangzeb’s
Jahan. In the wake of the collapse of the Mughal
legacy.
power a number of independent principalities
emerged in all parts of the Empire. Jagirdari Crisis
However, the processes of the decline and the In 1959, the publication of Satish Chandra’s
emergence of regional polities have been intensely Parties and Politics at the Mughal Court, 1707-40
debated among historians. It has also been a subject (Delhi, 1982, 3rd edition) marked the first serious
on which scholarly opinion is more sharply divided attempt to study the structure of the Mughal Empire.
than on any other aspect of Mughal history. Both its functioning and its plans were examined
The historiographical perspective on the to understand the nature of the Empire and the
Mughal decline can be divided into two broad reasons for its subsequent decline. Satish Chandra
sections. First, the Mughal-centric approach, i.e. studied the working of certain key institutions of
the Empire. The two institutions scrutinised were
historians attempts to identify the causes of the
mansabdari and the jagirdari. The nobles in the
decline within the structure and functioning of the
Mughal Empire were the core state officials. They
Empire itself. Secondly, the region-centric approach
were given ranks corresponding to their status in
where the perspective goes out of the precincts of
the Mughal official hierarchy.
the Empire into the regions to look for the causes of
turmoil or instability in different part of the Empire. These ranks were called mansab. Each
holder of mansab, called mansabdar, was paid in
Empire-Centric Approach assignments of land revenue (jagir). Among the
The Empire-centric approach for explaining various obligations, the mansabdar had to maintain
Mughal decline has progressed through different a requisite contingent of troopers. ‘These troopers
stages. Initially, theories focused on the individual were paid and maintained out of the revenue of
rulers and their policies. William Irvine and Jadunath the jagir. They formed the base of the mansabdar’s
Sarkar wrote the first detailed histories of this period power, and assisted him in the collection of land
(W. Irvine, The Later Mughals, reprint, New Delhi, revenue. Availability of the revenues to be assigned
1871; Jadunath Sarkar; The Fall of Mughal Empire, and the ability of the Mughals to collect them thus
I. Calcutta, 1938; History of Aurangzeb, I-V, Calcutta became two crucial prerequisites for an effective
1912, 1916, 1919 and 1924). They attributed the working of the system. According to Chandra,
decline to deterioration in the characters of the Mughal decline has to be seen in the Mughal failure,
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towards the end of Aurangzeb’s reign, to maintain Agrarian Crisis
the system of the mansabdar-jagirdar. As this system After the pioneering work of Satish Chandra,
went into disarray, the Empire was bound to collapse. historians continued to address themselves to
Athar Ali’s work on nobility and their politics various aspects of the functioning of the Empire in
in the late seventeenth century appeared in 1966 order to identify the reasons for its political collapse.
(M. Athar Ali, The Mughal Nobility under Aurangzeb, The focus had evidently shifted from personalities
Bombay, 1966 reprint, 1970). In this work the problems and policies of individual rulers to larger and
attending the annexation of the Deccan states, the broader developments that were weakening the
absorption of the Marathas and Deccanis into the very structure on which the Mughal edifice had been
Mughal nobility, and the subsequent shortage of built. Irfan Habib attempted an in-depth analysis of
jagirs have been emphasised. The sudden increase in the collapse of the Empire in his seminal work. (The
the number of nobles, caused due to the expansion Agrarian System of Mughal India, New Delhi, 1963).
of the Empire into the Deccan and Maratha territory,
According to Habib, the mechanism of
created a crisis in the functioning of the jagir system.
collection of revenue that the Mughals had evolved
According to Athar Ali, the nobles competed for
was inherently flawed. The imperial policy was to set
better jagirs, which were increasingly becoming
the revenue at the highest rate possible to secure the
rare due to the influx of nobles from the south.
greatest military strength for the Empire, the nobles.
The logical consequence was the erosion in the
On the other hand, tended to squeeze the maximum
political structure which was based on jagirdari to
from their jagirs, even if it ruined the peasantry and
a large extent.
destroyed the revenue paying capacity of the area.
In an important paper published in 1969, S. Since, the nobles’ jagirs were liable to be transferred
Nurul Hassan puts forward the argument that the frequently, they did not find it necessary to follow
agrarian relations as they developed during the a far-sighted policy of agricultural development.
Mughal rule gave rise to an authority structure which As the burden on the peasantry increased, they
worked like a pyramid. In this form, the rights of
were often deprived of their very means of survival.
various kinds came to be superimposed upon each
In reaction to this excessive exploitation of the
other. As a result, bulk of the revenue demand of the
peasantry, the latter had no option but to protest.
state was transferred on to the cultivators. In the
The forms of rural protest in Medieval India were
eighteenth century, with the decline of the Mughal
varied in nature. In many areas the peasants took
authority, and with pressure on jagirs, agricultural
to flight. Entire villages were let deserted due to
economy began to face a crisis.
the large-scale migration of peasants to the towns
The zamindars as a class were quite loyal to or other villages. Very often the peasants protested
the state. But in the kind of agrarian situation that against the state by refusing to pay the revenue and
obtained in the Mughal empire, conflict between were up in arms against the Mughals. Habib argued
them and the state as also among themselves could that these peasant protests weakened the political
not be checked. This often resulted in law and order and social fabric of the Empire.
problems and decimated the authority of the state.
After the death of Aurangzeb and weakening of the Re-examination of ‘Crisis’
imperial authority, this equilibrium got disturbed. J.F. Richards, M.N. Pearson and P. Hardy also
The zamindars in this situation could be contained give a pivotal position to the Mughal involvement
only a group which would be independent of the in the Deccan and the affairs of the Marathas in their
support of the zamindars. Since such a class had explanation of the decline of the Empire. (Journal of
not emerged by this time, the pattern of agrarian Asian Studies, Vol. XXXV No. 2, Feb, 1976, pp. 221-63.
relations could not be changed. The collapse of However, they differ from the Aligarh historians in
the system became inevitable (S. Nurul Hassan, their understanding of the nature of the Empire.
“Zamindars Under the Mughals”, Land Control and For instance, according to Pearson, Mughal rule was
Social structure in Indian History, ed. R.E. Frykenberg, indirect. It was not state control but local ties and
Madison, 1969.) norms which governed the lives of people. It was only
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THE 18TH CENTURY

for the nobles that the concept of the Mughal Empire A tripolar relationship between the peasants,
outweighed other “primordial attachments”. The the zamindars and the mansabdar/jagirdar formed
nobles were bound to the Empire only by patronage, the base on which the Mughal edifice rested. The
which depended on the “constant military success” ability of the mansabdar/jagirdar to collect land
of the Emperor. Pearson emphasised the absence revenue from the zamindars and keep the raiyat
of an impersonalised bureaucracy, and its not too engaged in agricultural production was the key to
optimistic consequences for the Mughal state. Once successful working of the jagir system. The jagirdar
Mughal patronage slackened due to the lack of any could perform his functions properly if he could
further military expansion, and, a shortage of fertile maintain his military might. This of course was
areas to be allotted as jagirs arose, the “personalised based on his ability to muster enough revenue
bureaucracy” of the Mughal Empire showed signs and resources from his jagir in order to maintain
of distress. This indeed sounded the death-knell for the requisite contingent of troopers. Any factor
the Mughal system. which could disturb this neat balancing of jagirdar-
In the 1970s, J.F. Richards added a new zamindar-peasant parameter would ultimately
dimension to the theories of Mughal decline cause the decline of the Empire.
which looked at bejagiri (the absence of jagirs) as Satish Chandra argues that in the 17th century,
a major cause of the decline of the Mughal Empire. the social conflicts which the Mughals were unable
Using archival material from Golkonda, Richards to resolve within the broad framework of the class
questioned the long held belief that the Deccan alliance forged by them, were reflected in financial
was a deficit area which generated bejagiri leading crisis and in the crisis of the jagir system, the two
to the Mughal decline. being interrelated. The crisis of the jagir system had
made its appearance fairly early in the history of the
According to Richards, the jagirdari crisis Empire. The problem re-surfaced under Jahangir
was of an administrative and managerial nature. and Shah Jahan when the Empire had expanded
He argued that the augmentation of the revenue to fringe areas beyond the fertile tracts of the
resources of the Empire following the annexation Ganga-Yamuna doab. Towards the end of Shah
of the Deccan state roughly kept pace with the Jahan reign, the difference between jama (assessed
expansion of the nobility during the second half revenue) and hasil (revenue actually collected) in
of Aurangzeb’s reign. The lack of pal baqi land was jagir lands became too glaring. A mansabdar was
due to a deliberate decision on Aurangzeb’s part lucky if the realisation from his jagir was more than
to keep the most lucrative jagirs under khalisa in five-monthly (i.e., revenue equivalent to five month’s
order to provide for a continued campaigning in revenue only in a year). The number of sawars he
the Karnataka and against the Marathas. Thus, the maintained had to be reduced proportionally. In
crisis was an administrative one and not caused Deccan, the realisation was even less—about three-
by bejagiri. monthly, and the power and influence of the jagirdar
In the 1980s, Satish Chandra’s researches proportionally lower. Once the military power of the
resolved the problem of bejagiri to some extent. jagirdar was eroded, the tripolar relationship which
He made use of newly discovered archival sources sustained the Empire fell apart.
to make a clear distinction between bejagiri and According to Satish Chandra, perhaps the
the crisis in jagirdari. In his opinion, the crisis of the only manner in which the crisis of the jagirdari
jagir system did not occur because of the growth in system could have been deferred for a longer
the size of the ruling class and the corresponding period was a rapid development of the economy,
decline in the revenues earmarked to be assigned both in agricultural and non-agricultural sectors.
in jagir. In fact, jagir system was in crisis because of Trade was a supplementary source of income for
its non-functionality. According to Satish Chandra, rulers and nobles. Indeed, what we need to know is
it is important to understand the structure of the whether the money saved by the nobles was used
Medieval Indian society before one can talk about for investment in trade on a regular basis, or was
the background of the non-functionality of jagirdari. trade made to yield money for the ostentatious
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living of the nobles? Some regional studies of “Great Firm” Theory of the Decline of the Mughal
traders and politics in Mughal India suggest that Empire’, Comparative Studies in Society and History,
as a class, on an all India basis, the merchants were Vol. 21 No. 2, April, 1979, pp.161-7).
not rich or powerful enough to claim a share in state The assumptions of Leonard conclusions do
power. Trade and politics, by and large, remained not get adequate support from the existing studies
segregated in Mughal India. of Mughal polity and economy. Philip Calkins and
Developments in the agricultural sector were M.N. Pearson, researching on Bengal and Gujarat
no less different. For a number of reasons, the state respectively, give some evidence of merchants,
policies were aimed at preserving the small peasant participation in politics (Philip Calkins, ‘The
economy. Thus, the khud-kasht (the rich peasants) Formation of a Regionally Oriented Ruling Group
were not allowed to cultivate their lands with the in Bengal’, Journal of Asian Studies. Vol. XXIX No. 4,
help of hired labour, or to extend their cultivation Aug, 1970; M.N. Pearson, Merchants and Rulers in
at the expense of the land held by pahis (middle Gujarat, California, 1976). However, Pearson refrains
level peasants who did not own land and moved from suggesting that the Mughal finance system was
with their implements of production from village to dependent on merchants’ credit. Calkins also limits
village). Some of the rich peasants used their wealth his generalisation to the period and the region he
to lend money on interest, or mortgaged the lands examines. Leonard’s source material is the same as
of the poor peasants, reducing them to the position that used by Calkins and Pearson. However, Leonard’s
of sharecroppers. Thus, the only lines on which they conclusions remain unconvincing because no fresh
could grow were to become intermediary zamindars evidence has been adduced.
or mahajans (grain dealers-cum-money-lenders). Region-Centric Approach
This, perhaps explains the slow development of Muzaffar Alam and Chetan Singh have used
the agricultural economy, and its inability to avoid in their works region-centric approach to explain
a precipitation of the jagirdari crisis. Satish Chandra Mughal decline (M. Alam, The Crisis of Empire
further argues that the fundamental basis for the in Mughal North India, Awadh and the Punjab,
jagirdari crisis was the medieval social system which 1707-1748, New Delhi, 986; Chetan Singh, Region
limited agricultural growth. The administrative and Empire. Punjab in the Seventeenth Century,
system was reared on this structure, the two acting New Delhi, 1991). While Muzaffar Alam has made
and reacting on each other. All the other factors like comparative study of the developments in the
the growth in the size of the ruling class, the growing Mughal Subas of Awadh and Punjab, Chetan Singh
ostentatious life style of the nobles which limited has made an in-depth study of the regional history
the surplus available for expanding production and of the 17th century Punjab.
resulted in slow economic growth were contributory
Their studies are significant in that they throw
factors to the growth of the crisis.
new light on both the nature of the Mughal Empire
The Mughal decline has also been explained as well as the process of its weakening and eventual
in terms of participation in the eighteenth century decline in the 17th and early 18th century.
politics of groups conventionally regarded as non-
political. Karen Leonard argues that “indigenous Centre-Region Relationship

banking firms were indispensable allies of the Viewing the Mughal State from the perspective
Mughal State”, and that the great nobles “were more of the regional literature of the Mughal suba of
than likely to be directly dependent upon these Awadh, Alam suggests that the Mughal Empire
firms”.When, in the period 1650-1750, these banking signified a coordinating agency between conflicting
firms began “the redirection of their economic and communities and the various indigenous socio-
political support” towards regional politics and rulers, political systems at different levels. The basis of the
including the English East India Company in Bengal, Empire in a measure had been negative; its strength
this led to bankruptcy, a series of political crises and lay in the inability of the local communities and
the down fall of the Empire (Karen Leonard, ‘The their systems to mobilize beyond relatively narrow
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bounds. Political integration in Mughal India was, up madad-I ma’ash holders, etc.) to encroach on each
to a point, inherently flawed. It was to a large extent other’s rights and territorial jurisdictions. These
conditional on the coordination of the interests and developments were not entirely incompatible with
the political activities of the various social groups what happened earlier. But in the hey-day of the
led by local magnates. Empire these tensions had been contained. This was
This, in turn, was dependent on the latter achieved at times by the use of military force and
realising that they could not amass fortunes by at other times by balancing out the power of one
themselves. For it was very evident that the nobles social group by settling another in the vicinity (e.g.
were dependent for their position and power directly the distribution of the madad-I ma’ash grantees in
on the Emperor who appointed them. They had and around the zamindaris of Awadh).
no heredity estates to consolidate or bequeath to Alam’s major concern is to analyze what
their descendants. Their resources were scrutinised triggered off the imbalancing of the social and
and regulated by the Empire. They were in a way political equilibrium in the early 18th century. In
representatives of the Mughal Emperor. Yet the other words, what caused the Mughal edifice to
nobility also had its tensions. The policy of jagir collapse in the early 18th century? He is of the
transfer, by checking the noble’s ambition to build a view that the late 17th and early 18th century, at
personal base, was meant to strengthen the imperial least in the Awadh and Punjab regions, registered
organisation. But it inconvenienced the nobles unmistakable economic growth. This is in sharp
who opposed and resisted its implementation. In contrast to the more generalised argument about
many regions of the Mughal Empire, it was left the early 18th century being in the throes of a
unimplemented in the 17th century. Alongside the financial crisis that was postulated by Satish Chandra
local elities (zamindars) and the nobles, the village and others. Social groups that had hitherto shared
and qasba based madad-I ma’ash holders (men Mughal power and contributed to the political
of learning, who were given revenue free grants stability of the Empire now began to take advantage
of land by the Mughal Emperors) and a very large of the economic boom in their regions. Many of them
numbers of lower level officials drawn from various amassed wealth which helped them to increase their
regional and local communities, were all integrated power to encroach on the rights and privileges of
intimately into the framework of the Empire. The others. The political edifice of the Empire was bound
madad-I ma’ash holdings were scattered in the to suffer in the face of these developments.
zamindaris. They were meant to establish pockets Muzaffar Alam concludes that the decline of
of influence for the Empire in the far-flung regions the Mughal Empire was manifested both in Awadh
of the countryside. The emperors were of the view and the Punjab in a kind of political transformation
that the madad-I ma’ash grantees would keep in and in the emergence and configuration of the
check the power of the recalcitrant zamindars and elements of a new subadari. The genesis for the
thereby aid in balancing the social and political emergence of independent regional units was
groups that constituted the base of the Empire. present in both the provinces. But in Punjab it ended
in chaos, while Awadh witnessed a stable dynastic
According to Alam, the Mughal decline in the
rule.
early 18th century has to be seen in the inability
of the state to maintain its policy of checks and Contours of Regional Polities
balances between the zamindars, jagirdars, Muzaffar Alam’s plea to understand the
madad-I ma’ash holders and the local indigenous complexities of Mughal decline by looking at the
elements, like the shaikhazadas in Awadh. In the regional development, in the early 18th century, India
early 18th century, there was a thrust of the nobles has been followed up by Chetan Singh. His book
towards independent political alignments with the Region and Empire takes a new look at the regional
zamindars in order to carve out their own fortunes. history of the Mughal North India. The history of
Alongside there was an attempt between the the Mughal suba of Punjab is reconstructed in the
various co-sharrers of Mughal power (the zamindars, context of both the Mughal politics as well as the
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wider political changes that swept through the the political weakening of Empire had gained
contemporary West Asian world. He argues that momentum in the 18th century.
the Mughal administrative infrastructure no doubt It is here that Singh’s study adds a new
linked the region to the Mughal administrative dimension to the already mooted question of the
core. Yet, this conventional form of integration ‘crisis of Empire’. For contrary to Muzaffar Alam’s
had its limitations. For the local society and polity study of Mughal Awadh and Punjab, which traces
were subjected to a variety of stresses and the the dissociation of these regions from the Mughal
administrative system responded by transgressing Empire from the early 18th century, Singh sees the
the formal administrative divisions and sub-divisions process at work in the hey day of the Empire. Thus,
of the Mughal governmental system. looking at the disintegration of the Empire from
This was true both of the general administration the point of view of the regional history of Punjab
where pragmatic considerations led to flexibility in different reasons, but very often the dissociations
the creation of local offices and the kind of function were caused by political, social and economic
they performed, as well as of revenue administration. developments beyond the purview of the Mughal
In the revenue administration, with the passage of Empire.
time, creation norms and conventions evolved which An Overview
along with formal rules and regulations contributed
It is difficult to find a single explanation
to the stability of the Mughal Empire.
commonly applicable to the problem of the
However, by the late 17th century, the silting Mughal Empire in all its regions and provinces.
of the river Indus had adversely affected the riverine For similar reasons, it is difficult to accept a view
traffic of Punjab. Its most serious implication was the of Mughal decline which applies uniformly to all
gradual erosion of the highly commercialised Punjab parts of the Mughal Empire. The Mughal Empire at
economy. The political upheavals in contemporary best represented a consensus of both the centre
Turkey, fall of Qandahar to the Shah of Iran and and the peripheries. In the early 18th century, it
the Mughal attempt to recover it virtually brought was this consensus which was disturbed. Different
overland trafiic to a standstill. This development peripheries that had constituted the Empire followed
coincided with the Yusufazai uprising (1667) in their own different paths of developments. The
North-West Punjab and the Afridi rebellion in 1678. eighteenth century, regional histories thus indicate
Singh argues that these political disturbances had the endeavor to make use of the possibilities for
grave social and economic consequences for Punjab: growth within existing social structures.
they disrupted trade and thereby gradually eroded Evidently, the regional history perspective
the economy which was based on a commercialised on Mughal decline negates the application of one
agrarian sector. general theory to explain Mughal collapse all over
The loosening of Punjab’s socio-economic India. For the Mughal Empire, at best, represented a
structure led to social unrest in Punjab. However, consensus between the centre and the peripheries.
Singh contends that since the benefits of trade and The peripheries were integrated to the Mughal
commerce had been unequally distributed in the core not merely administratively. For there was an
region, the discomforts caused by the decline of economic and cultural assimilation between the
trade varied in different areas of the Punjab. Thus, conqueror and the vanquished. It was on certain
the areas most closely associated with the Sikh shared economic and cultural spaces that the
rebellion were those that were also among the most Mughal state structure rested.
commercialised and therefore most easily affected Regions, held together by these heterogeneous
by economic regression. Thus, he concludes, the linkages to the Mughal core, were bound to be
social unrest which eventually led to the dissociation vulnerable to the kinds of social, economic and
of Punjab from the Empire was the product of long cultural changes that swept through 17th century
term processes. These processes had silently and Mughal India. Different regions were affected in
steadily been at work in the region even before different ways. While in some regions links with
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the Mughal core were severed, in others they were
retained. It was logical that the different regions
followed different paths of dissociation from the
Mughal Empire. Mughal decline was thus much more
complex than what the historians subscribing to the
Mughal-centric approach would have us believe.
THE REGIONAL PRINCIPALITIES

Nizam’s Hyderabad, Awadh and Bengal
As regards Bengal, it became an independent
state within a few years of the death of Aurangzeb.
Although Murshid Quli Khan was made the Governor
of Bengal as late as 1717, he had been its effective
ruler since 1700 when he was appointed its Dewan.
Murshid Quli Khan was the Deputy Governor (Naib
Nazim) and Dewan of Bengal and Orissa under
prince Azim. Shortly before the death of Aurangzeb
Azim left the province in the hands of Murshid
Quli Khan and after the coronation of his father, he
stayed away at the capital. During that period, all
power rested in the hands of Murshid Quli Khan. In
1717, Farrukh Siyar appointed Murshid Quli Khan as
permanent Nazim or Governor of Bengal.
In 1719, he was appointed the Nazim of India in 1780
Orissa, also. He freed himself from central control Murshid Quli Khan had no male issue and
but continued to send regularly his tribute to the hence he was succeeded by Shujauddin. Muhammad
Mughal Emperor. He established peace by freeing Khan, his son-in-law, Shujauddin divided Bengal into
Bengal of internal and external danger. Bengal was four administrative units, improved its finances
relatively free of uprisings by Zamindars. The only looked after the welfare of his subjects and gave
three major uprisings during his rule were by Sitaram them justice impartially. Towards the close of his
Ray, Uday Narayan and Ghulam Muhammad and reign, power fell in the hands of a clique of self-
then by Shujat Khan and finally by Najat Khan. After seeking advisers consisting of Hazi Ahmad, Alam
defeating them, he gave their jagirs to Ramjivan, his Chand and Jagat Seth Fateh Chand. He died in 1739.
own favourite. He was a good administrator and he Shujauddin was succeeded by his son, Sarfaraz
improved the finances of the state. He converted all Khan. He neglected the work of administration
jagir lands into Khalisa land directly administered by power was enjoyed by those very people who had
the Crown and appointed contractors to collect the formed a clique during the reign of his father.
revenue. Those contractors became the landlords Alivardi Khan the Deputy Governor of Bihar
or Zamindars who, later on, were and brother of Hazi Ahmad, tried to capture power.
confirmed and made hereditary by Lord He marched with his army towards Murshidabad.
Cornwallis. He also helped the growth of trade and Sarfaraz Khan was defeated and killed in a battle
gave all possible help and incentives to traders. He on 10th April, 1740. Alivardi Khan captured the
was a man of puritan character and he despised all Mansad of Bengal. He secured confirmation of his
kinds of luxury. He succeeded in bringing prosperity new position from the Mughal Emperor.
to the province of Bengal. He died in June, 1727. Alivardi Khan was a competent ruler. He looked
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after the welfare of his subjects and administered and Chandernagar. However, they made a mistake in
Bengal well. He was troubled by the Afghan rebels not firmly putting down the increasing tendency of
in Bihar and Maratha invasions. He suppressed the the English East India Company to use military force
Afghans in 1748 but was forced to conclude a treaty or to threaten its use to get its demands accepted.
with the Marathas by which he agreed to pay `12 They had the power to deal with the threats of the
lacs per annum as Chauth to the Marathas. He died Company but did not take timely action against
on 10th April, 1756. the English Company. The Nawabs of Bengal also
neglected to build a strong army and had to pay a
Alivardi Khan was succeeded by his grandson
very heavy price for this negligence. It is pointed out
Siraj-ud-Daulah. The latter showed vigor and energy
that the army of Murshid Quli Khan consisted of only
in administration and succeeded in suppressing his
2000 cavalry and 4000 infantry. Alvardi Khan was
enemies and rivals of the Mansad. He came into
constantly troubled by the Marathas and was forced
conflict with the British who gave shelter to the
to give them his own territory, but he did not raise a
enemies of the Nawab, misused their trading rights big army which could stand against the English East
and strengthened their fortifications at Calcutta. India Company. They failed to check the growing
The Nawab tried to check them. A conspiracy was corruption among the officials. Judicial officials like
hatched against him. The Nawab was defeated in the Qazis and Muftis took bribes. Their enemies took
the battle of Plassey in June, 1957 A.D. and killed. full advantage of these weaknesses and succeeded
Mir Jafar was placed on the Masnad of Bengal by in establishing their hold over Bengal.
the English East India Company. He was replaced by
Mir Qasim by the English in 1760. Mir Qasim fought Avadh
the battle of Buxar in 1764. Thus, the Government Burhan-ul-Mulk Saadat Khan founded an
of Bengal passed into the hands of the English East independent Muslim Kingdom in Avadh. His
India Company. original name was Mir Muhammad Amin. He was
It is maintained that the Nawabs of Bengal a member of the personal retainers of the Emperor
gave Bengal a long period of peace and orderly called balashahi. He was given the Mansab of 5,000
administration and promoted trade and industry. and later of 7,000. The title of Burhan-ul-Mulk was
They gave equal opportunities for employment to confirmed on him. He was appointed the Governor
the Hindus and Muslims. They filled the highest civil of Agra. In 1723, he was driven out of the capital as a
posts and many of the military posts with Bengalis, sort of punishment and was given the Governorship
most of who were Hindus. While appointing revenue of Avadh. Saadat Khan was in favour of strong
farmers, Murshid Quli Khan gave preference to local measures against the Marathas. He fought against
Zamindars and moneylenders who were mainly Nadir Shah on behalf of the Mughal Emperor in
Hindus. In this way, he laid the foundations of a the battle of Karnal. In order to discredit the Nizam,
new landed aristocracy in Bengal. The Nawabs gave he brought Nadir Shah to Delhi and was partly
encouragement to all merchants, Indian or foreign. responsible for the massacre of the people of Delhi
They provided for the safety of roads and rivers and destruction of their wealth. He poisoned himself
from thieves and robbers by establishing regular to death, as he could not fulfil the promises made
Thanas and Chowkies. They checked private trade to Nadir Shah. He ruled Avadh from 1723 to 1739.
by officials. They prevented abuses in the customs Saadat Khan was succeeded by his nephew
administration. They maintained strict control over and son-in-law Safdar Jang (1739-54). He was a
the foreign trading companies and their servants capable man who provided peace and prosperity to
and prevented them abusing their privileges. They Avadh. He was appointed the wazir of the Mughal
compelled the servants of the English East India Emperor, in 1748 and was also granted the province
Company to obey the laws of the land and pay the of Allahabad. Safdar Jang gave a long period of
same customs duties as were being paid by the other peace to the people of Avadh and Allahabad before
merchants. Alvardi Khan did not allow the English his death in 1754. He suppressed the rebellious
and the French to forty their factories at Calcutta zamindars. He made an alliance with the Marathas
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THE 18TH CENTURY

in order to save his kingdom from their invasions. 26th January, 1775.
He carried on warfare against the Rohillas and the Shuja-ud-Daulah was succeeded by his son
bangash Pathans. In his war against the bangash Asaf-ud-Daulah (1775-1797 A.D.). With the passage
Nawabs in 1750-51, he got military help from the of time, the Nawab began to depend more and more
Marathas by paying a daily allowance of 25,000.

upon the British. In 1801, Nawab Saadat Ali accepted

He also paid 15,000 a day for getting support

the subsidiary system. Avadh was annexed in 1856.

from the Jats. He entered into an agreement with
the Peshwas by which the latter agreed to help the Rohilkhand
Mughal Emperor against Ahmad Shah Abdali and to Katehar was a stronghold of the Afghans. It was
protect him from such internal rebels as the Indian populated mainly by the Rohillas and hence it came
Pathans and Rajput Rajas. In return, the Peshwa was to be known as Rohilkhand. The Rohillas first came
to be paid 50 lacs, granted the Chauth of the Punjab,

into prominence under Daud, who continued to be a
Sindhi and several districts of Northern India and petty Jagirdar. His adopted son, Ali Muhammad Khan
made the Governor of Ajmer and Agra. Rohila became the leader of the Rohillas, in 1721 and
The agreement failed as the Peshwa went over he laid the foundations of an independent kingdom
to the enemies of Safdar Jang who promised him the of the Rohillas. He was able to raise an army of his
own. He started conquering district after district. In
Governorship of Avadh and Allahabad. Safdar Jang
1727, he defeated a Khawajasara of the Emperor and
organised an equitable system of justice. He adopted
seised all his property. That raised his prestige and
a policy of impartiality in the employment of Hindus
he took up the title of Nawab. He started living in
and Muslims. The highest post in his Government
royal style and held his court like an independent
was held by Maharaja Nawab Rai. The long period of
prince. He was able to get the right of collecting
peace given by the Nawabs to the people resulted
taxes from the region under his authority. In 1737, he
in the growth of a distinct Lucknow culture around
got the title of Nawab from the Emperor. When Nadir
the Avadh court. Lucknow began to rival Delhi in its
Shah attacked India in 1739, Ali Muhammad Khan
patronage of arts and literature and also became
extended his influence to Muradabad and occupied
an important centre of handicrafts. Safdar Jang
most of the region. His authority extended to the
maintained a high standard of morality. He was whole of Bareilly and Muradabad and portions of
devoted to his wife alone. Hardoi and Badaun. He was appointed the Governor
Safdar Jang was appointed the Wazir of the of Katehar by the Emperor. In due course, he was
Mughal Emperor in 1748 and called to Delhi. He able to occupy Pilibhit, Bijnor and Kumaon. In 1745,
failed to achieve much on account of his rivals. He the Mughal Emperor personally led an army against
returned to Avadh in 1753 and died in October, 1754. him and the latter submitted. He was given a Mansab
Safdar Jang was succeeded by his son Shuja- of 4,000 and he agreed to exchange Sirhind for

ud-Dulah. He provided shelter to the fugitive Prince, Katehar. When Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded the
Ali Gauhar who later on became Mughal Emperor. Punjab, in 1749, Ali Muhammad Khan went back to
He fought assan ally of Ahmad Shah Abdali in the Katehar and drove out the local jagirdars.
third battle of Panipat and was appointed Wazir of After his death, his possessions were divided
the Emperor when Ali Gauhar became the Emperor into three parts, to one of which Hafiz Rahmat Khan
with the title of Shah Alam II. He provided shelter to succeeded as the leader. The Rohillas helped Ahmad
Mir Qasim, who was the fugitive Nawab of Bengal. Shah Abdali in the third battle of Panipat in 1761
He fought the Battle of Buxar, in 1764, as an ally of and got many concessions from him. After that,
Mir Qasim. He was defeated. The whole of Awadh the Rohillas became independent. For some time,
lay at the mercy of the British. However, Avadh they were able to capture Delhi also but had to
was restored to Shuja-ud-Daulah by the British on vacate the same on account of opposition from the
payment of 50 lacs and the surrender of some

Marathas and Nawab of Avadh. In the time of Warren

territory to the Mughal Emperor. He conquered Hastings, British troops were sent to Rohilkhand to
Rohilkhand, in 1774, with British help. He died on help the Nawab wazir of Avadh. Rohilkhand was
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conquered. Hafiz Rahmat Khan was killed. About use of Logarithms was also translated into Sanskrit.
20,000 Rohillas were turned out from the country. He was also a social reformer. He tried to reduce
The soldiers of the Nawab committed atrocities on the expenditure incurred in connection with the
the innocent people of Rohilkhand and the country marriages of daughters. He ruled from 1699 to 1743.
was annexed to Avadh. However, the rulers of the Rajput states were
Farrukhabad divided among themselves. Bigger Rajput states
tried to expand themselves at the cost of their
Muhammad Khan Bangash, an Afghan
weaker neighbours. Most of them were constantly
adventurer, established his control over the territory
involved in petty quarrels and civil wars. In most
around Farrukhabad between Aligarh and Kanpur,
of the Rajput states, there was corruption intrigue
during the reigns of Farrukh Siyar and Muhammad
and treachery, Ajit Singh of Marwar was killed by
Shah. Muhammad Khan raised a band of Afghans
his own son.
whom he employed in plundering raids and fighting
the battle of local Jagirdars on payment. In 1713, he At one stage, the Rajputs controlled the entire
was appointed a courtier by Farrukh Siyar. In 1714, territory extending from some 600 miles South of
he founded the town of Farrukhabad. He was able to Delhi to Surat on the Western coast. However, they
acquire a large Jagir whose area was about 75,000 failed to consolidate their position on account of
square miles. His influence became so great that their internal dissensions.
he was appointed the Governor of Allahabad and The Jats
Malwa. He was so faithful to the Emperor that he The Jats lived in the region around Delhi, Agra
never thought of independence. When he died in and Mathura. The Jat peasants around Mathura
1743, he was succeeded by his son, Qayam Khan. revolted on account of oppression by Muhal official.
The Rajput States They revolted in 1669 and 1688. Their revolts were
crushed but there was no peace. After the death of
The Rajput states took advantage of the
Aurangzeb, the Jats created disturbances all around
growing weakness of the Mughal Empire and freed
Delhi. The Jats plundered all and Sundry, the rich and
themselves from the central control and increased
the poor, the Jagirdars and peasants. The Hindus
their influence in the rest of the Empire. During the
and Muslims. They took active part in the intrigues
reigns of Farrukh Siyar and Muhammad Shah, the
at the Mughal court and joined whichever party
rulers of Amber and Marwar were appointed the
suited them.
Governors of the Mughal provinces like Gujarat,
Malwa and Agra. The Jat state of Bharatpur was set up by
Churaman (1660-1721) and Badan Singh. Churaman
The most important Rajput ruler of this time
built a strong fort at Thun and challenged the
was Raja Swai Jai Singh of Amber (1681-1743). He
Mughal authority in the region. The Mughal army
was a statesman, a lawmaker and a reformer. He
under Jai Singh II, the Governor of Agra, marched
was also a man of science He founded the city
against Churaman, in 1721 and captured his fort.
of Jaipur and made it a seat of science and art.
Churaman committed suicide.
The city of Jaipur was built strictly on scientific
principles and according to a regular plan. Its Badan Singh (1685-1756) was a nephew of
streets are interested at right angles. He was a Churaman. He became the leader of the Jats. He
great astronomer. He erected observatories at strengthened his army and built four forts of Dig,
Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Varanasi and Mathura. The Kumber, Ver and Bharatpur. He took full advantage
instruments put in these observatories were very of the weakness of the Mughal Empire after the
accurate. His own astronomical observations were invasion of Nadir Shah and established his sway
remarkably accurate. He prepared a set of tables to over the districts of Mathura and Agra and laid the
enable people to make astronomical observations. foundation of the Bharatpur kingdom. Ahmad Shah
He got translated into Sanskrit Euclid’s Elements of Abdali conferred on Badan Singh the title of Raja
Geometry. Napier’s work on the construction and with the additional epithet of Mahendra.
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Badan Singh was succeeded by Suraj Mal, inside the fort, the Guru was forced to open the gate
who ruled from 1756 to 1763. He was an able apparently on a promise of safe conduct by Wazir
administrator, a soldier and a statesman. He extended Khan. However, when the forces of the Guru were
his authority over a large area which extended from crossing a swollen stream, the forces of Wazir Khan
the Ganges in the East to Chambal in the south, the suddenly attacked. Two of the sons of Guru Gobind
province of Agra in the West and to the province of Singh were captured. On their refusal to embrace
Delhi in the North. His state included among other, Islam, they were beheaded at Sirhind. The Guru lost
the districts of Agra, Mathura, Meerut and Aligarh. two of his remaining sons in another battle. After
For his political sagacity, steady intellect and clean that, he retired to Talwandi.
vision, he is remembered as “the Jat Ulysses.” A It is contended that Aurangzeb was not keen
contemporary historian described Suraj Mal in these to destroy the Guru and wrote to the Governor of
words:“Through he wore the dress of a farmer and Lahore to “conciliate the Guru”.When the Guru wrote
could speak only his brij dialect, he was the Plato to Aurangzeb in the Deccan apprising him of the
of the Jat tribe. In prudence and skill and ability to events, Aurangzeb invited him to meet him. Towards
manage the revenue and civil affairs, he had no the end of 1706, the Guru set out for the Deccan
equal among the grandees of Hindustan except and was on the way when Aurangzeb died in 1707.
Asaf Jah Bahadur.”
After the death of Aurangzeb, Guru Gobind
After the death of Suraj Mal in 1763, the Jat Singh joined Bahadur Shah’s camp as a noble of the
kingdom gradually sank into insignificance. However, rank of 5000 Zat and 5000 sawar and accompanied
Lord Lake failed to capture Bharatpur, in 1805. him to the Deccan where he treacherously murdered,
The Sikhs in 1708, by one of his Pathan employees.
The Sikhs were transformed into a militant After the death of Guru Gobind Singh, Banda
and fighting community under Guru Har Gobind Bahadur became the leader of the Sikhs. He rallied
(1606-1645). The execution of Guru Teg Bahadur the Sikh peasants of the Punjab under his leadership
forced the Sikhs to fight against the Mughals. Guru and carried on a vigorous struggle for 8 years. He
Govind Singh (1664-1708) showed considerable was captured in 1715 and put to death. His death
organisational ability and founded the military gave a setback to the territorial ambitions of the
brotherhood called the Khalsa, in 1699. Before that, Sikhs and their power declined.
he had made his headquarters, at Makhowal, on The invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah
Anandpur, in the foothills of the Punjab. A series of Abdali gave the Sikhs an opportunity to rise once
clashes took place between Guru Govind Singh and again. In the wake of the marches of the armies of
the Hill Rajas in which the Guru generally came out the invaders, the Sikhs plundered all the sundry and
successful. The organisation of the Khalsa further gained wealth and military power. They began to
strengthened the hands of the Guru. An open breach fill the political vacuum created in Punjab after the
between the Guru and the Hill Rajas took place only withdrawal of Ahmad Shah Abdali. Between 1765
in 1704, when the combined forces of a number of and 1800, the Sikhs brought the Punjab and Jammu
Hill Rajas attacked the Guru at Anandpur. The Rajas under their control. They were organised into 12
retreated and pressed the Mughal Government Misls or confederacies which operated in different
against the Guru on their behalf. parts of the Punjab. They full cooperated with one
Aurangzeb was concerned with the growing another. Gradually, the democratic character of the
power of the Guru and had asked the Mughal Misls disappeared and powerful chiefs dominated
Faujadar earlier “to admonish the Guru”. Now, the Misls. All the Misls were brought under their
Aurangzeb wrote to the Governor of Lahore and control by Ranjit Singh, who set-up an independent
the faujdar of Sirhind, Wazir Khan, to help the Hill Sikh state in the Punjab.
Rajas against Guru Govind Singh. The Mughal forces The state of Hyderabad was founded by Nizam-
assaulted Anandpur but the Sikhs fought bravely ul-Mulk Asaf Jah in 1724. It was Zulfiqar Khan who
and beat off all assaults. When starvation began had first conceived of the plan of an independent
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state in the Deccan after the conquest of the fort Government. He followed a policy of toleration
of Jinji. Through the generosity of Bahadur Shah, towards the Hindus. He appointed Puran Chand as
Zulfiqar Khan was appointed the Viceroy of the his Dewan. He established an orderly administration
Deccan. He was allowed to stay at the capital while in the Deccan. He tried to remove corruption from
Daud Khan was to act as his Deputy. When Farrukh the revenue department.
Siya came to power, the position of Zulfiqar Khan The Nizam had to face the challenge of the
became shaky and ultimately he was killed in 1713. Marathas who under the leadership of Peshwa
Chin Qilich Khan was appointed the Viceroy of the Baji Rao I was determined to collect Chauth and
Deccan with the title of Nizam-ul-Mulk through Sardeshmukhi from the six Subahs of the Deccan
the good offices of the Sayyid Brothers. He acted and limit the power of the Nizam. The Nizam was an
as Viceroy of the Deccan from 1713 to 1715. He astute diplomat and a capable commander. He tried
consolidated his position by diplomacy and war. to divide the Marathas. He aroused the ambition
He was displaced by Hussain Ali, one of the Sayyid of Senapati Trimabak Rao against Peshwa Baji Rao
brothers who were appointed the Viceroy of the and refused to pay Chauth and Sardeshmukhi. Baji
Deccan. In 1720, the Nizam returned to the Deccan Rao proved more than a match for him. He defeated
and seised the viceroyalty by defeating the nephew the Nizam twice, first at Phalkhed, in 1728 A.D. and
of Hussain Ali. As Emperor Muhammad Shah was next time near Bhopal, in 1738. Both times, he had
himself eager to break the hold of the Sayyids, he to purchase peace from the Peshwa and agreed to
won over the Nizam to his side and confirmed him pay Chauth and Sardeshmukhi besides other terms.
as the Viceroy of the Deccan. The Nizam had to go to When the Marathas occupied Malwa,
the North because the Emperor wanted to stabilise Bundelkhand and Gujarat, the Nuzam stayed in
his position by appointing his as the Wazir in 1722 the North, from 1737 to 1740, at the request of the
and he remained as wazir upto 1724. The Nizam Mughal Emperor. He failed to settle anything with
tried to put things in order but he was unsuccessful Nadir Shah, in 1739 and sent back to the Deccan.
on account of opposition from the Emperor and his After that, he did not take part in the politics of Delhi.
flatterers. His strict discipline provoked dislike the He died in 1748 A.D., at the age of 77. The Nizam was
jealously. The Nizam was extremely unhappy. As the first independence ruler of Hyderabad and he
wazir, he added Malwa and Gujarat to the Subedari was also the most competent ruler of the Deccan.
of the Deccan. When the Nizam found that he was
After the death of the Nizam, in 1748, there was
not liked in the court, he marched away to the
confusion in the Deccan. Nasir Jang and Muzaffar
Deccan without the permission of the Emperor.
Jang contested the throne and took the help of the
That was not liked by the Emperor who appointed
English and French Companies. The interference of
Mubariz Khan as the Viceroy of the Deccan and
the Marathas in the politics of the Deccan and the
directed him to send the Nizam to the court, dead
rise of the State of Mysore under Haider Ali created
or alive. Mubariz Khan was defeated and killed by
more complications for the rulers of Hyderabad. In
the Nizam, who was sent by his head to the Emperor.
the time of Lord Wellesley, the Nizam entered into
The Mughal Emperor was obliged to confer on the
a subsidiary alliance with the English East India
Nizam the title of Asaf Jah and he also confirmed
Company and virtually became their subordinate

him in the Viceroyalty of the Deccan, in spite of the ally.
fact that the Nizam was very strong in the Deccan, he
maintained a show of respect towards the Emperor. Carnatic
The Nizam laid the foundations of the state of Carnatic was one of the Subhas of the Mughals
Hyderabad which he ruled with a strong hand. He in the Deccan and was under the authority of the
never openly declared his independence from the Nizam. As the Nizam became independent of Delhi,
Central Government but for all practical purposes, the Deputy Governor of Carnatic, known as the
he acted like an independent ruler. He waged Nawab of Carnatic, freed himself from the control
wars, concluded peace, conferred titles and gave of the Viceroy of the Deccan and made his office
Jagirs and offices without reference to the Central hereditary Nawab Saadatullah Khan of Carnatic
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made his nephew Dost Ali his successor without the dissensions in the Maratha camp. Both situations
approval of his superior, the Nizam. After 1740, the were advantageous to the Mughals and they were
affairs of the Carnatic deteriorated on account of the not disappointed. Sahu’s released was followed by
repeated struggles for its Nawabship. That gave the a civil war between the forces of Tarabai and Ashu,
British an opportunity to interfere in Indian politics. which lasted up to 1714.
Mysore When Sahu reached Satara after his release,
Tarabai called him an impostor and ordered her
The kingdom of Mysore preserved its
generals to destroy him. But common people and
precarious independence since the end of the
soldiers were on Sahu’s side. The support of the
Vijaynagar Empire. Early in the 18th century, two
Maratha Dhanaji jadhav and diwan Balaji Vishwanath
ministers Nanjaraj and Devaraj seised power in helped Sahu triumph over odds. In the ensuing
Mysore and reduced the King Chikka Krishna Raj to a battle of Khed (October 12, 1707), between the
mere puppet. Haider Ali started his career as a petty forces of Sahu and Tarabai, the latter’s forces were
officer in the Mysore army. Though uneducated, defeated and in January 1708. Sahu occupied Satara.
he possessed a keen intellect. He was a man of Now the Maratha kingdom was split-up into two
great energy, daring and determination. He set up antagonistic substates with Sahu as the head of one
a modern arsenal in Dindigul, in 1715, with the help at Satara and Shivaji II, or really Tarabai, as the head
of French experts. In 1761, he overthrew Nanjaraj of the other at Kolhapur. When Shivaji II died, another
and established his authority over the Mysore son of Rajaram from Rajasbai Sambhaji II, ascended
state. He extended full control over the rebellious the gaddi of Kolhapur. The feud between these two
Zamindars and conquered the territories of Bidnur, rival forces was finally settled by the treaty of Warna,
Sunda, Sera, Canara and Malabar. He was an efficient in 1731, which provided that Sambhaji I should rule
administrator. over the southern division of the Maratha kingdom
He practiced religious toleration and many of with Kolhapur as its capital and the northern part
his officers were Hindus. Almost from the beginning, with the capital at Satara should be considered as
he was engaged in wars with the Maratha chiefs, the preserve of Sahu.
the Nizam and the British. In 1769, he defeated the During all these difficult times which Sahu
British forces and reached the walls of Madras. He had to face, none proved a more loyal, reliable and
died in 1782. He was succeeded by his son, Sultan capable officer on his side than Balaji Vishwanath.
Tipu, who ruled Mysore till his death in 1799. Some At his coronation in January 1708, Sahu conferred
historians describe Tipu as a religious fanatic but upon him the title of Sena-Karte (Maker of the Army)
that does not seem to be correct. and eventually elevated him to the post of Peshwa
Rise of Maratha Ascendancy under the in 1713. With Balaji’s appointment as the Peshwa,
the office of the Peshwa became hereditary and
Peshwas
Balaji and his successors became the de facto rulers
Nearly three months after Aurangzeb’s death, of the Maratha kingdom. From now onwards, the
Sambhaji’s son, Sahu (born May 18, 1682), who Chhatrapati became just a figurehead.
had been in Mughal captivity since November 3,
1689, was liberated on May 8, 1707 by aurangzeb’s Balaji Vishwanath (1713-20 A.D.)
second son, Azam Shah, who ascended the throne Balaji’s character and capacity and the peculiar
as Bhadur Shah I. Sahu was recognised as the king circumstances of the country favoured the rise of
of the Marathas and his right to the maratha Swaraj the Peshwas to power and renown. One of the first
and to chauth and sardeshmukhi of the Deccani things Balaji was called upon to do was to secure the
subahs of the Mughals was also probably recognised. restoration of Sahu’s mother to him from the custody
The Mughal suzerainty was protected through of the Mughals, who had detained her at Delhi as
the arrangement that he would rule as a vassal of hostage for the good behaviour of her son Sahu.
the empire. The intention of the Mughals was to Balaji opened direct negotiations with the Sayyid
end long-drawn wars in the Deccan or to create Brothers and in February, 1719, all his demands were
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accepted. Accordingly, Sahu’s mother and family the territory, maintained the local army, and
were released, he was recognised as the ruler of contributed only a small share of their income to
Shivaji’s home dominions and was allowed to collect the royal exchequer. They were the primary rulers,
chauth and sardeshmukhi from the six subahs of and the king’s control over them was nominal.
the Deccan as also in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. In Sometimes revenue officers (darrackdars) were
return for all this, the Marathas were expected to sent to their domains from the central government,
keep a contingent on 15,000 horses in the service but there was no real curb on their power. Thus,
of the Mughals and to maintain order in the Deccan. the Maratha territories were divided into virtually
Balaji’s success in Delhi greatly increased his power semi-independent principalities. Although the
and prestige. chieftains were expected not to encroach on
Balaji Vishwanath has been rightly called one another’s sphere or field of operation, their
the second founder of the Maratha state. He ambition and vanity often degenerated into selfish
perceived that the revival of Maratha power in its exclusiveness or dangerous rivalry. In retrospect,
old monarchical form was no longer possible and Balaji’s appointment as Peshwa in 1713, marks the
it would be difficult to harness the nation’s military end of the ‘royal phase’ in Maratha history.
resources to the common cause unless concessions The New Maratha ‘Mandala’ or Confederacy
were made to the great war-lords who had won under Sahu
an important place for themselves. He made them
The Maratha administration founded by Shivaji
subordinate allies or confederates of the sovereign,
had radically changed by then. During the period of
granting them a free hand in administering their
Rajaram, the office of pratinidhi was created and the
conquests and called from them no greater sacrifice
office of the Peshwa was next to it in hierarchy. Thus
than uniting on matters of common polity. This
in place of astha pradhan of Shivaji, Sahu had nine
arrangement, however, left too much authority in the
ministers including the pratinidhi. The new system
hands of these chiefs, without providing for checks
had become feudal as also hereditary. In order to
to call them to account, which was responsible for
attract powerful and able men to serve the king and
the speedy expansion of the Maratha power and its
to retain their services and loyalty, the jagir system
rapid dissolution. The term of Balaji’s Peshwaship was introduced. This system founded the feudal
marks the transition from the royal period to the hierarchy of hereditary officers and jagirdars who
age of the Peshwas. not only became revenue collectors and military
Balaji has been credited with “a mastery of officers but also civil administrators of the newly
finance”. Though constantly engaged in war and occupied territories. ‘Conquer and rule’ was the
diplomacy, he took firm measures to put a stop to keynote of the new politics of the Marathas.
anarchy in the kingdom. He suppressed freebooters Some capable and ambitious military leaders
and restored civil government. Solid foundations and officers were assigned ‘spheres of influence’
were laid for a well-organised revenue system in which they were expected to bring under their
the swaraj territory, which was under direct royal control by their own military strength without any
administration. Here Balaji adopted the assessments support from the central government. Thus, Malwa
made by Malik Amber in Ahmadnagar. was assigned to Nemaji Sindhia, Gujarat and Baglana
Outside swaraj the collection of revenue, to the Debhades (the Gaekwads of Vadodra were
including chauth and sardeshmukhi, was in charge their successors), Khanadesh and Balaghat to the
of chieftains who had carved out areas of authority Peshwa berar and Gondwana to the Bhonsles, the
and influence in particular regions. For instance, Konkan to the Angrias, Karnataka to Fateh singh
Gujarat was earmarked for the senapati, Berar and Bhonsle etc. These Maratha sardars established
Gondwana for the Bhonsle of Nagpur, the Konkan their hold on their territories. Their conquests
for Kanhoji Angria, Karnataka for Fatch Bhonsle, led to the strengthening of the Maratha military
and Khandesh-Baglana and Central Indian for the feudalism. They were not expected to encroach
Peshwa. They collected the revenue, administered on one another’s sphere or area of operation. They
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were the primary rulers of their areas, maintained The Nizam-ul-Mulk was one of the greatest
their own armies. Administered their territories and hurdles in the realisation of these grand designers.
collected revenues. Thus, outside the swaraj territory Initially the Nizam and Sahu adopted a conciliatory
there was no direct rule of the king and his ministers. policy towards each other and the former even
In the new Maratha mandala under Sahu, the sought active help of the Marathas against his rivals
ruler, the ministers and the sardars were all jagir at the Mughal court. But later, he not only started
holders, possessing military, political and civil powers. asserting his independent authority in the Deccan
The new Maratha state was neither centralised nor but also began repudiating the terms of the Treaty
unitary, in which the bond and relations between of Delhi (February 1719), which Balaji Vishwanath
the monarch and the feudatories were loose and had entered into with the Mughals. The Nuzam also
seek.“Its military power and financial organisation started perpetually intriguing with the Maratha
were not integrated and unified. The power came enemies of the Peshwa and Sahu and creating a
from the above in theory and flowed form below in division in the ranks of the Marathas. Bajirao, after
practice.” Hence, its administrative organisation and setting his own house in order, finally defeated
its foreign policy had no coordinated strength. Both the Nizam near Bhopal and by the convention of
power and revenues were shared amongst the four Durai Sarai (January 1738), compelled the Nizam
pillars of the Marathas state: (a) the Chhatrapathi, (b) to agree to surrender to the Peshwa and whole of
the ministers in the swaraj territory, (c) the sardars in Malva, together with the complete sovereignty of
the newly conquered areas and spheres of influence, the territory between the Narmada and the Chambal
and (d) the local units. rivers and to pay 50 lakh as war indemnity. “The

Certain features in the new system, however, Victory of Bhopal marks the zenith of the Peshwa’s
kept the different warring elements tied to the triumphant career”.
central authority. They were expected to remain During his two decades long militant and
loyal to the king and to send regularly the fixed eventful career, he conquered Malwa, Bundelkhand,
amount of revenue payable to him. They were also Bassein Gujarat and reached up to Delhi in 1737.
not allowed to make war and peace without the The fall of Bassein marked the end of Portuguese
sanction of the central authority. Thus, the Maratha rule in the north Konkan. He also severely crippled
confederacy, under Sahu, was military feudalism-in the power of the Siddis of Janjira. He made Pune
which Sahu was dependent on the Maratha leaders the centre of his activities and it soon came to be
for money as well as military strength. known as the seat of the Peshwas. His attitude
Peshwa Bajirao (1720-40 A.D.) towards the Marathas Confederacy was stern and
dominating and he wanted that the members of the
After the death of Balaji Vishwanath, his
eldest son Bajirao, a young man hardly twenty, was Confederacy should be controlled and guided by
appointed the Peshwa by Sahu. Under him, the the Peshwa. As a result of this policy, there was deep
Maratha power reached its zenith. He formulated resentment against him amongst the confederate
the policy of northward expansion of the Marathas, members. There is no doubt that he was the greatest
so that “the Maratha flag shall fly from the Krishna Maratha leader after Shivaji. His policy of northward
to Attock”. Bajirao was aware of the fast decline and expansion, however, landed the Marathas into the
disintegration of the Mughal Empire and wanted ruinous Third Battle of Panipat.
to take full advantage of the situation “to acquire The two decades long peshwaship of Bajirao
immortal renown”. Announcing his policy towards saw the beginnings of the regional dynasties
the Mughal empire he said: “Let us strike at the which played an important role in the days of his
trunk of the withering tree and the branches will successors. During this period, Ranoji Sindhia was
fall off themselves”. In pursuance of this policy, he the founder of the Sindhia dynasty of Malwa, with his
led numerous expeditions, one after other, into headquarters at Ujjain. Malhar Rao Holkar was also
the heart of the Mughal Empire, which made the given a part of Malwa, who became the founder of
Marathas “the supreme power” in India. the Holkar house of Indore. The Gaikwars established
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themselves in Gujarat with headquarters at Baroda. 1742, marched northward to consolidate the Maratha
Two other regional kingdoms Kolhapur was ruled authority in Bundelkhand. In 1743, he undertook the
by the junior branch of Shivaji’s family and Bhonsles second expedition to the north to help Alivardi Khan
of Nagpur claimed close kingship with the Maratha (in Bengal), whose territories had been ravaged by
king Sahu. Raghuji Bhonsle. The Peshwa reached Murshidabad
Bajirao founded the Maratha empire through and met Alvardi Khan who agreed to pay Sahu the
his conquests, but he did not consolidate it Chauth for Bengal and 22 lakh to the Peshwa for

through administrative organisation. “The very the expenses of his expedition. By this arrangement
idea of remodeling the political institutions of the the Peshwa freed Alvardi Khan’s territories from the
Marathas and setting up schools for training, the ravages of Raghuji’s troops. During the first half of
new types of captains and civil servants required by his Peshwaship, he established Maratha supremacy
the altered conditions of the Maratha state, never in Karnatak and sent expeditions to Rajputana.
entered Bajirao’s head”.Instead of trying to check the On December 15, 1749, Sahu died childless.
progress of feudalisation which had begun during Before his death, he had nominated Ramaraja, a
the war of independence, he actually promoted it grandson of Tarabai, as his successor. Ramaraja was
by conferring large powers on chiefs like Sindhia crowned as Chhatrapati in January, 1750. Since
and Holkar. Although handicapped by chronic want he was weak and incompetent, Tarabai tried to
of money for the heavy expenditure on his large make him a puppet in her own hands, which caused
armies, he made no arrangement for the efficient utter confusion and crisis in the maratha kingdom;
management of the finances of the state. it deepened further when the Peshwa learnt the
His policy of confirming incapable assignees Ramaraja was not the grandson of Tarabai but
and other useless officers in their holdings weakened an impostor. When this fact came to knowledge,
the basis of internal administration and the Peshwa the Chhatrapati was virtually confined in the
was unable to prevent it. In spite of these difficulties, fort at Satara and lost all contacts with political
Bajirao—a great man of action—gave the young development. Henceforth, Pune (Poona) became
Maratha state stability and secured its freedom the real capital of the Maratha confederacy, and
and opened before it a wide prospect of expansion”. the Peshwa its virtual ruler.
Peshwa Balaji Bajirao or Nana Saheb During the second period of Balaji’s regime
(1740-61) (1751-61), four campaigns were organised in
Peshwa Bajirao died at the young age of 40 and the north. The Punjab politics was at the time in
was succeeded by his son Balaji Bajirao (popularly a confused state and as a result of the first two
called Nana Saheb), who, throughout his Peshwaship, invasions of Ahmad Shah Abdali, the subahs of
remained dependent on the advice and guidance Lahore, Multan and Kashmir were annexed by
of his cousin Sadashiva Rao Bhau. He, like his father, Abdali to his dominions. After the third invasion, the
became the Peshwa at the young age of 20. With Mughal wazir, Safdarjang, persuaded the emperor
regard to the future policy of his government, Bahu to enter into an agreement with the Marathas,
asked him to continue the policies of his father and in May 1752, for undertaking the defence of the
said:“The elder bajirao achieved great deeds in the empire against its internal and external foes. In
devoted service of the king. But his life was cut short. turn, the Marathas were to get the chauth of the
You are his son, and you ought to consummate his north-western provinces usurped and occupied
policy of conquering the whole of Hindustan and by the Afghans. However, that chauth could only
establish an empire and lead your horses beyond be secured by actual conquest. The Marathas were
Attock:. One of the earliest achievements of Nana also given the subahs of Agra and Ajmer. As a result
Saheb was better financial management of the of this agreement, the Maratha military force was
empire by exercising careful supervision over all posted at Delhi and they repeatedly interfered in
financial transactions. He later discussed the affairs of the politics of North India and established their
northern India with Holdar and Sindhia and in April, supremacy at Delhi.
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This arrangement would have marked the paramountcy (Hindu-padpadshahi) up to Attock”. It
fulfilment of Sahu’s dream of “a Mughal-Maratha is doubtful if the Maratha army actually advanced
alliance for the governance of India as a whole”. But as far as Attock; and the collection of revenue in
Safdarjang lost his wazirship and retired to Awadh the trans-chenab district was a purely temporary
in 1753, and power in the imperial court passed affair. The Peshwa did not realize that the Punjab
to Imad-ul-Mulk, a grandson of Nizam-ul-Mulk. He could not be retained without keeping a large well-
terrorised the helpless emperor with Maratha help equipped force constantly on the spot. This was
and secured the office of wazir, dethroned Ahmad not possible because the necessary funds were not
Shah and placed Alamgir II, a grandson of Bahadur available and no Maratha soldier could stand the
Shah, on the imperial throne (1754). winter of Lahore. No first-rate Maratha general was
There was never a wazir of Delhi whose rule posted in the Punjab as warden of the North-west
was so barren of good result and so full of misery frontier. The Peshwa sanctioned “a provocatively
to himself and to the empire, to his friends and advanced frontier” which made a war with Abdali
foes alike, as Imad-ul-Mulk’s. At first he “clung like inevitable, but he made no adequate arrangement
a helpless infant to the breast of the Marathas”; for its defence.
but being unable to pay the cash nexus on which North India: Bhau’s Expedition (1760). On
alone Maratha friendship depended:, he agreed to return towards Delhi (May, 1759) after the re-
Ahmad Shah Abdali’s project of ousting the Maratha conquest of the Punjab, Dattaji Sindhia was involved
from the Doab and Shuja-ud-daula of Awadh, in hostilities with Janib-ud-daula in Rohilkhand. He
son and successor of Safdarjang, from provincial suffered defeats and retreated towards Panipat
governorship (1757). This drew Shuja-ud-daula, Suraj (December, 1759), and heard that Abdali forces,
mal Jat and the Marathas together, and left Imad-ul- advancing from Sirhind, had occupied Ambala.
Mulk utterly friendless during the absence of Abdali His resistance failed; he was killed in a battle with
Abdali at Barai, some 16 km north of Delhi (January,
from India. As per the above arrangement early
1760). Malhar Rao Holkar was routed by the Afghans
in 1758; Raghunath Rao, accompanied by Malhar
at Sikandrabad. Thereafter, the Maratha army in
Rao Holkar, entered the Punjab. He was joined by
Hindustan ceased to exist.
Adina Beg Khan and the Sikhs. Sirhind fell, Lahore
was occupied and the Afghans were expelled (April When the news of these disasters reached
1758). Timur Shah fled, pursued by the Marathas up the Peshwa at Poona, he realised that “all his gains
to the Chenab. They did not cross the river because it in North India had been wiped out, and he must
was too deep for fordoing and the districts beyond again fight for the Maratha control over the Delhi
it were inhabited mostly by the Afghans. Empire and build up his supremacy in Hindustan
from the very foundations”. This crisis could be
Raghunath Rao returned from the Punjab after
met only by sending a strong army to the North.
leaving the province in charge of Adina Beg Khan. Soon the Peshwa dispatched the Maratha troops
Confusion followed the latter’s death a few months under his cousin Sadashiv Rao Bhau and his eldest
later (October 1758). The Peshwa sent a large army son, Vishwas Rao. The Maratha artillery was to be
under Dattaji Sindhia, who reached the eastern bank commanded by Ibrahim Khan Gardi. In July, 1760, the
of the Sutlej (April 1759), and sent Sabaji Sindhia to Maratha occupied Delhi. This small success added to
Lahore to take over the governorship of the province. the prestige of the Marathas, but they were friendless
Within a few months, a strong army sent by Abdali in the whole of North India. Even the Jat king, Suraj
crossed the Indus. Sabaji fell back precipitately, Mal, deserted them at the last moment. On the other
abandoning the entire province of the Punjab to hand, Ahmad Shah Abdali, who had been able to
the Afghans. Abdali established his government secure the support of the Ruhela Chief Najib-ud-
at Lahore, resumed his march and entered Sirhind daula, Nawab Shuja-ud-daula of Awadh etc. During
(November 1759). this period, some futile attempts were made for
The Maratha adventure in the Punjab has been peace between Ahmad Shah Abdali and the Peshwa,
acclaimed by some historians as “carrying the Hindu but they could not succeed due to the exorbitant
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demands of the Marathas and self-interest of the point of view not a sovereign state; it was a vassal
Muslim rulers. This culminated in the unfortunate state owing allegiance to the Mughal empire. The
and disastrous battle of Panipat. nominal head of this state was the Chhatrapati, a
descendant of Shivaji, who appointed the principal
Peshwa Madhav Rao I (1761-72)
officers. Sahu exercised some control over policy
After the death of Balaji Bajirao, his younger and administrational his successors were prisoners
son, Madhav Rao, was placed on the Peshwa’s gaddi. in the fort of Satara, but they continued to exercise
Since the new Peshwa was only 17 years old, his the function of appointing the Peshwas even though
uncle, Raghunath Rao, the eldest surviving member it was a mere formality. The royal prisoner, though
of the Peshwa’s family, became his regent and the slighted in private, was honoured in public.
de facto ruler of the state. During this period, serious The de facto ruler of the Maratha empire was
differences broke out between the Peshwa and his the Peshwa. Originally, the Peshwa was the chief
uncle, leading to war between the two in 1762, in among the eight ministers constituting Shivaji’s
which the Peshwa’s army was defeated. For some council (astha pradhan); but he came to occupy
time a reconciliation was arrived at between the the second rank when Rajaram created the office
Peshwa and his uncle, but soon serious differences of pratinidhi in 1698. The Peshwa’s office became
again erupted. In 1765, Raghunath Rao demanded hereditary.The principle of hereditary emerged in the
the partition of the Maratha state between himself reign of Sahu; Balaji Vishwanath and his descendant
and the Peshwa. In the meantime, when the Maratha held the office from 1713, till its extinction in 1818.
state was paralysed by internal strife, Haider Ali of The transfer of power from the Raja to the Peshwa
Mysore ravaged the Maratha territories in Karnatakas was completed by Sahu’s grant of plenary authority
but the Anglo-Mysore war involved Haider Ali in to Balaji Bajirao before his death.
a greater crisis. During this period, the Marathas The rise of the Peshwas to the predominant
tried to restore their lost position in North India. position in the state was gradual. It was due partly
In January 1771, Mahadji Sindhia occupied Delhi to Sahu’s love of ease, and largely to the ability
and succeeded in exacting money from the leading of Balaji Vishwanath, Bajirao and Balaji Baji who
Rajput princes; but the premature death of Madhav built up the Maratha Empire. Its first important
Rao in November 1772 place the Maratha dominion consequence was the destruction of the solidarity
in a deep crisis. Madhav Rao was the last great of the constitution which Shivaji’s astha pradhan
Peshwa had he survived longer, the Maratha empire council was designed to maintain.The other ministers
could have been saved from disaster. became subordinates of the Peshwa who controlled
After Madhav Rao’s death, the fortunes of the them as the vice-regent of the Chhatrapati. Another
Maratha kingdom and the prestige of the Peshwas important consequence of the rise of the Peshwas
under Narain Rao (1772-74), Madhav Rao Narayan to the supreme power was the division of the
(1774-95), and Bajirao II (1796-1818) rapidly declined, Maratha feudal nobles (sardars) into two distinct
owing to their internal feuds and prolong wars with categories. The old nobles the Angrias, the Bhonsles,
the English. The last Peshwa surrendered to the the Gaikwars regarded the Peshwa as their equal and
English and the Peshwaship was abolished. obeyed him only as the deputy of the Chhatrapati.
The new nobles who rose into prominence under
Maratha Administration under the Peshwas
the Peshwa’s patronage the Sindhias, the Holkars,
Chhatrapti and Peshwa: During the the Rastias regarded themselves as his servants.
eighteenth century, the political organisation of
the Marathas at the highest level was marked by Maratha Fiscal or Financial System
curious contradictions. Sahu formally acknowledged Feudalisation: During the Peshwa period,
the supremacy of the Mughal emperor and did not the feudal nobles—both new and old-exercised
repudiate the legitimacy of the Mughal claim to virtually independent authority within their estates
suzerainty even when he was in a position to do or fiefs (saranjams). The Peshwa’s control over them
so. Thus, the Maratha Empire was from the Maratha was symbolised by his prerogative of appointing
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their chief officers. The diwans of the Gaikwar, the Village Communities: The old self-contained
Holkar and the Sindhia were always appointed and self-supporting village community did not lose
by the Peshwa; but his right of interference in the its importance during the rule of the Peshwas. The
management of their estates was not acknowledged. chief man in the village was the Patil. He was the
The nobles were expected to provide troops and chief revenue officer, the chief police magistrate as
render military service in return for their estates. also the chief judicial officer. He was the intermediary
The Peshwa had his own estates. Thus “he was the between the villagers and the Kulkarni, the village
head of the feudal nobles and one of them at the clerk and record-keeper. The potdar tested the
same time.” coins to see whether they really had the prescribed
To protect themselves, they “divided the weight and proportion of metal. The industrial
revenues of any one district between several Maratha requirements of the village were met by twelve
chiefs, who generally considered it beneath their artisans (balutas), who received a share of the crops
dignity as fighting men to learn the art of reading and other perquisite in return for their services to
and writing and were at the same time exceedingly the community.
resentful of any supposed infringement of their
financial proprietary rights.”This application of the District and Provincial Administration, Different
principle of divide and rule to revenue administration terms (taraf, paragonsa, sarkar, subah) were used
involved the Maratha chiefs in perpetual jealousies indiscriminately to indicate administrative divisions.
and feuds which minimised the chances of their The officers in charge of the bigger divisions were
united action against the Peshwas. But the long- called mamlatdars; over the small division were
term effect of this system was disastrous, for it placed the kamavisdars were subordinate to
prevented combination against a common enemy sarsubahadars. They were the in charge of all the
and contributed in no small measure to the downfall branches of the district administration, such as
of the Maratha Empire. agriculture, revenue assessment, industries, civil
The Peshwa’s primacy became nominal after and criminal justice, the control of the local militia
the death of Madhav Rao I (1772 A.D.). During the (sihbandis) and the police, as also the investigation
First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82) and the long of social and religious disputes.
minority of Peshwa Madhav Rao Narayan (1774-96), Some restraint was put on the mamlatdar’s
not only the great Maratha chiefs Sindhia, Holkar, opportunities for peculation and maladministration
Bhonsle, Gaikwar but also many lesser nobles, by the deshmukh and the deshpande. They were
followed their own interests and acted on their the descendants of the zamindars whom Shivaji had
own.“All the evils inherent in the feudal system now turned out of their hereditary office, leaving them in
came to the surface”; the result was “the conversion the enjoyment of their customary dues. They were
of the organic whole into an inorganic mass”. deprived of powers but assured of fair incomes.
Huzur Daftar: The focus of the Peshwa’s This system was continued by the Peshwas. The
administration was his secretariat at Poona, styled deshmukh maintained records relating to estates;
the huzur daftar. Divided into several departments alienations and transfer of properties, and these
and bureaus, it employed a large staff, preserved the
were called for in all disputes connected with lands.

records of all the branches of the administration, In practice, these safeguards against the mamlatdar’s
and dealt with matters relating to revenues and malpractices not infrequently proved illusory.
expenditure, alienations of public revenue (in the
form of imams, saranjams, etc.), and the budgets of The functions of the Deshmukhs and the
the civil, military and religious establishments. As the Deshpandes as agents for controlling corruption
de facto head of state, the Peshwa decided a large were supplemented by those entrusted to the
variety of issues affecting religion and social custom, provincial hereditary officers called Darakhdars.
such as the remarriage of widows, arrangements for They were used as a check on the chief officers of
dowry and adoption, the appointments of officiating every department, the army and the navy included.
priests for non-Hindu congregations, etc. They could not be dismissed by the mamlatdars.
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Sources of Income: The principal sources of with the permission and under the supervision of
state revenue during the Peshwa period were: (a) the Peshwa’s district officers.
land revenue; (b) miscellaneous taxes (such as a The assessment on village lands was based on
tax of one year’s rent in ten on the lands held by survey of the cultivated area. The lands were divided
the Deshmukh and the Deshpande, a tax on land for revenue purposes into three classes: superior,
irrigated from well, a house tax, an annual fee for the ordinary and inferior. Lenient assessment was the
testing of weights and measures, a succession duty, incentive offered for bringing wastelands under
a tax on marriage and the remarriage of widows, cultivation. Payment was made both in kind and
extraordinary levy on the landholders known as cash. In the lands which were the private property of
karja or jasti patti, etc.; (c) customs duties (mohatarfa the Peshwa (pastures, gardens, orchards, cultivated
or taxes on trades and profession, and zakat or duties lands), leases were generally granted to the upris
on purchase and sale); and (d) income drawn from under the authority of the mamlatdar or kamavisdar
forests, private mints and fees for administration who recovered the dues from the tenants. They
of justice. revenue policy of the Peswas was based on the
These sources were substantially supplemented principle of securingh the prosperity of the taxpayer.
by the chauth and sardeshmukhi which were
originally the payments made by territories under EMERGENCE OF AFGHAN POWER
the government of other powers desiring protection
Nadir Shah’s Invasion (1739)
from plunder. The proceeds of the sardeshmukhi
were originally reserved for the state. The proceeds One of the most important events of the reign
of the chauth were divided into four shares: of Muhammad Shah was the invasion of Nadir Shah,
in 1739. Nadir Shah had become the ruler of Iran, in
1. 25 percent (babti) reserved for the head of 1736. He was ambitious and sought the extension
state; of his dominions at the expense of his neighbours.
2. 66 percent (mokasa) granted to the feudal He conquered Qandhar in March, 1738. He entered
chiefs for the maintenance of troops; Northern Afghanistan in May, 1738. Ghazni was
3. 6 percent (sahotra) granted to the sachiv; and captured in the same month. Kabul was occupied
4. 3 percent (nadgaunda) granted to various in June. Jalalabad was captured in September and
persons at the pleasure of the head of state. Peshawar surrendered in November, 1738. Lahore
fell in January, 1739. A battle was fought in February,
When the territories paying chauth were 1939 between the Mughal troops and those of Nadir
brought under the Maratha rule, the remaining Shah near Karnal and the latter was successful. Khan-
three-fourths of their revenues (known as jagir) i-Dauran died fighting. Before his death, he gave the
were assigned in various proportions to different following warning:“Never take the Emperor to Nadir,
individuals. The entire system involved “a multiplicity nor conduct Nadir to Delhi, but send away that evil
of individual claims upon the revenues of a from this point by any means that you can devise.”
single tract or village”. Leading not only to great About the battle of Karnal, Dr. Satish Chandra says
complication of the accounts, but also to jealousies that the disaster which befell the Mughal army at
and feuds among the claimants. Karnal was not the result of any organised treachery
Land Revenue: Agricultural lands in the but was due to the want of daring, imagination and
villages were generally divided between two unity on the part of the Mughal nobles. No attempts
classes of holders. The mirasdars represented were made by the Mughal court to aid and assist
the descendants of original settlers who cleared the Governor of Kabul to withstand Nadir Shah. The
the forest and introduced cultivation. They had passes into India were not defended. The Delhi court
permanent proprietary rights. Their lands were seems to have imagined that Nadir Shah would turn
heritable and saleable. They were immune from back after the conquest of Kabul, Khan-i-Dauran
eviction as long as they paid rent. The upris were was among those who pooled most vigorously
strangers and tenants-at-will. They cultivated lands the alleged threat of a Persian invasion. Perhaps, a
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more plausible explanation is that the Mughal court felicitate Shah Tahamsp II on the occasions of his
was watching the outcome of the conflict between restoration. Some put emphasis on the failure of the
Nizam-ul-Mulk and the Marathas awaiting the return Mughal Emperor to drive out the Afghans beyond
of the armies of Nizam-i-Mulk to Delhi. the Indian borders in spite of his promises. Another
Although Nizam-ul-Mulk was able to persuade view is that the invitations of Saadat Khan and
Nadir Shah to go back after receiving 50 lacs Saadat Nizam-ul-Mulk to Nadir Shah were responsible for
Khan who was the enemy of Nizam-ul-Mulk and the invasion. Those writers, who accuse the Mughal
also jealous of him, prevailed upon Nadir Shah to Emperor of lack of polite disposition and breach of
capture the Mughal Emperor and Nizam-ul-Mulk faith, try to justify Nadir Shah’s act of unprovoked
and secure a bigger booty by going to Delhi. The aggression. Some of the Afghans who had been
result was that Nadir Shah marched to Delhi, where defeated by Nadir Shah made their way into India
the Khutba was read in his name in the mosques through difficult passes and unknown roads, and
of Delhi. Unfortunately, a rumour was spread that came into contact with those sections of the people
Nadir Shah was dead and the inhabitants of Delhi who were sympathetic towards them for their
attacked and murdered a few Iranian soldiers. The sufferings. It is possible that some of the fleeing
result was that on 11th March, 1739, an order went columns of Afghans might have eluded the frontier
guards and entered Indian Territory.
forth from Nadir Shah for the wholesale slaughter
of the inhabitants of Delhi, Chandni Chowk, the fruit The Iran in officers could not pursue them
market, the Dariba bazaar and the buildings around beyond their own frontiers and Nadir Shah asked
the Jama Masjid were set on fire and reduced to the Mughal Government to take effective steps
ashes. The inhabitants, one and all, were slaughtered. to drive out the Afghan fugitives from India. The
There was opposition at some place but most of Mughal Emperor received Nadir Shah’s embassies
the people were butchered without any resistance. with every mark of respect, provided them with
The Iranians laid their hands on everything and princely comforts and gave them lacs of rupees in
everybody. All the royal jewels and property and the form of gifts. He also promised to take necessary
contents of the treasury were seised by him. The action against the enemies of Nadir Shah. He never
Peacock Throne of Shah Jahan was also seised. asserted his claim over Qandhar. He did not oppose
Elephants, horses and precious stuffs were seised. Iranian attempts for its conquest. He gave no
encouragement to Afghan resistance in Qandhar. No
Nadir Shah left Delhi after a stay of 57 days. official support was given for their entry into India.
Before his departure, he put the Crown on the head However, any effort to chastise the Afghans means
of Muhammad Shah, that Mughal Emperor who the launching of a military expedition which he
offered to Nadir Shah the provinces of the Mughal could not afford at a time when his own difficulties
Empire West of the river Indus from Kashmir to Sind were on the increase. On account of his continued
and in addition, the Subahs of Thatta and the forts warfare against the Marathas, the Mughal Emperor
subordinate to it. The view of Sir Wolseley Haig is confessed his inability to meet the demands of Nadir
that the departure of Nadir left the Mughal Emperor Shah. The truth is that the obligation of repelling
and his courtiers stupefied with the blow which had the Afghans was “beyond the capacity of his power
fallen on them. For two months, nothing was done and Government”. The insistence of Nadir Shah on
or proposed in regard to the state of affairs in the the expulsion of the Afghans creates doubts about
Empire. Even this blow did not change the attitude his real intentions in invading India. It appears that
of the Mughal Emperor and his courtiers. Nadir Shah was merely using this as a pretext to
There is a difference of opinion among prepare the ground for an attack on India. He was
historians regarding the factors which were obviously aware of the limited resources of the
responsible for the invasion of India by Nadir Shah. Mughal Government and the serious crisis it was
Some attribute it to the non-observance of the facing. That situation encouraged him “to invade
accepted standards of diplomatic niceties on the India and pave the way for another military success.”
part of Emperor Muhammad Shah who failed to It is difficult to determine the number of Afghans
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who had taken shelter in India. Moreover, they were demonstrated the weakness of the Mughal Empire
scattered and stripped of their resources and hence, and encouraged the future invaders to come to
could not be a source of danger to Nadir Shah. There India. The complete political chaos and confusion
could not be any apprehension that the Mughal which prevailed in North-West frontier after the
Emperor in collusion with Afghan fugitives would invasion also ruined the country financially. Nadir
be able to defy the might of Nadir Shah. Shah not only caused invasion that ruined the
There is no truth in the contention that the country financially, large-scale destruction of life
Mughal Emperor did not want to risk a break with and prosperity but also carried with him a booty
the Afghans and hence, kept himself aloof from of over 70 crores of rupees. That made the bad
the war between Nadir Shah and the Afghans. His financial condition worse. V.A. Smith writes. “Nadir
active participation was not called for as it had Shah proceeded systematically and remorselessly to
no direct bearing on his fortunes. In the light of collect from all classes of population the wealth of
these facts, it is clear that there is no element of Delhi, the accumulation of nearly three centuries and
truth in the charges of breach of faith and lack of a half. After a stay of fifty-eight days, he departed for
courtesy levelled against Muhammad Shah. Lockhart his own country laden with treasure of incalculable
rightly observes that Nadir Shah’s “express desire richness, including the world-famed peacock throne
to punish the Afghans was only a pretext and that of Shah Jahan.”
he had for some time harboured the design of The view of Dr. Bisheshwar Prasad is that “the
conquering India.”The real cause of invasion of India defeat at the hands of Nadir Shah exposed the
was that he was attracted to India by the fabulous incapacity and lustful luxuriousness of the nobles
wealth of the country. Continual campaigns had who commanded the army. It showed the inanity
made Persia virtually bankrupt. Money was needed of the central authority with its factious jealousies
desperately to maintain his mercenary army. Spoils in the court circles. This exposure was a death knell
of the Empire, the central edifice which had kept
from India could help him to solve the problems.
the centrifugal forces in restraint. The consequence
The visible seekness of the Mughal Empire made
was the disintegration of the Mughal Empire into
such spoliation possible.
a large number of provincial or local states, which,
As regard the impact of Nadir Shah’s invasion, while maintaining the facade of obedience to the
it left a deep impact on the course of Indian history. Crown, strengthened their autonomy. The Central
It gave a severe blow to the already tottering government was soon reduced to a mere shadow,
Mughal Empire and expedited the processes of its authority scarcely prevailing beyond the suburbs
its disintegration. The quick victory of Nadir Shah of Delhi in time to come.”
demonstrated the hollowness of the authority of Dr. Satish Chandra writes that the effects of
the Mughal Emperor and encouraged the Governors the invasion continued to be felt long after the
of far off provinces to assert their independence. departure of Nadir Shah. The invasion proclaimed
As a result of the invasion, the Mughal Emperor the real weakness of the Mughal Empire to the entire
surrendered the territories lying to the West of world, particularly to the European adventurers
the river Indus which was a permanent loss to the who were gradually increasing their commercial
Mughal Empire. The Mughal Emperor lost only the activities and were watching the political situation
provinces of Western Punjab and Sind but also in the country with keen interest. The invasion of
lost permanently Kabul which was annexed to Nadir Shah demonstrated forcefully that a new
Afghanistan. political situation had been created in Northern
The invasion paved the way for future invasions India. The loss of Kabul and the areas to the West of
on India from the North-West. As a result of the the Indus deprived India of an advance post for the
loss of the territories to the West of the river Indus, country’s defence and a vantagepoint for following
the natural defence boundaries of the Mughal West Asian affairs. All the Indian powers including
empire were weakened and that made the job of the Marathas, were made aware that a new force
the future invaders of India easy. The invasion also had arisen in West, Asia and the Indians could not
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THE 18TH CENTURY

longer bank on her North West regions being safe of a composite culture and society in the country
from recurrent foreign invasions. Whether those were strengthened in the long run.”
invasions would be in the nature of plundering raids
Invasions of Ahmad Shah Abdali
only or would also aim at the creation of a dynastic
empire, remained to be seen. Ahmad Shah Abdali or Durrani was an
important general of Nadir Shah. When after the
The parties at the Mughal court were also
affected by the invasion of Nadir Shah. Among the conquest of Qandhar, Nadir Shah decided to settle
old leaders Saadat Khan and Khan-i-Dauran were all his Abdali subjects there, the relatives of Ahmad
dead, Nizam-ul-Mulk and Qamaruddin had forfeited Shah also settled there. After the murder of Nadir
the confidence of the Emperor for their sorry part Shah, in 1747, all the Afghans proceeded towards
in the battle of Karnal. Nizam-ul-Mulk decided Qandhar and chose Ahmad Shah Abdali as their
once again to leave the Mughal court and sought leader. On reaching Qandhar, they had to fight
an agreement with the Marathas for maintaining against the local garrison which was captured.
his position in the Deccan. Safdarjang, Amir Khan Ahmad Shah Abdali was declared Emperor and
and a number of other nobles gradually rose into coins were struck in his name. After Qandhar, Ahmad
prominence. The decline in the imperial prestige led Shah Abdali occupied Ghazni, Kabul and Peshawar.
to a resumption of the old struggle for Wizart. The All that added to his personal glory and the moral
wealth extorted by Nadir Shah from the Emperor, of his troops.
his nobles, the commercial classes and the citizens Ahmad Shah Abdali led as many as seven
of Delhi represented a big drain on the resources expeditions against India, between 1748 and
of the country. It not only death crippling blow to 1767. He undertook those invasions mainly with
the power and authority of the Emperor who was a view to establish Afghan's supremacy over
left with no cash reserves for an emergency, but India. There were many factors which encouraged
also affected the position of Delhi as one prime him to undertake those invasions. The weak
commercial mart of Northern India. and precarious condition of the Mughal Empire
The general impoverishment of the nobles led encouraged him in his invasion. He had seen the
to a sharpening of the struggle for the possession weakness of the Mughal Empire when he came to
of Jagirdars. The tendency towards rack-renting of India along with Nadir Shah. In subsequent years,
the peasantry became more marked. The realisation the Mughal Empire became weaker all the more.
of land revenue became more and more a kind of Ahmad Shah Abdali wanted to take advantage of
military operation and a large number of peasants that position. The neglect of the North Western
were massacred. The invasion of Nadir Shah also led borders, by the later Mughals, encouraged him
to the introduction of the quick firing musket and to launch so many invasions. The Mughal rulers
improved light artillery in India. The Rohilla Afghans completely neglected the roads, passes etc., on
were the first to adopt them but the Marathas the border. They did not enjoy any intelligence to
continued with very light cavalry warfare. The rise keep the court informed about the developments
of Nadir Shah and his invasion of India ended the on the border. This indifferent attitude of the later
close cultural contact between India and Persia Mughal rulers towards the defence of their border
which had subsisted between the two preceding was fully exploited by Ahmad Shah Abdali. The
centuries. The Indian frontier no longer marched view of Elphinstone is that Ahmad Shah Abdali
with Iran and Turan, so that the adventurers from invaded India so many times with a view to made
these countries into India finally stopped. It had an financial gains and realize his political ambitions.
indirect bearing on India and its social and cultural He carried with him a lot of money and gifts from
development. The Irani and Turani immigrants who India which were utilised by him for increasing his
had settle down in India found it difficult to stand military strength and improving its organisation. The
aside as a separate cultural and social group or to immediate cause of his invasion of India was that he
adopt an attitude of social and cultural superiority. was invited by Shah Nawaz Khan, the Governor of
The result was that the forces making for the creation the Punjab, to undertake an invasion of India. That
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invitation fitted very well into the ambitious plans and desolation. Crushing the Jats on the way,
of Ahmad Shah Abdali. the proceeded to Mathura, Brindban and Gokul.
Ahmad Shah Abdali crossed the Indus and the The carnage and destruction that visited these
Jhelum to invade Punjab, in 1748. Lahore and Sirhind sacred towns beggars description. For seven days
were occupied but he was defeated by the Mughal following the general slaughter, “the water (of the
army near Sirhind and he was forced to withdraw. Jammuna) flowed of a blood-red color”. Temples
were desecrated, priests and Sadhus were put to
Ahmad Shah Abdali was not prepared to put
the sword, women were dishonoured and children
up with the insult and he led another attack on India
were cut to pieces. There was no atrocity which was
in 1749. Mun Khan, Governor of the Punjab, resisted
not perpetrated.
the advance of Abdali and asked for reinforcement.
As he did not get any help, he agreed to pay 14000
!
The cry of anguish which arose from Delhi,
as annual tribute to Abdali. Mathura, Agra and a thousand towns and villages
in Northern India remained unheard. However, the
Ahmad Shah Abdali led the third invasion of
outbreak of cholera halted the Afghan army. The
India towards the close of 1751, as the promised
soldiers clamoured for returning home. Abdali was
tribute was not paid to him. After defeating the
forced to retire but not before he had collected a
Governor of the Punjab, Abdali advanced towards
Delhi. The Mughal Emperor offered to transfer botty estimated at 3 to 12 crores of rupees and
Multan and Punjab to Abdali. The view of some inflicted unspeakable indignity upon the Mughal
scholars is that Ahmad Shah Abdali also conquered Emperor.
Kashmir during his third invasion and appointed his Before his departure from Delhi, Abdali
own Governor. He had to go back because there compelled the Mughal Emperor to cede to him
was a possibility of opposition at home at that time. Kashmir, Lahore, Sirhind and Multan. He appointed
Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded India for the fourth his son Timur to look after the Government of those
time to punish Imad-u-Mulk who had appointed his regions. Mughlani Begum was not given Kashmir or
own man as the Governor of the Punjab. Ahmad Jullunder Doab which had been promised to her.
Shah Abdali had appointed Mir Mannu as his agent She was imprisoned, caned and disgraced. Abdali
and Governor of the Punjab. In 1753, after the death appointed Najib Khan Rohilla as Mir Bakshi and
of Mir Mannu, his infant son, under the Regency of he remained in Delhi as the agent of Ahmad Shah.
his mother Mughlani Begum, succeeded him. In After the departure of Abdali, the situation in
May, 1754, even this successor of Mr Mannu died. India became critical. Najib Khan was forced to leave
After that, there was a chaos and confusion in the Delhi along with all his men and Ahmad Bangash
Punjab. Mughlani Begum invited Imad-ul-Mulk, the was appointed as Mir Bakshi in his place. Najib Khan
Wazir of Delhi and he appointed Mir Munim as the complained to Abdali and asked for a fresh invasion
Governor of the Punjab after imprisoning Mughlani by him. Sirhind and Lahore fell into the hands of
Begum When Ahmad Shah Abdali came to know the Marathas in 1758. Abdali sent Jahan Khan to
of these developments, he decided to attack India. Punjab but he was defeated. When that happened,
He came to India in November, 1756. As soon as he Abdali himself attacked India. The Marathas could
reached Lahore, Mir Munim ran away to Delhi. After not stand against him and were forced to withdraw
capturing the Punjab, Ahmad Shah Abdali marched from Lahore, Multan and Sirhind. Before the end of
towards Delhi. He reached Delhi on 23rd January, 1759, the Punjab was once again brought under his
1757 and captured the city. He stayed in Delhi for control by Abdali.
about a month and repeated the carnage and arson Abdali was full of anger against all those
of the type of Nadir Shah’s invasion. The rich and who had dared to defy his authority. He rushed
poor, noblemen and commoners, men and women to Doab. He fought against Dattaji, and defeated
all suffered torture and disgrace indiscriminately. and killed him. Malharrao was able to escape with
After pillaging Delhi, the Afghan army marched great difficulty. The Peshwa took-up the challenge
out leaving a trail of burning villages, rotting corpses of Abdali and sent Sadasiva Rao Bhau to the North,
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in 1760. Many other Maratha generals were sent was to punish the Sikhs. He stayed in India only for
to fight against Abdali. The Marathas had not a about a fortnight. He had to go back to Afghanistan
single friend or ally in the North on account of their as there was trouble in his absence.
previous treatment of the Rajputs, Jats and others. The seventh invasion of Ahmad Shah Abdali
There were differences within their own ranks in took place in March, 1767. However, this invasion was
regard to the tactics to be employed against Abdali. not a success. He failed to crush the Sikhs. He had to
The only success of their army was their entry into retreat in view of the possibility of a revolt among
Delhi because Ahmad Shah Abdali was campaigning his soldiers. As soon as Ahmad Shah Abdali left India,
in the Doab. The Marathas were forced to leave Delhi the Sikhs captured Lahore. They also captured Majha
on account of scarcity of food for men and horses. and Central Punjab. However, Abdali was able to
It was under these circumstances that the third retain his control over Peshawar and the country
battle of Panipat was fought on 14th January, 1761, West of Attock.
between the Marathas and Ahmad Shah Abdali.
As regards the effect of the invasions of Ahmad
In spite of their best efforts, the Marathas were Shah Abdali, they hastened the downfall of the
defeated. Holkar fled and the contingents of Sindhia Mughal Empire. The frequency of the invasions
followed him. The defeat turned into a rout and expose the rottenness of the Mughal Empire and
terrific slaughter ensued. On the battlefield, there created anarchy and confusion in all directions. So
lay the corpses of 28,000 men. Most of the officers weak was the position of the Mughal Empire that
were killed. Both Vishwas Rao, the son of the Peshwa Shah Alam II, the new Mughal Emperor, was not
and Sadasiva Rao Bhau, died fighting heroically. able to enter Delhi for 12 years and was escorted to
The defeat at Panipat was a disaster of the his throne, only in 1772, by the Marathas. However,
first magnitude but it was by no means decisive. For Ahmad Shah Abdali acted as a check against the
Abdali, it was an empty victory. As soon as his back fast expanding empire of the Marathas by defeating
was turned, his conquests fell to pieces. He and his them in the third battle of Panipat. His invasions
successors were pestered by rebellions at home. contributed a great deal to the rise of the Sikhs in
They were not able to give adequate support to the Punjab. It is rightly pointed out that the career
their agents in India. The Sikhs drove out the Afghan of Ahmad Shah Abdali in the sikh India “is very
officers and plundered their baggages. In a few years, intimately a part of struggle for independence.
not a trace of Abdali’s conquest was left on this side Third Battle of Panipat (1761)
of the Indus. The Marathas received a server’s blow
At Panipat, the two rival armies stood
but within ten years they were back in the North,
entrenched, face to face, for more than two months.
acting as the guardians of the Mughal Emperor Shah
There were skirmishes and minor battles. The Afghan
Alam whom they escorted from Allahabad to Delhi,
cavalry patrols dominated the environs of the
in 1771. The defeat of Panipat was not conclusive. Maratha cap and cut off its communications as also
The battle which was really decisive was the battle food supply. Gradually despair and terror seised the
of Plassey which was fought in 1757. straying Marathas. They decided to launch a direct
After the battle of Panipat, Ahmad Shah Abdali attack on the Afghans when there was no food for
recognised Shah Alam II as the Emperor of Delhi. men and no grass for horses, and when filth and
Munir-ud-Daulah and Najib-ud-Daulah promised stench “made the confines of the entrenchment a
to pay a tribute of 40 lacs per annum to Ahmad
" living hell”.
Shah Abdali on behalf of the Mughal Emperor. After The Bhau’s army marched out to battle on
that, Ahmad Shah Abdali left India. January 15, 1761. The battle actually began about
Ahmad Shah Abdali came to India for the sixth four hours after daybreak. Vishwas Rao was shot
time in March, 1764. The Sikhs had increased their dead at quarter past two. Soon after the Bhau was
power in the Punjab.They had captured considerable also killed. Among the leading chiefs who met death
property and also killed Khawaja Abid, the Afghan were Jankoji Sindhia, Tukoji Sindhia and Ibrahim
Governor of Lahore. The object of Abdali’s invasion Khan Gardi. Mahadji Sindhia received wounds, which
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lamed him for life.“It was a nationwide disaster like battle did not destroy the Maratha power in North
Flodden field; there was not a home in Maharashtra India nor did it essentially shake the Maratha Empire
that had not to mourn the loss of a member and as a whole. Abdali made unsuccessful efforts to
several houses their very heads. An entire generation conclude peace with the Peshwa and Surajmal, and
of leaders was cut off at one stroke.” Apart from in the following years, he failed to crush the Sikhs
those who fell on the field, many fugitives lost their in the Punjab. There was a revival of the Maratha
lives during their long flight without food or rest. power in North India, under Peshwa Madhav Rao
About 50,000 men and women were saved by the (1761-72). After the death of Najib-ud-daula (1770),
kindness and hospitality of Surajmal. who administered Delhi as Abdali’s agent after
The crushing defeat of the Marathas is easily Panipat, the Marathas restored the exiled Mughal
explained. Numerically the Afghans had considerable emperor Shah Alam II to the capital of his ancestors
superiority. Against 60,000 Afghans and their Indian (1772). Mahadji Sindhia occupied Delhi in 1788, and
allies actually present in the field, supported by it was from his successor, Daulat Rao Sindhia, that
80,000 behind the fighting line, the Bhau had 45,000 the English wrested the imperial capital in 1803. In
troops in the field and 15,000 Pindaris in the rear. south India, the Marathas secured victories against
The Afghan army had better training and discipline, Haider Ali and the Nizam. S.G. Sardesai maintains
and it was better organised. Moreover, a famished that “the disaster at Panipat was indeed like a natural
army on less than half-dead country mares met visitation destroying life, but leading to no decisive
the finest Afghan cavalry. Abdali had superiority political consequences”.But the views of sardesai and
in artillery; he employed “the most efficient than others are too simplistic. Undoubtedly, the disaster
those of the Afghans, they could not be dragged to Panipat was the greatest loss to the Marathas in
manpower and personal prestige both.
forward with the advancing troops and became
useless as the battle developed. The Bhau had no The Maratha dream of being successors to the
worthy and dependable lieutenants comparable great Mughals was lost forever. Certainly, Panipat
to Abdali’s front rank officers. Malhar Rao Holkar paved the way for the rise of the British power which
did not exchange fire till after the contest at the became a paramount power in India by the close
centre had been decided in Abdali’s favour; and at of the eighteenth century.
the last stage he fled away. Abdali was a far greater Peshwa Balaji Bajirao could not bear the shock
military leader and strategist than the Bhau. The of the awful catastrophe at Panipat and died six
defeat became virtually inevitable after the Bhau’s months after the battle (June, 1761). During the
postponement of battle for two and a half months. post-Panipat era, the links of the Peshwa with the
He kept his army on the defensive in a besieged Maratha confederacy also grew very loose. In the
camp until starvation compelled him to make the words of Kashiraj pandit, who was an eyewitness to
last desperate effort for escape. the third battle of Panipat, “it was verily doomsday
From the political point of view, the defeat was for the Maratha people”.
due largely to the alienation of the Rajputs and the
Jats, and the failure to neutralise Shuja-ud-daula STATE OF POLITICS, CULTURE AND
and Najib-ud-daula. While half of Abdali’s army was ECONOMY ON EVE OF THE BRITISH
composed of troops furnished by his Indian allies, CONQUEST
the valiant Rajputs and the Jats did not fight on the
Maratha side. The clue to this situation lies in “the Social and Economic Conditions of the People
total diplomatic failure on the part of the Peshwa India of the 18th century failed to make
who dictated, and the Bhau who carried out, his progress economically, socially or culturally at an
North Indian policy.” adequate pace.
Consequences of Panipat: Some modern The increasing revenue demands of the state,
Maratha writers argue that although the Marathas the oppression of the officials, the greed and rapacity
suffered terrible losses in manpower at Panipat, the of the nobles, revenue-farmers and zamindars, the
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marches and counter-marches of the rival armies, opium, rice, wheat, sugar, pepper and other spices,
and the depredations of the numerous adventurers precious stones, and drugs.
roaming the land made the life of the people quite Since India was on the whole self-sufficient
wretched. in handicrafts and agricultural products, it did not
India of those days was also a land of contrasts. import foreign goods on a large scale. On the other
Extreme poverty existed side by side with extreme hand, its industrial and agricultural products had a
riches and luxury. On one hand, there were the rich steady market abroad. Consequently, it exported
and powerful nobles steeped in luxury and comfort, more than it imported and its trade was balanced
on the other, backward oppressed and impoverished by import of silver and gold. In fact, India was known
peasants living at the bare subsistence level and as a sink of precious metals.
having to bear all sorts of injustices and inequities. Historians differ on the state of internal and
Even so, the life of the Indian masses was by and foreign trade during the pre-colonial period of
large better at this time than it was after over 100 the 18th century. According to the dominant view,
years of British rule at the end of the 19th century. constant warfare and disruption of law and order
Indian agriculture during the 18th century in many areas, during the 18th century, harmed the
was technically backward and stagnant. The country’s internal trade. Many trading centres were
techniques of production had remained stationary looted by the contestants for power and by foreign
for centuries. The peasant tried to make up for invaders. Many of the trade routes were infested
technical backwardness by working very hard. He, with organised bands of robbers, and traders and
in fact, performed miracles of production; moreover, their caravans were regularly looted. Even the road
he did not usually suffer from shortage of land. between the two imperial cities, Delhi and Agra,
But, unfortunately, he seldom reaped the fruits was made unsafe by the marauders. Moreover, with
of his labour. Even tough it was his produce that the rise of autonomous provincial regimes and
supported the rest of the society, his own reward was innumerable local chiefs, the number of custom
miserably inadequate. The state, the zamindars, the houses or chowkies grew by leaps and bounds.
jagirdars, and the revenue-farmers tried to extract Every petty or large ruler tried to increase his income
the maximum amount from him. This was as true by imposing heavy custom duties on the goods
of the Mughal state as of the Maratha or Sikh chiefs entering or passing through his territories. All these
or other successors of the Mughal state. factors had an injurious effect on long-distance
Even though Indian villages were largely self- trade. The impoverishment of the nobles, who were
sufficient and imported little from outside and the the largest consumers of luxury products in which
means of communication were backward, extensive trade was conducted, also injured internal trade.
trade within the country and between India and Other historians believe that the effect of political
other countries of Asia and Europe was carried on changes and warfare on internal trade has generally
under the Mughals. India imported pearls, raw silk, been exaggerated. The impact on foreign trade
wool, dates, dried fruits, and rose water from the was also complex and differential. While sea trade
Persian Gulf region; coffee, gold, drugs, and honey expanded, overland trade through Afghanistan and
from Arabia; tea, sugar, porcelain, and silk from China; Persia was disrupted.
gold, musk and woolen cloth from Tibet; tin from Political factors which hurt trade also adversely
Singapore; spices, perfumes, arrack, and sugar from affected urban industries. Many prosperous cities,
the Indonesian islands; ivory, and drugs from Africa; centres of flourishing industry, were sacked and
and woolen cloth, metals such as copper, iron, and devastated. Delhi was plundered by Nadir Shah;
lead, and paper from Europe. India’s most important Lahore, Delhi and Mathura by Ahmad Shah Abdali;
article of export was cotton textiles which were Agra by the Jats; Surat and other cities of Gujarat and
famous all over the world for their excellence and the Deccan by Maratha chiefs; Sarhind by the Sikhs,
were in demand everywhere. India also exported and so on. Similarly, in some areas artisans catering to
raw silk and silk fabrics, hardware, indigo, saltpeter, the needs of the feudal class and the court suffered
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as the fortunes of their patrons declined, leading with overall trade and production not suffering any
the decline of cities like Agra and Delhi. The decline sharp decline. But, in fact, the question is not of some
of internal and foreign trade also hit them hard progress here and some decline there but of basic
in some parts of the country. Nevertheless, some economic stagnation. While the Indian economy was
industries in other parts of the country gained as a quite resilient and there was a certain continuity in
result of expansion in trade with Europe owing to economic life, there was no greater effervescence or
the activities of the European trading companies. buoyancy in economic activities in the 18th century
Moreover, emergence of new courts and local than in the 17th century. On the other hand, there
nobility and zamindars led to the emergence of was definitely declining trend. At the same time,
new cities such as Faizabad, Lucknow, Varanasi and it is true that there was less economic distress or
Patna and recovery, to some extent, of artisanal decline in agricultural and handicraft production
production. in the Indian states of the 18th century than was
Even so India remained a land of extensive to result from the impact of British colonialism, in
manufactures. Indian artisans still enjoyed fame the 18th and 19th centuries.
all over the world for their skill. India was still a Education
large-scale manufacturer of cotton and silk fabrics, Education was not completely neglected in
sugar, jute, dye-stuffs, mineral and metallic products 18th century India. But it was on the whole defective.
like arms, metal wares, and saltpeter and oils. The It was traditional and out of touch with the rapid
important centres of textile industry were Dacca developments in the West. The knowledge which
and Murshidabad in Bengal, Patna in Bihar, Surat, it imparted was confined to literature, law, religion,
Ahmedabad and Broach in Gujarat, Chanderi in philosophy, and logic and excluded the study of
Madhya Pradesh, Burhanpjur in Maharashtra, physical and natural sciences, technology and
Jaunpur, Varanasi, Lucknow, and Agra in U.P., Multan geography. Nor did it concern itself with a factual
and Lahore in the Punjab, Masulipatam, Aurangabad, and rational study of society. In all the fields, original
Chicacole and Vishakhapatnam in Andhra, Bangalore thought was discouraged and reliance placed on
in Karnataka, and Coimbatore and Madurai in Tamil ancient learning.
Nadu. Kashmir was a center of woolen manufactures. The centres of higher education were spread
Ship-building industry flourished in Maharashtra, all over the country and were usually financed by
Andhra and Bengal. Writing about the great skill of nawabs, rajas and rich zamindars. Among the Hindus,
Indians in this respect, an English observer wrote: higher education was based on Sanskrit learning and
“in ship-building they probably taught the English was mostly confined to Brahmins. Persian education
far more than they learnt from them”.The European being based on the official language of the time was
companies bought many Indian-made ships for equally popular among the Hindus and the Muslims.
their use.
Elementary education was quite widespread.
In fact, at the dawn of the 18th century, Among the Hindus, it was imparted through town
India was one of the main centres of world trade and village schools while among the Muslims
and industry. Peter the Great of Russia was led to through the Maulvis in maktabs situated in mosques.
exclaim: “Bear in mind that the commerce of India In these schools, the young students were taught
is the commerce of the world and …… he who can reading, writing, and arithmetic. Though elementary
exclusively command it is the dictator of Europe”. education was mostly confined to the higher
Once again, historians disagree whether castes, like Brahmins, Rajputs, and Vaishyas, may
there was overall economic decline as a result of persons from the lower castes also often received it.
the decay of the Mughal Empire and the rise of a Interestingly enough, the average literacy was not
large number of autonomous states or whether less than what it was under the British later. Warren
trade and agricultural and handicraft production Hastings even wrote, in 1813, that Indians had in
continued to grow in some parts of India, while general “superior endowments in reading, writing
they were disrupted and declined in other parts, and arithmetic than the common people of any
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nation in Europe”. Though the standard of primary higher social status by the acquisition of high office
education, then, was that the teachers enjoyed or power, as did the Holkar family in the 18th century.
high prestige in the community. A bad feature Sometimes, though not often, an entire caste would
of it was that girls were seldom given education, succeed in raising itself in the caste hierarchy.
thoughtsome women of the higher classes were Muslims were no less divided by consideration
an exception. of caste, race, tribe and status, even though their
Social and Cultural Life religion enjoined social equality on them. The Shia
and Sunni nobles were sometimes at loggerheads
Social life and culture, in the 18th century, were
on account of their religious differences. The Irani,
marked by stagnation and dependence on the past.
Afghan, Turani, and Hindustani Muslim nobles and
Despite certain broad cultural unity developed over
officials often stood apart from one another. A
the centuries, there was no uniformity of culture
large number of Hindus converted to Islam carried
and social patterns all over the country. Nor did all
their caste into the new religion and observed
the Hindus and all the Muslims form two distinct
its distinctions, though not as rigidly as before.
societies. People were divided by religion, region,
Moreover, the sharif Muslims consisting of nobles,
tribe, language and caste. Moreover, the social life
scholars, priest and army officers, looked down upon
and culture of the upper classes, who formed a
the ajlaf Muslims or the lower-class Muslims in a
tiny minority of the total population, was in many
manner similar to that adopted by the higher-caste
respects different from the life and culture of the
Hindus towards the lower-caste Hindus.
lower classes.
The family system in 18th century India
Caste was the central feature of the social life of
was primarily patriarchal, that is, the family was
the Hindus. Apart from the four varnas, Hindus were
dominated by the senior male member and
divided into numerous castes (jatis) which differed
in their nature from place to place. The caste system inheritance was through the male line. In Kerala,
rigidly divided people and permanently fixed their however, the family was matrilineal. Outside Kerala,
place in the social scale. The higher castes, headed women were subjected to nearly complete male
by the Brahmins, monopolised all social prestige control. They were expected to live as mothers and
and privileges. Caste rules were extremely rigid. wives only, though in these roles they were shown a
Inter-caste marriages were forbidden. There were great deal of respect and honour. Even during war
restrictions on inter-dining among members of and anarchy women were seldom molested and
different castes. In some cases persons belonging to were treated with respect. A European traveller, Abbe
the higher castes would not take food touched by J.A. Dubois, commented at the beginning of the 19th
persons of the lower castes. Castes often determined century: “A Hindu woman can go anywhere alone,
the choice of profession, though exceptions even in the most crowded places, and she need
occurred on a large scale. For example, Brahmins never fear the impertinent looks and jokes of idle
were involved in trade and government service and loungers. …. A house inhabited solely by women
held zamindaris. Similarly, many shudras achieved is a sanctuary which the most shameless libertine
worldly success and wealth and used them to seek would not dream of violating”. But the women of the
higher ritual and caste ranking in society. Similarly, time possessed little individuality of their own. This
in many parts of the country, caste status had does not mean that there were no exceptions to
become quite fluid. Caste regulations were strictly this rule. Ahilya Bai administered Indore with great
enforced by caste councils and panchayats and success from 1766 to 1796. Many other Hindu and
caste chiefs through fines, penances (prayaschitya) Muslim ladies played important roles in the 18th
and expulsion from the caste. Caste was a major century politics. While women of the upper classes
divisive force and element of disintegration in the were not supposed to work outside their homes
18th century India. It often split Hindus living in to supplement the family income. The purdah was
the same village or region into many social atoms. common mostly among the higher classes in the
It was, of course, possible for a person to acquire a North. It was not practiced in South.
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Boys and girls were not permitted to mix with time, culture remained wholly traditionalist. Cultural
each other. All marriages were arranged by the activities of the time were mostly financed by the
heads of the families. Men were permitted to have Royal Court, rulers and nobles, chiefs and zamindars
more than one wife but, except the well-off, they whose impoverishment led to their gradual neglect.
normally had only one. On the other hand, a woman The most rapid decline occurred precisely in those
was expected to marry only once in her lifetime. branches of the arts which depended on the
The custom of early marriage prevailed all over the patronage of kings, princes, and nobles. This was
country. Sometimes, children were married when true that most of all of the Mughal architecture
they were only three or four years of age. and painting. Many of the painters of the Mughal
Among the upper classes, the evil customs of school migrated to provincial courts and flourished
incurring heavy expenses on marriages and of giving at Hyderabad, Lucknow, Kashmir and Patna. At the
dowry to the bride prevailed. The evil of dowry was same time, new schools of painting were born and
especially widespread in Bengal and Rajputana. achieved distinction. The paintings of the Kangra
In Maharashtra, it was curbed to some extent by and Rajputana Schools revealed new vitality and
energetic steps taken by the Peshwa. taste. In the field of architecture, the Imambara of
Lucknow reveals proficiency in technique but a
Two great social evils of 18th century India,
decadence in architectural taste. On the other hand,
apart from the caste system, were the customs of
the city of Jaipur and its buildings are an example
sati and the condition of the widows. Sati involved
of continuing vigour. Music continued to develop
the rite of a Hindu widow burning herself along
and flourish, in the 18th century, both in the North
with the body of her dead husband. It was mostly
and the South. Significant progress was made in
prevalent in Rajputana, Bengal and other parts of
this field in the reign of Muhammad Shah.
northern India. In the South, it was uncommon; and
the Marathas did not encourage it. Even in Rajputana Poetry in nearly all the Indian languages
and Bengal, it was practiced only by the families of tended to lose its touch with life and become
rajas, chiefs, big zamindars and upper castes. Widows decorative, artificial, mechanical and traditional.
belonging to the higher classes and higher castes Its pessimism reflected the prevailing sense of
could not remarry, tough in some regions and in despair and cynicism, while its content reflected
some castes, for example, among non-brahmins in the impoverishment of the spiritual life of its patrons,
Maharashtra, the Jats and people of the hill-regions the feudal nobles and kings.
of the North, widow remarriage was quite common. A noteworthy feature of the literary life, of the
The lot of the Hindu widow was usually pitiable. 18th century, was the spread of Urdu language and
There were all sorts of restrictions on her clothing, the vigorous growth of Urdu poetry. Urdu, gradually,
diet, movements, etc. In general, she was expected became the medium of social intercourse among
to renounce all the pleasures of the earth and to the upper classes of northern India. While Urdu
serve selflessly the members of her husband’s or poetry shared the weaknesses of the contemporary
her brother’s family, depending on where she spent literature in other Indian languages, it produced
the remaining years of her life. Sensitive Indians brilliant poets like Mir, Sauda, Nazir and, in the 19th
were often touched by the hard and harsh life of century, that great genius Mirza Gahlib. Hindi too
the widows. Raja Sawai Jai Singh of Amber and the was developing throughout the century.
Maratha General Prashuram Bahu tried to promote Similarly, there was a revival of Malayalam
widow remarriage but failed. literature, especially under the patronage of the
Culturally, India showed some signs of Travancore rulers, Martanda Varma and Rama Varma.
exhaustion during the 18th century; but the 18th One of the great poets of Kerala, Kunchan Nambiar,
century was no Dark Age. Creativity of the people who wrote popular poetry in the language of daily
continued to find expression, cultural continuity usage, lived at this time. The 18th century Kerala
with the preceding centuries was maintained and also witnessed the full development of Kathakali
local traditions continued to evolve. At the same literature, drama, and dance.The Padmanabhapuram
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Palace with its remarkable architecture and mural very slow and their scope severely limited so that
paintings was also constructed in the 18th century. overall they were negligible compared to advances
Tayaumanavar (1706-44) was one of the best in Western Europe. This weakness in the realm of
exponents of sittar poetry in Tamil. In line with other science was to a large extent responsible for the
sittar poets, he protested against the abuses of total subjugation of India by the most advanced
temple-rule and the caste system. Music, poetry country of the time.
and dance flourished under the patronage of the Struggle for power and wealth, economic
Tanjore court in the first half of the 18th century. In decline, social backwardness and cultural stagnation
Assam, literature developed under the patronage of had a deep and harmful impact on the morals of a
the Ahom kings. Dayaram, one of the great lyricists section of the Indian people. The nobles, in particular,
of Gujarat, wrote during the second half of the 28th degenerated in their private and public life. The
century. Heer Ranjha, the famous romantic epic virtues of loyalty, gratitude and faithfulness to their
in Punjabi, was composed at this time by Warris pledged word tended to disappear in the single-
Shah. For Sindhi literature, the 18th century was a minded pursuit of selfish aims. Many of the nobles
period of enormous achievement. Shah Abdul Latif were a prey to degrading vices and excessive luxury.
composed his famous collection of poems, Risalo. Most of them took bribes when in office. Surprisingly
Sachal and Sami were the other great Sindhi poets enough, the common people were not debased
of the century. to any marked extent. They continued to exhibit
a high degree of personal integrity and morality.
The main weakness of Indian culture lay in
For example, the well-known British officials, John
the field of science. Throughout the 18th century,
Malcolm, remarked in 1821:
India remained far behind the West in science and
technology. For the last 200 years Western Europe I do not know the example of any great
had been undergoing a scientific and economic population, in similar circumstances preserving
revolution that was leading to a spate of inventions through such a period of changes and tyrannical
and discoveries. The scientific outlook was gradually rule, so much virtue and so many qualities as are to
pervading the Western mind and revolutionising be found in a great proportion of the inhabitants
of this country.
the philosophic, political, and economic outlook of
the Europeans and their institutions. On the other In particular, he praised “the absence of the
hand, the Indians who had in earlier ages made common vices of theft, drunkenness, and violence.”
vital contributions to the fields of mathematics and Similarly, Cranford, another European writer,
natural sciences, had been neglecting the sciences observed:
for several centuries. Their rules of morality are most benevolent:
The Indian mind was still tied to tradition; and hospitality and charity are not only strongly
both the nobles and the common people were inculcated but I believe nowhere more universally
superstitious to a high degree. The Indians remained practiced than amongst Hindus.
almost wholly ignorant of the scientific, cultural, Friendly relations between the Hindus and
political and economic achievements of the West; the Muslims were a very healthy feature of life in
they failed to respond to the European challenge. 18th century India. Even though the nobles and
The 18th century Indian rulers showed little interest chiefs of the time fought one another incessantly,
in things Western except in the weapons of war and their fights and their alliances were seldom based
in the techniques of military training. Except Tipu, on distinctions of religion. In other words, their
they were content with the ideological apparatus politics were essentially secular. In fact, there was
they had inherited from the Mughals and other 16th little communal bitterness or religious intolerance
and 17th century rulers. There were, of course, some in the country. All people, high or low, respected
intellectual stirrings—no people or culture can be one another’s religion and a spirit of tolerance, even
totally stagnant. Some changes and advances in harmony, prevailed.‘The mutual relations of Hindus
technology were being made, but their peace was and Muslims were those of brothers among brother’.
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This was particularly true of the common people such as Holi, Diwali, and Durga Puja, just as Hindus
in the villages and towns who fully shared one participated in the Muharram processions and
another’s joys and sorrows, irrespective of religious Hindu officials and zamindars presided at other
affiliations. Muslim festivals. The Marathas supported the shrine
The Hindus and the Muslims cooperated in of Shaikh Muinuddin Chisti in Ajmer and the Raja
non-religious spheres such as social life and cultural of Tanjore supported the shrine of Shaikh Shahul
affairs. The evolution of a composite Hindu-Muslim Hamid of Nagore. We have already seen show Tipu
culture, or of common ways and attitudes, continued gave financial support to the Shringeri Temple
unchecked. Hindu writers often wrote in Persian as also other temples. It is noteworthy that Raja
while Muslim writers wrote in Hindi, Bengali and Rammohan Roy, the greatest Indian of the first half
other vernaculars, often dealing with subjects of of the 19th century, was influenced in an equal
Hindu social life and religion, such as Radha and measure by the Hindu and the Islamic philosophical
Krishna, Sita and Ram, and Nal and Damyanti. The and religious systems.
development of Urdu language and literature It may also be noted that religious affiliation
provided a new meeting ground between Hindus was not the main point of departure in cultural and
and Muslims. social life. The ways of the life of the upper-class
Even in the religious sphere, the mutual Hindus and Muslims converged much more than the
influence and respect that had been developing ways of life of upper-class and lower-class Hindus
in the last few centuries as a result of the spread of or of upper-class and lower-class Muslims. Similarly,
the Bhakti Movement among Hindus and Sufism regions or areas provided points of departure. People
among Muslims, continued to grow. A large number of one region had far greater cultural synthesis,
of Hindus worshipped Muslims saints and many irrespective of religion, than people following the
Muslims showed equal veneration for Hindu gods same religion spread over different regions. People
and saints. Many local cults and shrines had both living in the villages also tended to have a different
Hindu and Muslim followers. Muslim rulers, nobles, pattern of social and cultural life than that of the
and commoners joyfully joined in the Hindu festivals town dwellers.
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UPSC (MAIN) EXAMINATION, 2017

QUESTION PAPER I

SECTION-A
1. Identify the following places marked on the map supplied to you and write a short note of about 30
words on each of them in your Question-cum-Answer Booklet. Locational hints for each of the places
marked on the map are given below seriatim.
(i) A Prehistoric cave-painting’s site (ii) A Neolithic-Chalcolithic site

(iii) An Early Harappan site (iv) A Harappan site
(v) An ancient capital site (vi) A Painted grey ware site
(vii) A Neolithic site (viii) A site of Ashokan inscriptions
(ix) An ancient port and trade centre (x) A Harappan Site
(xi) A Chalcolithic site (xii) An ancient capital city
(xiii) A Rock-cut cave site (xiv) An early fortified city

(xv) A Rock-cut temple site (xvi) An ancient temple site
(xvii) An ancient capital city (xviii) An ancient temple site
(xix) A Palaeolithic site (xx) An ancient capital city
2. (a) Art and culture are reflected to a far greater extent than political history in the epigraphic sources.
Comment.
(b) The second urbanisation gave rise to the organised corporate activities that reached their zenith
during the Gupta period. Discuss.
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(c) The emergence of Non-Harappan Chalcolithic cultures in Central India and the Deccan mark a
change not only in the subsistence pattern of people but an overall transition from pre to proto
historic period. Critically analyse.
3. (a) Critically examine various views regarding the Vedic-Harappan relationship in light of the latest
discoveries.
(b) “The concept of Ashoka’s Dhamma as found through his inscriptions had its roots in Vedic-
Upanishadic literature.” Discuss.
(c) The period of Indian History from 3rd century B.C.E. to 5th century C.E. was the period of innovation
and interaction. How will you react?
4. (a) Trace the origin and development of temple architecture in India with reference to regional styles
and variations.
(b) Buddhism and Jainism were social movements under the umbrella of religion. Comment.
(c) The accurate picture of the complex socio-cultural milieu of Peninsular India is presented in the
early Sangam literature. Delineate.
SECTION-B
5. Answer the following questions in about 150 words each:
(a) The 11th–12th centuries C.E. saw eventful progression in the cultural history of India. Discuss.
(b) Evaluate the accounts of foreign travellers about Vijayanagar Empire.
(c) Critically examine the ‘blood and iron’ policy of Balban.
(d) Do you consider the Rajatarangini of Kalhana to be a reliable source of the political history of
Kashmir? Why?
(e) The religion of Sikhs was the main force of their unity. Comment.
6. (a) To what extent was the Caliphate the source and sanction to the legal authority of the Sultans of
Delhi?
(b) “Bhakti and Sufi movements served the same social purpose.” Discuss.
(c) Delineate non-agricultural production and urban economy in the 13th and 14th centuries C.E.
7. (a) Do you agree that the schemes of Muhammad bin Tughluq were correctly conceived, badly
executed and disastrously abandoned? Discuss.
(b) Do you think that Akbar’s Rajput policy was conscious attempt to incorporate the Indian ruling
elite with Mughal Imperial System?
(c) “The political disintegration was responsible for the socio-economic decline in India during the
18th century.” Comment.

8. (a) “Mughal paintings reflect social harmony in contemporary society.” Discuss.
(b) Assess the condition of peasantry during 13th to 17th centuries C.E.
(c) How will you view the Maratha policy of expansion? Delineate.
| 378 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA

UPSC (MAIN) EXAMINATION, 2017 QUESTION PAPER I 377

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY

HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY

Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success

EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA (750-1200)

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY

HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY

EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA (750-1200)

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY

HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY

EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA (750-1200)

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY

HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY

EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA (750-1200)

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY

as the religious, the second with its strong fortress

HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY

EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA (750-1200)

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY

Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success

HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY

ruled well but was murdered in A.D. 1323. Hindu rule

EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA (750-1200)

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY

HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY

feudalism advocates. 14. Argument against “Decline of trade”

EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA (750-1200)

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY

HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY

expeditions were sent to conquer an outpost of

EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA (750-1200)

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY

HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY

EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA (750-1200)

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY

weak rulers who failed to keep intact the extensive

HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY

EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA (750-1200)

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY

HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY

EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA (750-1200)

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY

HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY

building; they incorporated characteristics nature of retainers of inducements to them to stay

EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA (750-1200)

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY

HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY

evidence of the political influence of women in the

EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA (750-1200)