Geophysical exploration

Under certain conditions, geophysical methods may be useful in ground investigation, especially in
reconnaissance stage. However, there are limitations to the information that can be obtained: They are
considered mainly as supplementary methods. It is possible to locate strata boundaries only if the physical
properties of adjacent materials are significantly different. It is always necessary to check the results obtained
against data obtained by boring. Provided such correlations are established, they can produce rapid and
economical results and help in estimating the depth to bedrock or to the water table

b Source (1) (2) (3) Geophones

Direct wave
(4 Marks)
Strata Depth
Refracted wave

When detonation or impact takes place, waves are emitted in every direction. The direct wave travels parallel
to the surface in the direction of the geophone. Other waves travel in a down ward direction, at various
angles to the horizontal, and will be refracted if they travel into a stratum of different seismic velocity. If the
seismic velocity of the lower stratum is higher than that of the upper stratum, one particular wave will travel
along the top of the lower stratum, parallel to the boundary. This wave ‘leaks’ energy back to the surface.
Energy from this refracted wave can be detected by the geophone.

The procedure consists of installing a geophone in turn at a number of points in a straight line, at increasing
distances from the source of wave generation. A series of detonations or impacts is produced and the arrival
time of the first wave at each geophone position is recorded in turn. When the distance between source and
geophone is short, the arrival time will be that of the direct wave. When the distance between source and
geophone exceeds a certain value the refracted wave will be the first to be detected by the geophone. This is
because the path of the refracted wave, although longer tan that of the direct wave, is partly through a
stratum of high seismic velocity.

An alternative procedure consists of using a single geophone position and producing a series of detonations
at increasing distances from the geophone.

Arrival time is plotted against the distance between source and geophone as shown below.

Direct wave
C
B
Time
Refracted wave

A d
Distance
If the source-geophone spacing is less than d, the direct wave reaches the geophone in advance of the
refracted wave and the time-distance relationship is represented by a straight line (AB) through the origin. If
on the other hand the source-geophone distance is greater than d, the refracted wave arrives in advance of the
direct wave and is represented by line BC. The slopes of the lines AB and BC are the seismic velocities (v1
and v2) of the upper and lower strata respectively. The general types of soil or rock can be determined fom
the knowledge of these velocities. The depth D of the boundary between the two strata can be estimated from
the formula

Assumptions;
 each stratum is homogeneous and isotropic
 the boundaries are plane
 each stratum is thick enough to produce a change in slope
 the seismic velocity increases in each successive stratum from the surface downwards