Contents:-

Sr. Title of Experiments Page

No. no
1 Crank and slider mechanism. 02

2 Crank and slider mechanism. 06

3 The slotted link mechanism. 11

4 The quick return mechanism. 16

5 To study the effect of charging the crank radius and 21

connecting rod length.

6 To study Hooke’s coupling at different angle. 28

7 To study Hooke’s coupling at same angle. 38

8 To understand the relationships of mass moment of 48

inertia, angular acceleration, and angular velocity of
a disk rolling down an inclined plane.

9 The purpose of this experiment is to determine the 53

relationship between the centrifugal force and:
1. The square of the angular velocity
2. The mass
3. The radius of orbit for a body that is
undergoing centrifugal acceleration.
10 To investigate the moments of gyro effect. 57

1
 Experiment no: 1
Slotted Link Mechanism Experiment
Objective:
Investigate the motion of a slotted link and to see if the piston rod moves with simple harmonic
motion.

Theory:
Slotted link mechanism is a reciprocating motion mechanism, converting the linear motion of
a slider into rotational motion, or vice versa. The piston or other reciprocating part is directly
coupled to a sliding yoke with a slot that engages a pin on the rotating part. The location of the
piston versus time is a sine wave of constant amplitude, and constant frequency given a
constant rotational speed.

Applications:
This setup is most commonly used in control valve actuators in high-pressure oil and gas
pipelines.
Although not a common metalworking machine nowadays, crude shapers can use Slotted link
mechanism. Almost all those use a Whitworth linkage, which gives a slow speed forward
cutting stroke and a faster return.
It has been used in various internal combustion engines, such as the Bourke engine, SyTech
engine, and many hot air engines and steam engines.
The term scotch yoke continues to be used when the slot in the yoke is shorter than the diameter
of the circle made by the crank pin. For example, the side rods of a locomotive may have slotted
link mechanism to permit vertical motion of intermediate driving axles.

2
Uses in internal combustion engine:
Under ideal engineering conditions, force is applied directly in the line of travel of the
assembly. The sinusoidal motion, sinusoidal velocity, and sinusoidal acceleration (assuming
constant angular velocity) result in smoother operation. The higher percentage of time spent
at top dead Centre (dwell) improves theoretical engine efficiency of constant volume
combustion cycles. It allows the elimination of joints typically served by a wrist pin, and near
elimination of piston skirts and cylinder scuffing, as side loading of piston due to sine
of connecting rod angle is mitigated. The longer the distance between the piston and the yoke,
the less wear that occurs, but greater the inertia, making such increases in the piston rod length
realistically only suitable for lower RPM (but higher torque) applications
The Scotch yoke is not used in most internal combustion engines because of the rapid wear of
the slot in the yoke caused by sliding friction and high contact pressures. This is mitigated by
a sliding block between the crank and the slot in the piston rod. Also, increased heat loss during
combustion due to extended dwell at top dead centre offsets any constant volume combustion
improvements in real engines.[5] In an engine application, less percent of the time is spent at
bottom dead centre when compared to a conventional piston and crankshaft mechanism, which
reduces blow down time for two-stroke engines. Experiments have shown that extended dwell
time does not work well with constant volume combustion Otto cycle engines. Gains might be
more apparent in Otto cycle engines using a stratified direct injection (diesel or similar) cycle
to reduce heat losses.
Procedure:
1. The crank was set to 0° and the piston displacement was recorded.
2. The crank was moved by 10° and the displacement is again recorded.
3. Repeat step 1 and 2 for one complete revolution of the crank.
4. The theoretical piston displacement was also calculated.

3
Observation and Results:

Linear Position
Crank
angle, (degrees)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
340
360

4
Graph

Conclusion:

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 Experiment No : 2

Simple Four-Bar Linkage Mechanism

Objective and Fundamentals:
The experiment is designed to give a better understanding of the performance of

the four-bar linkages in its different conditions according to its geometry.

Measuring the Dead point angles φ and transmission angles β at two positions

when the constant bar a at two different positions 4˝ and 6˝

Theory:
A four-bar linkage, also called a four-bar, is the simplest movable closed chain linkage. It
consists of four bodies, called bars or links, connected in a loop by four joints. Generally, the
joints are configured so the links move in parallel planes, and the assembly is called a planar
four-bar linkage.

If the linkage has four hinged joints with axes angled to intersect in a single point, then the
links move on concentric spheres and the assembly is called a spherical four-bar linkage.
Bennett's linkage is a spatial four-bar linkage with hinged joints that have their axes angled in
a particular way that makes the system movable.

Animated four-bar linkage

Planar four-bar linkages are constructed from four links connected in a loop by four one degree
of freedom joints. A joint may be either a revolute, that is a hinged joint, denoted by R, or a
prismatic, as sliding joint, denoted by P.

A link connected to ground by a hinged joint is usually called a crank. A link connected to
ground by a prismatic joint is called a slider. Sliders are sometimes considered to be cranks
that have a hinged pivot at an extremely long distance away perpendicular to the travel of the
slider.

The link that connects two cranks is called a floating link or coupler. A coupler that connects
a crank and a slider, it is often called a connecting rod.

Definition of four bar linkage:

In the range of planar mechanisms, the simplest groups of lower pair mechanisms are

four bar linkages. A four bar linkage comprises four bar-shaped links and four turning

pairs as shown in Figure

6
 Figure : Four bar linkage

The link opposite the frame is called the coupler link, and the links which are hinged to

the frame are called side links. A link which is free to rotate through 360 degree with

respect to a second link will be said to revolve relative to the second link (not necessarily

a frame). If it is possible for all four bars to become simultaneously aligned, such a state

is called a change point.

Some important concepts in link mechanisms are:

1. Crank: A side link which revolves relative to the frame is called a crank.

2. Rocker: Any link which does not revolve is called a rocker.

3. Crank-rocker mechanism: In a four bar linkage, if the shorter side link revolves

and the other one rocks (i.e., oscillates), it is called a crank-rocker mechanism.

4. Double-crank mechanism: In a four bar linkage, if both of the side links revolve,

it is called a double-crank mechanism.

5. Double-rocker mechanism: In a four bar linkage, if both side links rock, it is

called a double-rocker mechanism.

Classification:
Before classifying four-bar linkages, we need to introduce some basic nomenclature. In a

four-bar linkage, we refer to the line segment between hinges on a given link as a bar

where

s = length of shortest bar

l = length of longest bar

7
p, q = lengths of intermediate bar

Grashof's theorem states that a four-bar mechanism has at least one revolving link if

s + l <= p + q(1.1)

and all three mobile links will rock if

s + l > p + q (1.2)

The inequality 1.1 is Grashof's criterion.

A mechanism to have a crank, the sum of the length of its shortest and longest links must be
less than or equal to the sum of the length of the other two links. However, this condition is
necessary but not sufficient. Mechanisms satisfying this condition fall into the following three
categories:

1. When the shortest link is a side link, the mechanism is a crank-rocker mechanism.

2. When the shortest link is the frame of the mechanism, the mechanism is a doublecrank
mechanism.

3. When the shortest link is the coupler link, the mechanism is a double-rocker mechanism.

Description of the Experiment:

The experimental setup consists of two four-bar linkage mechanism trains. Careful
examination of the setup should result in the correct categorization of the linkages. There is an
arm following the coupler curve trace, a software generated linkage similar to the actual linkage
is studied using the Working Model simulation package.

Experimental Procedure:
1. Set the fixed bar at 4˝.

2. Observe the movement of the four bar linkage mechanism.

3. Find the first dead point, then measure Dead point angle φ and transmission angle β.

4. Repeat step 3 for the second dead point.

5. Set the fixed bar a at 6˝.

6. Repeat the steps 2, 3, 4.

8
Observation and Results:

Dead point angle φ Transmission angle β

0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
340
360

9
Graph :

Conclusion:
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10
 Experiment no : 3
The crank and slider Mechanism
Objective and Fundamentals:
The objective of the experiment is to: -

Investigate the motion of the crank and slider.

Theory:
A crank is an arm attached at right angles to a rotating shaft by which reciprocating motion is
imparted to or received from the shaft. It is used to convert circular motion into reciprocating
motion, or vice versa. The arm may be a bent portion of the shaft, or a separate arm or disk
attached to it. Attached to the end of the crank by a pivot is a rod, usually called a connecting
rod. The end of the rod attached to the crank moves in a circular motion, while the other end is
usually constrained to move in a linear sliding motion.

The term often refers to a human-powered crank which is used to manually turn an axle, as in
a bicycle crank set or a brace and bit drill. In this case a person's arm or leg serves as the
connecting rod, applying reciprocating force to the crank. There is usually a bar perpendicular
to the other end of the arm, often with a freely rotatable handle or pedal attached.

Examples:
Familiar examples include:

Hand-powered cranks:

Mechanical pencil sharpener

Fishing reel and other reels for cables, wires, ropes,

Manually operated car window

The carpenter's brace is a compound crank.

11
The crank set that drives a handcycle through its handles.

Foot-powered cranks:

The crank set that drives a bicycle via the pedals.

Treadle sewing machine

Engines:

Animation showing piston and crankshaft motion in an internal combustion engine such as an
automobile engine

Almost all reciprocating engines use cranks (with connecting rods) to transform the back-and-
forth motion of the pistons into rotary motion. The cranks are incorporated into a crankshaft.

Mechanics:

The displacement of the end of the connecting rod is approximately proportional to the cosine
of the angle of rotation of the crank, when it is measured from top dead center (TDC). So the
reciprocating motion created by a steadily rotating crank and connecting rod is approximately
simple harmonic motion:

{\display style x=r\cos \alpha +l} x=r\cos \alpha +l

Where x is the distance of the end of the connecting rod from the crank axle, l is the length of
the connecting rod, r is the length of the crank, and α is the angle of the crank measured from
top dead center (TDC). Technically, the reciprocating motion of the connecting rod departs
from sinusoidal motion due to the changing angle of the connecting rod during the cycle, and
is expressed (see Piston motion equations) as:

{\display style x=r\cos \alpha +{\sqrt {l^{2}-r^{2}\sin ^{2}\alpha }}} x=r\cos \alpha +{\sqrt
{l^{2}-r^{2}\sin ^{2}\alpha }}

This difference becomes significant in high-speed engines, which may need balance shafts to
reduce the vibration due to this "secondary imbalance".

The mechanical advantage of a crank, the ratio between the force on the connecting rod and
the torque on the shaft, varies throughout the crank's cycle. The relationship between the two
is approximately:

{\display style \tau =Fr\sin(\alpha +\beta )\,} {\display style \tau =Fr\sin(\alpha +\beta )\,}

Where {\display style \tau \,} \tau \, is the torque and F is the force on the connecting rod, But
in reality, the torque is maximum at crank angle of less than α = 90° from TDC for a given
force on the piston. One way to calculate this angle is to find out when the Connecting rod
small end (piston) speed becomes the fastest in downward direction given a steady crank
rotational velocity. Piston speed x' is expressed as:

12
{\display style x'=-r\sin \alpha -{\frac {r^{2}\sin \alpha \cos \alpha }{\sqrt {l^{2}-r^{2}\sin
^{2}\alpha }}}} x'=-r\sin \alpha -{\frac {r^{2}\sin \alpha \cos \alpha }{{\sqrt {l^{2}-
r^{2}\sin ^{2}\alpha }}}}

For example, for rod length 6" and crank radius 2", numerically solving the above equation
finds the velocity minima (maximum downward speed) to be at crank angle of 73.17615° after
TDC. Then, using the triangle sine law, it is found that the crank to connecting rod angle is
88.21738° and the connecting rod angle is 18.60647° from vertical (see Piston motion
equations # Example).

When the crank is driven by the connecting rod, a problem arises when the crank is at top dead
centre (0°) or bottom dead centre (180°). At these points in the crank's cycle, a force on the
connecting rod causes no torque on the crank. Therefore, if the crank is stationary and happens
to be at one of these two points, it cannot be started moving by the connecting rod. For this
reason, in steam locomotives, whose wheels are driven by cranks, the connecting rods are
attached to the wheels at points separated by some angle, so that regardless of the position of
the wheels when the engine starts, at least one connecting rod will be able to exert torque to
start the train.

Procedure:
 Firstly, all of equipment for experiment of slider crank is make sure all complete.
 The angle of the circle is set to 0 degree and the piston at 0 degree.
 The angle of the circle is twist at 20 degree and the movement of the piston result is
taken.
 After that, we twist the angle of the circle at 40 degree and take a result. We will doing
this steps with the increasing the angle of the circle to 20 degree.
 At the 180, piston is moving to the front, then at the 210 degree pistons moving to the
back.
 Finally at 360 degree piston will moving to the back side and we also set a result equal
to 0 degree.
 All the result we got will fill in the table to make the graph.

13
Observation and Results:

Crank position Linear position

angle(degree)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
340
360

14
Graph :

Conclusion:

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15
 Experiment no : 4
Quick return Mechanism
Objective and Fundamentals:
To study the mechanism of quick return is basic purpose of this experiment.

Theory:
A quick return mechanism is an apparatus that converts circular motion (rotating motion
following a circular path) into reciprocating motion (repetitive back-and-forth linear motion)
in presses and shaping machines, which are utilized to shape stocks of metal into flat
surfaces, throughout mechanical engineering. The quick return mechanism is the foundation
behind the energy of these machines.

The mechanism consists of an arm attached to a rotating disc that moves at a controlled
uniform speed. Unlike the crank, the arm of the mechanism runs at a different rate than the
disc. By having the disc run at a different rate than the attached arm, productivity increases
because the amount of time needed for a cut is reduced. The design of this mechanism
specializes in vector calculus and the physical aspects of kinematics (study of motion without
the effects of forces) and dynamics (study of forces that affect motion).

History:
During the early-nineteenth century, cutting methods involved hand tools and cranks, which
were often lengthy in procedure. Joseph Whitworth changed this by creating the quick return
mechanism in the mid-1800s. Using kinematics, he determined that the force and geometry of
the rotating joint would affect the force and motion of the connected arm. From an
engineering standpoint, the quick return mechanism impacted the technology of the Industrial
Revolution by minimizing the duration of a full revolution, thus reducing the amount of time
needed for a cut or press.

Applications:
Quick return mechanisms are found throughout the engineering industry in different
machines:

 Shaper
 Screw press
 Power-driven saw
 Mechanical actuator
 Revolver mechanisms

16
Design:
All mechanisms are formed upon the combination of two gears, where one drives the force of
the other. The disc influences the force of the arm, which makes up the frame of reference of
the quick return mechanism. The frame continues to an attached rod, which is connected to
the circular disc. Powered by a motor, the disc rotates and the arm follows in the same
direction (linear and left-to-right, typically) but at a different speed. When the disc nears a
full revolution, the arm reaches its furthest position and returns to its initial position at a
quicker rate, hence its name. Throughout the cut, the arm has a constant velocity. Upon
returning to its initial position after reaching its maximum horizontal displacement, the arm
reaches its highest velocity.

The quick return mechanism was modeled after the crank and slider (arm), and this is present
in its appearance and function; however, the crank is usually hand powered and the arm has
the same rate throughout an entire revolution, whereas the arm of a quick return mechanism
returns at a faster rate. The "quick return" allows for the arm to function with less energy
during the cut than the initial cycle of the disc.

Specifications:
When using a machine that involves this mechanism, it is very important to not force the
machine into reaching its maximum stress capacity; otherwise, the machine will break. The
durability of the machine is related to the size of the arm and the velocity of the disc, where
the arm might not be flexible enough to handle a certain speed. Creating a graphical layout
for a quick return mechanism involves all inversions and motions, which is useful in
determining the dimensions for a functioning mechanism.[4] A layout would specify the
dimensions of the mechanism by highlighting each part and its interaction among the system.
These interactions would include torque, force, velocity, and acceleration. By relating these
concepts to their respective analyses (kinematics and dynamics), one can comprehend the
effect each part has on another.

Mechanics:
In order to derive the force vectors of these mechanisms, one must approach a mechanical
design consisting of both kinematic and dynamic analyses.

Kinematic Analysis:

Breaking the mechanism up into separate vectors and components allows us to create a
kinematic analysis that can solve for the maximum velocity, acceleration, and force the
mechanism is capable of in three-dimensional space. Most of the equations involved in the
quick return mechanism setup originate from Hamilton's principle.

The position of the arm can be found at different times using the substitution of Euler's
formula:

17
{\display style e^{i\theta }=\cos \theta +i\sin \theta } {\displaystyle e^{i\theta }=\cos \theta
+i\sin \theta }

into the different components that have been pre-determined, according to the setup.

This substitution can solve for various radii and components of the displacement of the arm at
different values. Trigonometry is needed for the complete understanding of the kinematic
analyses of the mechanism, where the entire design can be transcribed onto a plane layout,
highlighting all of the vector components.

An important concept for the analysis of the velocity of the disc relative to the arm is the
angular velocity of the disc:

{\display style \omega ={\frac {v}{r}}} {\displaystyle \omega ={\frac {v}{r}}}[6]

If one desires to calculate the velocity, one must derive the angles of interaction at a single
moment of time, making this equation useful.

Dynamic Analysis:
In addition to the kinematic analysis of a quick return mechanism, there is a dynamic analysis
present. At certain lengths and attachments, the arm of the mechanism can be evaluated and
then adjusted to certain preferences. For example, the differences in the forces acting upon
the system at an instant can be represented by D'Alembert's principle. Depending on the
structural design of the quick return mechanism, the law of cosines can be used to determine
the angles and displacements of the arm. The ratio between the working stroke (engine) and
the return stroke can be simplified through the manipulation of these concepts.

Despite similarities between quick return mechanisms, there are many different possibilities
for the outline of all forces, speeds, lengths, motions, functions, and vectors in a mechanism.

Procedure:
 Firstly, all of equipment for experiment of slider crank is make sure all complete.
 The angle of the circle is set to 0 degree and the piston at 0 degree.
 The angle of the circle is twist at 20 degree and the movement of the piston result is
taken.
 After that, we twist the angle of the circle at 40 degree and take a result. We will doing
this steps with the increasing the angle of the circle to 20 degree.
 At the 180, piston is moving to the front, then at the 210 degree pistons moving to the
back.
 Finally at 360 degree piston will moving to the back side and we also set a result equal
to 0 degree.
 All the result we got will fill in the table to make the graph.

18
Reading table:

Crank position Linear position

angle(degree)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
340
360

19
Graph :

Conclusion:
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 Experiment no 5
Objective:
To perform simple Four-Bar Linkage Mechanism

Apparatus:
 Connecting rod
 Crank

Procedure:
1. Set the fixed bar at 4˝.

2. Observe the movement of the four bar linkage mechanism.

3. Find the first dead point, then measure Dead point angle φ and transmission angle β.

4. Repeat step 3 for the second dead point.

5. Set the fixed bar at 6˝.

6. Repeat the steps 2, 3, 4.

7. Fill table

21
Reading table:

Serial number Crank angle φ Transmission

angle β
1 0
2 20
3 40
4 60
5 80
6 100
7 120
8 140
9 160
10 180
11 200
12 220
13 240
14 260
15 280
16 300
17 320
18 340
19 360

22
Definitions:

In the range of planar mechanisms, the simplest groups of lower pair mechanisms are Four bar
linkages. A four bar linkage comprises four bar-shaped links and four turning Pairs as shown
in Figure.

The link opposite the frame is called the coupler link, and the links which are hinged to the
frame are called side links. A link which is free to rotate through 360 degree with respect to a
second link will be said to revolve relative to the second link (not necessarily a frame). If it is
possible for all four bars to become simultaneously aligned, such a state is called a change
point.

Some important concepts in link mechanisms are:

1. Crank: A side link which revolves relative to the frame is called a crank.

2. Rocker: Any link which does not revolve is called a rocker.

3. Crank-rocker mechanism: In a four bar linkage, if the shorter side link revolves

and the other one rocks (i.e., oscillates), it is called a crank-rocker mechanism.

4. Double-crank mechanism: In a four bar linkage, if both of the side links revolve,

it is called a double-crank mechanism.

5. Double-rocker mechanism: In a four bar linkage, if both side links rock, it is

called a double-rocker mechanism.

Classification:
Before classifying four-bar linkages, we need to introduce some basic nomenclature. In a four
bar linkage, we refer to the line segment between hinges on a given link as a bar where:

s = length of shortest bar

l = length of longest bar

23
p, q = lengths of intermediate bar

Grashof's theorem states that a four-bar mechanism has at least one revolving link if

s + l <= p + q (1.1)

and all three mobile links will rock if

s + l > p + q (1.2)

The inequality 1.1 is Grashof's criterion.

From Table 1. 1 we can see that for a mechanism to have a crank, the sum of the length of its
shortest and longest links must be less than or equal to the sum of the length of the other two
links. However, this condition is necessary but not sufficient. Mechanisms satisfying this
condition fall into the following three categories:

1. When the shortest link is a side link, the mechanism is a crank-rocker mechanism. The
shortest link is the crank in the mechanism.

2. When the shortest link is the frame of the mechanism, the mechanism is a double crank
mechanism.

3. When the shortest link is the coupler link, the mechanism is a double-rocker mechanism.

Crank and Rocker Mechanism

Drag Link Mechanism

24
 Double Rocker Mechanism

Transmission Angle:
If AB is the input link, the force applied to the output link, CD, is Transmitted through the
coupler link BC. (That is, pushing on the link CD imposes a force on the link

Transmission angle

AB, which is transmitted through the link BC). The angle between link BC and DC is called
transmission angle, β, as shown in Figure 1.5. For sufficiently slow motions (negligible inertia
forces), the force in the coupler link is pure tension or compression (negligible bending action)
and is directed along BC. For a given force in the coupler link, the torque transmitted to the
output bar (about point D) is maximum when the transmission angle approaches to π /2.

When the transmission angle deviates significantly from the torque on the output bar decreases
and may not be sufficient to overcome the friction in the system. For this reason, the deviation
angle should not be too great. In practice, there is no definite upper limit for α, because the
existence of the inertia forces may eliminate the undesirable force relationship that is present
under static conditions. Nevertheless, the following criterion can be followed.

25
Dead Point:
When a side link such as AB in Fig, becomes aligned with the coupler link BC, it can only be
compressed or extended by the coupler. In this configuration, a torque applied to the link on
the other side, CD, cannot induce rotation in link AB. This link is therefore said to be at a dead
point (sometimes called a toggle point). In order to pass the dead points a flywheel is usually
connected to the input shaft particularly.

Dead point

If AB is a crank, it can become aligned with BC in full extension along the line AB1C1 or in
flexion with AB2 folded over B2C2. We denote the angle ADC by and the angle DAB by the
flexed state of links AB and BC. In the extended state, link CD cannot rotate clockwise without
stretching or compressing the theoretically rigid line AC1. Therefore, link CD cannot move
into the forbidden zone below C1D, and must be at one of its two extreme positions; in other
words, link CD is at an extreme.

Note that the extreme positions of a side link occur simultaneously with the dead points of the
opposite link.

26
Graph

Conclusion:
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27
 Experiment no 6
Objective:
To study Hook’s coupling at different angles.

Apparatus:
Hook’s coupling apparatus.

Procedure:
 Set the left hand bracket over so that the angle between the shafts is 45.
 Set the other joint to the straight i.e 2=0.
 Start the scale on the input shaft at zero.
 Rotate the shaft by 10 at each turn.
 Repeat the above process for 360 and record the reading in the table.
 Plot a graph between input shaft angle and input shaft angle.

Theory:
Coupling:
A coupling is a device used to connect two shafts together at their ends for the purpose of
transmitting power. Couplings do not normally allow disconnection of shafts during
operation, however there are torque limiting couplings which can slip or disconnect when
some torque limit is exceeded.
The primary purpose of couplings is to join two pieces of rotating equipment while
permitting some degree of misalignment or end movement or both. By careful selection,
installation and maintenance of couplings, substantial savings can be made in reduced
maintenance costs and downtime.

Example of coupling:
This is improvised flexible coupling made of car tire pieces connect to drive shaft of an
engine and a water pump. This one is used to cancel out the misalignment and vibrations.

Types:
Shaft Couplings are mechanical devices used to connect rotating shafts and absorb
misalignments between them. Couplings can be rigid or flexible depending on the alignment
accuracies of the system and torque requirements. Shaft couplings are used for power and
torque transmission between two rotating shafts such as on motors and pumps, compressors,
and generators.

Rigid coupling:
Rigid couplings are mainly used in areas where the two shafts are coaxial to each other.

28
Flexible coupling:
Flexible coupling are used to transfer torque from one shaft to another when the two shafts
are slightly misaligned.

Coupling Styles:
Beam
The beam coupling consists of single or multiple helical cuts
in the coupling body which typically can accommodate
parallel misalignments up to 0.025 inch and angular
misalignments up to 7 degrees. They are used primarily for
motion control applications where torques are typically below
100 inch-lbs. Zero backlash designs available ensure
positioning accuracy between driving and driven shafts.

Bellows
Bellows couplings are also suited to motion control
applications. They consist of multiple convolutions of metal
which provide high torsional stiffness which is important to
positioning applications. Torsional stiffness reduces the level
of angular and parallel misalignment they can accommodate
compared with beam couplings, although torque transmission
capabilities are about similar.

Chain
Chain couplings are suited to power transmission applications and are
used to transmit power up into the hundreds of horsepower range.
Angular and parallel misalignment allowances are typically 2 degrees
and 0.015 inch, respectively. Typical chain couplings use special chain
sprockets and double wide roller chains whose clearances permit the
design to operate as a flexible coupling.

Jaw
Curved and Straight Jaw couplings are used for both motion
control and light power transmission applications and consist
of pairs of multi-jawed hubs that mate with elastomeric
spiders. The design allows for backlash-free torque
transmission. Accommodation for parallel misalignment
usually approaches 0.01 inch and angular misalignment about
1 degree. Elastomeric spiders give these couplings some
damping capacity and of often the spiders are available in
different durometers to lend specific properties to the
individual couplings. These couplings often operate without
lubricant and can transmit torque up into the 1000 inch-lb. range.

29
Diaphragm
Diaphragm couplings are generally used for high power
transmission such as found in turbo machinery. Typically they
employ one or more flexible metal convoluted discs which
transmit power to an inner spacer shaft then back out through
another diaphragm stack to the driven machinery. A principal
advantage over gear type couplings is their lack of lubrication
requirements. Diaphragm couplings are capable of high torque
transmission and high speed operation.

Disc
Disc couplings use single or multiple discs and single or
double stages which bolt to the shaft hubs. They are used for
power transmission and rely on the flexibility of their thin
metal discs to transmit torque and accommodate angular
misalignment. They are not especially good at managing
parallel misalignment. They are capable of transmitting high torques and are often used to
couple high horsepower motors, gas turbines, etc. to loads.

Gear
Gear couplings also transmit high torques. They have misalignment
capabilities generally about 0.01-0.02 inch in parallel and 2 degrees in
angular. Gear couplings are often used in pairs with spacer shafts to
span the distance between driving and driven equipment. They
generally require lubricant although some designs intended for lighter
duty use lubricant free nylons or other polymers for the center sleeve.

Grid
Grid couplings employ spring like connecting elements that weave
between slots machined in the coupling hubs. They are capable of high
torque transmission with an added bonus of shock absorption and torsional
vibration dampening. They operate without lubricant. They are appropriate
for power transmission and capable of handling parallel misalignment up
to 0.30 inch and angular misalignment of about ¼ degree.

Oldham
Oldham couplings handle high degrees of parallel misalignment owing to
their sliding element design. Use of an elastomer center element instead
of metal is popular in modern versions. Some manufactures claim an
ability to tolerate up to 5 degree angular misalignment through the use of
cylindrical, rather than rectangular, sliders.

30
Schmidt
Schmidt couplings are designed specifically to operate on shafts that
are offset. They aren’t flexible couplings in the strictest sense, which
are designed to accommodate slight misalignment in shafts that are
theoretically parallel and square to one another. Schmidt couplings are
used in papermaking, printing, and similar machines and function
more like a 1:1 gearbox in a more compact space.

Clamping
Rigid one- and two-piece Clamping couplings lack accommodation for
shaft misalignment and are popular for slow or intermittent shafting
arrangements where alignment is not of concern. They are the simplest form
of shaft coupling and apart from their lack of misalignment tolerance, are
inexpensive, zero-backlash devices.

Applications and Industries:

Couplings correct for an inability to produce or maintain perfect alignment in coupled
machines. Some machines dispense with the need for couplings by running close coupled,
meaning that the bearings of the motor support an extended shaft upon which the rotating
component of the driven equipment—a pump impeller, for instance---mounts. The motor and
pump at right is an example of a close-coupled machine. Where this is practical to do it is
done to dispense with he alignment problem. Often, though, the machines require their own
bearings and as a result a need to connect their independent shafts. The diagram above shows
the two misalignments that can be expected, parallel or
offset (top) and angular (bottom).
For some couplings, backlash is an important concern.
Motion control applications where position of the
driven equipment is precisely tied to the position of a
servo- or stepper motor rely on zero-backlash coupling
to assure that no slop exists in the system. Backlash is a
lesser concern for most power transmission
applications—pumps/motors for instance—where
efficient torque transmission is the primary objective.
Here, misalignment can lead to higher energy use,
accelerated bearing wear, excessive vibration, etc.
Both the beam and the bellows couplings offer zero
backlash and are frequently used for transferring the
relatively small torques of motion control.
For power transmission, generally all-metal couplings such as the gear and disc designs are
capable of transmitting higher torques than those that use elastomeric elements such as jaw
couplings.
Although couplings are designed to accommodate misalignment, they aren’t substitutes for
aligning machines during installation.

31
Considerations:
In selecting couplings a designer first needs to consider motion control varieties or power
transmission types. Most motion control applications transmit comparatively low torques.
Power transmission couplings, in contrast, are designed to carry moderate to high torques.
This decision will narrow coupling choice somewhat. Torque transmission along with
maximum permissible parallel and angular misalignment values are the dominant
considerations. Most couplings will publish these values and using them to refine the search
should make picking a coupling style easier. Maximum RPM is another critical attribute.
Maximum axial misalignment may be a consideration as well. Zero backlash is an important
consideration where feedback is used as in a motion control system.
Some power transmission couplings are
designed to operate without lubricant, which
can be a plus where maintenance is a concern
or difficult. Lubricated couplings often require
covers to keep the grease in. Many couplings,
including chain, gear, Oldham, etc., are
available either as lubricated metal-on-metal
varieties and as metal and plastic hybrids
where usually the coupling element is made of
nylon or another plastic to eliminate the
lubrication requirements. There is a reduction
in torque capacity in these unlubricated forms compared to the more conventional designs.

Important Attributes
Coupling Style
Most of the common styles have been described above.

Maximum RPM
Most couplings have a limit on their maximum rotational speed. Couplings for high speed
turbines, compressors, boiler feed pumps, etc. usually require balanced designs and/or
balanced bolts/nuts to permit disassembly and reassembly without increasing vibration during
operation. High speed couplings can also exhibit windage effects in their guards, which can
lead to cooling concerns.

Max Transmitted Horsepower or Torque

Couplings are often rated by their maximum torque capacity, a measurable quantity. Power is
a function of torque times rpm, so when these values are stated it is usually at a specified rpm
(5HP at 100 rpm, for instance). Torque values are the more commonly cited of the two.

Max Angular Misalignment

Angular misalignment capacity is usually stated in degrees and represents the maximum
angular offset the coupled shafts exhibit.

32
Max Parallel Misalignment
Parallel misalignment capacity is usually given in linear units of inches or millimeters and
represents the maximum parallel offset the coupled shafts exhibit.

Max Axial Motion

Sometime called axial misalignment, this attribute specifies the maximum permissible growth
between the coupled shafts, given generally in inches or millimeters, and can be caused by
thermal effects.

The Basic Parts of universal joint:

The universal joint has 3 basic parts, two yokes and a cross. The yokes are connected through
a cross as shown. With this arrangement, the output shaft can be turned to a wide range of
angles. Now, let’s consider different power transmitting scenarios.

The basic parts of a universal joint

The Shafts Connected Straight:

In the first case, the input and output shaft are connected in a straight line. In this case,
motion is really simple. The input shaft will turn the cross, and the cross will turn the output
shaft. It is clear that both the input and output shafts will turn at the same speed.

A universal joint under a straight motion

The Shafts are at an Angle:

Now, let’s see what happens if the axes are at an angle. Assume that the input shaft is moving
at a constant speed.

33
The Spin of the Cross:
When the shafts are at an angle the motion is quite different. To understand why, just note the
behavior of the red and green ends of the cross. You can see that the green ends, which are
connected to the input shaft, turn along a vertical plane, while the red ends, which are
connected to the output shaft, have to move along a different plane.

The ends of universal joint turn in different planes

To make the red ends move along the inclined plane, the cross has to spin along the axis
connecting the green ends. If you observe the mark on the cross, you can see this
phenomenon.

The shaft connecting the green ends should spin to accomplish this movement
To make the cross spin concept clearer, just imagine what happens when the spin of the green
axis is halted. Such a hypothetical motion is depicted in the following figure.

A hypothetical movement to illustrate the need of cross spin

It is clear that, such a situation is impossible. This means without this spin, the motion of the
inclined hook joint is impossible.

34
The effect of Cross Spin:
The spin of the cross makes a huge difference in the speed of the output shaft. The cross has 2
kinds of motion: rotation and spin. It is clear that, when the cross is spinning as well as
rotating, the velocity of the output shaft will have an added effect. You can see here that, for
the first 90 degrees of the input shaft rotation, the green axis spins to its maximum angle. The
forward spin aids and changes the output shaft rotation as shown in the graph. The output
angle will get an added effect during this period.

Forward spin of the shaft during the first 90 degrees

Angular displacement of the output shaft during the first 90 degrees

But for the next 90 degrees, it should spin back to the initial zero position. The reverse spin
will have an opposite effect on the output shaft rotation. So the motion of the output shaft will
look as shown.

35
Reading table:

Input Shaft Output Shaft

Θ(degree) Α(degree)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
340
360

36
Graph:

Conclusion:
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________

37
 Experiment no 7
Objective:
To study Hook’s coupling at same angles.

Apparatus:
Hook’s coupling apparatus.

Procedure:
 Set both ϴ and α equal at 30 degree, both bend at the same side.
 For one revolution of a input shaft (at 20 degree intervals), take readings of the scale
of the output shaft.
 Tabulate results on the data sheet.
 Repeat the experiment with the input and output shaft parallel but still keep at the
same value of 30 degree.
 Tabulate the result in the table given.

Theory:
Coupling:
A coupling is a device used to connect two shafts together at their ends for the purpose of
transmitting power. Couplings do not normally allow disconnection of shafts during
operation, however there are torque limiting couplings which can slip or disconnect when
some torque limit is exceeded.
The primary purpose of couplings is to join two pieces of rotating equipment while
permitting some degree of misalignment or end movement or both. By careful selection,
installation and maintenance of couplings, substantial savings can be made in reduced
maintenance costs and downtime.

Example of coupling:
This is improvised flexible coupling made of car tire pieces connect to drive shaft of an
engine and a water pump. This one is used to cancel out the misalignment and vibrations.

Types:
Shaft Couplings are mechanical devices used to connect rotating shafts and absorb
misalignments between them. Couplings can be rigid or flexible depending on the alignment
accuracies of the system and torque requirements. Shaft couplings are used for power and
torque transmission between two rotating shafts such as on motors and pumps, compressors,
and generators.

Rigid coupling:
Rigid couplings are mainly used in areas where the two shafts are coaxial to each other.

38
Flexible coupling:
Flexible coupling are used to transfer torque from one shaft to another when the two shafts
are slightly misaligned.

Coupling Styles:
Beam
The beam coupling consists of single or multiple helical cuts
in the coupling body which typically can accommodate
parallel misalignments up to 0.025 inch and angular
misalignments up to 7 degrees. They are used primarily for
motion control applications where torques are typically below
100 inch-lbs. Zero backlash designs available ensure
positioning accuracy between driving and driven shafts.

Bellows
Bellows couplings are also suited to motion control
applications. They consist of multiple convolutions of metal
which provide high torsional stiffness which is important to
positioning applications. Torsional stiffness reduces the level
of angular and parallel misalignment they can accommodate
compared with beam couplings, although torque transmission
capabilities are about similar.

Chain
Chain couplings are suited to power transmission applications and are
used to transmit power up into the hundreds of horsepower range.
Angular and parallel misalignment allowances are typically 2 degrees
and 0.015 inch, respectively. Typical chain couplings use special chain
sprockets and double wide roller chains whose clearances permit the
design to operate as a flexible coupling.

Jaw
Curved and Straight Jaw couplings are used for both motion
control and light power transmission applications and consist
of pairs of multi-jawed hubs that mate with elastomeric
spiders. The design allows for backlash-free torque
transmission. Accommodation for parallel misalignment
usually approaches 0.01 inch and angular misalignment about
1 degree. Elastomeric spiders give these couplings some
damping capacity and of often the spiders are available in
different durometers to lend specific properties to the
individual couplings. These couplings often operate without
lubricant and can transmit torque up into the 1000 inch-lb. range.

39
Diaphragm
Diaphragm couplings are generally used for high power
transmission such as found in turbo machinery. Typically they
employ one or more flexible metal convoluted discs which
transmit power to an inner spacer shaft then back out through
another diaphragm stack to the driven machinery. A principal
advantage over gear type couplings is their lack of lubrication
requirements. Diaphragm couplings are capable of high torque
transmission and high speed operation.

Disc
Disc couplings use single or multiple discs and single or
double stages which bolt to the shaft hubs. They are used for
power transmission and rely on the flexibility of their thin
metal discs to transmit torque and accommodate angular
misalignment. They are not especially good at managing
parallel misalignment. They are capable of transmitting high torques and are often used to
couple high horsepower motors, gas turbines, etc. to loads.

Gear
Gear couplings also transmit high torques. They have misalignment
capabilities generally about 0.01-0.02 inch in parallel and 2 degrees in
angular. Gear couplings are often used in pairs with spacer shafts to
span the distance between driving and driven equipment. They
generally require lubricant although some designs intended for lighter
duty use lubricant free nylons or other polymers for the center sleeve.

Grid
Grid couplings employ spring like connecting elements that weave
between slots machined in the coupling hubs. They are capable of high
torque transmission with an added bonus of shock absorption and torsional
vibration dampening. They operate without lubricant. They are appropriate
for power transmission and capable of handling parallel misalignment up
to 0.30 inch and angular misalignment of about ¼ degree.

Oldham
Oldham couplings handle high degrees of parallel misalignment owing to
their sliding element design. Use of an elastomer center element instead
of metal is popular in modern versions. Some manufactures claim an
ability to tolerate up to 5 degree angular misalignment through the use of
cylindrical, rather than rectangular, sliders.

40
Schmidt
Schmidt couplings are designed specifically to operate on shafts that
are offset. They aren’t flexible couplings in the strictest sense, which
are designed to accommodate slight misalignment in shafts that are
theoretically parallel and square to one another. Schmidt couplings are
used in papermaking, printing, and similar machines and function
more like a 1:1 gearbox in a more compact space.

Clamping
Rigid one- and two-piece Clamping couplings lack accommodation for
shaft misalignment and are popular for slow or intermittent shafting
arrangements where alignment is not of concern. They are the simplest form
of shaft coupling and apart from their lack of misalignment tolerance, are
inexpensive, zero-backlash devices.

Applications and Industries:

Couplings correct for an inability to produce or maintain perfect alignment in coupled
machines. Some machines dispense with the need for couplings by running close coupled,
meaning that the bearings of the motor support an extended shaft upon which the rotating
component of the driven equipment—a pump impeller, for instance---mounts. The motor and
pump at right is an example of a close-coupled machine. Where this is practical to do it is
done to dispense with he alignment problem. Often, though, the machines require their own
bearings and as a result a need to connect their independent shafts. The diagram above shows
the two misalignments that can be expected,
parallel or offset (top) and angular (bottom).
For some couplings, backlash is an important
concern. Motion control applications where
position of the driven equipment is precisely tied to
the position of a servo- or stepper motor rely on
zero-backlash coupling to assure that no slop exists
in the system. Backlash is a lesser concern for most
power transmission applications—pumps/motors
for instance—where efficient torque transmission
is the primary objective. Here, misalignment can
lead to higher energy use, accelerated bearing
wear, excessive vibration, etc.
Both the beam and the bellows couplings offer zero
backlash and are frequently used for transferring
the relatively small torques of motion control.
For power transmission, generally all-metal couplings such as the gear and disc designs are
capable of transmitting higher torques than those that use elastomeric elements such as jaw
couplings.
Although couplings are designed to accommodate misalignment, they aren’t substitutes for
aligning machines during installation.

41
Considerations:
In selecting couplings a designer first needs to consider motion control varieties or power
transmission types. Most motion control applications transmit comparatively low torques.
Power transmission couplings, in contrast, are designed to carry moderate to high torques.
This decision will narrow coupling choice somewhat. Torque transmission along with
maximum permissible parallel and angular misalignment values are the dominant
considerations. Most couplings will publish these values and using them to refine the search
should make picking a coupling style easier. Maximum RPM is another critical attribute.
Maximum axial misalignment may be a consideration as well. Zero backlash is an important
consideration where feedback is used as in a motion control system.
Some power transmission couplings are
designed to operate without lubricant, which
can be a plus where maintenance is a concern
or difficult. Lubricated couplings often require
covers to keep the grease in. Many couplings,
including chain, gear, Oldham, etc., are
available either as lubricated metal-on-metal
varieties and as metal and plastic hybrids
where usually the coupling element is made of
nylon or another plastic to eliminate the
lubrication requirements. There is a reduction
in torque capacity in these unlubricated forms compared to the more conventional designs.

Important Attributes
Coupling Style
Most of the common styles have been described above.

Maximum RPM
Most couplings have a limit on their maximum rotational speed. Couplings for high speed
turbines, compressors, boiler feed pumps, etc. usually require balanced designs and/or
balanced bolts/nuts to permit disassembly and reassembly without increasing vibration during
operation. High speed couplings can also exhibit windage effects in their guards, which can
lead to cooling concerns.

Max Transmitted Horsepower or Torque

Couplings are often rated by their maximum torque capacity, a measurable quantity. Power is
a function of torque times rpm, so when these values are stated it is usually at a specified rpm
(5HP at 100 rpm, for instance). Torque values are the more commonly cited of the two.

Max Angular Misalignment

Angular misalignment capacity is usually stated in degrees and represents the maximum
angular offset the coupled shafts exhibit.

42
Max Parallel Misalignment
Parallel misalignment capacity is usually given in linear units of inches or millimeters and
represents the maximum parallel offset the coupled shafts exhibit.

Max Axial Motion

Sometime called axial misalignment, this attribute specifies the maximum permissible growth
between the coupled shafts, given generally in inches or millimeters, and can be caused by
thermal effects.

The Basic Parts of universal joint:

The universal joint has 3 basic parts, two yokes and a cross. The yokes are connected through
a cross as shown. With this arrangement, the output shaft can be turned to a wide range of
angles. Now, let’s consider different power transmitting scenarios.

The basic parts of a universal joint

The Shafts Connected Straight:

In the first case, the input and output shaft are connected in a straight line. In this case,
motion is really simple. The input shaft will turn the cross, and the cross will turn the output
shaft. It is clear that both the input and output shafts will turn at the same speed.

A universal joint under a straight motion

The Shafts are at an Angle:

Now, let’s see what happens if the axes are at an angle. Assume that the input shaft is moving
at a constant speed.

43
The Spin of the Cross:
When the shafts are at an angle the motion is quite different. To understand why, just note the
behavior of the red and green ends of the cross. You can see that the green ends, which are
connected to the input shaft, turn along a vertical plane, while the red ends, which are
connected to the output shaft, have to move along a different plane.

The ends of universal joint turn in different planes

To make the red ends move along the inclined plane, the cross has to spin along the axis
connecting the green ends. If you observe the mark on the cross, you can see this
phenomenon.

The shaft connecting the green ends should spin to accomplish this movement
To make the cross spin concept clearer, just imagine what happens when the spin of the green
axis is halted. Such a hypothetical motion is depicted in the following figure.

A hypothetical movement to illustrate the need of cross spin

It is clear that, such a situation is impossible. This means without this spin, the motion of the
inclined hook joint is impossible.

44
The effect of Cross Spin:
The spin of the cross makes a huge difference in the speed of the output shaft. The cross has 2
kinds of motion: rotation and spin. It is clear that, when the cross is spinning as well as
rotating, the velocity of the output shaft will have an added effect. You can see here that, for
the first 90 degrees of the input shaft rotation, the green axis spins to its maximum angle. The
forward spin aids and changes the output shaft rotation as shown in the graph. The output
angle will get an added effect during this period.

Forward spin of the shaft during the first 90 degrees

Angular displacement of the output shaft during the first 90 degrees

But for the next 90 degrees, it should spin back to the initial zero position. The reverse spin
will have an opposite effect on the output shaft rotation. So the motion of the output shaft will
look as shown.

45
Reading table:

Input Shaft Output Shaft

Θ(degree) Α(degree)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
340
360

46
Graph:

Conclusion:
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________

47
 Experiment no: 8

OBJECTIVE
To perform an experiment of the rolling disc on an inclined plane.

Apparatus
Inclined plane, Stop watch, Spirit level, two rotating discs with self-conical pins.

Theory

The Inclined Plane

An inclined plane is a simple machine with no moving parts. It is simply an even
sloping surface. It makes it easier for us to move objects to higher or lower surfaces, than if
we lifted the objects directly upwards. It is believed that ancient Egyptians used inclined
planes to carry heavy stones to build pyramids.

‘Inclined’ means a raised end or raised at one end. An inclined plane may be a
constructed frame, or just a piece of log leaning against a higher point. An inclined plane is
also called a ramp.

Trade off helps us to understand the mechanical advantage of inclined planes. For
example; there is a greater mechanical advantage if the slope is gentle because less force will
be needed to move an object up or down the slope.

Some good examples of inclined planes are accessibility ramps and roofs of houses.

48
 An inclined plane, also known as a ramp, is a flat supporting surface tilted at an angle,
with one end higher than the other, used as an aid for raising or lowering a load.The inclined
plane is one of the six classical simple machines defined by Renaissance scientists. Inclined
planes are widely used to move heavy loads over vertical obstacles; examples vary from a
ramp used to load goods into a truck, to a person walking up a pedestrian ramp, to an
automobile or railroad train climbing a grade.

Moving an object up an inclined plane requires less force than lifting it straight up, at
a cost of an increase in the distance moved.The mechanical advantage of an inclined plane,
the factor by which the force is reduced, is equal to the ratio of the length of the sloped
surface to the height it spans.Due to conservation of energy, the same amount of mechanical
energy (work) is required to lift a given object by a given vertical distance, disregarding
losses from friction, but the inclined plane allows the same work to be done with a smaller
force exerted over a greater distance.

The angle of friction, also sometimes called the angle of repose, is the maximum
angle at which a load can rest motionless on an inclined plane due to friction, without sliding
down. This angle is equal to the arctangent of the coefficient of static friction μs between the
surfaces.

Uses of inclined plane

An inclined plane is any slope or ramp, like a wheelchair ramp or a slide. The ramp
makes it easier to lift something heavy, like a rock. Instead of lifting the rock straight up, you
can push it a greater distance, but with less force. The amount of work remains the same.
Work is force x distance, so if you increase the distance the rock moves, you can decrease the
amount of force you need.

If you make the ramp steeper, you'll have a shorter distance, but it will be harder to
push the rock (you'll need more force). If you make the ramp less steep, it will have to be
longer, but it will be easier to push the rock. Either way, it's the same amount of work in the
end, but you have the choice of doing easier work for a longer time, or harder work for a
shorter time.

Inclined planes are widely used in the form of loading ramps to load and unload
goods on trucks, ships, and planes.Wheelchair ramps are used to allow people in wheelchairs
to get over vertical obstacles without exceeding their strength.Escalators and slanted
conveyor belts are also forms of inclined plane.In a funicular or cable railway a railroad car is
pulled up a steep inclined plane using cables. Inclined planes also allow heavy fragile objects,
including humans, to be safely lowered down a vertical distance by using the normal force of
the plane to reduce the gravitational force. Aircraft evacuation slides allow people to rapidly
and safely reach the ground from the height of a passenger airliner.

Other inclined planes are built into permanent structures. Roads for vehicles and
railroads have inclined planes in the form of gradual slopes, ramps, and causeways to allow
vehicles to surmount vertical obstacles such as hills without losing traction on the road

49
surface. Similarly, pedestrian paths and sidewalks have gentle ramps to limit their slope, to
ensure that pedestrians can keep traction.Inclined planes are also used as entertainment for
people to slide down in a controlled way, in playground slides, water slides, ski slopes and
skateboard parks.

Moment of inertia
A measure of a body’s resistance to angular acceleration, equal to the product of the
mass of the body and the sphere of its distance from the axis of rotation.

Moment of Inertia: Thin Disk

The moment of inertia of a thin circular disk is the same as that for a solid cylinder of
any length, but it deserves special consideration because it is often used as an element for
building up the moment of inertia expression for other geometries, such as the sphere or
the cylinder about an end diameter. The moment of inertia about a diameter is the classic
example of the perpendicular axis theorem For a planar object:

50
Procedure
 First of all, set the height of the inclined plane at a desired angle by using the
alignment bolt.
 Then observe the position of inclined plane on the ground with the help of spirit level.
 If the inclined plane is not balanced, use the other two alignment bolts for balancing
the inclined plane.
 Firstly, roll down the large disc on the inclined plane and measure three consecutive
readings of time with the help of stop watch by repeating the same process, and take
the mean value of time.
 Then, roll down the small disc on the inclined plane and also calculate the mean value
of time, same as above.
 Repeat the above process for different values of height of the inclined plane.
 At the end, calculate the actual and theoretical values of acceleration due to gravity.

Precautions

 The inclined plane should be balanced with the ground so that disc can rotate
smoothly.
 Use the stop watch correctly, i.e.; start and stop the stop watch at the appropriate time.
 Always take the mean value of time so that correct result may obtain.

51
 Table
Angle Large disc Means Small disc Mean

Α T1 T2 T3 Tlar T1 T2 T3 Tsma

(degree)

Conclusion:

__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________

52
 Experiment no: 9

Objective
To show that centrifugal force F, depends on mass,radius or rotation and angular speed
squared.

Apparatus
The apparatus used in this experiment consists of a rotating head driven by a variable
speed motor.On the other head is the arm and lever arrangement which bears ony=to a load
cell. The arm and lever arrangement are balanced so that only the force arising from the rotating
mass is transmitted to load cell.

The mass available are 50,75 and 100 grams. These may be fixed at radii from 25 to
125mm and rotated up to 600rpm.The rotational speed in rpm is digitally displayed and
measured force is shown on a similar digital display.

The following experiments are suggested.

 To show that centrifugal force is proportional to mass.

 To show that centrifugal force is proportional to rotational radius of the mass.
 To show that centrifugal force is proportional to square of rotating speed.

To show that centrifugal force is proportional to mass.

Procedure
 In this experiment the angular speed and speed of frame and radius remains constant.
 First we took a mass of 50 gm and fixed it at the radius of 125mm.
 Then we set the speed from control panel of 300 rpm and also angular speed 3142
rad/sec.
 Then we took the reading at that conditions.
 Then we change the mass from 50 to 75 gm and then from 75 to 100 gm and took
readings and put them in table.

53
Force and mass
Mass m F Speed Angular Radius Theoretical
g Kg Rpm speed Mm force
Rad/sec kg
50 300 3142 125
75 300 3142 125
100 300 3142 125

 To show that centrifugal force is proportional to rotational radius of the

mass.

Procedure
 In this experiment the angular speed and speed of frame and mass remains constant.
 First we took a mass of 100 gm and fixed it at the radius of 25mm.
 Then we set the speed from control panel of 500 rpm and also angular speed 5236
rad/sec.
 Then we took the reading at that conditions.
 Then we change the radius from 25 to 50gm and then from 50 to 75 gm and then from
75 to 100 and then from 100 to 125 took readings and put them in table.

Force and radius

Mass m F Speed Angular Radius Theoretical
G Kg Rpm speed Mm force
Rad/sec kg
100 500 5236 25
100 500 5236 50
100 500 5236 75
100 500 5236 100
100 500 5236 125

54
Procedure
 To show that centrifugal force is proportional to square of rotating speed.
 In this experiment the radius and mass remains constant.
 First we took a mass of 100 gm and fixed it at the radius of 125mm.
 Then we set the speed from control panel of 165 rpm and also angular speed 1288rad/sec.
 Then we took the reading at that conditions.
 Then we change the speed of frame from 165 to 266 and then from 266 to 317 and then
from 317 to 410 and then from 410 to 441rpm and took readings and put them in table.
 Then we changed angular speed from 1288 rad/sec to 2157 rad/sec and then from 2157
to 2534 and then from 2534 to 3037 and then from 3037 to 3613 rad/sec.
 We took readings at these conditions and put them into table.

Force and rotational speed

Mass m F Speed Angular Radius Theoretical F
g Kg rpm speed Mm Kg
Rad/sec
100 165 1288 125
100 266 2157 125
100 317 2534 125
100 410 3037 125
100 441 3613 125

Sample calculation

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Conclusion
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 Experiment no: 10

GYROSCOPE

Definition
A gyroscope is a spinning wheel or disc in which the axis of rotation is free to assume
any orientation by it. When rotating, the orientation of this axis is unaffected by tilting or
rotation of the mounting, according to the conservation of angular momentum. Because of this,
gyroscopes are useful for measuring or maintaining orientation.

Working Principle Of Gyro Scope

The classic gyroscope consists of a spinning wheel or disc which works based on the
principle of conservation of angular momentum. The rotation of the spinning axis remains
unaffected due to the conservation of the momentum.

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Introduction
The tm 630 gyroscope is used for the demonstration of the properties of a guided
gyroscope.

This machine is used to investigate the moments of gyro effect. In our daily life, these
moments generate a lot of bearing forces, which are used in the design of many machines.

Conversely guided gyros are used as stabilizing elements for ships and single rail
track vehicles etc.

Due to its simple, completely laid out an compact design the unit is compatible for
demonstration of the effect and for study purpose.

The digital display of rotational speeds and the simple measurement of moments by
means of a balance bar with a raider permits the experiment to be evaluated easily and
precisely.

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Types of Gyroscope
MEMS
A MEMS gyroscope takes the idea of the Foucault pendulum and uses a vibrating
element, known as a MEMS (microelectromechanical system).

HRG
The hemispherical resonator gyroscope (HRG), also called wine-glass gyroscope or
mushroom gyro, makes using a thin solid-state hemispherical shell, anchored by a thick stem.
This shell is driven to a flexural resonance by electrostatic forces generated by electrodes which
are deposited directly onto separate fused-quartz structures that surround the shell. Gyroscopic
effect is obtained from the inertial property of the flexural standing waves.

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VSG or CVG
A vibrating structure gyroscope (VSG), also called a Coriolis vibratory gyroscope
(CVG), uses a resonator made of different metallic alloys. It takes a position between the low-
accuracy, low-cost MEMS gyroscope and the higher-accuracy and higher-cost FOG. Accuracy
parameters are increased by using low-intrinsic damping materials, resonator vacuumization,
and digital electronics to reduce temperature dependent drift and instability of control signals.

DTG
A dynamically tuned gyroscope (DTG) is a rotor suspended by a universal joint with
flexure pivots. The flexure spring stiffness is independent of spin rate. However, the dynamic
inertia (from the gyroscopic reaction effect) from the gimbal provides negative spring stiffness
proportional to the square of the spin speed. Therefore, at a particular speed, called the tuning
speed, the two moments cancel each other, freeing the rotor from torque, a necessary condition
for an ideal gyroscope.

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Ring laser gyroscope
A ring laser gyroscope relies on the Sagnac effect to measure rotation by measuring the
shifting interference pattern of a beam split into two halves, as the two halves move around the
ring in opposite directions.

Fiber optic gyroscope

A fiber optic gyroscope also uses the interference of light to detect mechanical rotation.
The two halves of the split beam travel in opposite directions in a coil of fiber optic cable as
long as 5 km. Like the ring laser gyroscope, it makes use of the Sagnac effect.

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London moment
A London moment gyroscope relies on the quantum-mechanical phenomenon,
whereby a spinning superconductor generates a magnetic field whose axis lines up exactly with
the spin axis of the gyroscopic rotor. A magnetometer determines the orientation of the
generated field, which is interpolated to determine the axis of rotation. Gyroscopes of this type
can be extremely accurate and stable.

Unit Description
The core of the unit is a driven centrifugal mass, supported in a rocker. This centrifugal
mass along with the driven motor form the guided gyroscope. The balance bar with the slider
weight and the precision weights are attached to the extension of the gyroscope axis. The rocker
is pivot-borne around the axis A, and can rock back and forth between stop limit. The sliding
on the weight creates a moment around the axis A on the gyroscope.
The complete system is in turn also pivot-borne around the vertical axis B. by means
of a second motor and the belt drive the setup can be driven around the vertical axis.
The power supply to the gyroscope’s motor is provided by two carbon brushes and slip
rings.
Each of the two motors can be adjusted sleeplessly with a 10-speed potentiometer. The
speeds are displayed in rpm on the digital tachometer. The apparatus can only be started up
when the protective hood is located in its retaining ring.

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Precision of Gyroscope
When a guided gyro I set in rotation, it’s center axis retains its center axis retains its
planar position, since there is no torque acting on the gyro.

The gyro is forced to rotate around a vertical axis B. It is observed that the axis of the
gyro pivots around the horizontal axis A in addition to the forced rotation.

The rotating gyro has a certain angular momentum Lk for which the direction is given
by the direction of rotation of the gyro body. With the assumed direction of rotation, the
moment vector Lk points to the right in the direction of gyro axis. As a result of forced torque
D, of which the vector is vertical, the gyro requires an additional angular momentum LD which
joins with angular momentum vector Lk in the way shown to form the resulting angular
momentum the gyro drops.

The movement of the gyro under the influence of an external force is termed the
precision of the gyro.

Adjusting the Slider Weight

 Release the slider weight by loosening the grub screw.

 Set the desired radius r(max .95mm).
 Tightening the grub screw.

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Performing the Measurement
 Place the protective hood in the retaining ring.
 Turn the two speed potentiometers to zero.
 Switch the motor for the gyro(precession)
 With the speed potentiometer run up the desired rotational speed.
 Switch on the motor for the frame (gyroscope).
 With the speed potentiometer increase the rotational speed until the balance is
horizontally aligned.
 Make a note of both rotational speeds.

Experimental Verification of The Gyroscopic Law

In the experiment the slider weight is set to various radii (r= 25mm, 50mm, 75mm, 95mm).

The mass of slider weight (m=65.6g), the acceleration due to gravity and the radius r of the
slider weight produce the moment MW dictated by the balance bar:

MW = m. g. r = .0656kg . 9.81m\s2 . r= 0.6435N. r

This moment MW is counteracted by the gyroscopic moment, causing balance bar to be lifted
to the horizontal position.

The theoretical gyroscopic moment MK is calculated from the rotational speed of the frame
nF, the rotational speed of the gyro ne and the mass moment of inertia of the gyro JZ (JZ=
375cm2g) as follows:
MK = ωF ωe JZ= 2 π\60 nF . 2 π\60 ne . 0.0000375 kgm2
The measurement and calculation results are compared in the following table:

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Table

Radius r Moment MW Rotational Rotational Speed Moment MK in Deviation in %

in m in Nm Speed of gyro ne of frame nF Nm
(rev/min) (rev/min)

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Graph:

Conclusion:

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