IBP1065_19

INVESTIGATION OF THERMAL CYCLE INFLUENCE

ON X100M GIRTH WELD HAZ
Gilmar Zacca Batista1, Izabela F. Girão Dussel2,
Victor Hugo P. M. Oliveira3, Leonardo da P. Carvalho4,
Fábio Arroyo5, João da Cruz Payão Filho6

Copyright 2019, Brazilian Petroleum, Gas and Biofuels Institute - IBP

This Technical Paper was prepared for presentation at the Rio Pipeline Conference and Exhibition 2019, held between
03 and 05 of September, in Rio de Janeiro. This Technical Paper was selected for presentation by the Technical
Committee of the event according to the information contained in the final paper submitted by the author(s). The
organizers are not supposed to translate or correct the submitted papers. The material as it is presented, does not
necessarily represent Brazilian Petroleum, Gas and Biofuels Institute’ opinion, or that of its Members or
Representatives. Authors consent to the publication of this Technical Paper in the Rio Pipeline Conference and
Exhibition 2019.

Abstract
High strength steel pipes such as API 5L X80 and X100 are required for a cost effective construction of high-pressure
pipelines to delivery gas from remote fields to consumer market. Nonetheless, there are some challenges in the field
girth welding that still require study and development, specially the heat-affected zone (HAZ), before wide adoption of
these materials. This paper evaluates the field girth welding thermal cycle influence on the HAZ properties and
microstructure of a TMCP API 5L X100M pipe. The evaluation method consisted of computational and thermophysical
simulation to produce HAZ microstructures of single and multipass regions of girth welds. Thermal cycles equivalent to
heat inputs of 0.5, 1.5, 2.0 and 3.0 kJ/mm were selected to encompass typical values applied for pipeline field welding.
Charpy and hardness tests were carried out on simulated specimens to evaluate mechanical properties. Microstructural
analysis was performed to characterize coarse grain (CGHAZ) and intercritically reheated coarse grain (IC-CGHAZ)
regions and correlate them with toughness and hardness results. Significant differences of MA morphology from lower
to higher heat inputs were observed. The lower heat input of 0.5 kJ/mm, associated with shorter cooling times, resulted
in large amount of massive MA, while higher heat inputs presented an overall reduction in MA and some formation of
slender one at previous austenite grain boundaries, specially in the IC-CGHAZ. As heat input increases (longer cooling
times), transition temperature shifts from -40 °C (0.5 kJ/mm) to -22, 3 and -7 °C for heat inputs of 1.5, 2 and 3 kJ/mm
respectively. All heat inputs above 0.5 kJ/mm presented lower amount of MA and higher transition temperature.
Toughness deterioration may be explained by the lower amount of massive MA and higher presence of slender one. It is
generally well accepted that the characteristics of MA constituents, such as fraction, size and shape (massive or slender)
play a significant role on HAZ mechanical properties. Vickers hardness measurements presented a decrease from values
around 300 HV for 0.5 kJ/mm to approximately 250 HV when heat input increases. In general, it was noticed that the
heat input of 0.5 kJ/mm demonstrate distinct characteristics of microstructure, hardness and toughness when compared
to 1.5, 2 and 3 kJ/mm. It corroborates to conclude that when ∆t8/5 is above a certain value, the thermal cycle influence on
X100 girth welding properties does not change significantly. However, caution should be taken since slender MA
formation, especially on previous austenite grain boundary, promotes toughness deterioration on IC-CGHAZ. This work
showed that the welding parameters to be applied during field girth welding of X100 pipelines shall be carefully chosen
in order to avoid inadequate properties at HAZ that is related to size, shape and amount of MA constituent. The results
provide technical information to be used in further X100 welding studies and contributes to support the application of
this material as an alternative for long distance high-pressure pipelines.

_______________________________________
1
M. Sc. Metallurgical Engineer – PETROBRAS
2
M. Sc. Product Engineer – TENARIS
3
Metallurgical Engineer – URFJ
4
M. Sc. Mechanical Engineer – PETROBRAS
5
Product Senior Manager – TENARIS
6
Dr. Ing. Metallurgical Engineer – UFRJ
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1. Introduction
High strength steels such as X80 and X100 are good candidates for a cost effective construction of long
distance high-pressure pipelines for delivery gas from remote fields to consumer market. Hammond (2007) mentions
that high strength pipes could be used for pipeline construction in remote major gas fields including Algeria, which
supplies the markets of Western Europe, Eastern Siberian fields, which have potential markets in the Far East, and gas
fields of Northern Alaska with potential markets in the lower 48 states of the USA. In some circumstances, the use of
high strength steel may be the only one alternative to make viable a project of high pressure and large diameter.
In order to meet market needs, several oil and gas companies, in partnership with steel and pipe mills, started
programs to develop API 5L X100 pipes. Many prototype steels were developed and pre-production pipes were
manufactured and extensively tested to evaluate material characteristics (Hammond, 2007). Despite all efforts made for
pipe production, it is also of paramount importance provide girth welding solutions for X100 application in field.
Considering that at each 12 meters there is a girth weld and that the pipeline can reach many kilometers, it is possible to
notice that girth welding plays a big role in a pipeline construction.
Although some X100 pipes have already been welded in field, some concerns related to heat-affected zone
properties still remain. Besides, the gained knowledge on girth welding is still restricted to the companies involved.
Thus, before start using X100 in pipeline construction, it is of major importance conduct a comprehensive evaluation of
heat-affected zone behavior.
The HAZ properties strongly depends on thermal cycle applied during welding. It is generally agreed that
coarse-grained heat affected zone (CGHAZ) and intercritical reheated coarse-grained heat affected zone (IC-CGHAZ) in
one-pass and multi-pass welding, respectively, have the poorest microstructure and mechanical properties relative to the
rest of the steel joint (Mohammadijoo et al, 2018). According to Luoa (2017), for single pass welding, the lowest
toughness is expected in CGHAZ, which is part of HAZ near the fusion line. For multi-pass welding, the most degraded
part in HAZ is the IC-CGHAZ due to the formation of martensitic-austenitic (MA) constituents. Barnes (1995)
comments that local brittle zones exists within HAZ, most especially within those regions of the grain coarsened HAZ
reheated into intercritical regime by subsequent weld passes (IC-CGHAZ). These brittle zones can be created due to
formation of MA (Martensite-Austenite) constituent that governs toughness deterioration in CGHAZ and IC-CGHAZ.
However, the characteristics of MA constituents, i.e., fraction, size, shape and aspect ratio, are strongly affected by
welding thermal cycle. In addition, excessive hardness reduction, known as HAZ softening, can occur for high heat
inputs as well as high hardness microstructures such as bainite and martensite can be formed on HAZ if the cooling time
resulted from low heat inputs is very short (Felber, 2009).
One evaluation method that can be used for HAZ investigation is based on API RP 2Z (2005) methodology,
which consists in production of single V-edge bevel joints with three different heat inputs for further analysis. The
advantage of this method is that it is done using the same welding process and pipe dimensions used in field and allows
placing Charpy and CTOD notches entirely on HAZ. However, as the IC-CGHAZ in as-welded joints covers a very
limited area, it is difficult to conduct microstructural analysis and mechanical testing on this specific region. The
solution generally adopted (Luoa et al, 2017 and Gianetto et al, 2011) is the thermophysical simulation to produce a
large area of IC-CGHAZ that experienced the same thermal cycles as actual welding. According to Barnes (1990),
thermal simulation techniques allow close matching of thermal conditions and microstructure at various locations in a
multipass HAZ, resulting in easier and more accurate testing and examination. Gianetto et al (2011) comment that for
pipeline girth welding, where relatively low heat inputs are used, thermal simulation is a very attractive method for
assessing candidate steels because of its capability to reproduce a wide range of thermal cycles (welding conditions).
This eliminates some of the challenges associated with the evaluation of actual pipe welds.
The purpose of this study is to evaluate thermal cycle influence, typical from field girth welding processes, on
microstructure, hardness and toughness of an X100 pipe HAZ. The investigation methodology used computational and
thermophysical simulation to create an HAZ for further evaluation of mechanical properties and phase transformations
associated with single and multipass regions of pipeline girth welds.

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2. Material and Experimental Procedure

The plates for X100 pipe forming were produced from thermo-mechanical controlled rolling process (TMCP)
with accelerated cooling. The 20 inches of diameter and 0.625 inches of wall thickness pipes were formed through UOE
process and longitudinally welded by submerged arc welding. The base metal chemical composition can be seen in
Table 1.

Table 1. Chemical composition

C Mn Si Al N P S Ca B
0.08 1.90 0.287 0.031 0.005 0.011 0.002 0.0003 0.0004
CE
Cu+Cr+Mo+Ni Nb+V+Ti
IIW Pcm
0.571 0.061 0.51 0.22

Different welding thermal cycles equivalents to those applied in a pipeline construction were developed by
computational simulation using finite element analysis. Sysweld software simulated a single-cycle CGHAZ and a
double-cycle intercritical CGHAZ (IC-CGHAZ). Then, a Gleeble® thermal simulator was used to create HAZ
microstructures for further evaluation of mechanical properties and phase transformations.
Gianetto et al (2011) emphasize that the evaluation of simulated HAZ regions provides an excellent method for
comparing and/or ranking pipe steels and eliminates complications associated with evaluation of real welds where
complex distributions of HAZ regions and narrow width of HAZ are often encountered.
The thermal cycles were taken out from a region as close as possible to the peak temperature of 1350 °C, to
represent CGHAZ. For the purpose of the IC-CGHAZ peak temperature definition, dilatometry curves were obtained to
establish start and end Ac1 and Ac3 transformation temperatures based on the linearity deviation that occurs due to
expansion and volumetric contraction associated with austenite phase transformation. In order to represent the welding
conditions, dilatometry test was performed with a heating rate of 200 ºC/s. As shown in Figure 1, the intercritical field
ranges from 727 ℃ to 976 ℃. Thus, 850 ℃ was chosen as the peak temperature of the second thermal cycle for
multipass welding simulation.

Figure 1. Dilatometry curve.

For thermophysical simulations, square cross section specimens of 10×10×85 mm were machined from
longitudinal direction of the pipe and submitted to the desired thermal cycle in a Gleeble® machine (Figure 2). Thermal
control was maintained via a thermocouple welded at central surface area of the specimen. Table 2 shows the
thermophysical simulation parameters and number of specimens for each thermo-cycle.

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The thermal cycles incorporated an effective preheat of 150°C and interpass temperature of 180°C to closely
match the welding conditions employed in field.

Figure 2. Gleeble specimen dimensions.

Table 2. Parameters and number of specimens.

CGHAZ IC-CGHAZ
Heat Input (kJ/mm) 0.5 1.5 3.0 0.5 1.5 2.0 3.0
Specimens 4 4 4 11 11 14 14
Peak temperature first cycle (°C) 1350 1350 1350 1350 1350 1350 1350
Peak temperature second cycle (°C) -- -- -- 850 850 850 850
Preheating and interpass (ºC) 150 150 150 150-180 150-180 150-180 150-180

Metallographic specimens for scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were mechanically polished and etched in a
solution of 2% nital for microstructural analysis and, in order to identify MA constituent and distinguish it from
carbides, a two-step electrolytic etching (Biss and Cryderman, 1971 and Ikawa et al, 1980) was used.
Charpy specimens were sampled from thermophysical simulated specimens with notch placed at the middle of
the surface. Three full size specimens of 10 x 10 x 55 mm were tested according to ASTM A370 (2018) for each
simulated region at different temperatures in order to establish the transition behavior. For CGHAZ Charpy tests were
done only at 0°C.
For each simulated condition, a Vickers microhardness test was carried out using a load of 0.1 kgf. Fifteen
hardness readings were performed within central region of the specimens submitted to desired thermal cycle.

3. Results and Discussion

The obtained cooling curves are illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4. In general, the results shows a reduction of
the cooling rate as the heat input increases.

Figure 3. Cooling curves for CGHAZ simulation.

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Figure 4. Cooling curves for IC-CGHAZ simulation (second cycle).

The actual peak temperatures, cooling rates and cooling times for each heat input can be seen in Table 3.

Table 3. Thermophysical simulation results.

HAZ CGHAZ IC-CGHAZ

Heat Input
0.5 1.5 3.0 0.5 1.5 2.0 3.0
kJ/mm
Peak temperature first cycle (°C) 1345.9 1349.6 1363.8 1339.1 1336.5 1345.9 1363.5
Peak temperature second cycle (°C) -- -- -- 844.2 847.7 849.6 886.8
Cooling time ∆t8/5 first cycle (s) 5.5 17.7 38.4 5.2 21.4 36.6 33.1
Cooling rate 8/5 first cycle (ºC/s) 54.5 16.9 8.1 57.4 14.0 8.2 9.1
Cooling time ∆t8/5 second cycle (s) -- -- -- 5.1 17.2 30.3 33.7
Cooling rate 8/5 second cycle (ºC/s) -- -- -- 59.0 17.4 9.9 8.9

Differences in microstructure, toughness and hardness resulting from thermal cycles to simulate CGHAZ and
IC-CGHAZ were investigated. Figure 5 shows the single cycle CGHAZ microstructures etched with Nital 2%. For heat
input of 0.5 kJ/mm, correspondent to ∆t8/5 of 5.5s, the microstructure presented martensite and bainite. For heat inputs
above 0.5 kJ/mm, the bainite microstructure prevails.

Figure 5. SEM micrographs of the CGHAZ with heat input of

a) 0.5 kJ/mm; b) 1.5 kJ/mm and c) 3.0 kJ/mm. Nital 2%.

The IC-CGHAZ microstructure simulated with a double thermal cycle includes the original microstructure of
the first cycle, but tempered by the second one, and a new microstructure formed from partial austenitization that occurs
in intercritical region during second cycle (Figure 6).

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Figure 6. SEM micrographs of the IC-CGHAZ with heat input of

a) 0.5 kJ/mm; b) 1.5 kJ/mm and c) 3.0 kJ/mm. Nital 2%.

It is also possible to notice the presence of MA constituent. According to Fairchild et al (1991), MA is

primarily a result of intercritical reheating, which is produced by a subsequent weld pass. Figure 7 and Figure 8 show the
microstructures submitted to electrolytic etch to identify MA micro-constituent. From CGHAZ microstructures (Figure
7) it can be noted that there is a clear increasing in austenitic grain size with longer cooling times. In addition, slender
MA is observed in the contours of the prior austenite grain and between bainite laths. Some areas of massive MA in the
contour and interior of the previous austenite were also identified.

Figure 7. SEM micrographs of the CGHAZ with heat input of

a) 0.5 kJ/mm; b) 1.5 kJ/mm and c) 3.0 kJ/mm. Two-step electrolytic etching.

Zhang and Gao (2011) mention that coarse grains of HAZ provide thermodynamic conditions for MA
formation, so that they are formed preferably at prior austenite grain boundaries. MA constituents can be observed as a
“necklace” structure along with the boundaries of prior austenite grain.
Figure 8 shows a notable change in MA morphology of IC-CGAHZ microstructure as a result of the second
thermal cycle in intercritical temperature. Decomposition of MA formed in the first cycle takes place and MA particles
become larger and massive. This occurs because part of the microstructure that has been austenitized tends to have a
higher carbon content promoting MA formation. Thus, there will be MA formed in first cycle and decomposed in
second one and MA formed from the region that was austenitized in second cycle.
Luoa et al (2017) explain that depending on different welding parameters, MA constituents mainly have three
different morphologies: massive shape, slender shape and small dot shape. The heat input of 0.5kJ/mm presented large
amount of massive MA (Figure 8a) while for higher heat inputs it is more predominant the formation of ferrite with
dispersed islands of MA with some of them slender, especially at previous austenite grain boundary (Figure 8 b, c and
d). According to Luoa et al (2017), in the second thermal cycle, the relatively high heat input affords more time for the
austenite to stay above Ac1 temperature, thus austenite has chance to grow. With grain boundaries or lath boundaries
acting as diffusion passage for carbon atoms, growth rate of austenite with the direction along the boundaries is higher
than that with other directions, thus MA constituents grow elongated.

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Figure 8. SEM micrographs of the IC-CGHAZ with heat input of

a) 0.5 kJ/mm; b) 1.5 kJ/mm; c) 2.0 kJ/mm and d) 3.0 kJ/mm. Two-step electrolytic etching.

The effect of cooling time (∆t8/5) on MA formation can be seen in Figure 9 where lower cooling times (around
five seconds) presented higher amount of MA. When cooling time increases, the percentage of MA decreases
significantly.

Figure 9. Cooling time effect on MA formation.

The MA formation strongly depends on the time spent at high temperatures so that carbon can diffuse and
stabilize the austenite, and on a high cooling rate to form martensite and to retain the austenite. According to Figure 9,
the cooling time around 5 seconds allows enough carbon diffusion and provides sufficient cooling rate for MA
formation. For higher cooling times, ∆t8/5 between 17s and 40s, the cooling rate is not high enough to retain the same
amount of austenite, resulting in a lower amount of MA, as can be seen in Figure 8 and Figure 9. Thus it is possible to
conclude that heat input of 0.5 kJ/mm results in a distinct microstructure when compared to higher heat inputs.
Figure 10 shows the average hardness results for different heat inputs represented by cooling time (∆t8/5). For
∆t8/5 of 5.1s and 5.5s, correspondent to heat input of 0.5 kJ/mm, higher hardness values where observed when compared
with higher cooling times of 1.5, 2 and 3 kJ/mm. It is in agreement with microstructures differences shown in Figure 7
and Figure 8. For all cases, the IC-CGHAZ presented lower hardness values when compared with CGHAZ.
Hardness results for IC-CGHAZ from 1.5 to 3 kJ/mm are almost the same and the cooling time resulted from 2
and 3 kJ/mm are very similar (Table 3). These results suggest that when ∆t8/5 is above a certain value, the microstructure
changing is not outstanding.
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Figure 10. Hardness vs. cooling time.

Figure 11 shows Charpy impact test results of simulated specimens. Transition curves were adjusted using
hyperbolic tangent method defined in API 579-1 (2016). The CGHAZ Charpy test was carried out only at 0°C and
average absorbed energy values are represented by filled in symbols. The IC-CGHAZ absorbed energy is represented by
three individual values and by a transition curve.

Figure 11. Transition curves of CGHAZ and IC-CGHAZ.

According to Barnes (1995), CGHAZ presents higher toughness when compared with IC-CGHAZ. In fact,
Figure 11 shows that the second thermal cycle has a negative effect on CGHAZ toughness. Fairchild et al (1991),
mention that MA islands are a primary factor in controlling HAZ toughness, which explains the lower absorbed energy
results from IC-CGHAZ when compared with those achieved by CGHAZ. Mohammadijoo et al (2018) comment that
volume fraction and size of MA constituents are key factors for toughness deterioration in IC-CGHAZ.
Figure 12 shows energy transition temperatures (ETT) for each cooling time. The ETT represents the
temperature corresponding to the average between the lower and upper shelf energies. As cooling time increases,
transition temperature also increases indicating toughness loss.
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Figure 12. Energy transition temperatures.

According to Mohammadijoo et al (2018), MA islands act as crack initiation sites in HAZ of high strength
steels, which result in toughness deterioration. The formation of enlarged MA constituents along previous austenite
grain boundaries results in cleavage crack initiation in HAZ. Accordingly, it is generally accepted that the characteristics
of MA constituents, such as fraction, size, shape (massive or slender) and aspect ratio (length/width) plays a significant
role on the HAZ mechanical properties.
Figure 13 shows that higher amount of MA resulted in low transition temperatures while lower amount of MA
resulted in poor toughness. It was observed that massive MA has a favorable effect on IC-CGHAZ toughness. On the
other hand, the higher presence of slender MA for higher heat inputs may have contributed to increase the transition
temperature. As can be seen in Figure 8, higher heat inputs presented more slender MA than the lowest heat input,
especially at previous austenite grain boundaries.
Luoa et al (2017) explains that as martensite in slender MA constituents is brittle, the fracture of martensite
initiates cracks in the matrix. Due to relatively large amount of slender MA constituents, the cracks immediately
coalesce and fracture of the specimens takes place. Luoa et al (2017) concluded that MA constituents with slender shape
contains almost complete martensite, leading to lowest toughness. While the massive ones have a core shell structure
with martensite forming the “shell” and austenite forming the “core”, which is in favor of toughness compared with that
in slender MA constituents. In fact, it was also observed that when ∆t8/5 is above a certain value (Table 3), the slender
MA formation, especially on previous austenite grain boundary, promotes toughness deterioration on IC-CGHAZ.

Figure 13. MA influence on transition temperature.

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4. Conclusions
Coarse grain and intercritically reheated coarse grain microstructures representing actual welded joints HAZ
were successfully produced using computational and thermophysical simulation in order to evaluate thermal cycle
influence on X100 girth welding.
Charpy results carried out at 0°C showed better toughness for CGHAZ when compared to IC-CGHAZ. It
corroborates with the literature (Fairchild et al, 1991; Mohammadijoo et al, 2018; Barnes, 1995 and Luoa et al, 2017)
that imputes this toughness deterioration to local brittle zones containing MA formed by second thermal cycle.
A trend of absorbed energies reduction and shift in energy transition temperature (ETT) to higher temperatures
was observed for higher heat inputs indicating toughness reduction for IC-CGHAZ. When heat input increases from 0.5
kJ/mm to 1.5, 2.0 and 3.0 kJ/mm, ETT shifts from -40 °C to -22, 3 and -7 °C respectively.
Toughness deterioration found for IC-CGHAZ can be explained by differences in MA formation. The lower
heat input of 0.5 kJ/mm associated with shorter cooling times resulted in large amount of massive MA, while higher heat
inputs presented an overall reduction in MA and some formation of slender one at previous austenite grain boundaries.
Considering only the effect of amount of MA, it was observed that longer cooling times, i.e., higher heat inputs,
resulted in lower amount of MA and higher transition temperature, indicating that reduction in MA could adversely
affect toughness. However it is important to notice that MA morphology plays an important role in HAZ toughness. For
longer cooling times the slender MA formed at previous austenite grain boundaries could explain higher transition
temperatures observed for higher heat inputs.
Vickers hardness measurements presented a decrease from values around 300 HV for 0.5 kJ/mm to
approximately 250 HV when heat input increases.
In general, it was noticed that heat input of 0.5 kJ/mm demonstrate distinct characteristics of microstructure,
hardness and toughness when compared to 1.5, 2 and 3 kJ/mm. It corroborates to conclude that when ∆t8/5 is above a
certain value, the thermal cycle influence on X100 girth welding properties does not change significantly. However,
caution should be taken since the slender MA formation, especially on previous austenite grain boundary, promotes
toughness deterioration on IC-CGHAZ.
Lower toughness results for 1.5, 2 and 3 kJ/mm does not mean that X100 pipe can not be welded with this heat
input range but it means that care must be taken. Some differences between real and simulated HAZ are expected since
the real one is composed by a mix of unaltered and reheated coarse grain microstructures and the simulated one is
composed exclusively by IC-CGHAZ.
This work showed that the welding parameters to be applied during field girth welding of X100 pipelines shall
be chosen carefully in order to avoid inadequate properties at HAZ that is related to size, shape and amount of MA
constituent. The results provide technical information to be used in further X100 welding studies and contributes to
support the application of this material as an alternative for long distance high-pressure pipelines.

5. Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge PETROBRAS, TENARIS and the LNTSold team for the financial and
technical support provided during this research.

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ASTM A370. Standard Test Methods and Definitions for Mechanical Testing of Steel Products. American Society for
Testing and Materials. 2018.
BARNES, A. M. Local Brittle Zones in C-Mn Steel Multipass Welds. TWI Bulletin. Sepetember/October, 1990.
BARNES, A. M. The Effect of Thermomechanically Controlled Processing of Steels on Heat Affected Zone Properties.
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IKAWA, H. OSHIGE, H. TANOUE, T. Effect of Martensite-Austenite Constituent on HAZ Toughness of a High
Strength Steel. IIW. DOC IX – 1156-80.
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Materials Science & Engineering. 192-199. 2017.
MOHAMMADIJOO, M. VALLOTON, J. COLLINS, L. HENEIN, H. and IVEY, D.G. Characterization of martensite-
austenite constituents and micro-hardness in intercritical reheated and coarse-grained heat affected zones of API X70
HSLA steel. Materials Characterization. Pp 321 to 331. 2018.
ZHANG, X. and GAO, H. A Study of Impact Toughness of Intercritically Reheated Coarse-Grain Heat Affected Zone
of Two Type X80 Grade Pipeline Steel. Transactions of JWRI, Special Issue on WSE 2011. 2011.

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