Jahangirnagar Planning Review ISSN 1728-4198

Vol. 2, June 2004, pp. 67-82, © Jahangirnagar University

This article is brought to you by www.bdresearch.org

Eco-Tourism: An Investigation into the Conceptual Framework and
Policy Requirements for its Growth in Bangladesh

Golam Moinuddin*
Halima Begum**

Abstract
Sustainability considerations have been making ways in each and every development initiative in the
last two-decades or so. In line of this trend, the concept of eco-tourism emerged and later on, turned
out to be an environment friendly and economically beneficial industry taking over a considerable
bulk of mass-tourism activity and offsetting some of its negativities. Such a transformation has
ultimately positioned eco-tourism to be the substitute of mass-tourism in many tourist destinations.
In view of such reality, this article attempts to investigate on the conceptual dynamics and benefits of
eco-tourism and explores reflective state of these theoretical underpinnings on the basis of two case
studies drawn from successful eco-tourist destinations. In light of such investigative out-puts, the
article focuses on the prospects of eco-tourism industry and makes an effort to provide a broad policy
framework for the development of the same in Bangladesh. It identifies areas of intervention required
in promoting the eco-tourism industry in the country. Finally, it attempts to define and differentiate
the respective roles of the private and public sectors in the flourishment and sustainable growth of
the sector in the country.

Introduction
Tourism industry contributes considerably to the society, economy and to the
environment - either man made or natural (Harrington, 2001). Despite its positive
contributions, the negativities of this industry have become quite a concern over the last
couple of decades. The negative action destructs the social-norms, creates economic
disparity within the native entity, attempts to impose alien culture and destroys the
natural resource base slowly but in an irreversible fashion (Krippendorf, 1992).
Alongside, the infrastructural requirements for this industry can be harmful for the built
environment’s harmony in urban and regional context. Harrington (2001), in this regard,
illustrated that unregulated development of hotels in London threatened the quality of
life in the city. Krippendorf (1992) recognized that the resource base acted as the raw
material for tourism sector, which through improper use and overuse, loses it’s value.
This is especially true for those tourist activities that are based upon natural resources,
e.g. forest camping, hunting of wild animals and river cruising are sensitive to
ecosystems. The ultimate effect of such uncontrolled and profit based industry has been
the slow and irreversible destruction of ecosystem’s carrying capacity.
Such observations by the researchers, planners, and environmentalists have brought a
shift in the tourism activities in the 1980’s. This shift has been towards alternative forms
of tourism over mass-tourism that has given the way for the globalization of markets,
super segmentations, new technologies and most of all, an increased sense of social and

*
Assistant Professor, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka-
1342, Bangladesh. E-mail: h0199025@graduate.hku.hk
**
Lecturer, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka-1342,
Bangladesh. E-mail: halimasn@yahoo.com
Jahangirnagar Planning Review, Vol. 2, June 2004 2

ecological responsibility (Fayos-Sola, 1996). The new paradigm calls for a partnership
between public, private and non-profit agencies leading to a more symbiotic relationship.
This sense of partnership between concerned quarters has been the key concept for the
development and flourishment of ecologically or eco- friendly tourism industry in recent
era. Damage to the environment by tourist activities can be minimized through
coordinated planning and regulations, incentives to encourage or discourage particular
activity and on and off-site awareness building and raising education (UNEP, 1998).
Hjalagar (2001) stressed the need for being more innovative in terms of planning,
management of tourism industry and protection of natural resources. An interagency co-
operation can play a major role in making future policies and regulations to limit
tourism’s negative impact on environment. This is where the concept of “eco-tourism”
comes into the scene. Eco tourism encompasses a broad spectrum of societal concerns
related to complex social, ecological and economic relationships. It is about framing a
“win-win” situation for all the involved interests and striking a balance between
environmental sustainability and community’s economic development.

Conceptual Dynamics
The Definition
Eco-tourism is a sustainable form of natural resource-based tourism that focuses
primarily on experiencing and learning about the nature (Gerafe et al, 1994). It is ethically
managed to have minimal impact on the environment. Its nature is non-consumptive and
locally oriented. It typically occurs in natural areas, and should contribute to the
conservation or preservation of the same. According to Fennell (1999), eco-tourism is
“Nature tourism encompassing all forms of adventurous, low-impact tourist activities
which uses natural resources in a wild or undeveloped form – including species, habitats,
landscape, scenery and salt and fresh water features”. Eco-tourism is primarily a low-
impact nature tourism which contributes to the maintenance of species and habitats
either directly through a contribution to conservation and/or indirectly by providing
revenues to the local community which are sufficient for local people to value, and
therefore, protect their wildlife and heritage areas (Fairbrain et al, 1998). By nature, eco-
tourism is dependant upon a number of “eco” resources, e.g. natural, cultural and
heritage resources (Fairbrain et al, 1998).

It is quite difficult to frame a concrete or universally acceptable and applicable definition

of eco-tourism. Depending upon the state of “eco” resources of a community, the
definition of Eco-tourism ought to be framed. Academicians, theorists, researchers, and
business groups have so far devised a wide range of definitions. And as mentioned
earlier, these definitions are all contextual, i.e., framed with respect to a particular context
or community’s eco resource base. In simple form, eco-tourism can be defined as “a
tourist activity that is completely different from the mass tourism and where profit
making venture is less dominated. It is about growing awareness [regarding the nature
preservation, protection of the same from adverse human activity, conservation of
community’s cultural, historical and heritage resources] amongst the existing and
potential tourist stock. It is about educating the same group with the required know-how
of appreciating the natural, cultural and heritage resources - whether these are at home
3 Eco-Tourism: An Investigation into the Conceptual Framework and Policy

or aboard. And finally it is about involving the tourists along with the other components
of tourism industry in activities that are meant for the sustenance of eco-tourist
resources”(Blangy et. al., 1998).

Mclaren (1998) identified several principles, which underlie the concept of eco-tourism:
• It should not degrade the resource base and should be developed in an
environmentally-sensitive manner;
• It should involve education among all parties - local communities, government, non-
governmental organizations, industry, and tourists;
• It should provide first hand, participatory and enlightening experience;
• It should incorporate all party in recognition of core concerns related to the intrinsic
values of the resource;
• It should involve acceptance of the resource on its own terms and in recognition of
its limits which involves supply-oriented management;
• It should promote understanding and involve partnership between many players;
• It should promote moral and ethical responsibilities and behaviour by all players;
and
• It should provide long-term benefits: to the resource, the local community and to the
industry.
Eco-tourism is the fastest growing segment of tourism industry today (Fairbrain et al,
1998). More destinations are becoming interested in eco-friendly “green” tourism,
cultural tourism and are considering eco-tourism as part of their tourism strategy
(Fairbrain et al, 1998). Many places are aggressively marketing their attractions to eco-
tourists.
Obviously, eco-tourism is not new in the industry. What is new, however, is the growing
eco-tourism market and the strategies to capitalize on this new trend (Boo, 2001).
Compared to other economic options, eco-tourism holds the promise of private sector job
creation, while preserving environment and culture. If used wisely, eco-tourism policies
can accomplish more than providing the jobs needed to build a private sector-based
economy — they may support and maintain desired traditional practices, which visitors
come to see (Boo, 2001). Destinations that intends to limit tourism, eco-tourism is
preferable to traditional mass tourism since it can:
• provide a more stable and flexible means of modernization,
• use more local labour and capital,
• reverse the loss of traditional economic activities, and
• prevent further depletion of resources or pollution. (Eagles, et al, 1999)
For example, in popular destinations eco-tourism can diversify mass tourism by offering
visitor activities like nature walks, eco-tours, and other nature experiences, as well as
encourage the development of conservation areas and cultural centres in rural areas.
Jahangirnagar Planning Review, Vol. 2, June 2004 4

Goals of Eco-tourism
Boo (2001), has recognized four goals of eco-tourism. These are:
• protection of the environment —economies that are experiencing loss of resources
due to population growth, hurricanes and extractive industries like fisheries, eco-
tourism can provide economic support for the protection of the environment.
• economic sustainability —economies that are facing the loss of revenue in the near
future and rely heavily on imports, eco-tourism can provide a ready means of
foreign exchange. The goals of eco-tourism are also to benefit residents by ensuring
sufficient financial returns and an equitable distribution of costs and benefits.
• cultural integrity and enhancement — the word ‘ecology’ in eco-tourism implies a
two-way relationship between visitors and residents involving cultural exchange,
but also mutual respect and reciprocity. If these elements are missing at a tourist
destination, the warm welcomes could soon turn into resentment.
• educational value — this can be seen in the education of both visitors and
residents in creating awareness and appreciation of the natural environment and
cultures, including what is passed down to the next generation.

Benefits of Eco-tourism
The benefits of eco-tourism are clearly seen by governments in both developing and
developed nations for a variety of reasons. For example, Costa Rica, Ecuador, and Kenya
are usually mentioned as models of successful eco-tourism (Eagles, et al, 1999). These
destinations, which offer unique environments and wildlife, earn much-needed foreign
exchange through eco-tourism (Eagles, et al, 1999). A few years ago, Belize reassessed its
tourism development plans and held an eco-tourism conference in order to redirect its
tourism efforts in the direction of greater environmental preservation (Horwich, et al,
2001). Other countries like Australia, New Zealand, and Canada are vigorously investing
in and promoting eco-tourism to diversify their tourism base (Liu, 1998). In the Pacific
and South-East Asian region, much of tourism development potential falls within the
scope of eco-tourism (Liu, 1998). Some examples of eco-tourist activities are nature treks,
village stays, bed and breakfast accommodations, and visits to nature parks. Eco-tourism
is being used as a means to guide small-scale tourism development in the Hawaiian
Islands.
Apart from revenue earning, eco-tourism does offer some other benefits to the concerned
society. According to Kusler (2000), eco-tourism:
• can conform to existing infrastructure, accommodation, facilities, and societies
— the visitors stay at local-style hotels, bed and breakfasts, villages; they eat local
food and participate in local activities;
• is intensive-intensive and encourages desirable types of employment — local
residents own and manage businesses, make handicrafts, host visitors, earn money,
and share their culture with the tourists;
• can help to protect the natural and cultural values of an area by attracting
visitors who are respectful and appreciative of the destination — eco-tourists do
not require luxury, but want to experience the local conditions, culture and food;
• can provide financial support to protect natural and cultural areas that are being
destroyed by over-fishing or other activities — appropriate fees and taxes can be
5 Eco-Tourism: An Investigation into the Conceptual Framework and Policy

used to support culture and arts preservation efforts. Some international

environmental agencies like the World Wildlife Fund could possibly be tapped for
funds to support eco-tourism;
• helps to educate individuals throughout the society about the importance of
preserving environment and culture — if desired, eco-tourism can be the means to
change traditional living practices that are causing extinction of certain animal and
plant life like fruit bats and turtles, by offering an alternative means of livelihood
and a reason to preserve traditional lifestyles, and
• offers educational and scientific research opportunities — a successful eco-tour
must have well-trained guides. Most of the guides for successful eco-tours have to
have graduate or undergraduate degrees in the natural or social sciences. At the
same time, it ought to offer quite an opportunity for natural, cultural or heritage-
based research to the interested.

Key Players of the Industry

The Public Sector
The public sector has important roles to play in making eco-tourism work in the
concerned tourist destination(s). Generally speaking, governments should provide the
necessary support and facilitate private enterprise development, without competing with
business ventures (Krippendorf, 1992). Concerned governments can best facilitate eco-
tourism development by cutting through bureaucratic red tape, providing needed
support, and assisting in educational efforts (Krippendorf, 1992). The policies need to
establish the regulatory and monitoring procedures and assign agency responsibilities in
order for eco-tourism to flourish. Without these, there is the danger of destroying or
damaging the very resources upon which eco-tourism rely. In other words, government
regulations must find a balance between protection and restriction without hindering
individual initiatives (Krippendorf, 1992).

The Private Sector

The private sector provides entrepreneurship. They are the key agents in choosing and
implementing productive investment opportunities (Krippendorf, 1992). They are the
ones who must take the risks in obtaining the necessary loans to establish eco-tourism
businesses. They need the necessary financing, managerial skills and knowledge of
operations so that they can run their businesses profitably. Private business decisions
must have the public interest in mind, especially since eco-tourism means an
improvement for society and the environment (Krippendorf, 1992). However,
prospective entrepreneurs may need assistance in learning standard business practices.

The Industry Dynamics

Eco-tourism as a Means of Responsible Economic Development
Eco-tourism can well contribute significantly in achieving economically sustainable
growth because it protects and enhances environment and culture, while educating both
visitors and residents about the appropriate use of resources (Lindberg et al, 2001).
Traditionally, tourism is thought to be destructive to resource foundations. But the
concept of eco-tourism is forcing the issue of providing a new awareness of the linkage
Jahangirnagar Planning Review, Vol. 2, June 2004 6

between resource protection and tourism value – economic, personal and community
enhancement. In fact, eco-tourism is being identified as nature–oriented travel that
promotes and finances conservation and resource protection (Ziffer 2001). Moreover,
examples can show that eco-tourism is also stimulating greater collaborative interaction.
For example, the Association of Independent Tour Operators (AITD) in Hawaii has taken
a joint initiative with Green Flag International to promote sustainable development (Liu,
1998).
In terms of the provision of income and jobs creation - the most commonly used tool to
justify tourism expansion; eco-tourism does offer the prospect of running quite parallel to
mass-tourism (Lindberg et al, 2001). Unlike mass-tourism, eco-tourism sends valuable
contribution to the economy by way of income, jobs, government revenue, balance of
payments, and investments-experiences from Kenya, Venezuela, Sri-Lanka, etc do justify
this proposition (Lindberg et al, 2001).

Table 1: Contribution of Eco-tourism industry to the national income and GDP in

some selected countries
Country Income in Million Dollar (US$) Percentile Share in GDP
1980 2000 1980 2000
Costa Rica .03 1.27 1.31 23.11
Ecuador .037 1.10 .52 19.00
Belize .59 8.43 2.41 46.46
Kenya .31 4.09 2.66 29.63
South Africa .027 4.271 1.79 15.87
Hawaii (USA) .2 6.24 2.38 38.17
Malaysia -- 1.00 -- 7.13
Sri Lanka -- .79 -- 7.04
Australia .0113 3.11 .17 4.25
New Zealand -- 2.09 -- 4.18
Source: Lindberg et al, 2001

Unlike mass-tourism, eco-tourism provides a wide range of indirect jobs ranging from
the construction trade to professions in accounting, law, and education. In addition to
that, eco-tourism would provide extra employment opportunities in environmental
science, heritage and the arts, recycling, handicrafts, etc.
Although there are no formal studies yet, the evidence suggests that eco-tourism would
provide higher multiplier values compared to mass tourism and therefore, have a greater
per unit contribution to the economy (McIntyre, 1999). This occurs due to greater
linkages (purchases of goods and services) in the local economy and, thus, fewer
leakages. Leakages are ways in which income “leaks” out of the economy through:
• imports of goods and services;
• expatriated wages and salaries of imported labour;
• remittances of profits, interests, and rent;
• travel abroad by residents;
7 Eco-Tourism: An Investigation into the Conceptual Framework and Policy

• purchases abroad by residents, and

• non-local taxes. (McIntyre, 1999)
Eco-tourism, which promotes the use of local products and labour, encourages local
ownership and entrepreneurship and can substantially raise the multiplying effect of the
tourist expenditure compared to mass tourism (Liu, 1998). A study of the
accommodation sector in Victoria, British Columbia, showed that smaller, locally owned
establishments have higher multiplier values (Liu, 1998). Eco-tourism, by default, can
provide relatively more income and jobs per visitor dollar when compared with mass
tourism, which maximizes the total amount of income and jobs (Lindberg et al, 2001).
Hence, the trade-off is between the goals of profit maximization for mass tourism versus
income optimization for eco-tourism. In other words, eco-tourism “optimizes” (finds the
best use of) resources by retaining proportionately more of the tourist expenditure. This
is particularly valuable for destinations that have limited resources for residents, as well
as visitors (Lindberg et al, 2001).

The Eco-tourism Market

Consumer research shows that the eco-tourism market is extremely lucrative and one of
the fastest growing markets in tourism (UNEP, 1998). The vast majority of international
eco-tourism consumers are North American, European, and Japanese. Studies have
shown that eco-tourists are wealthier, better educated, more mature and more
environmentally focused in comparison with other tourists (UNEP,1998). They take
longer trips and spend more money per day than travelers with less of an interest in
nature. The deputy secretary of the New Zealand Ministry of the Environment recently
reported that nature/culture visits to New Zealand are growing at a rate of 30 percent, or
eight times faster than the growth rate of traditional tourism at 4 percent (UNEP, 1998).
To obtain a clear view regarding the status, attraction level and state of eco-tourism’s
growth world-wide, case studies from some selected eco-tourist destinations- both from
the developed and developing world are presented below:

Case Study 1: Eco-tourism is rapidly superseding mass tourism in Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka is one of the world’s premier destinations for eco tourism. Although in terms of
land area Sri Lanka is only a small island but it is rich in its variety of fauna and flora. Sri
Lanka has more than 3300 flowering plants, over 300 species of ferns, 400 species of birds
as well as wild animals such as elephant and, of course, fish. There are quite a number of
eco-tourist spots in Sri-Lanka which include wild-life reserve, botanical gardens, coastal
reefs, protected ridges. According to one estimate, eco-tourist destinations in Sri-Lanka,
in aggregate, entertained 572114 visitors in 1998-which by far is the highest in country’s
history. Majority of these visitors were from Western Europe & Japan. Bird watching,
watching wildlife at sanctuaries, mountain trekking, scuba diving, etc. are the major
attractions in these Sri-Lankan eco-tourist spots. Eco-tourism sector grew at an average of
9.4 percent from 1990 onwards. The revenue earning from the same has been able to
register and continue an upward trend. By the estimate of 1999, it amounted to US$ 6.28
million. If a long standing peace agreement can be reached with the fighting Tamil rebels,
growth in this sector could well be expected several times more than the present rate
(http://www.ecotourism-culturaltourism.com/Advisory-line.htm).
Jahangirnagar Planning Review, Vol. 2, June 2004 8

Case Study 2: Eco-tourism Development Programs in Brazil

Brazil’s eco-tourism industry began to grow exponentially just after the country woke up
to it’s eco-potential during 1992 Earth Summit. It has been estimated by the industry
sources that each year about one million eco-tourists are now visiting different
destinations within Brazil. According to one estimate eco-tourism industry in Brazil is
growing at a rate of 14.4 percent since 1994. With its large-scale natural attractions, the
industry has virtually opened doors for thousands of job seekers. This has also
contributed the country with a potential risk of natural resource destruction. The number
of nature conscious tour operators and related employees is in real lack at the moment.
The government has initiated a program of increasing awareness amongst the tour
operators, related employees and local people, especially in the Amazon. The awareness
building campaign starts with the slogan “If we visit the Amazon, we save it”. All these
have been attempted with a view to protect the precious natural resources and to sustain
eco-tourism (The Asian Wall Street Journal, 2002).

Observations from Case Studies

Eco-tourism calls for such tourist activities that require high level of consciousness
amongst the tourists and tour operators, generates a comparatively consistent amount of
economic return etc. At the same time, case studies illustrate that, eco-tourist activities
are on the rise implying that the involved concerns are increasingly getting environment
conscious. Protecting the environment and refraining from activities that are harmful to
the nature are such propositions that seem to have been able to make a definite appeal on
the minds of the tourists. It can thus be stated that eco-tourism is making its way forward
quite rapidly world-wide.

Potentials of Eco-tourism Industry in Bangladesh

The prospect of developing eco-tourism industry in Bangladesh is considerably high.
Country’s 186 km. long shoreline is world’s longest continuous sea-beach (FFYP, 1997-
2002). Each and every part of it is accessible. Every year, tourist sites generate around
3,00,000-4,00,000 tourists - both from home and abroad (FFYP, 1997-2002). In the
southwestern part, country’s landscape is decorated with world’s largest mangrove
forest-the “Sunderbans”. Worldwide it is known for mentionable array of flora, fauna
and most of all the exotic “Royal Bengal Tiger” (FFYP, 1997-2002). This “mystic” land has
long been a strong attraction to the tourists, researchers and poachers. In the southeast,
the Chittagong Hill Tracts, with its lucrative natural landscape having tribal settlements
within, definitely possesses the potentials to be an exotic eco-tourist spot. The lush,
smooth green hill tracts in the whole of Sylhet district-having indigenous settlements, the
coral reefs at the St. Martins Island, “Garo” hills in the northern Bangladesh ornamented
with the indigenous settlements of “Garo” tribe and ancient historical sites in
Mahastangarh, Bogra, and Lalmai, Comilla etc., in a consorted manner can frame a
lucrative eco-tourism package within Bangladesh. In terms of resourcefulness, these
places are important.
In the Fifth Five Year Plan (1997-2002), the sectoral policy objective of the Ministry of
Civil Aviation and Tourism (line ministry responsible for Tourism affairs) clearly states
that in order to “enhance revenue earning from this sector and to comply with the
government’s sustainable development goal and to protect the natural environment, eco-
tourism does offer lucrative potential.” The average yearly growth in the tourism
industry in between 1980 to 1995 was .3 percent whereas in Sri-Lanka and Nepal, it was
15 percent and 19 percent respectively. To enhance revenue earning, policy objectives are
strongly inclined towards the development of eco-tourism industry in a concerted effort
with the Ministry of Forest and Environment, Ministry of Fisheries Resources, Ministry
9 Eco-Tourism: An Investigation into the Conceptual Framework and Policy

of LGRD & C, Ministry of Communication, Ministry of Home Affairs (FFYP, 1997-2002).

Clearly, government’s policy framework speaks in favour of eco-tourism industry.
The very concept of eco-tourism, as discussed in the earlier sections, speaks in favour of
environmental protection, prevention of tourism activities that are harmful for nature
and native culture’s sustenance. So, any policy initiative and related activity regarding
eco-tourism development should result with environmental protection and prevention of
natural resource depletion. In a word, exploitation of “Eco-Tourism” potentials appears
as “Blessing in Disguise” for the natural environment and it’s very sustenance.
Therefore, considering the status of country’s resource base, government’s policy
support, and industry’s “in built” mechanism for nature protection, the potentials for
eco-tourism development in Bangladesh are quite appreciable.
With government’s policy support, the private entrepreneurs can consider developing
countrywide eco-tourism packages. The following might be the packages-
• In the Sunderbans- Nature watch, bird watching, deer watching at the deer
sanctuary in the “Dublarchar” island. Enjoying the landscape of the “Sunderbans”
by canals or rivers on boat (preferably on non-motorized or less vibrating, low-noise
mechanized boats) could well be an exotic and at the same time a good learning
experience.
• In the St. Martin island- cruising along the reefs in non-motorized boats, scuba
diving for watching deep-water flora, fauna within. The surface area of the island is
flanked with exotic landscape elements. As a whole, nature trekking in St. Martin
Island would surely be a lucrative and learning touring experience.
• In the Chittagong Hill Tracts, “Garo” hills at Mymensingh, in the tea-gardens and
hilly regions of Sylhet Division- The fine and mystic landscape with tribal
settlements can cater profound interest on the part of nature-tourists for mountain
trekking, enjoying local and tribal hospitality, their exotic culture etc.

Policy Intervention and the Role of Key Players

The policy requirements for eco-tourism industry demand the government to lead the
industry from the forefront. In other words, government ought to chalk out the policy
framework in this regard. The policy structure for the eco-tourism requires it to be
coherent with the overall national development goal and objective or vice versa. National
development Objective needs to have a comprehensive understanding of the relationship
between tourism and the environment (McIntyre, 1999). Developing a tourism policy that
is consistent with the national economic, transport, environmental protection and
conservation and economic development is clearly a complex assignment. Apparently, it
calls for integrated planning and development initiative. The approach in this regard
might be:
• linking development policy with environmental management;
• integration of tourism development and environmental management policies at
the local, regional and national level;
• increasing local capacities to cope with the environmental issues, particularly in
rapidly developing tourist destination areas.
Government ought to realize that policy issues must involve those many stakeholders
who stand to be impacted by eco-tourism development including protected-area
personnel, local communities, the tourism industry, NGOs, financial institutions and the
Jahangirnagar Planning Review, Vol. 2, June 2004 10

consumers. Liu (1998), investigating on Malaysia’s eco-tourism industry, suggested the

following conceptual policy framework required for eco-tourism development (fig.1).
Therefore, in this regard, it is quite evident asking what could possibly be the concern(s)
that needs to be intervened for eco-tourism development? Subramanianswami (1999), on
the basis of his research outcome on Sri Lanka’s tourism industry and it’s development,
have been able to identify ten (tentative) specific areas where government or the policy
planners of South-Asian nations seeking to develop alternative tourism need to
intervene. Considering the contextual similarity, these ten areas for policy intervention
are quite applicable for Bangladesh. Table 2 presents the concepts of policy issues and
intervention.
Administrative
Reorientation and
Development of Effective
Regulatory Measures

Environmental Policy Framework Economic

Management and for Development
Ecosystem Protection Eco-Tourism Development Objective

Community Awareness
Building through on
and off site Education

Fig 1: Conceptual Policy Framework for Eco-Tourism Development

Table 2: Eco-Tourism: Aspects of Policy Issues and Intervention

Policy Issues Area of Intervention
Development objective Establishing economic, ecological and socio-cultural objectives in
consultation with the local communities, designating specific areas for
eco-tourism development
Inventories Surveying and analyzing region’s ecology, history, culture, economy,
resources to evaluate the existing and potential eco-tourist attractions.
Infrastructure and Provisioning adequate infrastructure and facilities, establishing means to
Facilities assist private sector in developing eco-tourism enterprise
Market Analyzing present and future domestic and international eco-tourism
markets and establishing marketing goals.
Carrying Capacity Strive to understand the social and ecological use of an area through
appropriate management and research.
Economic Considering ways to enhance the economic benefits, analyzing the self-
sustenance state of the profits, future economy and local benefits
Environment Developing system framework to continuously evaluate the impact of
eco-tourism on resource base having link to other resource conservation
measures
Culture Analyzing the socio-cultural impact of eco-tourism and adopting
measures for the prevention of negative impacts of eco-tourism,
11 Eco-Tourism: An Investigation into the Conceptual Framework and Policy

empowering local peoples to become decision makers

Human Resources Promoting job creation and entrepreneurship, establishing community
awareness programs, providing adequate education and training for the
local people
Organization Establishing working relationship between public, private and non-
profit organizations

For the effective implementation of policy instruments, both the public and private
sectors need to play some specific roles. These respective roles might be the following:

A. The Role of Government in Promoting Eco-tourism

The role of government in promoting eco-tourism is more like providing the society with
a leadership. Liu (1998) stressed that such leadership would pave the way for growth,
development and sustenance of eco-tourism if only it can ensure a “win-win” scenario
for all the involved interests. The challenge for the public sector is to provide a
supportive business climate for the private sector, while keeping safeguards to ensure
environmental and cultural enhancement. In order to promote eco-tourism, government
should:
• take the leadership role— in the case of eco-tourism, it is imperative that
government takes a leadership role in creating the economic environment necessary
for eco-tourism businesses to flourish. It should also encourage and support
entrepreneurs to emerge from private sector and from within the community to
provide the necessary business ventures. By taking the lead in getting everyone to
work together, the government can encourage everyone to take the necessary
cooperative steps in order for eco-tourism to succeed.
• involve key parties in the decision-making process— these policies need to be
made by informed decision-makers considering the interests of the stakeholders. It
means that private industry, landowners, community leaders, educators, etc. all
need to be informed and involved in the decision-making process from the
beginning. If anyone is left out, there is a strong possibility that attempts to hinder
or stop the project will be made. This will be counterproductive to the good
intentions of the policy. Community-based economic development is the key to
successful eco-tourism.
• facilitate efficient private sector activity by minimizing market interference and
relying on competition as a means of control— even though environmental
regulations and monitoring are necessary for eco-tourism, government can rely
more on incentives and avoid overly restrictive controls that make it difficult for
firms to get started or succeed. Further, fiscal and trade policies should promote
competition as much as possible.
• ensure a sound macroeconomic environment— governments should support
business by helping with grants, loans and incentive programs, having clear
guidelines for business operations, and facilitating compliance with environmental
regulations.
Jahangirnagar Planning Review, Vol. 2, June 2004 12

• guarantee law and order, and the just settlement of disputes— government should
ensure the protection of property rights, while finding ways to resolve differences
on desired projects in a fair and equitable manner.
• ensure the provision of appropriate infrastructure— government needs to support
eco-tourism businesses with physical infrastructure.
• ensure the development of human resources— government can do much to
encourage certification, education and training programs through the educational
institutions, offices of tourism, and other agencies.
• protect the public interest without obstructing private sector activity with too
many regulations— government should encourage self-regulation as much as
possible. But where regulations are needed, government can help businesses follow
them by providing informational programs and on-staff specialists for efficient
energy use, recycling, design of buildings, etc.
• acknowledge the role of small business entrepreneurs and facilitate their
activities— they are the hope of the future for providing income and jobs for the
tourist destinations. Governments must provide a supportive role in establishing the
financial and regulatory environment to facilitate the easy entry and smooth
operation of eco-tourism enterprises. Both need to cooperate in order to achieve the
highest standards possible in business management and environmental protection.

And finally, government needs to take a proactive and coordinated approach.

B. Role of the Private Sector

The private sector provides the entrepreneurs. They are the key agents in choosing and
implementing productive investment opportunities. They are the ones who must take the
risks in obtaining the funds necessary to establish eco-tourism businesses. They need the
necessary financial and managerial skills and knowledge of operations so that they can
run their businesses profitably. Private business decisions must have the public interest
in mind, especially since eco-tourism means an improvement for the society and
environment. However, prospective entrepreneurs may need assistance in learning
standard business practices. In general, private sector can well be encouraged to take part
in-
• infrastructure development;
• marketing activities;
• environmental and cultural enhancement, and
• human resource development-- necessary for eco-tourism industry.
Apart from these generalized concerns, in specific, private sector enterprises can
strengthen and enhance the dynamics of this industry if they can-
• adopt the necessary practices to conserve the environment - such as reforestation,
the use of renewable resources like solar energy to whatever extent possible, and
conservation of non-renewable resources like water and fossil fuels; e.g., mangroves
need to be protected.
13 Eco-Tourism: An Investigation into the Conceptual Framework and Policy

• take into consideration community attitudes, and cultural values and concerns-
including local customs and beliefs, in the planning of tourism projects —
ultimately, the cooperation of people in the community will determine the success
or failure of eco-tourism industry.
• include environmental assessment as an important step in considering any
tourism site or project — the developers of tourist projects must implement and
comply with the environmental assessment guideline(s), framed by the government
in order to ensure “eco value” of the project.
• make sure the assessment procedures consider the total, as well as the individual,
environmental effects of all developments combined — while individual projects
might be able to show only minimal effects, the total impact of all the projects
combined might need to be controlled. Concerned developers need to look at the
total picture and keep the community informed.
• encourage regular environmental and social audits of practices throughout the
tourism industry and encourage necessary changes to harmful practices—
business sector, in consort with the government, needs to establish quality standards
that educate people about the necessity for maintaining these standards.
• increase the awareness of environmental and conservation principles in tourism
management and amongst the staff - encourage an understanding of each
community’s customs, cultural values, beliefs and traditions, and how they relate to
the environment - informational and training programs for tourism personnel and
the community at large are needed.
• include conservation principles in education, training, and planning of eco-
tourism business - incentives and awards programs can help create awareness and
motivation; e.g., the Kenyan Tourism Operators Association has produced an
educational video on eco-tourism for school children to enhance their level of
appreciation for the valuable natural resources.
• enhance the tourists’ appreciation and understanding of the environment by
providing accurate information and appropriate interpretation - certification and
interpretation programs are needed to improve the quality of information given to
visitors prior to and during the trip.
And, finally follow all environmental laws at all levels of business.

Dilemma or Trade-offs
A number of interrelationships are important when viewing eco-tourism within the total
picture. Eco-tourism is very complex since it involves ecology, culture and business.
Naturally, there is a need to find a proper balance. It is helpful to consider a number of
trade-offs, namely:

• Development versus Conservation

Eco-tourism policy is not simply passing environmental legislation. Thus, legislators
need to make sure that economic and cultural goals are being met. In fact, policy
makers need to seriously consider all three aspects — economic growth, culture, and
environmental protection in eco-tourism policies.
Jahangirnagar Planning Review, Vol. 2, June 2004 14

• Supply versus Demand

Policy makers need to consider both supply and demand aspects of eco-tourism.
Supply represents eco-tourism products like nature parks, conservation or
beautification projects, local-style accommodation, eco-tours, cultural activities,
recreation, resort projects, and small businesses (McIntyre, 1999). The provision of
eco-products requires decisions and agreements about land and resource use,
including zoning, tax incentives, permits, awards programs, foreign investments,
immigration, etc. (McIntyre, 1999). Demand refers to the eco-tourism market —
what kind of eco-tourist can be attracted, how many will visit, where will they stay,
how much will they spend, what are they interested in doing, and so on (McIntyre,
1998). Decision-makers need to coordinate marketing and promotional efforts so
that there is a clear image presented to the consumer about the destination. This
means that the Parjatan Corporations (National Tourism Organization) marketing
efforts need to be in consort with private sector promotional programs. Government
can also assist in the collection of market information necessary for effective
promotions. Furthermore, in order for long-term success, there has to be a balance
between demand and supply. Too few eco-tourists will result in wasted
investments, and too many will defeat the purpose of eco-tourism. Hence,
government needs to balance marketing and development, and not neglect one over
the other.

• Benefits versus Costs

Government needs to ensure that the distribution of benefits and costs are equitable.
This requires determination of appropriate visitor fees, adequate returns on
investments, sufficient impact fees from developers, and optimal returns to local
residents, reasonable incentives and taxation. In order for eco-tourism to be
economically self-sufficient, policy-makers need to make appropriate financial and
fiscal policies. In addition, non-economic considerations, such as social and
environmental costs and benefits need to be considered.

• People versus Environment

The challenge here is to find the balance between traditional ways and modern
practices. The practice of conservation, both by the locales and the tourists is utmost
necessary for the industry to sustain. It is to be kept in mind by all stakeholders that
resources become depleted through rapid population increases and destruction by
natural disasters (McIntyre, 2001). Eco-tourism provides a way to encourage
preservation of the environment through reforestation, conservation areas,
renewable resources, and recycling. However, these conservation efforts will only be
acceptable if they are shown to be consistent with cultural values. Through
education programs, government can do much to educate residents about the need
to change any damaging practice like littering, removing artefacts, or over-
harvesting plants, animals, or shells (Boo, 2001). Cultural values that support
replenishing limited stocks for future use and generations should be emphasized
and encouraged (Boo, 2001). In addition, how the land and its resources are being
used by tourism operators will determine the attractiveness of the destination to
visitors, whether or not they will return, and whether or not they will encourage
their friends and relatives to visit. Eco-tourists travel with a purpose of experiencing
15 Eco-Tourism: An Investigation into the Conceptual Framework and Policy

nature and insist on upholding proper environmental practices. They may even
boycott a place if appropriate environmental practices are not followed.
Government can help by providing appropriate environmental guidelines for both
visitors and residents.

Conclusion
Sustainable development emphasizes the positive cultural–economic change, which is
embedded within the concept of eco-tourism. Thus, a successful eco-tourism industry is
about integrated policies, planning and social learning. In fact, eco-tourism has captured
the interest of conservationists, biologists, and wildlife specialists as well as developers
because of its above-mentioned characteristics. And this is how it proposes a way
towards environmental sustainability on the development of eco-tourism facilities in
future. Besides, the cooperation between private and public concerns is vital in this
connection, as it would ultimately strengthen the cohesion between socio-economic
institutions. Primarily, as Stewart et al. (1999) mentioned, eco-tourism requires (a)
integration of non-financial objectives and (b) planning process which encourages
participatory decision–making encompassing entrepreneurs, land managers, host
community, and interested tourists visitors.
This is much dependent on the cooperation between the private and the government
enterprises. There has to be a strong local understanding that the two forces are working
together to a high degree, producing not only economic betterment but also increased
public support for resource protection.
Sustainable development speaks in favour of striking a balance between development
and conservation. Eco-tourism, by default, appears as the ultimate alternative to mass-
tourism, and it is against any harmful act towards the natural environment. In the end, it
can be stated that eco-tourism is about linking environmental sustainability and
community development.

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