Entropy Balance for Closed Systems

 Entropy balance for closed systems: developed using

Clausius inequality & the defining eqn for entropy change

subscript b  integral is
evaluated at system boundary

 Q 
   s cycle
 T b
 scycle in the Clausius inequality  value of s (sgen ) adheres
to the following interpretation
= 0 (no irreversibilities present within the system)
s: > 0 (irreversibilities present within the system)
< 0 (impossible)
 Developing Closed System Entropy Balance
Entropy balance for closed systems is developed Clausius inequality
Fig.  a cycle executed by a closed system:
process I, during which internal irrevs are
present, followed by internally rev process R.

 Q 
   0  s cycle
 T b

1st integral: process I; 2nd integral: process R. Subscript b: reminder

that the integrand is evaluated at system boundary. Not reqd in 2 nd
integral because temp is uniform throughout the system at each intmd
state of an int rev process.
No irrev in process R  scycle refers only to process I, simply s.
 Developing Closed System Entropy Balance

Applying definition of entropy change, express 2nd integral as:

Or,

Rearrangement yields the closed system entropy balance:

 Entropy Balance for Closed Systems

 That s has a value of zero when there are no int irrevs and
is +ve when irrevs are present within the system leads to
the interpretation that s accounts for entropy generated
within the system by action of irreversibilities

 Expressed in words, the entropy balance is

change in amount net amount of amount of

of entropy contained entropy transferred in entropy generated
within the system across the system boundary + within the system
during some accompanying heat transfer during some
time interval during some time interval time interval
Entropy Rate Balance for Closed Systems
 On a time rate basis, the closed system entropy rate
balance is

where
dS
 time rate of change of the entropy of the system
dt
Q j
 time rate of entropy transfer through the portion of
Tj
the boundary whose temp is Tj

s  time rate of entropy production due to irrevs within

the system
 Entropy Rate Balance for Control Volumes
 Like mass and energy, entropy can be transferred into or out
of a CV by streams of matter.
 Since this is the principal difference between the closed
system and CV entropy rate balances, the CV form can be
obtained by modifying the closed system form to account for
such entropy transfer.

where m i si and m e se account, respectively, for rates of entropy

transfer accompanying mass flow at inlets i and exits e.
 Entropy Rate Balance for Control Volumes

 For control volumes at steady state 

 For a one-inlet, one-exit control volume at steady state

where 1 and 2 denote the inlet and exit,

m is the common mass flow rate at these locations.
 Entropy Rate Balance for CVs: Comment

 The value of the entropy generation for a single component

often does not have much significance by itself.
 The significance of the entropy gen of any component is
normally determined through comparison with the entropy
gen values of other components combined with that
component to form an integrated system.

 Reducing irrevs of components with

the highest entropy gen rates may lead
to improved thermodynamic
performance of the integrated system.
p1 = 0.7 bar p2 = 0.35 bar
T1 = 280oC h2 = h1
 Isentropic Turbine Efficiency

1
 For a turbine, energy rate balance:

 (V 2
 V 2
)  2
 
0  Qcv  Wcv  m (h1  h2 )  1 2  g ( z1  z2 )
 2 

 If change in KE of flowing matter is negligible, ½(V12 – V22) drops out.

 If change in PE of flowing matter is negligible, g(z1 – z2) drops out.
 If heat transfer with surroundings is negligible, Q cv drops out.

W cv
 h1  h2
m

where the LHS is work developed per unit of mass flowing.

 Isentropic Turbine Efficiency

1
 For a turbine, the entropy rate balance:

 If heat transfer with surroundings is negligible, Q j drops out.

s cv
 s2  s1  0
m
 Isentropic Turbine Efficiency
 sgen cannot be -ve, the only turbine exit
states that can be attained in an
adiabatic expansion are those with s2 ≥ s1

 State 2s is attained only in an isentropic expansion from inlet

state to specified exit pressure  2s would be attained only in
absence of internal irrevs.
 Max theoretical value for turbine work per unit mass flowing is
developed in such an internally reversible, adiabatic expansion:
 W cv 
 
 m   h1  h2s
 s
 Isentropic Turbine Efficiency

Isentropic turbine efficiency 

ratio of the actual turbine work
to the max theoretical work,
each per unit of mass flowing:
 Isentropic Compressor and Pump Efficiencies

 For a compressor the energy rate

balance reduces to 1
2
 (V 2
 V 2
) 
 
0  Qcv  Wcv  m (h1  h2 )  1 2  g ( z1  z2 )
 2 

 If change in KE of flowing matter is negligible, ½(V12 – V22) drops out.

 If change in PE of flowing matter is negligible, g(z1 – z2) drops out.
 If heat transfer with surroundings is negligible, Qcv drops out.

 W cv 
 
 m   h2  h1
 
where the LHS is work input per unit of mass flowing.
 Isentropic Compressor and Pump Efficiencies
1
 For a compressor the entropy rate
balance reduces to

 If the heat transfer with surroundings is negligible, Q j

drops out.
s cv
 s2  s1  0
m
 Isentropic Compressor and Pump Efficiencies
 sgen can’t be -ve, the only
compressor exit states that can be
attained in an adiabatic
compression are those with s2 ≥ s1
shown on (h-s plane).

 State 2s is attained only in an isentropic compression from

inlet state to the specified exit pressure  state 2s would be
attained only in the absence of internal irrevs. Minimum
theoretical value for compressor work input per unit of mass
flowing is for such an internally rev, adiabatic compression:
 W cv 
 
 m   h2s  h1
 s
 Isentropic Compressor and Pump Efficiencies

 Isentropic compressor efficiency 

ratio of min theoretical work input
to actual work input, each per unit
of mass flowing:

 An isentropic pump efficiency is defined similarly. Difference?

 Heat Transfer and Work in Internally Reversible
Steady-State Flow Processes
 Consider a one-inlet, one-exit
CV at steady state:
Wcv
 Compressors, pumps,
turbines, and other devices m
1 2
commonly encountered in
engg practice are included in Q cv
this class of control volumes.

 The objective is to introduce expressions for the heat

transfer rate Q cv / m and work rate Wcv / m in the absence of
internal irreversibilities.
 The resulting expressions have important applications.
Heat Transfer & Work in Int Rev SS Flow Processes
 In agreement with the discussion of energy transfer by heat to
a closed system during an internally reversible process, in the
present application we have

where the subscript int rev signals that the expression applies only
in the absence of internal irreversibilities.

 When the states visited by a unit mass passing

from inlet to exit without internal irrevs are
described by a curve on a T-s diagram, the heat
transfer per unit of mass flowing is represented
by the area under the curve.
Heat Transfer & Work in Int Rev SS Flow Processes

 Neglecting KE & PE effects, energy rate balance for the CV:

(1)
 Or,

 Since internal irrevs are assumed absent, each unit of mass

visits a sequence of eqm states as it passes from inlet to exit.
Entropy, enthalpy, & pr changes are related by the TdS eqn :
Heat Transfer & Work in Int Rev SS Flow Processes

 Integrating from inlet to exit:

 With this relation Eq. (1) 

 If the specific volume remains approximately constant,

as in many applications with liquids,
Heat Transfer & Work in Int Rev SS Flow Processes

 States visited by a unit mass passing from inlet to exit

without internal irrevs are described by a curve on p-v plane

 Magnitude of ∫vdp is shown by the area behind the curve.

Heat Transfer & Work in Int Rev SS Flow Processes
Example
A compressor operates at steady state 1
with natural gas entering at at p1, v1.
The gas undergoes a polytropic process
described by pv = const and exits at a
higher pressure, p2. 2

(a) Ignoring KE & PE effects, evaluate the specific work.

(b) If internal irreversibilities were present, would the

magnitude of the work per unit of mass flowing be <, =, or
> that of part (a)?
Heat Transfer & Work: Int Rev SS Flow Processes

(a) With pv = constant,

(-) sign  the compressor requires a work input.

(b) ??
BIOCONNECTIONS
 Bats, only mammals to fly, play several impt ecological roles,
incldg feeding on crop-damaging insects. Currently, ~¼ of bat
species are endangered. For unknown reasons, bats are attracted
to large wind turbines - they perish by impact, or from hemorrhaging.
 Near rapidly moving turbine blades there is a drop in air pressure
that expands the lungs of bats, causing fine capillaries to burst and
their lungs to fill with fluid, killing them.
 Relationship between air velocity and pressure in these instances
is captured by the following differential form of Bernoulli equation:
v dp =  V dV
 as local vel V increases, local pressure p decreases. Pressure
reduction near moving turbine blades is the source of peril to bats.
 Some say migrating bats experience most fatalities, so the harm
may be decreased at existing wind farms by reducing turbine
operation during peak migration periods. New wind farms should be
located away from known migratory routes. (Ref. Moran & Shapiro text)