Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard

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The philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard has been a major influence in the development of 20th-century philosophy,
especially existentialism and postmodernism. Kierkegaard was a 19th-century Danish philosopher who has been labeled
by many as the "Father of Existentialism"[1], although there are some in the field who express doubt in labeling him an
existentialist to begin with. His philosophy also influenced the development of existential psychology.[2]

Kierkegaard criticized aspects of the philosophical systems that were brought on by philosophers such as Georg Wilhelm
Friedrich Hegel before him and the Danish Hegelians. He was also indirectly influenced by the philosophy of Immanuel
Kant.[3] He measured himself against the model of philosophy which he found in Socrates, which aims to draw one's
attention not to explanatory systems, but rather to the issue of how one exists.[4]

One of Kierkegaard's recurrent themes is the importance of subjectivity, which has to do with the way people relate
themselves to (objective) truths. In Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments, he argues that
"subjectivity is truth" and "truth is subjectivity." Kierkegaard conveys that most essentially, truth is not just a matter of
discovering objective facts. While objective facts are important, there is a second and more crucial element of truth,
which involves how one relates oneself to those matters of fact. Since how one acts is, from the ethical perspective,
more important than any matter of fact, truth is to be found in subjectivity rather than objectivity

Søren Kierkegaard (1813—1855)

Søren Kierkegaard is an outsider in the history of philosophy. His peculiar authorship comprises a baffling array of different
narrative points of view and disciplinary subject matter, including aesthetic novels, works of psychology and Christian
dogmatics, satirical prefaces, philosophical "scraps" and "postscripts," literary reviews, edifying discourses, Christian
polemics, and retrospective self-interpretations. His arsenal of rhetoric includes irony, satire, parody, humor, polemic and
a dialectical method of "indirect communication" - all designed to deepen the reader’s subjective passionate engagement
with ultimate existential issues. Like his role models Socrates and Christ, Kierkegaard takes how one lives one’s life to be
the prime criterion of being in the truth. Kierkegaard’s closest literary and philosophical models are Plato, J.G. Hamann,
G.E. Lessing, and his teacher of philosophy at the University of Copenhagen Poul Martin Møller, although Goethe, the
German Romantics, Hegel, Kant and the logic of Adolf Trendelenburg are also important influences. His prime theological
influence is Martin Luther, although his reactions to his Danish contemporaries N.F.S. Grundtvig and H.L. Martensen are
also crucial. In addition to being dubbed "the father of existentialism," Kierkegaard is best known as a trenchant critic of
Hegel and Hegelianism and for his invention or elaboration of a host of philosophical, psychological, literary and theological
categories, including: anxiety, despair, melancholy, repetition, inwardness, irony, existential stages, inherited sin,
teleological suspension of the ethical, Christian paradox, the absurd, reduplication, universal/exception, sacrifice, love as a
duty, seduction, the demonic, and indirect communication.

Søren Kierkegaard, a Danish philosopher who imposed restrictions on his own love and emotions and declared the idea of
subjectivity as truth, is now recognized as the founder of Existentialism, an influential author in psychology, and an important figure
in Postmodernism.

He was born Søren Aabye Kierkegaard on May 5, 1813, into a wealthy family in Copenhagen, Denmark. He was the youngest of
seven children. His father, named Michael Pedersen Kierkegaard, was married to his 3rd cousin Ane Sorensdatter Lund, and was a
rigid religious man who suffered from depression and guilt, which he imposed on his children. From the young age Kierkegaard was
disabled and suffered from complications after his fall from a tree when he was a boy. He was also strongly influenced by his father's
depression and stubborn belief in a curse that all his children were doomed to die by the age of 33.

His philosophy and writing was also influenced by Regine Olsen, the love of his life and the muse for his writings. He and Regine met
in 1837, while they were students at University, and they became engaged in 1840, but he harbored some undisclosed secret of dark
and personal nature. A year later he chose to break off the engagement rather than to reveal his secret to Regine. She married
another man and refused to see Kierkegaard ever again. He sank into psychoanalysis of the ethical and emotional aspects of
breaking off in his book 'Repetition' (1843) which he published under the pseudonym Constantin Constantinus. At that time he was
suffering from melancholy, probably a form of depression coming from his own trauma and disability. In his writings Kierkegaard
used the word 'marriage' as a trope for the universal demands made by social mores.

Kierkegaard's works deal with problems of choice in many aspects, ranging from emotions and feelings of an individual, to religious,
philosophical, and political aspects of human society. Kierkegaard offered no solutions but rather a variety of views on individual,
social and political conundrums and unresolvable complexities, ranging from an "Attack on" approach to an observationist position.
His masterpiece and arguably the greatest work, 'Either/Or', was written during his stay in Berlin in 1842, then was revised and
completed in Copenhagen in the fall of the same year. In it Kierkegaard plays with his three incarnations, philosopher named "A",
Judge Williams, author of rebuttals to "A", and editor named Victor Eremita. It was published in 1843 and found little understanding
among the contemporaries. His other important works are 'The Concept of Irony' (1841), 'Fear and Trembling' (1843), and 'Works of
Love' (1847), among others. In his later works Kierkegaard analyzed the detrimental effect of organized religion on individuals in
Denmark caused by rigidity of established state church. His analysis of 'fear', 'sin', 'guilt', and other tools of control over minds, as
well as his thoughts on the decay of the Danish State Church and failures of applied religion lead to his statement that "the human
race has outgrown Christianity" which ignited attacks on him from many angered critics.

Kierkegaard published his works under various pseudonyms. He used several pseudonyms to create an imitation of a discussion
between several pseudo-authors, all of those in fact being one man, Kierkegaard. For that reason and also because of his complex
personality and intricate thought and reasoning, he made it difficult to distinguish between what he truly believed and what he was
making up for a mere argument. He died in a hospital on November 11, 1855, of complications from his fall from a tree in his
childhood, and was laid to rest in the Assistens Cemetery in Copenhagen, Denmark. His works were little known outside Denmark
until professional translations were made in the 1920s. His works has been extremely influential ever since. His arguments against
objectivity and emphasis on skepticism, especially concerning social morals and norms, laid groundwork for the 20th century
Existentialism and Postmodernism.

Along with Friedrich Nietzsche, he is regarded as the father of Existentialism and existential psychology. Kierkegaard's influence may
be found in many art movements, such as Dada, Futurism, and other movements in modern art. He influenced Martin Heidegger,
Jean-Paul Sartre, Martin Buber, Albert Camus, Simone de Beauvoir, Franz Kafka and John Updike among many other thinkers and
writers.

Søren Kierkegaard, in full Søren Aabye Kierkegaard, (born May 5, 1813, Copenhagen, Den.—died Nov. 11, 1855, Copenhagen),
Danish philosopher, theologian, and cultural critic who was a major influence on existentialism and Protestant theology in the 20th
century. He attacked the literary, philosophical, and ecclesiastical establishments of his day for misrepresenting the highest task of
human existence—namely, becoming oneself in an ethical and religious sense—as something so easy that it could seem already
accomplished even when it had not even been undertaken. Positively, the heart of his work lay in the infinite requirement and
strenuous difficulty of religious existence in general and Christian faith in particular.
A Life Of Collisions
Kierkegaard’s life has been called uneventful, but it was hardly that. The story of his life is a drama in four overlapping
acts, each with its own distinctive crisis or “collision,” as he often referred to these events. His father, Michael Pedersen
Kierkegaard, was a prosperous but retired businessman who devoted the later years of his life to raising his children. He
was a man of deep but gloomy and guilt-ridden piety who was haunted by the memory of having once cursed God as a
boy and of having begun his family by getting his maid pregnant—and then marrying her—shortly after the death of his
first wife. His domineering presence stimulated young Søren’s imaginative and intellectual gifts but, as his son would
later bear witness, made a normal childhood impossible.
Kierkegaard enrolled at the University of Copenhagen in 1830 but did not complete his studies until 1841. Like the
German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831), whose system he would severely criticize,
Kierkegaard entered university in order to study theology but devoted himself to literature and philosophy instead.
His thinking during this period is revealed in an 1835 journal entry, which is often cited as containing the germ of his later
work:

The thing is to find a truth which is true for me, to find the idea for which I can live and die.…What is truth but to live for
an idea?
While a student at the university, Kierkegaard explored the literary figures of Don Juan, the wandering Jew, and
especially Faust, looking for existential models for his own life.
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The first collision occurred during his student days: he became estranged both from his father and from the faith in which
he had been brought up, and he moved out of the family home. But by 1838, just before his father’s death, he
was reconciled both to his father and to the Christian faith; the latter became the idea for which he would live and die.
Despite his reference to an experience of “indescribable joy” in May of that year, it should not be assumed that his
conversion was instantaneous. On the one hand, he often seemed to be moving away from the faith of his father and back
toward it at virtually the same time. On the other hand, he often stressed that conversion is a long process. He saw
becoming a Christian as the task of a lifetime. Accordingly, he decided to publish Sygdommen til døden(1849; Sickness
unto Death) under a pseudonym (as he had done with several previous works), lest anyone think he lived up to the ideal
he there presented; likewise, the pseudonymous authors of his other works often denied that they possessed the faith they
talked about. Although in the last year of his life he wrote, “I dare not call myself a Christian,” throughout his career it
was Christianity that he sought to defend by rescuing it from cultural captivity, and it was a Christian person that he
sought to become.
After his father’s death, Kierkegaard became serious about finishing his formal education. He took his doctoral exams and
wrote his dissertation, Om begrebet ironi med stadigt hensyn til Socrates (On the Concept of Irony, with Constant
Reference to Socrates), completing it in June of 1841 and defending it in September. In between, he broke his engagement
with Regine Olsen, thus initiating the second major collision of his life. They had met in 1837, when she was only 15
years old, and had become engaged in 1840. Now, less than one year later, he returned her ring, saying he “could not
make a girl happy.” The reasons for this action are far from clear.
What is clear is that this relationship haunted him for the rest of his life. Saying in his will that he considered engagement
as binding as marriage, he left all his possessions to Regine (she did not accept them, however, since she had married long
before Kierkegaard died). It is also clear that this crisis triggered a period of astonishing literary productivity, during
which Kierkegaard published many of the works for which he is best known: Enten-Eller: et livs-
fragment (1843; Either/Or: A Fragment of Life), Gjentagelsen (1843; Repetition), Frygt og baeven (1843; Fear and
Trembling), Philosophiske smuler (1844; Philosophical Fragments), Begrebet angest (1844; The Concept of
Anxiety), Stadier paa livets vei (1845; Stages on Life’s Way), and Afsluttende uvidenskabelig efterskrift (1846; Concluding
Unscientific Postscript). Even after acknowledging that he had written these works, however, Kierkegaard insisted that
they continue to be attributed to their pseudonymous authors. The pseudonyms are best understood by analogy with
characters in a novel, created by the actual author to embody distinctive worldviews; it is left to the reader to decide what
to make of each one.
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Kierkegaard had intended to cease writing at this point and become a country pastor. But it was not to be. The first period
of literary activity (1843–46) was followed by a second (1847–55). Instead of retiring, he picked a quarrel with The
Corsair, a newspaper known for its liberal political sympathies but more famous as a scandal sheet that used satire to
skewer the establishment. Although The Corsair had praised some of the pseudonymous works, Kierkegaard did not wish
to see his own project confused with that of the newspaper, so he turned his satirical skills against it. The Corsair took the
bait, and for months Kierkegaard was the target of raucous ridicule, the greatest butt of jokes in Copenhagen. Better at
giving than at taking, he was deeply wounded, and indeed he never fully recovered. If the broken engagement was the
cloud that hung over the first literary period, the Corsairdebacle was the ghost that haunted the second.
The final collision was with the Church of Denmark (Lutheran) and its leaders, the bishops J.P. Mynster and H.L.
Martensen. In his journals Kierkegaard called Sickness unto Death an “attack upon Christendom.” In a similar vein, Anti-
Climacus, the pseudonymous author of Indøvelse i Christendom (1850; Training in Christianity), declared the need “again
to introduce Christianity into Christendom.” This theme became more and more explicit as Kierkegaard resumed his
writing career. As long as Mynster, the family pastor from his childhood, was alive, Kierkegaard refrained from personal
attacks. But at Mynster’s funeral Martensen, who had succeeded to the leadership of the Danish church, eulogized his
predecessor as a “witness to the truth,” linking him to the martyrs of the faith; after this Kierkegaard could no longer keep
silent. In December 1854 he began to publish dozens of short, shrill pieces insisting that what passed as Christianity in
Denmark was counterfeit and making clear that Mynster and Martensen were responsible for reducing the religion to
“leniency.” The last of these pieces was found on Kierkegaard’s desk after he collapsed in the street in October 1855.

1. Kierkegaard’s Life
Kierkegaard led a somewhat uneventful life. He rarely left his hometown of Copenhagen, and travelled abroad only five
times—four times to Berlin and once to Sweden. His prime recreational activities were attending the theatre, walking the
streets of Copenhagen to chat with ordinary people, and taking brief carriage jaunts into the surrounding countryside. He
was educated at a prestigious boys’ school (Borgerdydskolen), then attended Copenhagen University where he studied
philosophy and theology. His teachers at the university included F.C. Sibbern, Poul Martin Møller, and H.L. Martensen.
Sibbern and Møller were both philosophers who also wrote fiction. The latter in particular had a great influence on
Kierkegaard’s philosophico-literary development. Martensen also had a profound effect on Kierkegaard, but largely in a
negative manner. Martensen was a champion of Hegelianism, and when he became Bishop Primate of the Danish People’s
Church, Kierkegaard published a vitriolic attack on Martensen’s theological views. Kierkegaard’s brother Peter, on the
other hand, was an adherent of Martensen and himself became a bishop. Kierkegaard regarded Martensen as one of his
chief intellectual rivals. Martensen was only five years his senior, but was already lecturing at Copenhagen University
when Kierkegaard was a student there. Martensen also anticipated Kierkegaard’s first major literary project, by publishing
a book on Faust. Kierkegaard, who had been working up a project on the three great medieval figures of Don Juan, Faust
and Ahasuerus (the wandering Jew), abandoned his own project when Martensen’s book appeared, although he later
incorporated much of the work he had done into Either/Or.
Another very important figure in Kierkegaard’s life was J.L. Heiberg, the doyen of Copenhagen’s literati. Heiberg, more
than any other person, was responsible for introducing Hegelianism into Denmark. Kierkegaard spent a good deal of
energy trying to break into the Heiberg literary circle, but desisted once he had found his own voice in The Concept of
Irony. Kierkegaard’s first major publication, From the Papers of One Still Living, is largely an attempt to articulate a
Heibergian aesthetics—which is a modified version of Hegel’s aesthetics. In From the Papers of One Still Living, which
is a critical review of Hans Christian Andersen’s novel Only A Fiddler, Kierkegaard attacks Andersen for lacking life-
development (Livs-Udvikling) and an outlook on life (Livs-Anskuelse) both of which Kierkegaard deemed necessary for
someone to be a genuine novelist (Romandigter).
Kierkegaard’s life is more relevant to his work than is the case for many writers. Much of the thrust of his critique of
Hegelianism is that its system of thought is abstracted from the everyday lives of its proponents. This existential critique
consists in demonstrating how the life and work of a philosopher contradict one another. Kierkegaard derived this form of
critique from the Greek notion of judging philosophers by their lives rather than simply by their intellectual artefacts. The
Christian ideal, according to Kierkegaard, is even more exacting since the totality of an individual’s existence is the
artefact on the basis of which s/he is judged by God for h/er eternal validity. Of course a writer’s work is an important part
of h/er existence, but for the purpose of judgement we should focus on the whole life not just on one part.
In a less abstract manner, an understanding of Kierkegaard’s biography is important for an understanding of his writing
because his life was the source of many of the preoccupations and repetitions within his oeuvre. Because of his
existentialist orientation, most of his interventions in contemporary theory do double duty as means of working through
events from his own life. In particular Kierkegaard’s relations to his father and his fiancée Regine Olsen pervade his work.
Kierkegaard’s pseudonym Johannes Climacus says of Socrates that “his whole life was personal preoccupation with
himself, and then Governance comes and adds world-historical significance to it.” Similarly, Kierkegaard saw himself as a
“singular universal” whose personal preoccupation with himself was transfigured by divine Governance into universal
significance.
Kierkegaard’s relation to his mother is the least frequently commented upon since it is invisible in his work. His mother
does not rate a direct mention in his published works, or in his diaries—not even on the day she died. However, for a
writer who places so much emphasis on indirect communication, and on the semiotics of invisibility, we should regard
this absence as significant. Johannes Climacus in Concluding Unscientific Postscript remarks, “… how deceptive then,
that an omnipresent being should be recognisable precisely by being invisible.” Although Kierkegaard’s mother is absent,
his mother-tongue (Modersmaal—etymologically derived from the words for “mother” and “measure”) is almost
omnipresent. Kierkegaard was deeply enamoured of the Danish language and worked throughout his writings to assert the
strengths of his mother-tongue over the invasive, imperialistic influences of Latin and German. With respect to the
former, Kierkegaard had to petition the king to be allowed to write his philosophy dissertation On the Concept of Irony
with constant reference to Socrates in Danish. Even though permission was granted he was still required to defend his
dissertation publicly in Latin. Latin had been the pan-European language of science and scholarship. In Denmark, in
Kierkegaard’s time, German language and culture were at least as dominant as Latin in the production of knowledge. In
defiance of this, Kierkegaard revelled in his mother-tongue and created some of the most beautifully poetic prose in the
Danish language—including a paean to his mother-tongue in Stages On Life’s Way. In Repetition (1843), the character
and pseudonymous author Constantin Constantius congratulates the Danish language on providing the word for an
important new philosophical concept, viz. Gjentagelse (repetition), to replace the foreign word “mediation”. In general,
we might regard the Danish language as Kierkegaard’s umbilical attachment to the mother whereas Latin and German
represent the law of the father, especially when employed in systematic scholarship or science (Videnskab).
The influence of Kierkegaard’s father on his work has been frequently noted. Not only did Kierkegaard inherit his father’s
melancholy, his sense of guilt and anxiety, and his pietistic emphasis on the dour aspects of Christian faith, but he also
inherited his talents for philosophical argument and creative imagination. In addition Kierkegaard inherited enough of his
father’s wealth to allow him to pursue his life as a freelance writer. The themes of sacrificial father/son relationships, of
inherited sin, of the burden of history, and of the centrality of the “individual, human existence relationship, the old text,
well known, handed down from the fathers” (Postscript) are repeated many times in Kierkegaard’s oeuvre. The father’s
sense of guilt was so great (for having cursed God? for having impregnated Kierkegaard’s mother out of wedlock?) that
he thought God would punish him by taking the lives of all seven of his children before they reached the age of 34 (the
age of Jesus Christ at his crucifixion). This was born out for all but two of the children, Søren and his older brother Peter.
Søren was astonished that they both survived beyond that age. This may explain the sense of urgency that drove
Kierkegaard to write so prolifically in the years leading up to his 34th birthday.
Kierkegaard’s (broken) engagement to Regine Olsen has also been the focus of much scholarly attention. The theme of a
young woman being the occasion for a young man to become “poeticized” recurs in Kierkegaard’s writings, as does the
theme of the sacrifice of worldly happiness for a higher (religious) purpose. Kierkegaard’s infatuation with Regine, and
the sublimated libidinal energy it lent to his poetic production, were crucial for setting his life course. The breaking of the
engagement allowed Kierkegaard to devote himself monastically to his religious purpose, as well as to establish his
outsider status (outside the norm of married bourgeois life). It also freed him from close personal entanglements with
women, thereby leading him to objectify them as ideal creatures, and to reproduce the patriarchal values of his church and
father. The latter included viewing women in terms of their traditional social roles, particularly as mothers and wives, but
also in their traditional spiritual roles as epitomes of devotion and self-sacrifice. Nevertheless, whatever one’s life
circumstances, social roles and gender, Kierkegaard regarded everyone as equal before God under the aspect of eternity.

Individuality[edit]
For Kierkegaard, true individuality is called selfhood. Becoming aware of our true self is our true task and endeavor in
life—it is an ethical imperative, as well as preparatory to a true religious understanding. Individuals can exist at a level that
is less than true selfhood. We can live, for example, simply in terms of our pleasures—our immediate satisfaction of
desires, propensities, or distractions. In this way, we glide through life without direction or purpose. To have a direction,
we must have a purpose that defines for us the meaning of our lives. Kierkegaard puts it this way in Either/Or,
Here, then, I have your view of life, and, believe me, much of your life will become clear to you if you will consider it along
with me as thought-despair. You are a hater of activity in life-quite appropriately, because if there is to be meaning in it life
must have continuity, and this your life does not have. You keep busy with your studies, to be sure; you are even diligent;
but it is only for your sake, and it is done with as little teleology as possible. Moreover, you are unoccupied; like the
laborers in the Gospel standing idle in the marketplace, you stick your hands in your pocket and contemplate life. Now you
rest in despair. Nothing concerns you; you step aside for nothing; “If someone threw a roof tile down I would still not step
aside.” You are like a dying person. You die daily, not in the profound, earnest sense in which one usually understands
these words, but life has lost its reality and you “Always count the days of your life from one termination-notice to the
next.” You let everything pass you by; nothing makes any impact. But then something suddenly comes along that grips
you, an idea, a situation, a young girl’s smile, and now you are “involved,” for just on certain occasions you are not
“involved,” so at other times you are “at your service” in every way. Wherever there is something going on you join in. You
behave in life as you usually do in a crowd. “You work yourself into the tightest group, see to it, if possible, to get yourself
shoved up over the others so that you come to be above them, and as soon as you are up there you make yourself as
comfortable as possible, and in this way you let yourself be carried through life.” But when the crowd is gone, when the
event is over, you again stand on the street corner and look at the world. Either/Or Part II p. 195-196, 272ff
In Sickness Unto Death specifically Kierkegaard deals with the self as a product of relations. In this sense, a human
results from a relation between the Infinite (Noumena, spirit, eternal) and Finite (Phenomena, body, temporal). This does
not create a true self, as a human can live without a "self" as he defines it. Instead, the Self or ability for the self to be
created from a relation to the Absolute or God (the Self can only be realized through a relation to God) arises as a relation
between the relation of the Finite and Infinite relating back to the human. This would be a positive relation.
An individual person, for Kierkegaard, is a particular that no abstract formula or definition can ever capture. Including the
individual in "the public" (or "the crowd" or "the herd") or subsuming a human being as simply a member of a species is a
reduction of the true meaning of life for individuals. What philosophy or politics try to do is to categorize and pigeonhole
individuals by group characteristics, each with their own individual differences. In Four Upbuilding Discourses,
1843 Kierkegaard says the differences aren't important, the likeness with God is what brings equality.
In the hallowed places, in every upbuilding view of life, the thought arises in a person’s soul that help him to fight the good
fight with flesh and blood, with principalities and powers, and in the fight to free himself for equality before God, whether
this battle is more a war of aggression against the differences that want to encumber him with worldly favoritism or a
defensive war against the differences that want to make him anxious in worldly perdition. Only in this way is equality the
divine law, only in this way is the struggle the truth, only in this way does the victory have validity- only when the single
individual fights for himself with himself within himself and does not unseasonably presume to help the whole world to
obtain external equality, which is of very little benefit, all the less so because it never existed, if for no other reason than
that everyone would come to thank him and become unequal before him, only in this way is equality the divine
law. Eighteen Upbuilding Discourses, by Soren Kiekegaard Hong, p. 143
Kierkegaard's critique of the modern age, therefore, is about the loss of what it means to be an individual. Modern society
contributes to this dissolution of what it means to be an individual. Through its production of the false idol of "the public", it
diverts attention away from individuals to a mass public that loses itself in abstractions, communal dreams, and fantasies.
It is helped in this task by the media and the mass production of products to keep it distracted. Even the fight for temporal
equality is a distraction. In Works of Love he writes,
To bring about similarity among people in the world, to apportion to people, if possible equally, the conditions of
temporality, is indeed something that preoccupies worldliness to a high degree. But even what we may call the well-
intentioned worldly effort in this regard never comes to an understanding with Christianity. Well-intentioned worldliness
remains piously, if you will, convinced that there must be one temporal condition, one earthly dissimilarity – found by
means of calculations and surveys or in whatever other way – that is equality. Works of Love, by Søren Kierkegaard,
1847, Hong 1995 pp. 71-72 see pp. 61-90
Although Kierkegaard attacked "the public", he is supportive of communities:
In community, the individual is, crucial as the prior condition for forming a community. … Every individual in the
community guarantees the community; the public is a chimera, numerality is everything…

— Søren Kierkegaard, Journals[6]