

1. Standardization Organizations
 2. Rationale for Homogenization
 3. Metals and Alloys
 3.1. Strength and Elastic Properties
 3.2. Fracture Properties
 3.3. Creep, Stress–Rupture, and Fatigue Properties
 4. Metal Matrix Composites
 5. Monolithic Ceramics
 5.1. Strength Properties
 5.2. Fracture Properties
 5.3. Fatigue Properties
 6. Ceramic Matrix Composites
 6.1. Strength Properties
 6.2. Fracture Properties
 6.3. Creep, Stress–Rupture, and Fatigue Properties
 7. Polymers
 7.1. Strength Properties
 7.2. Fracture Properties
 7.3. Creep, Stress–Rupture, and Fatigue Properties
 8. Polymer Matrix Composites
 8.1. Strength Properties
 8.2. Fracture Properties
 8.3. Creep, Stress–Rupture, and Fatigue Properties
 9. Role of Test Laboratories
 10. Concluding Remarks

Outline
1. 4.1.. Classification of Carbon Fibers
2. 4.2.. Production
o (a). PAN-based carbon fibers
o (b). Pitch-based carbon fibers
o (c). Vapor-grown carbon fibers
3. 4.3.. Structure
o (a). PAN-based carbon fibers
o (b). Pitch-based carbon fibers
o (c). Vapor-grown carbon fibers
4. 4.4.. Properties and Applications
o (a). Mechanical properties
o (b). Electromagnetic properties
Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites
Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich

Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) is a Polymer Matrix Composite material

reinforced by carbon fibers.
The reinforcing dispersed phase may be in form of either continuous or discontinuous carbon
fibers of diameter about 0.0004” (10 mkm) commonly woven into a cloth.
Carbon fibers are very expensive but they possess the highest specific (divided by weight)
mechanical properties: modulus of elasticity and strength.
Carbon fibers are used for reinforcing polymer matrix due to the following their properties:
 Very high modulus of elasticity exceeding that of steel;
 High tensile strength, which may reach 1000 ksi (7 GPa);
 Low density: 114 lb/ft³ (1800 kg/m³);
 High chemical inertness.
The main disadvantage of carbon (Graphite) fibers is catastrophic mode of failure (carbon
fibers are brittle).
The types of carbon fibers are as follows:
 UHM (ultra high modulus). Modulus of elasticity > 65400 ksi (450GPa).
 HM (high modulus). Modulus of elasticity is in the range 51000-65400 ksi (350-450GPa).
 IM (intermediate modulus). Modulus of elasticity is in the range 29000-51000 ksi (200-
350GPa).
 HT (high tensile, low modulus). Tensile strength > 436 ksi (3 GPa), modulus of elasticity
< 14500 ksi (100 GPa).
 SHT (super high tensile). Tensile strength > 650 ksi (4.5GPa).
Carbon fibers are also classified according to the manufacturing method:
1. PAN-based carbon fibers (the most popular type of carbon fibers).
In this method carbon fibers are produced by conversion of polyacrylonitrile (PAN) precursor
through the following stages:

 Stretching filaments from polyacrylonitrile precursor and their thermal oxidation at 400°F
(200°C). The filaments are held in tension.
 Carbonization in Nitrogen atmosphere at a temperature about 2200 °F (1200°C) for
several hours. During this stage non-carbon elements (O,N,H) volatilize resulting in
enrichment of the fibers with carbon.
 Graphitization at about 4500 °F (2500°C).
2. Pitch-based carbon fibers.
Carbon fibers of this type are manufactured from pitch:

 Filaments are spun from coal tar or petroleum asphalt (pitch).

 The fibers are cured at 600°F (315°C).
 Carbonization in nitrogen atmosphere at a temperature about 2200 °F (1200°C).
The most popular matrix materials for manufacturing Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers
(CFRP) are thermosets such as epoxy, polyester and thermoplastics such as nylon
(polyamide).

Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers (CFRP) materials usually have laminate structure, providing
reinforcing in two perpendicular directions.

Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers (CFRP) are manufactured by open mold processes, closed
mold processes and Pultrusion method.
Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers (CFRP) are characterized by the following properties:
 Light weight;
 High strength-to-weight ratio;
 Very High modulus elasticity-to-weight ratio;
 High Fatigue strength;
 Good corrosion resistance;
 Very low coefficient of thermal expansion;
 Low impact resistance;
 High electric conductivity;
 High cost.
Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers (CFRP) are used for manufacturing: automotive marine and
aerospace parts, sport goods (golf clubs, skis, tennis racquets, fishing rods), bicycle frames.

Properties of some Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer

Composites
(Materials Data)
 Epoxy Matrix Composite reinforced by 70% carbon fibers
 Epoxy Matrix Composite reinforced by 50% carbon fibers
 Polyether Ether Ketone B Matrix Composite reinforced by 30% carbon fibers
Open mold fabrication of Polymer Matrix
Composites
Open Molding (Contact Molding) is the simplest method of fabrication of Polymer Matrix
Composites.
Open Molding is usually used for manufacturing large individual parts (swimming pools, boat
bodies).

Open Molding method is mostly used for fabrication Glass fiber reinforcing Polymers
(Fiberglasses) with polyester (sometimes epoxy or vinylester) matrix.

The methods of open mold fabrication:

 Hand Lay-up
 Spray-up method
 Tape Lay-up
 Filament Winding
 Autoclave Curing
Hand Lay-up
The most popular type of Open Molding is Hand Lay-up process. The Hand Lay-up is a manual,
slow, labor consuming method, which involves the following operations:

 The mold is coated by a release anti-adhesive agent, preventing sticking the molded part
to the mold surface.
 The prime surface layer of the part is formed by applying gel coating.
 A layer of fine fiber reinforcing tissue is applied.
 Layers of the liquid matrix resin and reinforcing fibers in form of woven fabric, rovings or
chopped strands are applied. The resin mixture may be applied by either brush or roll.
 The part is cured (usually at room temperature).
 The part is removed from the mold surface.
The disadvantages of the Hand Lay-up method are: low concentration of reinforcing phase (up
to 30%) and low densification of the composites (entrapped air bubbles).

to top
Spray-up
In Spray-up process liquid resin matrix and chopped reinforcing fibers are sprayed by two
separate sprays onto the mold surface.

The fibers are chopped into fibers of 1-2” (25-50 mm) length and then sprayed by an air jet
simultaneously with a resin spray at a predetermined ratio between the reinforcing and matrix
phase.
The Spray-up method permits rapid formation of uniform composite coating, however the
mechanical properties of the material are moderate since the method is unable to
use continuous reinforcing fibers.
to top
Tape Lay-up
In this method layers of prepreg (reinforcing phase impregnated by liquid resin) tape are
applied on the mold surface by a tape application robot.

to top
Filament Winding
Filament Winding method involves a continuous filament of reinforcing material wound onto
a rotating mandrel in layers at different layers. If a liquid thermosetting resin is applied on
the filament prior to winding the, process is called Wet Filament Winding. If the resin is
sprayed onto the mandrel with wound filament, the process is called Dry Filament Winding.
Besides conventional curing of molded parts at room temperature, Autoclave Curing may be
used.

to top
Autoclave Curing
Autoclave Curing is a method in which a part, molded by one of the open molding methods,
is cured by a subsequent application of vacuum, heat and inert gas pressure.

The molded part is first placed into a plastic bag, from which air is exhausted by a vacuum
pump. This operation removes air inclusions and volatile products from the molded part.

Then heat and inert gas pressure are applied in the autoclave causing curing and densification
of the material.

Autoclave Curing enables fabrication of consistent homogeneous materials. The method is

relatively expensive and is used for manufacturing high quality aerospace products.

Closed mold fabrication of Polymer Matrix

Composites
Closed Mold methods are used when mass production of identical parts with both smooth
surfaces is required.
Closed Molding methods are used for fabrication of Fiberglasses, Carbon Fiber Reinforced
Polymer Composites and Kevlar (aramid) fiber reinforced polymers.
 Compression Molding
 Injection Molding
 Transfer Molding
Compression Molding
Compression Molding is a Closed Mold process in which a molding charge is squeezed into
a preheated mold taking a shape of the mold cavity and performing curing (cross-linking) due
to heat and pressure applied to the material.
The method uses a split mold mounted in a hydraulic press

Compression Molding process involves the following steps:

 A pre-weighed amount of a polymer (commonly thermosetting resin) mixed with
chopped reinforcing fibers, hardening agent, anti-adhesive agent and pigment (charge) is
placed into the lower half of the mold.
The charge may be in form of powders, pellets, putty-like masses or pre-formed sheets.

The charge is usually preheated prior to placement into the mold. Preheated polymer becomes
softer resulting in shortening the molding cycle time.

 The upper half of the mold moves downwards, pressing on the charge and forcing it to fill
the mold cavity.
The mold, equipped with a heating system, provides curing (cross-linking) of the
polymer matrix (if thermosetting resin is processed).
 The mold is opened and the part is removed from it by means of the ejector pin.

Compression Molding cycle time is about 1-6 min, which is longer than Injection Molding cycle.
The method is suitable for mass production of flat or moderately curved parts.

to top
Injection Molding
Injection Molding is a Closed Mold process in which molten polymer
(commonly thermoplastic) mixed with very short reinforcing fibers (10-40%) is forced under
high pressure into a mold cavity through an opening (sprue).
Polymer-fiber mixture in form of pellets is fed into an Injection Molding machine through a
hopper. The material is then conveyed forward by a feeding screw and forced into a split
mold, filling its cavity through a feeding system with sprue gate and runners.

Screw of injection molding machine is called reciprocating screw since it not only rotates but
also moves forward and backward according to the steps of the molding cycle.
It acts as a ram in the filling step when the molten polymer-fibers mixture is injected into the
mold and then it retracts backward in the molding step.

Heating elements, placed over the barrel, soften and melt the polymer.

The mold is equipped with a cooling system providing controlled cooling and solidification of
the material.

The polymer is held in the mold until solidification and then the mold opens and the part is
removed from the mold by ejector pins.

Injection Molding is used mainly for thermoplastic matrices, but thermosetting matrices are
also may be extruded. In this case curing (cross-linking) occurs during heating and melting
of the material in the heated barrel.

A principal scheme of an Injection Molding Machine is shown in the picture.

Injection Molding is highly productive method providing high accuracy and control of shape
of the manufactured parts. The method is profitable in mass production of large number of
identical parts.
One of the disadvantages of the method is limited length of fibers decreasing their reinforcing
effect.

to top
Transfer Molding
Transfer Molding (Resin Transfer Molding) is a Closed Mold process in which a pre-
weighed amount of a polymer is preheated in a separate chamber (transfer pot) and then
forced into a preheated mold filled with a reinforcing fibers, taking a shape of the mold cavity,
impregnating the fibers and performing curing due to heat and pressure applied to the
material.
The method is used primarily for molding Polymer Composites with thermosetting resin
matrices, but some thermoplastic parts may also be produced by Transfer Molding.

The picture below illustrates the Transfer Molding Process.

The method uses a split mold and a third plate equipped with a plunger mounted in a hydraulic
press.

The method combines features of both Compression Molding - hydraulic pressing, the same
molding materials (thermosets) and Injection Molding – ram (plunger), filling the mold
through a sprue.

Transfer Molding process involves the following steps:

 The mold cavity is filled with preformed reinforcing fibers.

 A pre-weighed amount of a polymer mixed with additives and fillers (charge) is placed
into the transfer pot.
The charge may be in form of powders, pellets, putty-like masses or pre-formed blanks.

The charge is heated in the pot where the polymer softens.

 The plunger, mounted on the top plate, moves downwards, pressing on the polymer
charge and forcing it to fill the mold cavity through the sprue and impregnate the fibers.
The mold, equipped with a heating system, provides curing (cross-linking) of the polymer (if
thermoset is processed).

 The mold is opened and the part is removed from it by means of the ejector pin.
If thermosetting resin is molded, the mold may be open in hot state – cured thermosets
maintain their shape and dimensions even in hot state.

If thermoplastic is molded, the mold and the molded part are cooled down before opening.

 The scrap left on the pot bottom (cull), in the sprue and in the channels is removed. Scrap
of thermosetting polymers is not recyclable.
Transfer Molding cycle time is shorter than Compression Molding cycle but longer than
Injection Molding cycle.

The method is capable to produce very large parts (car body shell), more complicated than
Compression Molding, but not as complicated as Injection Molding.

Pultrusion
Pultrusion is an automated, highly productive process of fabrication of Polymer Matrix
Composites in form of continuous long products of constant cross-section.
A scheme of the process is presented on the picture:

Pultrusion process involves the following operations:

1. Reinforcing fibers are pulled from the creels. Fiber (roving) creels may be followed by
rolled mat or fabric creels. Pulling action is controlled by the pulling system.
2. Guide plates collect the fibers into a bundle and direct it to the resin bath.
3. Fibers enter the resin bath where they are wetted and impregnated with liquid resin. Liquid
resin contains thermosetting polymer, pigment, fillers, catalyst and other additives.
4. The wet fibers exit the bath and enter preformer where the excessive resin is squeezed
out from fibers and the material is shaped.
5. The preformed fibers pass through the heated die where the final cross-section dimensions
are determined and the resin curing occurs.
6. The cured product is cut on the desired length by the cut-off saw.
Pultrusion process is characterized by the following features:
 High productivity.
 The process parameters are easily controllable.
 Low manual labor component.
 Precise cross-section dimensions of the products.
 Good surface quality of the products.
 Homogeneous distribution and high concentration of the reinforcing fibers in the material
is achieved (up to 80% of roving reinforcement, up to 50% of mixed mat + roving
reinforcement).
Pultrusion is used for fabrication of Fiberglasses, Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer
Composites and Kevlar (aramid) fiber reinforced polymers.