their large and lavish charities and for their patronage of literature and poetry.

Their
position as a landed elite with administrative, military powers continued through the
subsequent periods. They had the titles of Mudali and Udaiyar when they had served in
the medieval period as regiment captains and soldiers.

CHAPTER III
TRADING CASTES

Trade and commerce was the traditional profession of the ancient Tamils.
It played an essential role in the daily activities of human life. The economic
condition of Tamil country was greatly shaped by its trading fervour. The
prevalent of peaceful political scenario coupled with a stable socio economic
order favoured the emergence of several trading communities in the Tamil
country. The regular customary practices favoured the profession of trade and
commerce. Mostly all castes and communities participated in trading activities in
one form or the other. Archaeological and literary works throw light on trade
both internal and external, centres of exchange, items of trade and trading castes.
Foreign traveller's accounts and the works of the foreign authors are providing
the information regarding trade and its related activities.

Trading activities were carried out by different caste groups like Chettis,
Reddis, Nagaratttan, Nattukkottai Chettis and the foreign merchants in the
medieval Tamil country. Trading caste groups played multiple roles not only in
the development of trade and commerce but also in the welfare activities of the
state and society. They also maintained a close contact with the traders of other
countries like South East Asia, China, Ceylon and other counties. As they were the
message bearers as well as codifiers of ideas, they had silently brought out
cultural contacts among different groups.

As a profession, trade had secured a social status in the society from time
immemorial. It is a well accepted fact that economic pursuit in ancient Tamil
country was associated with merchant communities. The merchant castes were
undoubtedly the most powerful and influential section in ancient Tamil Country
on account of their number and wealth. They had an important say in the
deliberations of the local bodies and representative assemblies. These trading
activities were carried out by the Vaishyas (Merchant Caste).

Historical Background of the Merchant Castes

There was no hereditary occupation and the people were undivided during
the early period. But in the later Vedic age, this system was more developed.
Among the four divisions of the society, the Vaishyas played a vital role in the
state and society. The word Vaishya is derived from a Sanskrit word Vaishya
which means to live.587 This caste was originally focused on farming agriculture,
cattle rearing and trade. The Vaishyas along with the Kshatriyas claim to be the
twice born588 (divija) castes of the classical theory.

587
Encyclopaedia Britanica, Vol.22, p.110.
588
B.V.Singh Kumar Suresh , People of India, Publication Division, Delhi, 2004, p.46.
 The synonyms of the Vaishyas589 are Ayenuruvil-Vandore (those who
emanated from the belly of Brahma) Muttolilore (those who have three duties to
perform) Ilangkokal (juniors of the king) and Ettyer (Ipper merchants). The
Vaishyas were included in the nobility and enjoyed a lot. The Vaishyar caste has
different subdivision, according to their being called by different names as Talli
Kamakshiamma, Visalakshimma, Acchutali and Toppa-talli.590 They were
saivites. They had their own priests who were called Panditars.

Divisions of the Vaishyas

There are three principal divisions of the Vaishyas, which are named and
arranged in the Sadur Agaradi as follows Dana Vaishyas (merchant men),
PooVaishyas (husband men), and Ko-Vaishyas (herdsmen).591

A few works of early period describe the position and privileges of the
merchants. It also mentions the existence of a legend to the effect that certain
letters were created by God for the use of merchant class only. They are, la (yh),

589
Simon Chetty, op.cit., p.10
590
Edgar Thurston. op.cit., p.531.
591
Ibid., p.34.
Va (th), Ra (wh), and Na (eh).592 The same work also describes about the stars,
colour, land, puja and important days for them.593

Characteristics of the Merchant

As per the trading rules good merchant should possess certain qualities like
to know the proper prices of goods and commodities, to collect goods, to divide
his profits fairly, to understand the customs of different countries, the disposition
of the people, the reasons favourable to his schemes, to close his business every
day before sunset and retire to his house in proper time.

The merchants should maintain unity between the trader and consumer.
They should follow an unwritten commercial code. They should have business
ability and commercial integrity. The Tamil Merchants were naturally inclined to
render justice and never depart from it in their actions.594 Good faith, honesty
and fidelity to their engagements are some of the traits of these people.

According to Nalavenba595 the merchants of Pandya country traders were

the ideal citizens with an ennobling character. The merchants of Pandya country
were excelling in personal greatness in relation to morality and chivalry. In
addition to that they were helpful in the maintenance of social justice and kingly

592
Panniru patiyal, 728.
593
Ibid., 729.
594
A Appadorai, op.cit., Vol.II, p.582.
595
Nalavenba : 315.
rule. So, there were many lands donated as devadhana in the name of
ainnurruvar merchants. Ayyapolil Avanivanta Ramanallur was a devadanam596
which was an example for it. Inscription of Rajadhiraja found at Agnisvara temple,
Tamaraipakkam, North Arcot district, mentions the sale of a land to ainnurruvar
for the purpose of maintaining a salai .597

Different Merchant Castes

In the Medieval Tamil Society a number of caste groups mingled with each
other and they did wonderful trading activities. The merchants who sold the
articles were classified according to their articles of merchandise598 such as,
aruvai vanigan (cloth merchant) kulavanigan (grain merchant) umanar (salt
merchant) kudiraichetti (horse merchant) sekkar (oil merchants) and ilaivanigan
(betel leaf merchant). The Alagarmalai Brahmi inscription also reveals the terms
such as uppuvanigar (salt merchant) Koluvanigan (iron merchant) Panitha
Vanigan, (sugar merchant), Ponkovalan(gold merchant) and
Aruvaivanigan(cloth merchant).599 The traders of the period under study sold
numerous articles. Even though, many merchants were involved in various
trading activities Chettis, played a vital role in society.

596
S.I.I., Vol.XVII, No.401.
597
A.R.E., 173 of 1973-74.
598
A.J.Thinakaran, The Second Pandyan Empire, Madurai, 1976, p.180.
599
K.V. Raman, Brahmi Inscriptions of Tamilnadu, a Historical Assessment, - Studies in
Indian epigraphy, Vol.1, pp.104-105.
Chettis

The caste name ‘Chetti’ particularly applied to the merchant group. It

derived from the Sanskrit word Sresti. In all probability Sresti had little to do with
Chetti.600 However the term ‘Chetti’ occurs for the first time only in
Manimegalai. It might have emerged from the Tamil word Chetti meaning
‘trade’. The Sresti was actually a financier or banker or sometimes referred to the
head of trade guild. Even a despotic king treated these Srestis with due respect.
Chettis were the most influential commercial community. The weavers, oil
mongers and others used ‘Chetti’ as a suffix to their names. The Chetti groups
were numerous and widely distributed. There were many sub-divisions among
them.

“Chettiyum Chetti Vira Puththirarkalum” is mentioned in Sarkar

Periyapalayam inscriptions.601 The word sometimes spelt as Chetti, Shetty,
Chetty, and Saitti. The ancestors of the Chettis evidently constitute caste
belonging to Vaishya caste of the ancient Indian society and their activities mainly
related to trade and banking business of the country. The members of the
communities also often described themselves by the terms Nagarattar,
Virakodiyar, Perunagarathar, Vaishya, Vaniya Nagratar, Chettis and the Nattu
Nagarathar. The Chettis claim various titles to protect the poor and helpless and

600
B.S. Chandrababu and L. Thilagavathi, Trade in Kongu (upto 16th Century A.D.), Emerald
Publishers, Chennai, 2003, p.75.
601
Ibid., p.76.
adorned with the three jewels Samyak Jnana, Samyak darsana and Samyak
Carita.602 Hence, through the ages Chettis had been associated with commercial
activities.

Different Sections Among Chettis

Pudukkottai State Manual mentions the different sections among the

Chettis. It also describes that, the Chettis were divided into 12 sub divisions.603
They were: Nattukkottai Chettis, Ariyur Chettis, Sundaram Chettis, Vallam,
Chettis, Vallanad Chettis, Vandakottai Chettis, Vellan Chettis, Kasakkara Chettis,
Viralur Chettis, Narayanapuram Chettis Seniyans and Senaittalaivans. The
places where they lived were called Nagarans and the Chettis themselves were
called as Nagarattars.604 The members of the Nagara were generally known as
Nagarattar, Nagara-Karanattar and the Nagara Madhyasta.605

Nattukkottai Chettis

Among the Chettis, the Nattukkottai Chettis occupied an important place

in trading activities. A remarkable enterprising community people of Tamil
Country were the Nattukkottai Chettis. The Nattukkottai Chettis are said to have

602
Idem.
603
Pudukkottai State Manual , p.548.
604
S.I.I,, Vol. III. p.104.
605
Ibid., Vol. XX, No.592.
come from Kaveripattanam.606 They were patronised by the Chola kings and
enjoyed the privilege of placing the crown on the king’s head at the time of the
coronation. Edger Thurston opines that a Pandiya king, named Sundara Pandiya
asked the Chola King to send some of the Chettis in his land to settle down in the
Pandiya Country. The Pandiya king allowed them to settle in the North of the
river Vaigai, east of the Piranmalai and South of the Vellar.607 There are many
legends regarding the origin of the Nattukkotai Chettis. The Chettiar left the
Chola land in a group and settled to the south of the Vellar, the southern
boundary of the kingdom. They would never allow their women to cross the
Vellar into Chola country. However many Chettis believe that they belonged to
the Vaishya Caste, though they did not wear the sacred thread. Hence their
original home was Kaverippattinam, from where they migrated to other parts of
Tamil Country. They were pious and charitable by nature. The famous temples at
Chidambaram, Madurai and Thiruvannamalai have received considerable
endowments and embellishments from rich Nattukkottai Chettiars.608

Sub-division of Nattukottai Chettis

Ariyur Chettis was a sub-division of Nattukkottai Chetti Caste. They were

settled in the places of Ponnamaravathi, Sembuti, Kallampatti, Alavayal, Pudur,

606
Pudukkottai State Manual, p.549.
607
Edgar Thurston, op. cit, Vol.V, p.249.
608
K.K. Pillai, The Social History of the Tamils, op.cit., p. 49.
Varpet and Amman Kuricchi. They had two endogamous sections among them.
The right divisions were vegetarian and the left divisions were non-vegetarians.609

Sundaram Chettis were another sub-division of Nattukottai Chettiyars.

They settled in Sundaram or Sundarappattanam near Ponnamaravati. Vallanadu
Chettis were another sub-division of Nattukottai Chettis. They lived in
Kottamangalam, Mangadu, Mannavelanpatti and Vallam. They migrated from
Vallam, to other places of Tamil Country, in order to carry on their profession as
money-lenders.

The Vandakkottai chettis are yet another group among the chettis. They
were also called as Gadiakkara Chettis from Gadiyam, a herd of Pack-bullocks.
They used to carry the articles on the lack of bullocks, for the requirement of the
palace at Pudukkottai. Viralur Chettis belonged to different sub-division and they
settled in Viralur, Rajalipatti and Ramakkavandapatti, Another group of Viralur
chettis settled in Viralimalai and Ratnagiri in Trichirappalli.610 They worshiped God
Subramania of Viralimalai, Mariamman of Viralu and Niliamman of Unaiyur in the
Marungaperi Zamindari. Narayanapuram Chettis settled near Palani hills and
Kodumbalur. Probably, the Nagarattar would be known as Nattukkottai Chetti
from this time. They colonized Pandya country in few places like
Rajanarayanapuram.611 They lived in Irunurvuvaperunderu in Erraikudi and
purchased land at Marudanyudi for founding the new colony called
609
Pudukkottai State Manual, p. 590.
610
Ibid., p.542.
611
A.R.E., 1936, Part-II, Para 52.
Rajanarayanapuram.612 They called themselves as Nattu chettikal while making
gifts to the temples.613 Furthermore they retained their nostalgic affinity with
their original home of Cholamandalam by calling themselves as Thiru Chonottu
chettigal.614 As a well organized guild of merchants they maintained their
emporiums of merchandise in the cities as well as in the military cantonments.615
The intermediaries like brokers were equal in status to the merchants. They were
generally called Pathinenvishayattar and Nattuchettis.

Beri Chettis

Beri Chettis belonged to another enterprising trading group. They had

migrated from Kaveripattanam near Kumbakonam when the Chola King wanted
to marry a girl belonging to this group; but the Beri Chetti refused to give his
daughter to the Chola king. So, the Chola king persecuted them and drove them
out of his Domain.616 The Beri Chettis had come into existence as a separate
group and also claimed themselves to be Vaishyas. They collected textiles from
weavers and engaged in selling many varieties of textiles to foreign countries in
return for gold. They were grouped under the left hand caste faction. There was
a rivalry between the Beri and Komatti Chettis each claimed the superiority over
the other. Among the Beri-chettis there were both vegetarian and non-
vegetarian.
612
Ibid., 150 of 1935-36
613
Ibid., 431.
614
Ibid., 421.
615
Idem.
616
Edgar Thurston, op.cit., Vol.1, p.214.
Kudirai Chettis

Another interesting trading group, flourished during the time of the

Imperial Chola was Kudirai Chettis. Their name itself indicates that they were
traders in horses. In the Pandiyan kingdom Kudirai Chettis were famous. Since
the Arabs started landing in the east coast, the Kudirai Chettis of Malaimandalam
visited the Pandiya ports and became the local horse traders. They were engaged
in horse trade between Arabia and South India.617 There are frequent references
about Kudirai Chettis in inscriptions;618 mostly they belonged to Malainadu. They
were the dealers of horses and imported horses from abroad particularly from
Arabia and Peru and distributed them among the princes and nobles in the land.
The Arab horse trade was at its peak during the Chola period Sekkilar, the
contemporary of Kulotunga II stated the importance of horses in the sea-trade in
his celebrated work Periapuranam.619 A Chola painting, portraying Arab
merchants with their horses standing in front of king Raja Raja I, is found on the
back side wall of the Garbhagriha in the circumambulatory passage of the
Tanjore temple.620 The Kudirai Chettis were honoured with the title of Etti and
Vanigaradittan.

617
A.R.E., 77 of 1976 – 1977.
618
A.R.E., 556 of 1904.
619
A.S.Gnanasambanthan, Periyapuranam A Study, Tanjore, 1987, p.618.
620
P.Jeyakumar, "The Merchants of the West Coast and their Status in Chola Country", in
Studies in India's Maritime Trade Through the Ages, Calcutta, 1999, p.28.
 An inscription stated that the ulvari was issued by the King for the tax-free
village Kumaran-ambinallur which was granted to the temple by Navayan
Kondanambi of Kulamukku a Kudiraichetti (horse dealer) of Maliamandalam for
worship and offerings.621

Komatti Chettis

The Komatti Chettis were another group of the merchant communities,

who were engaged in trading activities. The activities of Komatis of South India,
as traders and money lenders were traced from the tenth century onwards. Their
original home was Northern circars around the Krishna and Godavari rivers. A
series of commercial opportunities created by various conquests and political
changes of the various empires had helped them settle down far and wide in the
Tamil country. They started their commercial operation down to the east coast of
Madras city, westward through Hyderabad and far south to the big cities of
Salem, Coimbatore and Madurai. During the fourteenth century, the Komattis
were joined with the right hand and left hand factions. The right hand groups
were specialized in trading on the food articles like fruits and vegetables and the
left hand group involved in trading in pulses and grains. The Komatti Chettis of
the Masulipatnam in Guntur region grew richer due to their trade affected in the

621
A.R.E., 322 of 1958-59.
Northern circars from the Vijayanagar period.622 They attained a heightened ritual
status.

Vaniyar or Oil-Mongers

Oil-Mongers were engaged in the production of oil. Besides meeting the

household requirements of oil, the temple could have emerged as a major
consumer of oil products in Medieval Tamil country. The oil-mongers were
named as Sekkar or Vaniyar or Oil-Mongers. They were equal to Telugu Gandlas,
Canarese Ganigas Malabar Chakkans and Oriya Tellis.623 Manu classified them
as belonging lower position in the society. Though they held low status in the
social scale, they provided significant service in lighting the temples. They earned
their high position. They used the title of Joti Nagarattar (dwellers in the city of
light) and Tiruvilakku Nagarattar (dwellers in the city of holy lamps).624 Their
conventional title is oil Chetti Vaniyar had two divisions; Ottrai-Sekkar and
Irattai- Sekkar.625 They had one bullock and two bullocks respectively in their
mills. One group came under left hand division and another under right hand
division.

The word Vaniyam signifies trade and trade in oil, as well as its
manufacture. These people engaged in the production of oil. An inscription of
622
T.Ramaswamy, Merchant Class in South India (1336-1665), Madurai, 1997, pp.33-34.
623
Edgar Thurston, op. cit., Vol .VII, p.312.
624
Ibid.
625
Idem.
Parantaka I figured them as suppliers of oil to the temples.626 They were named
as Vaniya Nagarattar, Sankarapadiyan and the Sankarapadi nagarattar.627 They
supplied want of oil to the temples, besides making other endowments. They
resided and employed mostly in mercantile townships, such as Valikandapuram628
and Tiruvidaimarudan.629 In Valikandapuram they were joined with another
merchant caste group, Manigramattar.630 This fact helps to understand that they
were one of the constituents of nagaram. They were mingled with mercantile
groups in towns. But they had their own settlements in Brahmadeyas. An
inscription mentions the Sankarappadiyar of Vadakkilangadi quarter of
Uttiramerur Chaturvedimangalam agreed to supply oil for a lamp on receipt of
gold.631 Another epigraph states that the Sankarappadi Kalanai of northward at
Veeravanarayana Chaturvedimangalam received gold and agreed to supply oil for
burning a lamp.632

In Kongu country, an epigraph from Perur mentions that three individuals,

Chetti Arasan, Chetti Karuttan and Chetti Chiruvan members of the
Vaniyakkudimakkal of Perur, gave an undertaking for the supply of oil to the
temple for an endowment of money received by them.633 According to another
record, the king sent an order to the residents of Kavaiyanputtur, granting some

626
A.R.E., 129 of 1920.
627
S.I.I., Vol.XII, No.265.
628
A.R.E., 241 of 1944.
629
S.I.I., Vol.XXIII, No.262.
630
A.R.E., 247 of 1944.
631
S.I.I., Vol. VI. No.363.
632
A.R.E., 547 of 1920.
633
S.I.I., Vol.V. No.225.
tax concessions to the Vaniyakkudigal, probably, for their measuring oil to the
temple.634

Expressions like Vadakkilangadi Sankarappadiyareluttu and Ivvur

Vadakkilcheri Sankarappadi Kalanai in Uttiramerur and Viranarayana
Chaturvedimangalam respectively imply that they constituted the Brahmanical
townships a separate segment and occupied mostly the northern part of those
localities. They were organised into groups called Sankarappadikalanai in
Viranarayana Chaturvedimangalam.635 In Kanchipuram, along with Sabha and
Nagaram the Sankarappadiyar also existed in over three cheris, like namely,
Ranajayappadi, Ekavirappadi and Vamana-Sankarappadi.636

The oil-mongers also participated in the activities of village assembly. The

members of this caste group were involved in the tank and annual supervision
committee of the Sabha. In Uttiramerur Chaturvedimangalam, a panel of experts
to test the finesse of gold was appointed, including three from the community of
vaniyar. They were proficient in other profession too. An inscription from
Valikandapuram states that an endowment for two lamps, one by the
Manigramam and another by the Nagarattar was made through the
Sankarappadiyar.637 An inscription refers to the name of the oil-press as chekku,
Ural and kurn.638

634
A.R.E., 637 of 1922,
635
Ibid., 547 of 1920
636
S.I.I., Vol.III. Part I & II, No.128.
637
A.R.E., 261 of 1944.
638
L.Thiagarajan, Inscription of Valisvaram Temple at Valikandapuram in Avanam, 18, op.cit.,
 An unpublished inscription at Valisvarar temple at Valikandapuram,
Vappanthallai taluk states that Sankarapadiyan Maran Masathu donated a gift of
seven and a half kalanju of gold for providing one measure of ghee everyday to
the temple, for burning a lamp in 922A.D.639 The same record registers a gift of
seven Kalanju of gold for burning a lamp by Sankarapadiyan Seyan Viveli in 926
A.D. It also mentions that Sankarapadiyan Naga Muttan made a gift of three and
half kalanju of gold for burning a lamp in the temple.

Landlords donated the land to the temple as well as erected the oil press
also. An inscription of 9th century AD refers to the erection of oil-press by one
Pidaram Mallan.640 Another inscription in Arali, Ulunthurpet Taluk refers to the
erection of an oil press by Kargunanalaiyar of Srikarananallur641.

An inscription of 11th century AD refers to the erection of this oil-press by

Uththaman poththan, and Poththa Nichchi of Nitcheripurakkudi Vettuva sect of
Tulaiyur village. The epigraph calls the oil-press as Chekku, Ural and Kuru.642
Another unpublished inscription referred to in Avanam refers to the erection of

p.38.
639
Ibid., p.39
640
V. Pandurangan, “Herostone and Inscription on the oil-press”, Avanam, op. cit., Vol.18,
p.23.
641
C. Viraragavan, Some New Inscriptions, op.cit., p. 26.
642
V.P. Yathiskumar and R. Ramesh, “Inscription in an Oil Press at Poonnuththu”, Avanam,
op.cit., Vol.19, p.9.
oil-press, for the god of Pundurai, by on individual Talikorran in all AD.643 An
Inscription in Virudhunagar District refers to the installation of oil-press by one
Thanman of Virapandyapuram belongs to the 12th Century A.D.644

The oil-mills articulated by the Vaniyans were gingelly (Sesamum indicum)

coconut, iluppei (Bassia longifolia) pinnei (Calopthyllum inophyllum) and ground
nut (Arachis hypogoea).645 Vaniyas who were the primarily producers of oilseeds
and engaged in production and sale of oil.

Pearl Fishing – Paravas

Pearl was an important article of trade and was used as a unit of barter. A
particular Parava community was associated with pearl fishing. Pearl fishing was
their main source of livelihood by which they could pull on their day to day life. It
was considered as an auspicious ornament and it decorated the chest of Pandya
crown prince. The 104 pearls were arranged in a silk string and hung around the
neck by the Royal prince.646

643
V.P. Thangavel and L. Thiagarajan, “Inscription on the Oil-Press at Venkatchalapuram”
Avanam, Vol.16, 2005, p. 72.
644
R. Balachandran, "New Inscription on the oil – press in Virudhunagar District", op.cit,
p.39.
645
Ibid., p.532
646
C.Bhavani, "Pearl through the Ages in Tamilagam", in Proceedings of the South Indian
History Congress, Twenty- fifth Silver Jubilee Annual Session, Madurai, 2005. p.455.
 Pearl fishing was done by the Paravas and they were headed by the
Pattangattis. They were the first sailors of the Indian Ocean, lived on fishing the
pearl oysters, shells and corals. They were regularly paying the duties to the
rulers. But the situation started changing slowly once the Moors started
occupying the pearl fishing coast and the Paravas became the servants of the
Moors.647

The Pandyas were the masters of the pearl fishing coast, subsequently;
they lost their political authority when the Moors became the master of it. The
Moors were the owners of the pearl fishery which took place in the bay formed
by the island of Rameswaram, the island of Ceylon and the east coast of
peninsula. All pearl trade was in the hands of Moors paying a duty to the Tamil
kings, they maintained a supreme command on the coast. But pearl fishing was
under the flag of the moors. Adiyaman opines that there were atleast 83 pearl
banks in the area which stretches from Cape Comerin to the island of Mannar to
the extent of 70 leagues inland.648

Cloth Merchants

Saliya Nagarattar was the cloth merchants. They were weavers who sold
their own cloth. These Saliyanagarattars were mostly settled around

647
Ibid., p.456.
648
N.Athiyaman, Pearls and Chank Diving of South Indian Coast, Tamil University Tajore,
2000, p. 8.
Kanchipuram region and involved in trading activities. They exported their cotton
cloths to other countries under the Pallavas. Mostly they were the members of
Nagaram.

The Cholas were interested in promoting trading activities. So the

Nagarattar of Kanchipuram continued their prestigious position. The Saliya
nagarattar in this region played a managerial or supervisory role. They became
the weavers of the royal garments and maintained the temple accounts. Thus the
Nagarattar played a dominant role in economic activities. The Nagarattar of
Kanchipuram had maintained links with the other guilds like nanadesis and
Tisaiyayirattuainnurruvar.649 Tiruvorriyur a nearby region was also a weaving
centre with saliya nagarattar looking after its trading textiles.

Kongu inscriptions which belong to the twelfth century have mentioned

‘Saliyar’. Because of flourishing trade in Vadaparisara Nadu, many traders came
and stayed there. They were called Vaduga-Saliyar. Besides Telugu, Saliyar
could speak Tamil also. Chidambaram, Thirupulathurai, and Valikandapuram
were the trading centres of Saliyanagarattar.

Thirumuruganpundi inscription has stated as "Vadaparisara Nattu Salia

Nagarattar”. Saliya Nagarattar, Manniyuradikiltala Viyapari and other traders
had contributed to one ‘Ur’, though they were not involved in agriculture. From
the above information it can be assumed that the Saliya Nagarattar besides

649
A.R.E., 273 of 1955-56.
attending to their traditional occupation and trade were getting much importance
in Kongu politics and administration.

According to the Devaram hymns there were four types of merchants, viz.,
Viyaparigal, Saliyar, Sankarapaadiyar and Vaniyar. They were considered to be
Nagarattar. Saliyar Nagarattar was identified as cloth merchants. Further,
Saliya Nagarattar were associated with a type of weavers known as Saliyar. Thus
Saliya Nagarattars might once have been weavers.

Umanar

Salt merchants were Umanar. They took their products in cart loads or on
donkeys. They were the producers as well as sellers. Their main problem was the
ever present high way robbers. They were ready with deadly bows to kill the
merchants at sight. So, the Umanar had to be familiar with martial arts. They
also suffered from another problem. During rainy seasons the cart-loads of salt
pans could be washed away. Pudukottai State Manual describes them as
Uppiliyans.650 They were also named as Karpurachettis because of selling
Camphor as well as Salt Petre.

Ilaivaniyars

650
Pudukkottai State Manual, p.539.
 The Ilaivaniyars were another group of the merchant community. Their
main occupation was the cultivation of betel creepers and selling of its leaves.
They were producers and sellers. Their activities were very much limited and
localized. But their business seemed to be one of the most popular trading
activities in South India.

Nagarattar

Nagarattar was famous and leading merchant guild existed in the Tamil
country. Scholars had the opinion that these Nagarattar involved in local trade.
But this guild had trade contacts with other countries also. The Nagarattar was a
generic term for Tamil merchants. The Chetti community of present day is known
by this term. The Nagarattar were the full-fledged trading community, they were
mostly of Nattukottai region (The modern Pudukottai, Sivagangai and Ramnad
districts). According to one view point, the residential quarters of the Nagarattar
was known as Nagaram.

The term Nagaram is identified in many of the inscriptions of the Pallavas

and the Cholas. The words Nagaram, Nagarattar and Nagarattom were the
different terms used in the inscriptions.651 A marginal increase in Nagaram under
the late Cholas and the rise of new ones in the Pandya region in the thirteenth
century demonstrate the importance of royal or political support extended to the

651
A.R.E., 431 of 1954-55; S.I.I., Vol.I, No.40.
commercial organizations and their activities. The Nagaram was also an
important marketing institution, which collected taxes or commercial transactions
and established the rules and regulations for its members. It provided market
place, maintained streets and police protection. It was also a major landholder
and received income from its common land.

There were many Nagarattar groups involved in trading activities Saliya

Nagarattar were the textile traders. Sangarapadi Nagarattar was the oil and
ghee merchants. Sattum Parisatta Nagarattar also specialized in textile trade,
Paraga Nagarattar was the sea-faring merchants.652 Vaniya Nagarattar refers to
a larger organization of oil-mongers. Perunagarattar were another group
mentioned in inscriptions at Tanjavur and at Turunagesvaram.653

An inscription at Mamallapuram informs that the Nagarattar of the

Nagaram established their quarters in the place. It was recorded by the Karanam
(clerk) of the Nagaram on the orders of the Nagarttom.654 An inscription at
Narttamalai gives us the information that a merchant from the Nagaram
purchased a land at the edge of the Nagaram from the local Nagarattar and had
given as a gift to the local deity.655 Thus Nagaram was a physically defined area
inhabited by a group of people known as Nagarattar.

652
A.R.E., 372 of 1939-40.
653
S.I.I., Vol.11, No. 24; A.R.E., 222 of 1911.
654
S.I.I., Vol.I, No.40.
655
P.S.I, No.158.
 An inscription of Rajendra I speak of the establishment of Nagaram in the
eastern hamlet of the city known as Kunamenagapuram. In this Nagaram,
Viyaparigal, Vellalar, Sankarappadiyar, Saliyar and goldsmith, carpenters were
settled.656

At Kudamukku also the Nagarattar played a dominant role. They had links
with other guilds. They traded in silk and cotton cloths, gems and other luxury
items, coconuts, fruits, flowers, areca nuts and betel leaves. Kudamukku was the
major centre of betel and areca nut cultivation.

An inscription of 13th century is found in Chokkanatha temple at Piranmalai

in Sivagangai district. This refers to Tisaaiyayirattainnurruvar, Padinenvisayattar
and Nagarattar guilds.657 This inscription listed out the articles handled by the
Nagarattar such as salt, ghee, arecanut pepper and cotton fabrics. An inscription
of Rajaraja III witnessed the activities of Nagarattar.658

An inscription at Valikandapuram mentions that the Nagarattar held

Nagarakkani (tenure right to administer the affairs of their Nagarams)659
Nagarattar maintained a prestigious position. Nagara Variyams became one of
the most important standing committees of the local bodies.660 These Variyams

656
A.R.E., 188 of 1888.
657
S.I.I, Vol. VIII, No. 442.
658
Dinamalar, dated 23.01.1997.
659
A.R.E., 264 of 1943-44.
660
S.I.I., Vol. V. No.588.
had their own clerks. Such as Nagarakaranattan and accountants
Nagarakannakku. An inscription at Sivapuram, Chingleput district says about the
duties of these officers.661 According to that the Nagarakkanaranttan purchased
the rights of Nagarakannakku on lease from the local Nagaram. The
Nagarakkanaranattan recorded the transactions.662 Nagarakanakku was
involved in financial management at Tillaistanam, Tanjore. Both Nagaranattan
and Kanakku were held responsible and were fined for misappropriating temple
funds.663

An inscription of Rajaraja I found at Kondakuppam mentioned Nagaratar

tank664 called Narpathiennayira Perunderu. This would have been a residential
area of the traders. The Nagarattar of Nagaram had rights over their own
affairs. They were collectively responsible for the collection of tax and some times
they negotiated the tax due to the rulers.

An inscription at Melappaluvur in Trichirappalli district records that a Chetti

represented the Nagaram in a negotiation over taxes to the Chola government665
A twelfth century inscription at Rajendrasingapuram records that the Nagaram
had the right to collect Antarayam (usually a royal tax assessed on local
assemblies). Kudimai (a royal tax) Koyirramapperu (a royal tax payable to

661
A.R.E., 285 of 1959-60.
662
A.R.E., 84, 86 of 1889.
663
A.R.E., 35 of 1895.
664
M. Kalaivanan and P.Venkatesan, “Kondakuppan Kalvettu” in Avanam 13, 2002, p.15.
665
A.R.E., 374 of 1924.
temples), and Nagaraviniyogam (a local cess collected to support Nagaram
expenditures).666

A thirteenth century inscription from Rajarajesvaram temple, Tanjore

mentioned the royal taxes collected from the Nagaram of
Sangamdaviracholanallur. This inscription also provides the different types of
commercial activities of Nagaram. It also lists out the levy of cesses on
commercial goods such as flower, dry crops, areca nuts, betel leaves, saffron,
ginger, sugarcane, elephants and horse stables.667.

An inscription from Gangaikondacholapuram recorded that the local

Nagaram collected land revenue and paid the same to the government agents.668
According to that inscription the Nagaram paid 23000 kalam of paddy on
cultivated lands and 1000 kasu of gold on dry lands as tax. When a member of
the local Nagaram defaulted in the payment of taxes on cotton (Panjupili) and
other cesses the Nagarattar were forced to sell communal land to make up the
deficiency.669

The Nagaram of Mummudi Cholapuram charged fee on trader for using its
market and for police protection.670 An inscription at Rajarajesvaram temple at

666
Ibid., 432 of 1904.
667
S.I.I., Vol. III, No.22.
668
A.R.E., 388 of 1938-40.
669
Ibid., 260 of 1940-41.
670
Ibid., 204 of 1908.
Tanjore also defined the market taxes collected by the Nagaram which includes
taxes on oil mills (Chekirai) tax on looms (tari irai), tax on goldsmiths (Pattan
pattam) and tax on shops Angadipattam.671

The Nagarattar of Narttamalai also erected shrines for the local deity.672
Another group Vaniga Nagarattar of Poonthamalli supplied metal plates for door
to the temple at Trisulam.673 Kunnattur Anickachetti made a gift of 250 kuli of
land to the Tirukkarialvar temple in north Arcot district.674

The Nagarathar held an important position in the society. They also

played supervisory role in the local assembly. Sometimes they levied and
collected taxes from the merchants. It is due to their role in the economic
development they received special privileges and powers from rulers and earned
a prestigious position. They also played a multidimensional role philanthropists
and donors of lands to temples doing to some public welfare works.

An inscription in Turaiyur defines the boundaries of a gift of land as the

enclosed walls of the ur and the backyards of the local commercial community.

671
Ibid., 199 of 1912.
672
S.I.I., Vol. VII, No.394.
673
Ibid., Vol. V, No. 537.
674
A.R.E., 108 of 1941-42.
An inscription in Tiruvidaimarudur recorded the actions taken by the sabha and ur
of Tiraimur and the Nagaram in Tiruvidaimarudur to run a local temple.675

Padinenvishayattar

Padinenvishayattar676 is also a kind of trader and became more prominent

in the society. “Padinen” denotes the number ‘eighteen’, ‘Vishayam’ refers to
‘matter sense’ and ‘region’ and ‘country’. The word “Padinen” is a conventional
word. From the beginning our ancestors used this number eighteen, as Padinen-
cittar, Padinem Kudimakkal, Padin-er-Kurram and Padinen-Kilkanakku.

In the commentaries of Mayilainathar on Nannul there is mention of

Padinen-en-Vishayam including Sinalam. So Padin-en-Vishayattar was merchants
who carried on their trade with eighteen countries. This is found in the Sarkar
Periyapalayam inscriptions.677

Peruniraviyar

675
S.I.I., Vol. V, No. 716.
676
B.S.Chandra Babu and Thilagavathy. op.cit. p.82.
677
Idem.
 The word “Peruniraviyar” is seen in the inscription of Periyapalayam.
Peruniraviyar is a merchant community. According to one version they were
army men. Here “Peru Niravi” refers to “dhadakam”. Niravi mandapam became
a hall in the centre of a tank or river. So this ‘Peruninraviyar’ was a merchant
group which was living near the big river or ‘dhadagam’ and carried on their
trade.

Valanchiar

Kurukkutali inscription describes about ‘Valanciar’. From Vembathi

inscription in Bhavani taluk, it is understood that the Valanciar made a pattanam
for Peruniraviyar. The Valanciar are referred to as Banajigas in the Kannada
inscriptions. The inscriptions inform us that the Valanciar and the Nagarattar
were in Ceylon along with the Velaikkarar in the twelfth century too.

The banias, as merchants of Western India and South India, are referred to
by Marcopolo. He calls them ‘Abraimans’. A few personal details concerning
them are so full of interest. He says “these Abraimans are the best merchants in
the world and the most truthful they would not tell a lie for anything on earth.678
They eat no meat and drink no wine and live a life of great chastity, have
intercourse with no women expect with their wives”. And they were all

678
A Appadorai. Economic Conditions in Southern India (1000-1500 A.D.),Vol.I, University of Madras.
Madras, 1990, p.422.
distinguished by wearing a thread of cotton over shoulder and tied under the
other arm, so that it crossed the breast and back.679

Foreign Merchants

Arab Merchants

The coastal regions of South India attracted many foreign merchants in the
study period. The Arab merchants were one among the foreign merchant group.
For more than a thousand years the Arabs and the Persians conducted the trade
between Indian and Europe. The Arab settlements after the introduction of
Mohammedanism were made in several places on the coast and the native rulers
of the country gave them many facilities for pursuing their trade.680 Since horse
was the chief item of the imports, the Arabs were the most sought after by the
Pandyas.

In course of time, they married the local women and followed local
language and customs. They became a distinct group called Marakkayars. Later
on, they became the natives of these coastal areas and one of the prominent sea-
faring merchant groups of the Tamil country. Their population increased in many
coastal villages. The earliest recorded evidence of their settlement was found at

679
B.S.Chandra Babu and Thilagavathy. op.cit. p.97.
680
A.Appadorai, op.cit., p.57.
Kunimedu and Nagore.681 The merchants from Middle East were active in the
great parts of Arabian Sea. The Islamic empire also created an environment
favouring the sea-borne trade.

Privileges of Foreign Merchants

The Pandya kings had Muslims in their service. So probably a number of

Muslims from Cairo or Arabia would have settled here. The Pandya rulers
appointed the Muslim nobles as their agents. The Arabian Muslim Jallaludin and
his sons were in the imperial service and held Fatan and other coastal towns as
their hereditary possession.682 They enjoyed the status of ministers and other
prestigious positions. They had the kingly practice of reading khutba in their
names.683 The various concessions that the Pandyas granted to the Arab
merchants (Sonakar) included the assignment of taxes for them known as
Sonakasikai.684 Sonaka Samantha palli (Arab Commander’s mosque) was granted
a tax-free land.685 An inscription of Rajarajesvara temple, Thanjavur, refers to the
Arab merchants, the Sonakas.686 It also mentions the name of the donor as
Sonaka Savur Paranjodi. He was an Arab from the West Coast.

681
A.R.E., 294 of 1963- 64.
682
Elliot and Dowson, op.cit., Vol.III, p.33.
683
Idem.
684
S.I.I., Vol.VIII, No.404.
685
Ibid., No.402.
686
S.I.I., Vol.II, No.92, p.428.
 At Kayalpattinam many inscriptions are found in Arabic language. The Arab
traders would have traveled through the Indian Ocean and reached
Kayalpattinam. Since the rulers were the supporters of the itinerant traders, they
would have settled in this port. The Pandya rulers were interested in importing
horses from Arabia. This brought many Arab traders to this region

Chinese Merchants

The Chinese merchants were very active in trading activities. The medieval
kings established their cordial relations with the Chinese government. Both of
them strengthened their commercial relations. There were many evidences to
prove their trade relations: The Pallava trade missions to China were sent on
several occasions, 667, 692, 710 and 720 A.D. The Chola kings also sent trade
mission to China. Mostly transactions were conducted by the system of barter.
The Chinese coins found at Tanjore represents Sang period (A.D 960 – 1279). This
indicates the trade relations between these two countries. The trade would have
been carried out by the guilds. The trade organizations had spread into the
Chinese coastal ports like Quanzhou.687

Another Tamil Chinese bilingual inscription was found at Quanzhou was

dated 1281 AD. Kulotunga I sent a trade mission to China. The mission included
the Tamil traders who did trade with China in five articles like opaque, glass

687
P. Selvi, “Overseas trade in Medieval Tamil country”, Unpublished, Ph.D. Thesis, Madurai Kamaraj
University, Madurai. 2007, p.176.
bowls, camphor, rhinoceros horns, rose water, cloves and textile. Many Chinese
sources describe the commercial expansion of the Cholas in China, There are
plenty of ceramic potsherds found on the ports of the Coromandal Coast such as
Periyapattinam, Kayalpattinam and others.688

In 1077 A.D. a Chola mission to China took an array of gifts including cotton
fabrics. Mostly the cotton textiles were dealt by Saliya nagarattar. By the early
thirteenth century the Chinese were more familiar with Indian cotton products.
Chau-Ju-Kua describes the availability of cotton fabrics in the Chola Pandya areas.
On the Coramandel coast cotton stuffs with coloured threads and cotton stuffs
were listed as part of the produce of the region.689 Chau-Ju-Kua refers to cotton
stuffs with coloured silk threads as part of the produce of the Chola Country.690

The Chinese missions also followed the trade routes of the Tamil merchants
Pandya King Kulasekara accepted the overlordship of Kublai Khan. Many such
missions were sent to South India. In 1286 A.D. representatives of ten states
arrived at the Chinese Court.691 It is evident that the cotton fabrics were exported
from India to China. The guilds of Tamil Country exported textiles to South East
Asia and China.

Yavanas
688
Kenneth Mc Pherson, op.cit., p.99.
689
quoted in Meera Abraham, op.cit., p. 164.
690
Ibid., p.179.
691
Idem.
 The term “Yavana” occurs in the context of foreigners and their trade
activities in general. The settlements of Yavanas are invariably found on the
coast especially in the big emporium of trade, is no less important in
understanding the nature of their contacts and interaction.692 This indicates the
trade contacts of Tamil Country with foreign countries from the earliest times.
The importance of Tamil Country’s trade with the west have long been underlined
by the available abundant Roman Coinage. The literary evidence for trade from
Rome and Tamil sources find a surprising corroboration from Archaeology and
Numismatics. So, the term Yavanas would have been applied exclusively to the
Greeks or Romans.693

Dhanmadavalar

There was a reference about a guild namely danmadavalar. This guild was
functioned at Manalmelkudi.694 In their prasasti danmadhuvalar called
themselves as Padinen bhumi vaniga nagarattar. It means that they operated in
eighteen districts on both the banks of Kaveri. They had their own flag and
garland. As a body they also had the power to siege the brass vessels and to
break the mud vessels of the defaulters of the tax which they imposed upon the
members.695 The Padinen bhumisamastaparadesigal were there and traded with

692
Pattinappalai, p.173.
693
Mayilai Senivenkatasami, op.cit., p.58.
694
A.R.E., 337 of 1960-61.
695
Idem.
other countries. They would have been a part of the nagarattar or nanadesi
guild. Many of them were dealers in specific commodities such as pearls and
horses.696

Settlement and their Residential Areas

Merchant communities had a number of settlements in the Pallava, Chola,

Pandiya Kingdoms and other dominions. The localities inhabited by the traders
were known as Davalam697, Nagaram, Puram, Pattinam and Madigai. The
streets wherein they lived were referred to in the records of the period as
Nyayapparipalanapperunderu698, Ulaguyyavanda pandyapperunderu,699
Arasanaayanaperunderu700 Ainnurruva perunderu701,
Jeyan702Kondasolapperunderu and so on. Rajaraja Chaurvedimangalam703, the
big Brahmadeya Rajendra Cholapperunderu, was occupied by the merchants. A
hamlet of the brahmadeya, Melkuppayakkudi was named Nanadesinallur.704 The
Tiruvalisvaram inscriptions refer another merchant settlement within the big

696
Meera Abraham, op.cit., p.148.
697
A.R.E., 337 of 1960-61.
698
Ibid., 731 of 1962-63.
699
Ibid., 571 of 1916.
700
Pudukkottai State Manual, No. 363.
701
Ibid., 125 of 1935-36.
702
Ibid., No. 155.
703
Ibid., 292 of 1927-28.
704
A.R.E., 52 of 1935-36
Brahmadeya called Rajaraja erivirapattinam. It was also known by the street
name Niccittakandapperunderu.705

A lithic record of Maravarman Sundarapandya I from Pillayarpatti mentions

the settlement of the Rajanarayanapuram branch of the Nagarattar community.
It describes that the merchants who settled down in Ainnurruvapperunderu in
Enkaraikkudi purchased four ma of lands at Marudangudi for founding a new
colony called Rajanarayanapuram.

In the southern area of Kallidaikurichi there was another merchant

settlement called Kshatriyasikhamanipuram.706 The merchant instituted a lamp
services in Tirumulanatha temple, and made a Dharmadana707 to Nalayira
Vinnagar deity in the same place. This merchant settlement was known as Punal
for which, the king granted tax remission on lands.708

Karavandapuram was another fortified town for the Nagarattar

settlement.709 A Vatteluthu inscription at Manur refers to Ilayankadan a Valanjiya
who protected the township when it was threatened with destruction. Manur
inscription mentions the merchant townships of Tisaiayirattu annurruvar.710

705
R. Thirumalai, The Pandiyan township, Part-II, p.138
706
S.I.I., Vol.XIV. No.134.
707
S.I.I., Vol.XXIII. No.110
708
Ibid., p.111.
709
Ibid., Vol.XIV. No.513.
710
Ulaga Cintamanipuram, Karikalacholapuram, Keralantakapuram,
Valarpuram

Valarpuram was also a trading centre where the trading caste people
settled. Valarpurams were growing trade centres. There were two major centres
of merchant activity in the south of Pudukottai in Ramnad district. They were
Kamudi and Piranmalai. There were two records that indicate the donation made
by different merchant organizations to the local deities.711 The members of
several merchant organizations met and recorded their endowments to the local
deities in a joint donation. In both the records references were made to 18
pattinams, 32 valarpurams and 64 kadigaittavalams from which members
hailed. Tavalam would seem to represent a fair, while pattinam was
undoubtedly a town of considerable commercial importance. Valarpuram
perhaps would be a growing trade centre.712 In one of the inscriptions
valarpuram was referred to as velarpuram.713 It is very difficult to identify all
these pattinams and purams. Vanchimanagaram, Kudombalur,
Kulasekarapattinam and Narttamalai were some of the identified towns. These
towns were the dwelling regions of merchant class or the nagarattars.

Desiuttamacholapattanam, Desiapattinam, Rajarajapuran, Tenayyapattanam, etc.

711
A.R.E., 96 of 1974-75; ARE., 154 of 1903.
712
R. Champakalakshmi, op.cit., p.224.
713
A.R.E., 154 of 1903
Tavalam

‘Tavalam’ means ‘residential place’. It can be assumed that tavalam refers

to the residential place of the traders. Periyapalayam inscription refers to 64
kadigai tavalam. Kodi means Kaval, kadigai tavalam means Kaaval Porunthia
tavalam.714 Perur inscription says about ‘Korramangalamana Manchipuli
Tavalam’.715 Korramangalam is in Erode district. Another inscription at Perur
indicates “Tavlathiliuntha viyapari kodhai kumranukkum”.716 So there must have
been a close relation between Tavalam and merchants.

Champakalakshmi opined that “Kadigai Tavalam seems to be a fair”.717 The

residential area of the itinerant traders was known as velapuram or
kadigaitavalam. Kadigaitavalam also could be known as market centre.718 In
view of this, the use of Tavalam in the Piranmalai inscription is of particular
interest. It defines the different levels at which itinerant merchants halted to
exchange goods.719 The inscription refers to the 18 pattanas 32 valarpurams, 64
kadigaitavalams from where the traders came to trade. Not only a particular
merchant class but also many trading castes settled in these dwellings regions.
714
B.S. Chandrababu and L. Thilagavathi, Trade in Kongu (Up to 16th century A.D.)
Madurai, 2003, p.71
715
Perur Inscription (Unpublished) quoted in Ibid., p.71
716
Idem.
717
R. Champakalakshmi, op. cit.,p.224.
718
P. Chandrasekaran, “Pirkalapandyar kala nagarangalum, Pannattuvanigarkulum", in
Avanam, Vol.6, 1995, p.95.
719
S.I.I., Vol.VIII, No.442.
Adi Kiltalam

Adi means blow or attack720 Kil means east or below721 Talam means the
residential place of the traders’ army.722 According to South Indian Temple
Inscription Tala Adikari refers to an army officer.723 Many inscriptions in Kongu
region refer to Adikiltalam.724 South Indian Inscriptions refer to Raja
Rajapuramana Adikiltalam.725 Mostly the merchant communities lived together
in these regions and carried out their trading activities.

Martial Character of the Merchant Community

The merchant communities had to face numerous hazards in their trading

activities. They should have formed a team among themselves. Frequently, they
faced the problems of robbery. The robbers not only robbed the goods but also
killed them. This necessitated the introduction of martial art in their activities.
Sangam classics provide details about the threats faced by the traders both on
land and sea, necessitating the accompaniment of armed guards with the fleet of
Caravan. Moreover the society also recognized the martial character of the

720
Tamil Lexicon: Vol.1, pp.45-46.
721
Ibid., Vol.II, p.238.
722
Ibid., Vol.II, p.948
723
S.I.T.I. Vol. III, Part-II, No.1441.
724
B.S. Chandrababu, and L. Thilagavathi, op.cit., p.69.
725
S.I.I., Vol.I, No.291; Ibid., Vol.II, No.722.
merchant community. The merchants had to travel long distances through
insecure roads. They had to face critical situations, in which they had to fight
even for their life.

The merchants had to meet Vanicai makkal726 nammakkal 727

and pnicei
makkal 728on their way of trading in order to facilitate their activities.

Army men

Erivirar

Erivirar were militia men, attached to the trading communities.

Erivirapattanam were created in honour of the Erivirar. As warriors they
accompanied the merchant caravans. The eripadai was frequently referred to as
the victorious army.729 In the Tamil lexicon, the term eri means to cut into pieces
and to destroy.730 So, eriviran acted as security force. They were the victorious
warriors of the merchant community.

726
E.I., Vol.IV, p.146.
727
S.I.I., Vol.VIII, No.198.
728
Ibid., Vol.VII, No.442.
729
A.R.E., 236 of 1975.
730
Tamil Lexicon, Vol.II, p.547.
Attikosattar

Attikosattar were another team of the army men of merchant community.

They were a group of militia men comprising elephant corps and servicing
merchants employed in the mountain regions and important highways.

The term Attikosattar comprises two syllables; ‘atti’ means ‘hasti’ or

elephant and ‘kosam’ means treasury.731 They were the group of military men
and custodian of temples and their endowments. An inscription refers to a Siva
temple established by the Atikosattar at Anaimalai. 732

Munivirar and Munaivira Kodiyar

The Kurakkutali inscription refers to “Arupathu Nanku Munaiyum,

Munaivira Kodiyarum” and “Tavalam Arupathunanku, Munai
Arupathunanku”.733 It is assumed that there is a close relationship between
Taavalam and Munai. ‘Munai’ refers to battlefield, soldier and enemy area.
‘Munai’ is identified with war and soldiers. Munaivirakkodiyar can also be
731
Ibid., Vol.I. p.1171.
732
A.R.E., 222 of 1928.
733
B.S.Chandrababu and L.Thilagavathi, op.cit., p.89.
identified with war. ‘Munai’ was a place where the soldiers were fighting. It was
a body of sixty-four ‘Munai’ and Munaivirak Kodiyar,734 the flag-bearers of the
army. Virakodiyar means the heroes or the warriors of the victorious banner.

The Virakodi or Virakotiyar were found in the Ceylon in about the twelfth
century. The Vahalkada inscription mentions about the Virakodiyar.735 They
were associated themselves with the Chettis in taking certain steps to protect a
town. These military classes helped the Tamil merchants during their travel to
other countries. Some organizations of the traders played a dominant role in
developing inland trade also. Since the merchants caste involved in economic
pursuit, they gave importance to money. “Semporpasumpaiya Theivamagavam” is
seen in the Periyapalayam inscription. “Semporpasumpai” means “Money
Purse”.736

The traders had mastered the two languages of Tamil and Sanskrit. They
had listened to the discourses on the science of polity and also understood the
law (Needhi Nipunarayirunthu). They studied thoroughly the work called
“Muttamil Maalai” which was said to be very highly renowned for the high
political ideas. It included “Uttama Perum Needhi Uyar Perum”.737 The members
are used sweet words and afforded protection to the law-abiding . The
Virakodiyar had been entrusted with the protection of endowments made by the
merchants. An inscription refers to a grant of land by a resident of Desi-
734
S.I.I., Vol.VIII, No.198.
735
E.C., Vol.V, No.116.
736
B.S.Chandrababu and Thilagavathy, op.cit., p.96.
737
Sarkar Periyapalayam Inscriptions, (unpublished) Tamil Nadu State Department of
Archaeology, Coimbatore.
Wyyakkonda, Chola Pattanam, which was left under the protection of Virachola
anukkar and Virakodiyar.738

Prasasti of the Merchants

The merchants had their own prasasti. An inscription of Maravarman

Kulasekhara I issued in his 4th regnal year, describes an interesting prasasti of the
Vania Nagarattar in the eighteen districts of Padinenbhumi on both the banks of
river Kaveri.739 The prasasti lists Kikkindai (kishakindha), their mountain, pampai
(pampa) their river, garuda, their flag, Saimukkiya – their insignia, jayavaranam –
their elephant, kalimarutam – their horse, kamalakandigai – their chariot and
Tonrimalai – their garland.740 It also refers to the gift of an annual levy of 60
panam by the Vania nagarattars to the Siva temple at Tirumanamedu for the
expenditure towards a vaikasi festival. It also stated that they appropriated to
themselves the right of collecting the levy and the right of breaking the mud pots
and seizing the brass vessel of the defaulters741. The Vania nagarattar had the
power to levy tax on their members and punish the defaulters.

Endowment of Perpetual lamp

738
E.C., Vol.IV, No.5.
739
A.R.E., 337 of 1960-61.
740
N.Alagappan, op.cit., p.48.
741
Ibid., p.49.
 An inscription of the 21st year of Parakesarivarman describes, Sadaiyan
Kavayan, a member of Manigramam from Tenvari nadu, endowed a lamp service
in Kurralanathasvami temple at Kurralam.742 A merchant from Marundayanallur
alias Vikramapandyapuram in Mullainadu had donated sheep for lamp services.743
Two merchants from Kallidaikurichi instituted lamp service in Tirumulanatha
temple at Ambasamudram744 A merchant named Orungai Arangam from
Karavandapuram endowed a lamp 30 palam in weight to the Vishnu deity at
Sucindram in 947 A.D.745 Another inscription mentioned a gift of land for lamp by
a merchant of Nandipuram to the Palakkarugavur of Tirukkudamukkil746
Samundan murti a merchant of Nandipura purchased and gave 1/8 veli of land for
one perpetual lamp to the temple of Mahadeva at Karugavur. 747

Collective Action

An inscription of 11th Century AD, at Karur District carries the symbols of

merchant communities. It mentions the name of kurval surulkathi, arival, uli,

742
R.Thirumalai, op.cit., p.52.
743
A.R.E., 310 of 1918; Ibid., 311 of 1918.
744
S.I.I., Vol.XIV. No.134.
745
E.I., Vol.V. p.436.
746
A.R.E., 36 of 1910.
747
S.I.I., Vol.III, Part III and IV, No.100.
 748
val, kavai, buli, annam, mayil, kuthuvikku, and kodi. Another inscription of
10th century A.D., in Kulattur mentions the exemption of tax to the traders who
resided in the Varanavasi peunderu. An inscription issued during the 30th regnal
year of Maravarman Kulasekara Pandya I refers to the meeting of the 79 nattars
and Nanguthisai pathinenvisayattars to decide as to set apart a portion of their
profits and to donate the same for the renovation of the Siva temple.749 Another
epigraph dated 1201 AD found at Vikramangalam refers to the decision taken by
the Nagarattan of Vikramacholapuram regarding the utilisation of water.750

An inscription of Rajendra II found at Thenpathi Mannarkudi, Thiravarur

district dated 1273AD mentions the gift of tax free land for performing pujas and
for renovation of the temple by the Nagarattar of Rajendracholapuram and
Nattar of Jeyakondacholapuram.751 The same record also mentions the gift f curd
rice for offering pujas to the image of Pilliaiyar by Inurruva Bhattan and his
brother.752

At Tittadanapuram (Tondi) the anjunnattar made an agreement in AD

1269 with several merchant groups such as Manigaramam, Samantapandasali to
Yavattirachetti, Valanjiyar of Ilanagai, Kaikolar, tucuvar, Vaniyar and

748
Naga Ganesan, “Some New Inscriptions from Karur District”, Avanam, Vol. 19, p.10.
749
L. Thiagarajan, “Rayapuram trade guild inscription” op.cit, p. 56.
750
L. Thiagarajan, “Inscriptions of the trade centres”, op.cit., p.41.
751
A. Thulasendran and M. Rajesh, "Inscriptions from Thenpathi", Avanam, Vol.16, p.95.
752
Ibid., p.96.
Nindakaraiyar on the levy of certain taxes on commodities, sold and purchased
for the rebuilding expenses of the local Siva temple.753

There were four nagarams existed during the time of the Pallavas. In
nagaram the merchant class played a key role in the village activities. The
nagaram merchant members employed prestige and importance. Along with
local assemblies they rendered services to local people. At Tiruvidai Marudur,
Tanjavur inscriptions record the actions taken by the Sabha and Ur of tiraimin and
the nagaram. A similar arrangement had been worked out between the sabha
and nagaram of Tondaiman and Perarrur to carry out welfare work collectively.754

Communal Corporate Bodies

During the medieval Tamil country, the striking feature of the society was
the existence of the caste based corporate bodies that functioned at village and
supra-village level. The Ur was the corporate body of Vellala landholders, the
Sabha was the corporate body of Brahmana land holders in Brahmana villages
and the nagaram was the corporate body of merchant-cum-land holders.755 In
the nagaram the merchant assemblies located in market towns and interacted
with all the four.

753
A.R.E., 598 of 1926-27.
754
Idem.
755
Y.Subbarayalu, Studies in Chola History, Madras, 2001, p.91.
 An inscription from Chidambaram issued during the time of Rajendra I speak
of the establishment of a Nagaram in the eastern hamlet of the city, known as
Kunamenagaipuram, wherein Viyaparigal the Vellalar, sankarapadiyar, saliyar,
and pattinavar, carpenter, blacksmith, gold smith and leather workers
(Koliyar).756

Virinchipuram, Tirukkoyilur, Tiruvadigai and Tirukalukunram were the four

nagarams of the Pallavas.757 The contemporary Pandya region also had only two
nagarams namely Karavandapuram and Manavirappattinam.758

The trading activities created many specialized trading groups like the
saliya nagaram (weavers) sankarapadi nagaram (suppliers of oil, and ghee) and
the vaniyanagaram (oil mongers).

Nagaram supervised the flow of goods. There was a minimum of one

nagaram per nadu. It served as the local marketing territory. There is an
evidence of more than one nagaram in existence in some nadus. Tiraimur nadu
had two nagarams namely, Tiraimur nagaram and Kumaranarrandapuram. It
might have been created due to the high density of merchant population.

There were twenty-four nagarams in the Tondai mandalam. It acquired at

least one nagaram in each kottam.759 The nagarams of Tiruvadi, Tirukkovalur

756
Kennath Hall, op. cit., p.52.
757
R.Champakalakshmi, op.cit., p.44.
758
Idem.
and Virincipuram were the important market centres. The outward flow of the
gold and money deposits from the nagarams to the hinterland is attested by the
fact that they were entrusted to the sabhas and urs of the hinterland. In return
there was a flow of interest in paddy, ghee and other ritual requirements to the
nagaram temples.

Taxes paid by the Traders

The head of the nagaram acted as city superintendent and supervisor of

trade. Mostly the headman was a merchant. Thus nagaram was designated as a
commercial area as distinct from agricultural communities. The most important
function of a nagaram was the administration of its local market. It also
dominated the regional markets and controlled the fees levied on commercial
transactions. It collected fees on shops known as angadikuli and angadippattam.
It also collected levies on bazaars. These fees were known as kadaiirai and
kadaippattam.760 It also collected various tolls and cesses assessed on those who
participated in nagaram commerce.

The paddy brought into the nagram of Mummudi Cholapuram was subject
to three cesses. They were nilakuli (payment for service), padikaval (police
protection) and kaivasi (nagaram’s right).761 The nagaram, as a commercial
centre had attracted traders into its market place by providing service such as

759
A.R.E., 261 of 1909.
760
S.I.I., Vol.III, No.90; Ibid., Vol.V, No.597; Ibid., Vol. VIII, No.252.
761
A.R.E., 204 of 1908.
police, protection, street cleaning, and garbage collection and had charged
merchants for these services. Similar fees for usage were also collected form the
local and foreign merchants who sold their commodities at a profit.762

Legal powers

At Jambai in South Arcot the nagaram and nadu representatives met

together to discuss about several legal cases. In one case, the tribunal
determined that a nagaram merchant could not be prosecuted for stabbing to
death a visiting merchant who was associated with the Tirunamanallur
nagaram.763 Another inscription at Aragalur, Salem the nadu assembly arbitrated
a potentially disruptive conflict between the local nagaram and another group of
merchants over the proper management of temple activities.764

Merchants Acted as Brokers

The nagaram merchant also acted as the local broker in specified

commodities. An inscription from konadu765 clearly indicates that the nadu
conferred brokerage upon two itinerant traders. These traders also authorized to
sell only the betel leaves according to the inscription. An inscription from

762
Ibid., 213 of 1904.
763
Ibid., 77 of 1906; Ibid., 225 of 1939-40.
764
A.R.E., 77 of 1906.
765
P.S.I., No.125.
Kanchipuram records that each year a brokerage (taragukol) in some commodity
was sold to a nagaram merchant.766 Another inscription states that the nagaram
controlled various community brokerage fees, which it levied on Nagaram
wholesalers.767

Temple Endowments

Endowments and Grants Made to the Temples

A number of South Indian Inscriptions are giving information pertaining to

endowment, and donation made to the temples for worship and for conducting
festivals by the merchants. These substantiate their belief and faith in temple
activities. An inscription stated that Ulvari was issued by the king for the tax-free
village Kumaran-ambinallur which was granted to the temple by Navayan
Kondanambi of Kulamukku – a horse dealer (Kudiraichchetti) of Malaimandalam
for worship and offerings.768

Another inscription at Ambasamudram, Tirunelveli District found in

Tirumulanathasami temple on the west wall of the central shrine dated 8th year of
Rajendra – Chola I (1019-20A.D) denotes a gift of 50 sheep by one Kannan
Rajarajan, a merchant of Allattar in Sonadu (Chola –nadu) for burning a perpetual

766
A.R.E., 54 of 1893
767
Ibid., 82 of 1911.
768
S.I.I., Vol.II, No.93.
lamp in the temple of Tiruchchalatturai. This is a quarters of Alvars at
Illangokkudi, of Rajaraja Chaturvedimangalam in Mulli Nadu.769

An inscription found in the same temple, Ambasamudram, Tirunelveli

district dated the 9th year of Rajendra Chola I records a gift of 25 sheep each by a
merchant by name Vayiri Ayyaram alias Poyyamolichchetti of Rajendra
Cholapuram and a Vellala named Kurundan Ponnadai of Magilakkurichchi a
quarters of Rajaraja Chaturvedimangalam for burning 2 lamps in the temple of
Tiruchchalatturai Sri-Mulasthana mudaiyar and another gift of cows for a lamp by
a merchant named Nilan Pandari Mulli nadu. Later it came to be known by the
name Mudigonda Sola Valanadu.770

Contribution of the Merchants

There is an inscription found on the north wall of the Vachesvara temple,

Tirupachchur, Tiruvallr taluk, Chengleput district. It refers to a contribution made
by a merchant. The merchant communities of Nellur, Narayanapuram, Arkkadu,
Majilapur, Tiruvorriyur, Pundamalli, Nedumbirai, acquired the village Kavandur in
Ikkattukottam and gave it as a tax-free devadana in favour of the temple
Tiruppachchur, for the construction of the wall called Danmadavalavanfirumadil

769
A.R.E., 77 of 1936-37
770
A.R.E., 74 of 1907.
in it and left the village in charge of Maduranfaka pottappichchokan, the Telugu
Chola chief.771

In an inscription dated in the 22nd regnal year of Rajaraja I in 1006-1007

A.D. records the gift f 10 velis of land by purchase from the sabha of
Iraiyanmangalam by Viliyur Udaiyan, Achchan Pirammadamallan, a merchant of
Periyanngadi at Tanjavur for Performing pithu puja and other rituals to the deity
Tirumaraikkad udaiyar for the merit of Tayan and Achchan, his own elder and
younger brother.772

A record dated in the 4th regnal year of Pathivendradhipativarman registers

that Nulamba Mayilatti, a merchant of Ranavirappadi in Kanchipura, purchased
from Uttrameru Chaturvedimangalam and granted the land as Sribali bhoga for
sounding Sribali in the temple of Subrahmanya Bhattara.773 Another
inscription of the same king in the same year records the grant of 180 kulis of first
rate land by a merchant for offerings to god Ganapati in the temple of goddess
konerinnangai at Kumanpadi of Uttaramellur.774

An inscription issued in the 6th regnal year of Rajendrachola records a grant

of land by the nagarathar of Tirunavalur (alias) Rajaditedevapuram, a city in

771
A.R.E., 120 of 1929-30.
772
S.I.I., Vol. XVIII, No. 470.
773
Ibid., No.171.
774
Ibid., No.172.
Tirumunaippadi, Melurnadu, a subdivision of Jayangaondasola mandalam, for
offerings to the image of Suryadeva and Nambiyaruranar in the temple of
Tirutondisvaramudaiyar.775

The nagarattar of the town Telungukulapuram created a tax-free

endowment out of the village Kudikkadu in favour of the deity Karumanikkalvar in
Tirumerkkoyil. It was entrusted as kudininga devadanam to Devan periyan a
merchant. He is said to have made village fit for cultivation and he should pay 75
kalams of paddy to the temple for the daily food offerings to the god.776

Brahmakuttan, a merchant residing in the Virasolaperunderu at Tanjavur

made a land gift of 48 kulis at Nedumaral to maintain a perpetual lamp in the
temple of Tiruviramilvaran at madanamanjeri Chaturvedimangalam, a village in
Nenmali Nadu during the reign of Uttamachola.777 Another merchant namely
Venkadan sinkan alias disaiyayirattainnurruvan of Tirunarayanapuram made an
endowment of land for burning a perpetual lamp in the temple at Tirunallam, a
Brahmadeya in Vennadu.778

In the 10th regnal year of Uttamachola, Pratigandan Darachcholan granted

land as salaippuram, and left in-charge of the urar of the village for the

775
A.R.E., 225 of 1939-40.
776
Ibid., 91 of 1974-75.
777
S.I.I., Vol. XIX, No.453.
778
Ibid., No. 280
celebration of the annual karthigai (November) festival in the temple of
Tiruvarappallialvar in Valappurnadu, Namakkal taluk, Salem district779

The nagarathar of Ilachchikkudi alias Viranarayanapuram made a grant of

land, free of taxes for forming a flower garden called after king Rajendra Chola for
the Viranarayana Vinnagar temple at Viranarayana Chaturvedimanagalam in
1016 A.D.780

A record dated in the 4th regnal year of Vikrama chola in 1120-21 A.D.
registers a gift of 3 mas vacant land situated on the north wing of the Maligaitteru
at Tiruvaidaimaradur by the nagarathar of the place for meeting the expenses of
the big annual festival in the temple.781

An inscription belonging to the third regal year of Sundarachola mention

Sekharan sattan, the representative of a mercantile guild of Malainadu, joined
other members of the Mulaparishad in a transaction dealing with the endowment
of tax-free devadana land to the temple of Tirukkurakkuttural- perumanadigal.782
These communities also provided for daily offerings to the same temple.783

779
Ibid., Nos. 274 and 275
780
A.R.E., 98 of 1931-1932.
781
S.I.I., Vol. XXIII, No. 287.
782
Ibid., Vol.XIII, p.10.
783
A.R.E., 508 of 1911.
 Although the merchants made various donations to the temples the gift of
land for a lamp seems to be the most popular. A record dated in the reign of
Parakesarivarman who took the head of Virapandya registers a gift of land for a
lamp in the temple of Srikamainakkar (alias) Nurrenmak-Kavarasetti son of
Mayilatti, a merchant of Periyaangadi at Tanjavur.784

Another inscription of the same king mentioned a gift to land for lamp by a
merchant of Nandipura to the Palakkarugavur of Tirukkudamukkil.785 Samundan
murti, a merchant of Nandipuram purchased and gave 1/8 veli of land for one
perpetual lamp to the temple of Mahadeva at Karugavur.786

There is a reference from the inscription found on the wall of Arulala

Perumal temple of Poygai (Alias) Rajendrachola Nallur near Vrinchipuram. It
mentioned a Kerala merchant namely Adirama, an inhabitant of the hill country
granted three villages,787 which he had bought from Sengeni Virasani
Ammaiappan Aragiyasoran who seemed to have been a vassal of Rajendra II.788
The same donor donated the village of Puthur to the Vishnu temple in the 24th
regnal year of Rajaraja II.789

784
Ibid., 247 of 1938-39.
785
Ibid., 36 of 1910.
786
S.I.I., Vol.III, Part III and IV, No.100.
787
Ibid., Vol.I, No. 59.
788
Ibid., Vol.I, No. 61.
789
Ibid., Vol.I, No. 64.
 A record dated in the 32nd regnal year of Kulottunga III registers a gift of
land made by Olaimangalam Udaiyan Tiruvenkaduudaiyan Siriyandan, a merchant
of Kulothunga Cholapatnam in Sellurnadu in Rajaraja Valanadu after purchase
from the temple authorities.790

An inscription is found in Vanniappar temple at Alvarkurichi

Ambasamudram taluk, Tirunelveli district – on the stone set up at the entrance
into the eastern gopura left side dated 1610 A.D. It registers an agreement with
Timmappa Mudaliar, Kumaraswami Mudaliar, the merchants and the Nattavar,
of Pappangulam making decision over certain incomes derived by them in their
division (maganai), permanently for conducting a festival in the temple of
Tiruvannisuramudaiyar – Tambiranar situated on the bank of the Vannitertham
(tank) for the merit of Muthu-Virappa Nayaka son of Virappa nayaka and
grandson of Visvanatha nayaka (of Madurai) and of Sevandi chettiyar son of
Murtti-chettiyar. This Sevandi-chettiyar was a local administrative officer under
the chief.791

Another inscription found at Hanumantagudi, Tiruvadanai Taluk, Ramnad

District, Malavanatha (Jain) temple on some stones lying in front indicates
Padinenbhumi donated a gift of land and money to the temple Artha-Paramesvra
Maluvinayakar in Mutturra–kurram for performing kaval duty.792

790
Ibid., Vol. XXIV, No. 146.
791
A.R.E., 78 of 1907.
792
Ibid., 122 of 1907.
 An inscription of Sinnamanur Periyakulam Taluk, Madurai District was
found at Rajasimhesvara temple – on the same wall dated 41st year of
Maravarman Kulasekhara (1308-09 A.D.) It refers to the 10th regnal year of
Sundara Pandyadeva and to a gift of some impost on articles sold by them in the
markets (bazars) at Arikesarinallur and at Sivallavan-Padividu for meeting the
expenses of worship and festival in margali month in the temple of Rajasingesura
muduja – Nayinar, by the (mercantile) bodies Padinenvishayattar, the Chettis of
Chonadu and others.793 Another inscription found in the same place dated 41st
regnal year of Maravarman Kulasekhara I (1309 A.D.) mentions the fact that the
Nalunagaram Padinenvishayattar the Padinetturajya Padinenvishayattar, the
brokers, the Nattuchchettis and Talachchetis all assembled together in the same
temple for conducting some business evidently in connection with a gift to the
temple.794

The inscription indicating Jatavarman Sundara Pandya dated 6th year of his
reign records a gift of the proceeds of imposts levied on certain exported articles
of merchandise like yarn, cloth, arecanut, pepper, turmeric and ginger, by the
Padinenvishayattar of Nalunagaram and the taragar (brokers) assembled in the
tiruvolakka-mandapam of the temple of Tiruppulandurai-udaiya Nayanar to

793
Ibid., 413 of 1907.
794
Ibid.,, 431 of 1907.
meet the requirements of the sattuppadi and tirupparivattam (apparel) of the
deity.795

An inscription of the same place dated 7th regal year of Jatavarman Sundara
Pandya (A.D.1276) records a gift of contribution by toll by the same mercantile
bodies mentioned above for the maintenance of a flower-garden called Raja-
kkanayantirunandavanam for the temple.796

An inscription found at Valikantapuram Valikandeswara temple,

Trichirappalli district gives us the information that ainnurruvar guild donated gold
to the temple. Another inscription during the time of Uttama Chola found at
Manavalesvara temple at Tiruvalangadeu797 states that the
tisaiaiyiratainnurruvar joined with other communities constructed the temple.
An inscription of Rajaraja I found in the Jain temple, Settiappatti, Kulattur taluk,
Pudukottai district798 mentions an ainnurruva perumpalli was constructed by the
ainnurruvar.

An inscription of Rajendra I found in Mahalingaswami temple,

Tiruvidaimarudur, Kumbakonam, Tanjore district799 mentions that the
ainnurruvar merchants constructed a mandapa. Nagarattar of Jayamkonda

795
Ibid., 433 of 1907.
796
Ibid., 434 of 1907.
797
Ibid., 308 of 1964-65.
798
Ibid., 13 of 1940-41.
799
P.S.I., No.1083.
Cholapuram also donated land to the local temple.800 An inscription at Tittagudi
South Arcot says that citrameli nangutisai padinen desitisai and vilangu tisai
donated commodities like pepper, paddy, ghee, areca nut, salt and betel leaves to
Sukahasivaperumal temple.801

An inscription of Rajendra Chola I found at Thirumalaikadambar temple

Nartamalai, Kulattur taluk, Pudukottai district,802 states that ainnurruvar made a
grant of gold for sandhi lamps, and for setting up the image of Sangu
Paramesvari.

Nagarattar of Vikramacholaperunderu in Trichy made a gift for

pallieludalal (awakening ritual) in the local temple803 Sarkarperiyapalayam
inscription records the meeting of the various guilds which conducted the
awakening ceremony in a temple804 The tisayayirrattuainnurruvar made a
donation of 15 kalanju pon for two perpetual lamp to the god for the merit of a
Valanjiyar who died in a dispute among the merchant community805 In a joint
venture the valanjiyar an ainnurruvar constructed a portion of the stone temple
dedicated to Tiruvelvikudi udayar.806 A merchant from Vedaranyam donated 1500

800
A.R.E., 253 of 1907.
801
Ibid., 237 of 1941-42.
802
S.I.I., Vol. XVII, No.389.
803
A.R.E., 194 of 1930-31
804
M.Ganesan, op.cit., p.37.
805
A.R.E., 308 of 1964-65.
806
S.I.I., Vol.XIX, No.170.
kasu to the local temple.807 A merchant from Arasampalyam in Coimbatore
donated gold for burning the lamp in the local temple.808

The nagarattar of Narttamalai also erected shrines for the local deity.809
Another group Vaniganagarattar of Poonthamalli supplied metal plates for door
to the temple of Trisulam.810 Kunnattur Manickachetti made a gift of 250 kuli of
land to the Tirukkarialvar temple in North Arcot district.811

An inscription found at Thanthonriswar temple at Sivapuri in Sivaganga

district812 refers to a land gift made by a merchant. It further indicates a special
religious procession arranged by the merchants813 Piranmalai inscription refers to
a gift made to perform the daily rituals.814 Saliya Nagarattar of Tiruvorriyur
made an arrangement for an anointing (Abisheka) on the birthday of the king.815

A record from Arani says that a member of nagarattar community

undertook repair work in the temple. An inscription dated 1307 A.D. found at
Abathsatheyeswar temple mentioned a tax collected from the farmers. The
amount and the mode of the gift were decided by the Citrameleperiyanattar and
807
Ibid., Vol.XVIII, No.401.
808
A.R.E., 229 of 1977-78.
809
S.I.I., Vol. VII, No.394.
810
Ibid., Vol. V, No.537.
811
A.R.E., 108 of 1941-42.
812
S.I.I., Vol. XIV, No.235.
813
Ibid., Vol. XIV, No.236.
814
Ibid.,, Vol.VII, No.442.
815
A.R.E. 136 of 1912.
padinenvisayathar.816 The Valanjiyar collected two kasus from each individual
lived in Thirukannapuram in Trichy, for the maintenance of Valanjiyar and
danmadavala mutts.817The Valanjiyar of Tenilangai paid contributions to the
maintenance of a Vaishnava mutt at Tirukkannapuram.

In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the merchant corporations like

ainnurruvar and Valanjiyar of Srilanka were seen making endowments at the
temples of Sivapuri, Tirunelveli and Aruppukkottai and also in the
Ramanathapuram district during the period of the Pandyas.818

Donation of Land and Gold

An eleventh century A.D. inscription found at Maragal, Kanchipuram

District, refers to the donation of land and gold to the temple of this village by a
merchant.819 An epigraph in Kanchipuram District records an agreement made by
the Nagarattar families of 48,000, to provide different kind of offerings, worship
and special festivals to their family deity of Thiruuragattu Emperuman according
to the procedure followed by the old custom.820

816
T. Kangadaran, “ Vadakurangadurai Citrameliperiyanttar Kalvettu” in Avanam, Vol.10,
1999, p.59.
817
A.R.E., 269 and 273 of 1955-56.
818
ARE., 31 of 1928-29; 10 of 1924; 406 of 1914.
819
Kanchipuram Mavattak Kalvettugal, pp. 94-95.
820
Ibid., p.134; A.R.E., 45 of 1921.
 An inscription dated 921 AD mentioned that a sale deed of land prepared
from Koduvaikkutttai village to the Vishnu temple of Ayanichchandra
Vinnagaradeva by one Kavaithyal Chetti alias Kathiravan virappadikkorramulala
avanichchandran of Kanchichipettur.821 (Kanchipuram). There is a reference from
the inscription wall of Siva temple in Mudikonda found at Cholapuram in
Sivagangai District records an endowment of land and twilight lamp by a
merchant Nakkan of Cholapuram.822

Another inscription found on the southwall of ardhamandapa of

Uttamalingeswara temple states that the gift of money one accu for burning a
perpetual lamp by one ceramantholan a merchant from Karaiyan adi kittalam.823
An inscription issued in the 9th regnal year of Sundarapandya records the
gift of land for nandavanam flower garden by Ciriyan pillai alias Piracutum
Perumal a merchant from Kadaiyur in Kangayanadu after purchasing the land
from Ur assembly. This inscription found at Uttamalingeshwarar temple in
Perumanallur at Tiruppur Taluk.824 Another inscriptional reference on the north
wall of the ardhamandapa of the same temple states the gift of one accu by Devi,
wife of Cokkan a merchant of Paranjerpalli in Kangeyanadu.825 Another epigraph
records the grant of land in the village Sirratur made after purchase by
Kayilayanadan, a merchant of Kalanivayil for providing food offerings during the

821
K.Kumar, "Some new Inscriptions from Vellur and Kanchipuram Districts", Avanam,
Vol.19, p.14.
822
G. Sethuraman and V.Vedachalam, "Inscription from Cholapuram and Sudiyur", op.cit.,
p.63.
823
Coimbatore Mavattakalvattugal, Vol. II, p.140.
824
Ibid., p.96.
825
Ibid., p.97.
ardhajama (midnight service) service to the deity Malavach chakravattisvaram
Udaiyanayar.826Another merchant named Madikuttan of Manigramam in
Kodumbalur purchased a land from the Madhyastha and endowed it, for offering
pittamudu to the God Tiruttandonrisvaram Udaiyar.827 Tiruvenkadattalvan of
Marudur a merchant made a donation of land for the kitchen expenses of the
temple of Tiruttand onri Udaiyar at Sivapuri, Ramnad district.828

Construction work

An inscription dated 941AD, during the period of Parantaka I mentions the

installation of the image of Ayyanar by Suran Nagai, a merchant of Korraiyur,in
Ollaiyurkurram. This was protected by a trade guild called Thisayil Ayirattur
Inurruvan.829

Another inscription of 12th century AD traced in Madukkulam at Madurai

refers to the protection of Madakulam tank by a trader-soldier group. Symbols
are also found engraved at the top of the stone.830 An inscription of Koluttunga
III dated 1206 A.D. found at Kunnam perambalur Taluk831 States that the trading
community Padinenvisayatter Nattu Vanika Nagarattar donated money, earned

826
A.R.E., 191 of 1980-81.
827
S.I.I., Vol.XIV, No.235.
828
A.R.E., 41 of 1928-29.
829
V. Thirunangai, "Inscriptions from Poolankurichi and Madakkulam", op.cit., p.62.
830
Idem.
831
L.Thiagarajan, "Inscriptions of Kunnam Region", op.cit., Vol.17, p.75.
from various types of business, for the erection of stone structure of the temple
and for performing pujas to the bronze images. A thirteenth century inscription
found that Polichchalur, in Coimbatore District mentioned the donation made by
the Ayyappolil Ainnurruvar. This inscription refers to the digging of tank by
traders of Ainnurruvar. It also refers to the insignia of that merchant group;
lamp, plough, swords and bags are engraved on both sides of the inscription.832

Rules and Regulations

The traders thus involved in many common activities. For the collective
action, the associations of these traders carefully framed the rules and
regulations for its members. The phrase “Senkole Munnaagavum” and “Manu
Neri Thalaippa” carved in the Sarkar Periyapalayam inscriptions833 are specially
worthy of note that this assembly was a subject to the supreme authority of the
reigning king of the land and acted quite in conformity with the institution of
Manu.”834

The members should pay some subscription to charity institutions

according to their ability.835 Sometimes they paid in the form of grain, which they
traded. The land owned by them in common was used for common charitable

832
Coimbatore Mavatta Kalvettukkal, op.cit., p.1.
833
M. Ganesan, “Vanigakulu Kaivettu” in Avanam 6, p.37
834
K.V. Subramania Iyer, Historical Sketches of Ancient Deccan, Vol.II, Coimbatore, 1984,
p.19.
835
E.C., Vol.II, pp.241, 244 & 247.
purposes. These lands might for the purpose of endowment. Sometimes the guild
involved in collective bargaining. The Mottupalli pillar inscription illustrates the
bargaining power of merchant association in the mater of obtaining concessions
in regard to reduction of customs etc.836

The traders had involved in collective activities like charity, bargaining,

religious endowments and mutual aid. They also gained some privileges
collectively from the rulers. The members of the guilds enjoyed the privileges
given to them by the rulers.

Gift of Cattles

Inscriptions found in Courtallam837 Vedaranyam838 and Tirukoshtiyur,839

refer to a gift of sheep made by the merchants of Aruvai Vaniyan at Edirikottai for
burning a lamp in the temple of Sunnaikudi bhatra.840 Another Aruvai vanigan
endowed a gift of 50 sheep to the Mulaparishad for burning perpetual lamp at
Sucindram temple.841 Similar reference to cattle donation by a merchant is found
in the temple of Maramangalam.842 The tisayayirattuainnurruvar of

836
EI., Vol.XII, p.88.
837
S.I.I., Vol.XIV, No.57.
838
A.R.E., 436 of 1904.
839
S.I.I., Vol.XII, No.45.
840
Ibid., Vol.XIV, No.94.
841
Kanyakumari Kalvettugal, 205 of 1969.
842
S.I.I., Vol.VIII, No.448.
Thirunarayanapuram843 and the nagarattar of Arunmozhidevapuram844 made
endowments of lands for burning lamps in the temples of their locality.

Feeding the People

The guilds acted as mutual aid societies for feeding the members of their
community.845 A merchant from Gangaikonda Cholapuram made a gift to feed the
Brahmanas846 A merchant of Kodumbalur manigramam made an endowment to
feed the Brahmana Vedavallan.847 An eleventh century inscription refers to a gift
made by the merchants of Kodumbalur Manigramam. They donated five kalanju
of pon to feed 25 Brahmanas in a Masi festival of the Vaikunta Perumal temple in
Kanchipuram848 Nagarattar in Tirunelveli district donated lands for feeding
maheswaras in the temple of Kulasekaraiswaramudayar.849 An eleventh century
inscription refers to a rescue of Jain and protection of dharmasalai at
Vadugapatti. A 13th century inscription refers to a colony settled by the
nagarattar.850

843
Ibid., Vol.XIX, No.280.
844
P.S.I., No. 487.
845
A.R.E., 18 of 1910.
846
Ibid., 102 of 1926.
847
S.I.I., Vol.XIII, No.28.
848
Ibid., Vol.IV, 147.
849
A.R.E., 255 of 1940-41.
850
A.R.E., 150 of 1935-36.
Power and Privileges of the merchants

The merchant enjoyed certain powers and privileges during the medieval
period. The merchant class enjoyed a fair amount of freedom in their transactions
and their contribution to the treasury by way of tax and dues was not
inconsiderable. They were given the customary privileges by the ruler of the area.
The ainnurruvar also fixed the rates of magamai and pattanapagudi.851 Two
individual merchants who belonged to the ainnurruvar guild obtained certain
privileges were mentioned in the Kottayam plate of Vira-Raghava.852 This
inscription gave the right of monopoly of trade of five musical instruments to a
trader.

Levy and Collection of Taxes

In the Tamil Country many inscriptions refer to the collection of taxes by

the guilds. At Devipattinam, the nanadesis levied and collected taxes.853 At
Sinnamanur the rate of tax was jointly fixed by the padinen vishayattar
ainnurrruvar.854 A record from Margashayaswara temple in North Arcot district
mentions the collection of magamai by the padinenvishayattar.855 A 14th century
record from Kovilpatti in Trichy refers to the donation of Pattanapagudi to the

851
Ibid., 286 of 1964-65, Ibid., 10 of 1924.
852
E.I., Vol.IV, p.290.
853
S.I.I., Vol. VII, No. 405.
854
A.R.E., 430 of 1907.
855
A.R.E., 193 of 1939-40.
local temple by Chitrameli periyanattar, tisaiayirattuainnurruvar, nagarattar
and manigramattar.856 A thirteenth century inscription available in
Tiruppalanam, Tanjore district records a meeting of the guilds. The nattar
nagaram padinen vishayattar and bramadeya assembled and decided to donate
the taxes collected on import and export articles, to the temple of
Alangarpuramudaliyar at Tiruppalanam857

Padinen vishayattar and nagarattar donated the taxes collected to

Patuakeshwara temple at Kiramangalam in Pudukottai district.858 Joint meetings
were held to decide the amount of donation. A 14th century inscription from
Sinnamanur also confirmed these joint donations.859 They collected
pattanapagudi at the rate of ½ ma of panam for each bag of betelnut and 1ma of
panam on each bag of pepper. The magamai was decided on the basis of mode
of packing and transport.

Disputes among the merchant caste groups

Disputes occurred often among the managers and the priests, between the
merchants, Siva Brahmins and the Vaishnava Brahmins, Saiva Vellalas and
Vaishna Vellalas, Nagarattars and Chettis, Pallas and Paraiyars right hand and

856
Ibid., 286 of 1964.
857
S.I.I., Vol. XII, No.13.
858
A.R.E., 119 of 1935.
859
S.I.I., Vol. XXIII, No.431.
left hand caste groups. Wherever, the wealth and power were found
concentrated, people would make an attempt to establish their domination in
order to occupy power and enjoy wealth. As a result, it paved the way for the
hostility and conflict among them. There are many epigraphic references which
deal with a member of such disputes during the medieval period.

There was a dispute between betel leaf merchants and the weavers. The
weavers staged a walk out from the city to protest against the erasure of their
inscription. Some instance of dispute between the Oil-Mongers and the Chettis of
Aragalur over the right of conducting some festival had been mentioned in the
inscription.860 Another instance, a record from Ratnagiri near Kulittalai belonging
to the13th regal year of Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan refers to the settlement of
disputes between the trustees Tirumanikkamalai Udiyanayanar temple in
Kurunagaranadu, a subdivision of Rajagambira Valanadu and the nagarattar of
Sivapadasekharapuam regarding the payment of taxes by the people residing in
the vicinity of the temples of Ilangoyil. The king intervened in the dispute and
settled it.861

Thus the Vaishyas, the principal merchant communities had influenced the
society by their economic activities. They not only involved themselves in
economic pursuits but also in many charitable works. They donated money, cattle
and grains to the local temples. They even fed the Brahmanas. They formed

860
A.J.Thinakaran, Second Pandiyan Empire, Madurai, 1987, p.189.
861
K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The Pandiyan Kingdom, Swathi Publications, Madras, 1972, p.203.
guilds of their own and involved in itinerant trade. It reached its zenith during the
imperial Cholas. The foreign traders also traded with these merchant classes.
They even had matrimonial alliances with them and settled here. During the time
of the Pandyas they took part in the administrative activities also. Hence the
trading class of medieval Tamil country played a multi-dimensional role in the
society.

CHAPTER IV

ARTISAN COMMUNITIES

India has an ancient and enduring tradition of arts and crafts. Every state of India
has its own unique art ware tradition. Traditional arts performing arts and crafts are
among the most expressive and enduring manifestations of the human spirit. Influenced
by the geo-climatic conditions, the craftsmen and performers draw on tradition, religion
and culture and transform with sensitivity elegance and grace on otherwise harsh and
drab existence into an endeavor of creativity and joy.862

862
Census of India, 2001, Arts and Crafts of Tamil Nadu, Art Plates of Thanjavur and
Metal Icons of Swamimalai, p.16.