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Research
Research is a scientific and systematic search for various information about a specific topic. It is just like a
search for truth and knowledge. Meaning of Research is “a careful investigation or inquiry specially through
search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.” information about a subject can be collected by deliberate
effort and it is presented in a new form after analyzing thoroughly in research work.
Research is an academic activity. It is a movement from the known to the unknown, which may be called a
discovery. Different definitions of research are given by the experts.
Research means a search for facts‐ answers to questions and solutions to problems. It is an purposive
investigation. It is an “organized inquiry.” It seeks to find explanations to unexplained phenomenon, to clarify
the doubtful propositions and to correct the misconceived facts.
Kerlinger defines research as a “systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical
propositions about the presumed relations among the natural phenomenon.”
D. Slesinger and M Stephenson define research as, “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the
purpose of generalizing to extend correct or verify knowledge whether that knowledge aids in construction of
theory or in the practice of an art ”
According to P.M. Cook, “Research is an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and their
meanings or implications with reference to a given problem.”
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Objectives:
The main purpose of research is to discover answers to the meaningful questions through scientific
procedures and systematic attempt. The hidden truths which are not discovered yet, can easily come to light
by research.
The main objectives of Research are:
1. To gain familiarity or to achieve new insights into a phenomenon. This is known as Exploratory or
Formulative Research studies.
2. To describe the accurate characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group. This is known as
Descriptive Research studies.
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with other things.
This is known as Diagnostic Research studies.
4. To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship between variables. Such studies are known as Hypothesis-
testing Research studies.

Characteristics of Research:
1. Research is directed towards the solution of a problem.
2. Research gathers new knowledge or data from primary sources.
3. Research is based upon observable experience or experimental evidence.
4. Research is logical and objective, applying every possible test to verify the data collected and the
procedures employed.
5. Research is expert, systematic and accurate investigation.
6. Research demands accurate observation and description.
7. Research requires patience and courage. The researcher should courageously face the unpleasant
consequences of his finding if any.
8. Research is highly purposive. It deals with a significant problem which must be solved.
9. Research is carefully recorded and reported. Everything must be carefully defined and described in detail.
10. Research activity is characterized by carefully designed procedures which are to be analysed thoroughly.

Research Methods:
All those methods which are used by the researcher during the course of studying his research problems are
called as Research Methods. Methods of research may be classified from different points of view.
These are:
1. The fields to which applied-Education, Philosophy, Psychology.
2. Purpose-Description, Prediction. Determination of status and causes.
3. Place where it is to be conducted-in the field or in the laboratory.
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4. Application-Pure research or applied research
5. Data gathering devices employed-Testing, rating scales, questionnaires etc.
6. Character of the data collected-Objective, Subjective, Quantitative, and Qualitative.
7. Forms of thinking-Deductive and Inductive.
8. Control of factors-Controlled and Uncontrolled.

Pure Research:
This is done to increase the knowledge in certain fields such as production, marketing etc. Such research is
done in the hope that some useful applications will develop from it. This type of research is usually undertaken
by large companies, the government and educational institutions as it has a less certain and immediate
benefit.
Pure research may be general research or routine research. General research is for general purposes and is
not connected with any specific product. The benefit of such research cannot be assessed against a particular
product. Routine research includes test for quality and specifications of input and output.
Pure Research Pure Research is also known as basic or Fundamental research. It is undertaken out of
intellectual curiosity or inquisitiveness. It may lead to either discovery of a new theory or refinement of an
existing theory. Pure research formed the basics for innumerable scientific & technological inventions like
Steam engine, Machines, Telecommunications, Electronic Gadgets etc.
Pure Research Pure research offers solutions to many practical problems. It helps to find the critical factors in
a practical problem. It develops many alternative solutions and does enable us to choose the best solution.
Example of Pure Research: 1. Einstein's Theory of Relativity. 2. Newton's Contributions.

Applied Research:
Such research differs from basic research in that it aims at producing definite results. It is usually limited to the
Study of field closely related to organisation’s existing areas of business. This type of research takes help of
available knowledge or new facts uncovered by a company’s basic research. Such research is generally done
for improving the existing products, methods or equipment for exploring or establishing new products,
processes, methods or equipment which can provide more profits and for providing improved measures of
health, safety and convenience.
It may relate to raw materials and other resource utilisation and management of personnel and human
relations. The more immediate payoff potential in this research makes it more practical for commercial
undertakings than basic research.
Applied Research Applied research is carried on to find solution to a real life problem requiring an action or
policy decision. It is thus problem oriented and action directed. It immediate and practical result. There is a
vast scope for applied research in the field of Technology , Management, Commerce, Economics, and other
social sciences.
Applied Research Applied research can contrubute new facts:- It can put theory to the test. it may aid in
conceptual clarification. it may integrate previously existing theories. --Example of Applied Research:- 1.
Market research carried on for developing a new market.

Steps involved in research process

The major steps in research are as follows:
1. Formulation of the Research Problem: This is the first stage of the research process. In this stage the
researcher single out or identified the problem he wants to study. It means that he must decide the general
areas of interest or aspects of a subject‐matter that he would like to inquire. Essentially two steps are involved
in formulating the research problem:
• Understanding the problem theoretically
• Rephrasing the same into analytical terms from an analytical point of view.
Understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or those having expertise in the matter.
In an academic institutions the researcher can seek the help from a guide who is usually an experienced
person and has several research problems in mind. The guide puts forth the problem in general terms and it is
up to the researcher to narrow it down and phase the problem in operational terms.

2. Extensive Literature Survey(Review): At this stage the researcher should undertake extensive
literature survey connected with the problem. For this purpose the abstracting and indexing journals and
published or unpublished bibliographies are first place to go i.e. Academic journals, books, research reports,
Government reports etc., It should be remember that one source will lead to another.
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3.Development of Working Hypothesis: In this stage researcher state in clear terms the working
hypothesis or hypothesis. Working hypothesis is tentative assumptions made in order to draw out and test its
logical or empirical consequences. Hypothesis should be very specific, clear and limited to the piece of
research in hand because it has to be tested.

4.Preparing the Research Design: In this stage the researcher prepare a research design i.e. conceptual
structure of the within which research would be conducted. It contains:
• Methodology of the research work • Sampling plan • Tools of gathering data • Geographical are is to covered
• Scope of the study • Operational definition of the study • Conceptual model of study • Reference period •
Budget

5.Determination of Sampling Design : In this stage researcher decide the way of selecting a sample which
is popularly known as sample design. It is a defined plan determined before any data are actually collected
for obtaining a sample from a given population. Samples can be either probability samples or non‐probability
samples. With probability samples each element has known probability of being included in the sample but the
non‐probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine the probability.

6.Collection of Data : In this stage the researcher collect data. Data can be collected from several ways i.e.
survey , observation, interview and experiment etc. the researcher should select one method of data
collection taking into consideration the nature of the investigation, objectives and scope of the inquiry, financial
resources, available time and desired degree of accuracy.

7.Analysis of Data: The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as
establishment of categories, the application to these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and
then drawing statistical inferences. The researcher classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable
categories. Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are
transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is the procedure that improves the
quality of the data for coding. Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein classified data are put
in the form of tables. Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on computation of
various coefficients, measures used to obtain results.

8.Hypothesis –Testing: The hypothesis may be tested through the use of one or more tests such as chi‐
square test, t‐test, F‐test depending upon the nature and objectives of the research inquiry . Hypothesis
testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it.

9.Generalization and Interpretation: In this stage the researcher arrive at generalization i.e. to build a
theory. As the matter of fact the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalizations.

10.Preparation of the Research Report: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been
done by the him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following:
Preliminary Body, The Main Text, The End Matter

Preliminary Body: It contains: ƒ Title page, Researcher’s declaration, The certificate of the research
supervisor, Acknowledgement, Table of contents List of tables, List of graphs and charts

Main Text: ƒ Introduction: ƒ (i)Theoretical background of the topic ƒ (ii) Statement of the problem ƒ (iii)
Review of literature ƒ (iv)The scope of the study ƒ (v)The objectives of the study ƒ (vi)Hypothesis to
be tested ƒ (vii)Definition of the concepts ƒ (viii)Model if any

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The design of the study: ƒ (i)Methodology ƒ (ii)Sources of data ƒ (iii)Sampling plan ƒ (iv)Data
collected instrument ƒ (v)Field work ƒ (vi)Data processing and analysis

Different types of research

1.Descriptive Research: Descriptive research is a fact‐finding investigation with adequate interpretation. It is
more specific as it focus on the particular aspects or dimension of the problem studied. It is designed to
gather descriptive information. The main purpose of the descriptive research is the description of the state of
affairs as it exists at present . The main characteristics of the descriptive research is that the researcher has
no control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening . The data are
collected by using one or more appropriate methods i.e. observation, interview, and questionnaire.

2.Exploratory Research: Exploratory research is preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which the
researcher has Little or no knowledge. It is similar to a doctor’s initial investigation of a patient suffering from
unfamiliar malady for getting some clues for identifying it. It is ill‐ structured and much focused on the
predetermined objectives . It is usually takes the form of a pilot study. It is the separate type of research , it is
appropriate to consider or contributes a three stage process of exploration , description and experimentation.
The purpose of an exploratory study may be:
To generate new ideas , To increase the researcher’s familiarity with the problem, To gather information for
clarifying concepts, An exploratory research does not aim at testing hypothesis but it just attempt s to see what
is there rather than to predict the relationships that will be founded.

3.Applied Research: Applied research is carried on to find solution to a real life problem requiring an action or
policy decision . It is thus problem‐oriented and action directed. It seeks an immediate and practical
results i.e. marketing research is carried on for studying the post‐ purchase experience of the consumers. It
is aiming at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing by a society, an industrial or
business organization i.e. moral degradation, product failure, decrease/reduction in market shares.

4.Analytical Research : Analytical study is the system of procedures and techniques of analysis applied to
quantitative data. The researchers has to use facts or information already available and analyze these to
make a critical evaluation of the materials or topic. It may consist of a system of mathematical models or
statistical techniques applicable to numerical data. This is also known as ‘statistical research or method’.
This study aims at testing hypothesis and specifying, interpreting relationships. It is used or concentrates on
analyzing data in depth and examining relationship from various angles by bringing in as many relevant
variables as possible in the analysis plan.

5.Diagnostic Research: Diagnostic research is directed towards discovering what is happening , why is it
happening and what can be done about it. It aims at identifying the causes of a problem and thee possible
solutions for it . It is more directly concerned with causal relationship and implications for action.

6.Experimental Research: Experimental research is designed to assess the effects of particular variables on
a phenomenon by keeping the other variables constant or controlled. It aims at determining whether and in
what manner variables are related to each other. The factor, which is influenced by other factor is called
‘dependent variable’ and the other factors, which influence it, are known as ‘independent variables’. For
example, agricultural productivity i.e. crop yield per hectare is a dependent variable and factors such as soil
fertility, irrigation, quality of seeds, measuring practices which influence the yield are independent variables .
The nature of relationship between independent variables and dependent variables is perceived and stated in
form of causal hypothesis. A closely controlled procedure is adopted to test them.

7.Quantitative Research: Quantitative research is based on the measuring of quantity or amount. It is

applicable to phenomenon that can be expressed in the terms of quantity
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8.Qualitative Research: Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon i.e. phenomenon
relating to the quality. For example , motivation research, opinion research. Qualitative research is
specifically important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of
human behaviour.

RELEVANCE OF RESEACH IN BUSINESS

While many business ideas blossom into successful businesses, there are many others
that did not move beyond the business plan or offering memorandum. And among those
that get funded and started, many fail eventually. While there can be many reasons
for business failures, often these were due to flaws in the business concept or the business
model that rendered them vulnerable to the difficulties encountered. Recognizing the
relevance of research in business planning has become even more crucial in the current
economic scenario with funding getting difficult as banks, other financial institutions
and venture capitalists are bound to put business propositions through a most
rigorous assessment process. Research indicates that many ventures fail on
account of market and industry factors. Yet,very often we come across ambitious
entrepreneurs starting ventures without having researched the market and industry to
determine the viability and sustainability of the business concept. The significance of research stems from the
fact the success of a business does not depend only on the entrepreneur's perspective on the service or
product offered. It also depends greatly on what the customers want or need. Here arises the need of
research.
Various major functional areas in business:
1. Marketing, 2. Finance and Accounts, 3. Human resource, 4. Production/operation

Functions of Research
1. It obtains the scientist knowledge about all educational problems. It also helps in obtaining specific
knowledge about the subjects involved in the study.
2. In action research, the researchers are teachers, curriculum workers, principals, supervisors or others
whose main task is to help, provide good learning experiences for pupils.
3. In it, a person tries to enable him to realise his purposes more effectively. For example: A teacher conducts
his teaching more effectively. An administrator, in the education department performs his action to improve his
administrative behaviour.
4. Action research is a procedure which tries to keep problem solving in close contact with reality at every
stage.
5. In educational system it conduits for the progress of the technique of teaching.
6. It strengthens and emphasizes the work of the teacher.
7. It has a great utility of creating new interest and new confidence in the ability of the individual teacher.
8. Action research provides practical utility. For class-room teacher, he applies his own observations into his
class-room practices to make the observed problems solved. Minor problems in the classroom can be solved
by applying the teachers' intelligence.
9. Action research brings changes in the teachers. It makes them co-operative and active in facing the
situation easily. It also happens to bring about changes in the behaviour, attitude and teaching performance.
10. Planning is the primary criteria in educational research as well action research. To go through the
problems much in sight is needed. For solving all these problems the teacher goes on reading references,
literatures and also research techniques. So theoretical learning becomes fruitful when it is practically applied
in the proper situation to solve problems in action research.
11. In education, all kinds of professional workers are able to solve their practical to improve their own
profession. Generally, action research helps the teacher to face day-to-day problems in the classroom. He
makes himself mentally stable and active to confront the situation. He starts his lesson with full aspiration and
hope.
When he is failed to get the real response, he feels dissatisfied and further he makes new moves to draw more
responses. He understands the real difficulty of the pupils and finds out the causes to make his lesson
effective. In action research, the teacher becomes specific, disciplined and easeful but not haphazard and
general. In such attempts the teacher is able to know the individual differences and educational provisions for
the students.
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PURE RESEARCH VS. APPLIED RESEARCH
Pure research is driven by interest or curiosity in the relationships between two or more variables. When an
individual is interested in learning simply for learning's sake, she is conducting pure research. For example,
someone interested in financial markets and investor behavior may watch the stock market to gain a better
understanding of how markets move. This type of research is generally not economically profitable, but it may
provide a catalyst for applied research that leads to future breakthroughs.

Applied research is used to solve a specific, practical problem of an individual or group. This type of research
is used in a wide number of fields, including medicine, education, agriculture and technology. Examples of
applied research include studying the behavior of children to determine the effectiveness of various
interventions, looking into the relationship between genetics and cancer, or testing the waters of a river to
determine what types of contaminants are making their way into a municipal water supply.

In applied research the purpose is to verify the status of affairs; continuity or change. The method is based on
the empirical evaluation of data. For example; what is the cycle’s length between an economic crisis and
recovery?
In basic research the purpose is to define a new principle, rule, law or theory. For example what did trigger the
transformation of a Globalization Wave into Global Civilization? What are the rules of the emerging Global
Civilization?

Often, applied research builds on existing basic research. Basic research could be considered the foundation
of knowledge which provides people with the basic information they need to pursue particular areas of
research. In the example of the two neurologists above, for example, the neurologist involved in applied
research on a neurological condition will probably use research published by the neurologist who is more
generally studying the brain.

The lines between basic and applied research can blur. For example, a researcher playing around with
batteries and methods of storing energy might accidentally stumble upon a revolutionary battery which could
be utilized as a commercial product. In this case, research conducted to more generally develop ways of
understanding and storing energy could have an immediate real world application, such as storing solar power
trapped by the solar panels on a house.

Social Research
Social research is research conducted by social scientists following a systematic plan. Social research
methodologies can be classified along a quantitative/qualitative dimension.
Social science research works to answer many of the questions we have about human behaviour. Through
scientific study, social science research seeks to understand the hows and whys of human behaviour.
social research seeks to find explanations to unexplained social phenomena to clarify the doubtful and correct
the misconceived fact of social life.
Pauline V. Young has also said that “social research may be defined as a scientific undertaking which, by
means of logical and systematised techniques aims to (I) discover new facts or verify and test old facts. (2)
analyse their sequences, interrelationships, and causal explanations (5) develop new scientific tools, concepts
and theories which would facilitate reliable and valid study of human behaviour”.
Importance of Social Research:
Research is carried on in the social field not just with academic interests. It has both academic and non-
academic purposes and importance. Importance of research can be briefly stated here.
1. Research is essential to diffuse knowledge and to expand its horizon.
3. Research provides practical clues, to undertake measures that lead to social improvement, social change
and social progress.
4. Research by probing into the perplexing problems of the day… provides new insight regarding their nature.
Research helps us to know the nature and the magnitude of the problems.
5. Researchers have commercial importance also. Industries, business firms and commercial establishments
can get lot of information and clues about their endeavors in society.
6. Research can provide all the required data and facts to the administrators to adopt and undertake
appropriate policies, plans and programmes.
7. Research has educational importance. It is mainly an intellectual activity. Information obtained through
research may have their educational importance.

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8. Research motivates interdisciplinary studies. It stresses the interdependence of different sciences. It thus
strengthens the “interdisciplinary approach” which is emerging out these days.
9. Other uses and Importance
(i) Those working in the academic field can obtain a new degree known as Ph.D. [Doctor of Philosophy] by
successfully carrying out research as per the stipulated rules.
(ii) Those working in the research department attached to industries, other types of establishments have made
research their profession and obtain salary for their service. It provides job opportunities for a few intellectuals.
(iii) For the philosophers and scientists research can be intellectually delighting and mentally satisfying, and
(iv) Those who are in the field of literature, art, architecture, etc., can seek to establish new styles and trends
through research.

Objectives of Social Research

1. Manipulation of Things, Concepts and Symbols:
While, dealing with things the scientist remains at the concrete level. He is able to purposefully handle things
for experimentation. But at this level his results are at best limited to the particular thing in a specific situation
and none else. Therefore the concepts symbolizing the things and their properties are also dealt with, so as to
make much sense to conduct controlled inquiries through abstract notions. Use of concepts or symbols in the
process of manipulation not only reduces the content and load of the things but also provides the scientist with
greater facility and effect.

2. Generalization:
The sole purpose with which manipulation of things, concepts or symbols is undertaken is to arrive at
statements of generality. It implies that the findings of controlled investigation should be a conclusion which
will enable us to expect that under certain class of conditions influencing a class of things, something will
happen in a generalized manner, notwithstanding its degree.
But in any case the absence is generality cannot characterize science. Therefore the propositions derived on
the basis of observations and through manipulation of things, concepts or symbols may vary in their levels of
generality, may maintain a high or low degree but should never reach the null point.
Otherwise those will move beyond the framework of science. In this regard, Slesinger and Stepheson have
given the example of a physician or automobile mechanic as playing the role of a researcher. Whereas the
automobile mechanic endeavors to generalize about the automobiles, the physician attempts to make ailments
for a given class of patients.
3. Verification of Old Facts:
A major purpose of social research is verification of conclusions which have already been accepted as
established facts. Since there is no place for complacency in the arena of science, the established system of
knowledge always warrant frequentative scrutiny so as to confirm whether or not the observations are in
accordance with the predictions made on the basis of the established corpus of knowledge. In case it is
confirmed, the empirical observation strengthens the established system of knowledge. Otherwise in the light
of the research outcome, the system of established corpus of knowledge calls for revision or even rejection.

4. Extension of Knowledge:
As a sequel to generalization the seemingly inconsistencies in the existing corpus of knowledge are brought
into light and attempts are made to reconcile these inconsistencies. The new general proposition, established
as an outcome of research also identifies gaps in the established system of knowledge. A gap in knowledge
implies the inadequacy of the theory as well as the failure of a conceptual scheme to explain and account for
certain aspects of a social phenomenon.
The gap is bridged up in the light of the new empirical observations. Thus knowledge gets expanded. The
expansion of systematic knowledge occurs at least in a couple of ways. First in cognizing certain aspects of
phenomena which were not examined in these terms prior to the advent of the new general proposition.
Secondly in the light of new observation, the phenomena under investigation may be incorporated in a
comparatively large class of phenomena, so as to be governed by a uniform law. As a result, the new system
of knowledge not only accumulates more units under its conceptual scheme, but also appreciates greater
depth of understanding and bettering of predictions.

5. Knowledge May be Used for Theory Building or Practical Application:

By seeking to explain the unexplained social phenomena, clarifying the doubtful one and correcting
the misconceived facts relating to it, social research provides the scope to use the fruits of research in
two possible ways:
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(a) Theory building , (b) Practical application.

In its basic or pure form social research gathers knowledge for the sake of it, for building a theory in order to
explain human behaviour in its totality, only for the satisfaction of knowing. For construction of theoretic
models, the researcher organizes knowledge into propositions and then meaningfully articulated those
propositions to constitute a more abstract conceptual system pertaining to a class of phenomena, influenced
by a certain class of conditions.

In its practical or applied form, social research gathers information regarding the betterment of quality of life in
social settings. The findings of social research are used as the means to an end, not construed just as an end
in itself From its utilitarian point of view the results of social research provide decision makers with proper
guidelines for policy making, social welfare, amelioration of practical problems, mitigation or resolution of
social conflict and tensions as well as rectification and removal of social evils.

Role of Scientific Theory in Social Research

(i) It defines the orientation of science and thereby narrows down the range of facts to be cognized. An object
or a phenomenon may be studied in a variety of ways. But theory as orientation delimits the types of data
which are to be abstracted in respect of a particular branch of science. The example of football may be cited in
this regard.

A football may be investigated within the framework of different branches of knowledge, such as economics,
physics, chemistry or sociology. But each of these branches of science keeps its attention upon the particular
aspects of football within its own perspective, while abstracting from reality. Therefore, the pattern of demand
and supply of football comes under the economic framework, but the physicist studies it as a physical object
which has a mass and which attains particular velocities under different conditions.

To the chemist, a football becomes an object of chemical research. But to a sociologist, it may be construed as
being concerned with those activities which have sociological relevance like play, communication, group
organization etc. Thus the broad orientation of each branch of science focuses on a limited range of things
within its own perspective.

(ii) Theory also plays the role of conceptualization and classification. Each Science develops its own concepts
for communicating its findings, so much so that the theoretical system may be referred to as conceptual
system. Every branch of science gets organized by a structure of concepts.

The facts of science are nothing but the relationship between these concepts. Organization of knowledge
necessitates some system imposed upon the observable facts. As a sequel to that, any branch of science
plays the major role of developing systems of classification, a structure of concepts as well as a set of
definitions of these terms in an increasingly precise manner.

(iii) A further task of theory is summarization. Theory summarizes concisely knowable aspects of the object of
study under two simple categories of empirical generalization and systems of relationship between
propositions. Man’s continuing existence depends upon empirical observations which are expressed through
statements that go beyond a single observation or observations by a single group. When their complexity
increases and when they express the conditions of their accuracy, relationship between the statements may
be visualized.

(iv) Another task of theory is to predict facts. Because of its capability to summarize facts and state a general
uniformity even beyond the immediate observations, theory performs the task of presenting what facts are to
be expected. The most obvious facet of prediction is the extrapolation from the known to the unknown, with the
expectation of occurrence of the same process.

(v) Theory also performs the task of pointing to the unexplored areas. Summarization of known facts and
prediction of facts, yet to be observed, suggests where to test our knowledge. In other words, it points to gaps
in our knowledge. Abridging gaps of a more basic kind brings transformation in the conceptual scheme.

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2.Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a statement of assumption made in relation to research study to test it in terms to truthfulness
or not.
In order to make the problem explicit and in order to focus attention in its solution, it is essential to start with
certain known theories. Research, in real terms, depends upon a continuous interplay of theory and facts,
upon a continuous stimulation of facts by theory and theory by facts. Theory is initiated by facts and facts lead
to the rejection or reformulation of existing theory. Facts may also redefine or clarify the theory.
Thus “after internalizing the problem, after turning back on experience for possible solutions, after observing
relevant phenomena, the scientist may formulate a hypothesis.” “A Hypothesis is a conjectural statement, a
tentative proposition about relation between two or more phenomena or variables”. It is a tentative
generalization, the validity of which remains to be tested.
P.V. Young says that a hypothesis “is provisional central idea which becomes the basis for fruitful
investigation, known as working theory”
Coffey defines hypothesis as “an attempt at explanation : a provisional supposition made in order to explain
scientifically some facts or phenomena”.
According to Rummel and Balline, A hypothesis is a statement capable of being tested and thereby verified
or rejected.

Criteria for Formulation of Hypothesis:

There exist two criteria for formulation of a good hypothesis. First, it is a statement about the relations between
variables. Secondly it carries clear implications for testing the stated relations. Thus, these couple of criteria
imply that the hypotheses comprise two or more variables which are measurable or potentially measurable
and that they specify the way in which they are related. A statement which fails to meet these criteria is no
scientific hypothesis in the true sense of the term. However, there are legitimate hypotheses, formulated in
factor analytic studies.

The following examples may be cited in order to justify how the couple of criteria apply to hypotheses:
1. More intelligent persons will be less hostile than those of lower level of intelligence.

2. Group study contributes to higher grade achievement.

In the first hypothesis, we visualize a relation stated between one variable, ‘intelligence’, and another variable
‘hostility.’ Furthermore, measurement of these variables is also easily conceivable. In the second example, a
relation has also been stated between the variables ‘group study’ and ‘grade achievement.’ There exists the
possibility of the measurement of the variables are thus there is implication for testing the hypotheses. Thus
both the criteria are satisfied. ‘

FUNCTIONS OF HYPOTHESIS.
 Hypothesis is developed to test the assumptions. It established a relationship between phenomena in
such a way that it can be empirically tested.
 Hypothesis when approved forms thesis, thesis forms theory and theory forms laws.
 The hypothesis explains the social phenomenon associated with them.

TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS:
HYPOTHESIS IS SOCIAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE RESEARCH CAN BE BROADLY CLASSIFIED INTO
TWO TYPES:
1. General Hypothesis: As the term suggests this type of hypothesis gives direction at general level. It
helps you understand the kind of data needed but, does not lead to any higher theoretical research which
may form theory or law. The descriptive method of research uses mostly general hypothesis.
2. Specific Hypothesis: It is more form of hypothesis. Here, hypothesis is based on the certain standards
or it aims at testing whether logically derive relationship between empirical variables. At the most specific
hypothesis indicates how changes in one variable affects the other.
HYPOTHESIS MAY BE FURTHER CLASSIFIED AS :
1. Narratives hypothesis :– This offers the hypothesis based on existence, size, and form or of variables.

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 2. Cause and effect relationship hypothesis :- Hypothesis describing a relationship between two
variables is said to be relational hypothesis. Here, relationship between variables is observed where
change in one variable gives change in other variables. “Fast food eating habits is cause of obesity in
children” is a good example.

A GOOD HYPOTHESIS IS ONE WHICH:

1. Clearly defines the assumption will all operational definitions which are easy to understand and
communicate.
2. Should be brief so that it meaningfully describes the concept involved in the assumption.
3. Requires limited assumption and conditions to testify it.
4. It should meet the criteria, or disprove or add new knowledge to the theory.
5. Based on phenomena which are easily observed or else it is difficult to test it empirically.
6. Explaining and expected relationship between the variables.
7. Initially researcher should make one hypothesis which is significant and can be easily tested. If he finds a
need of designing or formulating number of hypothesis, he should do it.

ADVANTAGES OF HYPOTHESIS:
1. A hypothesis helps the researcher to decide the size of sample, gather relevant data and analyse it. It
acts as a guide which gives directions before proceeding from one step to another.
2. Hypothesis protects a researcher form wasting time in gathering irrelevant facts and data.
3. Hypothesis is basis of the entire research study. A well articulated hypothesis helps in drawing desired
finding which can be tested objectively.
Formulation of hypothesis is not an easy task as it requires a strong theoretical and practical knowledge of the
subject and also the scientific methods of formulation of hypothesis.

METHODS OF HYPOTHESIS TESTING.

After collection of data is valid or not, hypothesis testing is performed. After testing the hypothesis is the
researcher decides either to accept or reject the hypothesis. There are two methods to deal with the
hypothesis testing:

1. Parametric test :- It is based on the properties of the parent population from which we draw sample.
Parent population means the original population.
For example: The assumption are taken from this population only. It is the normal population. The sample
size is large and the parameters like means, etc. should be accurate.
2. Non-Parametric test :– Due to some situations researcher does not make assumption. Thus they are
called non-parametric tests. These tests are based on the measurement equivalent to at least an interval
scale. Non-parametric tests need more observation the parametric test.

Sources of Hypothesis
(1) General Culture in which a Science Develops, (2) Scientific Theory, (3) Analogies, and
(4) Consequences of Personal, Idiosyncratic Experience as the Sources of Hypothesis.

1. General Culture in which a Science Develops:

A cultural pattern influences the thinking process of the people and the hypothesis may be formulated to test
one or more of these ideas. Cultural values serve to direct research interests. The function of culture has been
responsible for developing today’s science to a great dimension. In the words of Goode and Hatt, “to say that
the hypotheses are the product of the cultural values does not make them scientifically less important than
others, but it does at least indicate that attention has been called to them by the culture itself.

For example in the Western society race is thought to be an important determinant of human behaviour. Such
a proposition can be used to formulate a hypothesis. We may also cite metaphysical bias and metaphysical
ideas of Indian culture to have been responsible for the formulation of certain types of hypotheses. It implies
that cultural elements of common cultural pattern may form a source of the formulation of hypotheses.

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2. Scientific Theory:
A major source of hypothesis is theory. A theory binds a large body of facts by positing a consistent and lawful
relationship among a set of general concepts representing those facts. Further generalizations are formed on
the basis of the knowledge of theory. Corollaries are drawn from the theories.

These generalizations or corollaries constitute a part of hypothesis. Since theories deal with abstractions
which cannot be directly observed and can only remain in the thought process, a scientific hypothesis which is
concerned with observable facts and observable relationship between facts can only be used for the purpose
of selecting some of the facts as concrete instances of the concepts and for making a tentative statement
about the existence of a relation among the selected facts with the purpose of subjecting the relation to an
empirical test.”

A hypothesis emerges as a deduction from theory. Hence, hypotheses become “working instruments of
theory” Every worthwhile theory provides for the formulation of additional hypothesis. “The hypothesis is the
backbone of all scientific theory construction; without it, confirmation or rejection of theories would be
impossible.”

The hypotheses when tested are “either proved or disproved and in turn constitute further tests of the original
theory.” Thus the hypothetical type of verbal proposition forms the link between the empirical propositions or
facts and the theories. The validity of a theory can be examined only by means of scientific predictions or
experimental hypothesis.

3. Analogies:
Observation of a similarity between two phenomena may be a source of formation of a hypothesis aimed at
testing similarity in any other respect. Julian Huxley has pointed out that “casual observation in nature or in the
framework of another science may be a fertile source of hypothesis. The success of a system in one discipline
can be used in other discipline also. The theory of ecology is based on the observation of certain plants in
certain geographical conditions. As such, it remains in the domain of Botany. On the basis of that the
hypothesis of human ecology could be conceived.

Hypothesis of social physics is also based on analogy. “When the hypothesis was born out by social
observation, the same term was taken into sociology. It has become an important idea in sociological theory”.
Although analogy is not always considered, at the time of formulation of hypothesis; it is generally satisfactory
when it has some structural analogies to other well established theories. For the systematic simplicity of our
knowledge, the analogy of a hypothesis becomes inversely helpful. Formulation of an analogous hypothesis is
construed as an achievement because by doing so its interpretation is made easy.

4. Consequences of Personal, Idiosyncratic Experience as the Sources of Hypothesis:

Not only culture, scientific theory and analogies provide the sources of hypothesis, but also the way in which
the individual reacts to each of these is also a factor in the statement of hypotheses. Certain facts are present,
but every one of us is not able to observe them and formulate a hypothesis.

Referring to Fleming’s discovery of penicillin, Backrach has maintained that such discovery is possible only
when the scientist is prepared to be impressed by the ‘unusual’. An unusual event struck Fleming when he
noted that the dish containing bacteria had a green mould and the bacteria were dead. Usually he would have
washed the dish and have attempted once again to culture the bacteria.

But normally, he was moved to bring the live bacteria in close contact with the green mould, resulting in the
discovery of penicillin. The example of Sir Issac Newton, the discoverer of the theory of Gravitation, is another
glaring example of this type of ‘personal experience’. Although prior to Newton’s observation, several persons
had witnessed the falling of the apple, he was the right man to formulate the theory of gravitation on the basis
of this phenomenon.

Thus emergence of a hypothesis is a creative manner. To quote Mc Guigan, “to formulate a useful and
valuable hypothesis, a scientist needs first sufficient experience in that area, and second the quality of the
genius.” In the field of social sciences, an illustration of individual perspective may be visualized in Veblen’s
work. Thorstein Veblen’s own community background was replete with negative experiences concerning the
functioning of economy and he was a ‘marginal man’, capable of looking at the capitalist system objectively.
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Thus, he could be able to attack the fundamental concepts and postulates of classical economics and in real
terms Veblen could experience differently to bear upon the economic world, resulting in the making of a
penetrating analysis of our society. Such an excellent contribution of Veblen has, no doubt, influenced social
science since those days.

Conditions for a Valid Hypothesis

1. The most essential condition for a valid hypothesis is that it should be capable of empirical verification, so
that it has to be ultimately confirmed or refuted. Otherwise it will remain a proposition only. Therefore it should
be formulated in such a way that it is possible to deduce certain inferences which in turn can be tested by
observation in the field. It should not be a mere moral judgment.

As the basis of objectivity, the most essential condition of scientific method, empirical test, concerning the
verification of facts and figures enables generalizations which do not differ from person to person. The
concepts incorporated in the hypothesis should be explicitly defined and must have unambiguous empirical
correspondence.

2. Secondly, the hypothesis must be conceptually clear, definite and certain. It should not be vague or
ambiguous. It should be properly expressed. The concepts should not only be formally defined in a clear-cut
manner, but also operationally. If a hypothesis is loaded with un-defined or ill-defined concepts, it moves
beyond empirical test because, understandably, there is no standard basis for cognizing what observable facts
would constitute its test.

Hypotheses stated in vague terms do not lead anywhere. Therefore, while formulating the hypothesis, the
researcher should take care to incorporate such concepts which are not only commonly accepted, but also
communicable so that it would ensure continuity in research.

3. Thirdly, hypothesis must be specific and predictions indicated should be spelled out. A general hypothesis
has limited scope in the sense that it may only serve as an indicator of an area of investigation rather than
serving the hypothesis. A hypothesis of grandiose scope is simply not amenable to test. Narrower hypothesis
involves a degree of humility and specific hypothesis is of any real use. A hypothesis must provide answer to
the problem which initiated enquiry.

4. Fourthly, the possibility of actually testing the hypothesis can be approved. A hypothesis should be
formulated in such a way that its conceptual content can be easily translated to understand the observable
reality. If the hypothesis is not the closest to things observable, it would not be possible to test their accord
with empirical facts.

The concepts involved in the hypothesis should be such that the possibility of generating operational
definitions can be ensured and deductions can be made. According to Cohen and Nagel, “hypothesis must be
formulated in such a manner that deductions can be made from it and consequently, a decision can be
reached as to whether it does or does not explain the facts considered.”

5. Fifthly, the hypothesis should be related to a body of theory and should possess theoretical relevance. It
must provide theoretical rationale by seeking answer to question as to what will be the theoretical gains of
testing the hypothesis? If the hypothesis is derived from a theory, research will enable to confirm support,
correct or refute the theory.
Science, being the constant interplay of theory and fact, gains immensely from such testing’s. If the
hypotheses are selected at random and in piece meal, they cannot be studied in relation to broader theoretical
framework. In the words of Goode and Hatt “When research is systematically, based upon a body of existing
theory, a genuine contribution is more likely to result. In other words, to be worth doing a hypothesis must not
only be carefully stated, but it should possess theoretical relevance.”
Finally, the hypothesis should be related to available techniques. The hypothesis, in order to be workable,
should be capable of being tested and measured to existing methods and techniques of scientific nature.
According to Goode and Hatt, “the theories who do not know what techniques are available to test hypothesis
is a “poor way to formulate usable question.”.

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3.Sampling
Sampling may be defined as the procedure in which a sample is selected from an individual or a group of
people of certain kind for research purpose. In sampling, the population is divided into a number of parts called
sampling units.
Sampling can be defined as the method or the technique consisting of selection for the study of the so called
part or the portion or the sample, with a view to draw conclusions or the solutions about the universe or the
population.
According to Mildred Parton, “Sampling method is the process or the method of drawing a definite number
of the individuals, cases or the observations from a particular universe, selecting part of a total group for
investigation.”

Basic Principles of Sampling

Theory of sampling is based on the following laws-

• Law of Statistical Regularity – This law comes from the mathematical theory of probability. According to
King,” Law of Statistical Regularity says that a moderately large number of the items chosen at random from
the large group are almost sure on the average to possess the features of the large group.”
According to this law the units of the sample must be selected at random.
• Law of Inertia of Large Numbers – According to this law, the other things being equal – the larger the size
of the sample; the more accurate the results are likely to be.

Characteristics of the sampling technique

1. Much cheaper.
2. Saves time.
3. Much reliable.
4. Very suitable for carrying out different surveys.
5. Scientific in nature.

Advantages of sampling
Sampling ensures convenience, collection of intensive and exhaustive data, suitability in limited resources and
better rapport. In addition to this, sampling has the following advantages also.
1. Low cost of sampling- If data were to be collected for the entire population, the cost will be quite high. A
sample is a small proportion of a population. So, the cost will be lower if data is collected for a sample of
population which is a big advantage.
2. Less time consuming in sampling - Use of sampling takes less time also. It consumes less time than
census technique. Tabulation, analysis etc., take much less time in the case of a sample than in the case of a
population.
3. Scope of sampling is high- The investigator is concerned with the generalization of data. To study a whole
population in order to arrive at generalizations would be impractical.
Some populations are so large that their characteristics could not be measured. Before the measurement has
been completed, the population would have changed. But the process of sampling makes it possible to arrive
at generalizations by studying the variables within a relatively small proportion of the population.
4. Accuracy of data is high- Having drawn a sample and computed the desired descriptive statistics, it is
possible to determine the stability of the obtained sample value. A sample represents the population from
which its is drawn. It permits a high degree of accuracy due to a limited area of operations. Moreover, careful
execution of field work is possible. Ultimately, the results of sampling studies turn out to be sufficiently
accurate.
5. Organization of convenience- Organizational problems involved in sampling are very few. Since sample is
of a small size, vast facilities are not required. Sampling is therefore economical in respect of resources. Study
of samples involves less space and equipment.
6. Intensive and exhaustive data- In sample studies, measurements or observations are made of a limited
number. So, intensive and exhaustive data are collected.
7. Suitable in limited resources - The resources available within an organization may be limited. Studying
the entire universe is not viable. The population can be satisfactorily covered through sampling. Where limited
resources exist, use of sampling is an appropriate strategy while conducting marketing research.

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8. Better rapport-An effective research study requires a good rapport between the researcher and the
respondents. When the population of the study is large, the problem of rapport arises. But manageable
samples permit the researcher to establish adequate rapport with the respondents.

Disadvantages of sampling
The reliability of the sample depends upon the appropriateness of the sampling method used. The purpose of
sampling theory is to make sampling more efficient. But the real difficulties lie in selection, estimation and
administration of samples.
Disadvantages of sampling may be discussed under the heads:
 Chances of bias
 Difficulties in selecting truly a representative sample
 Need for subject specific knowledge
 changeability of sampling units
 impossibility of sampling.
1. Chances of bias-The serious limitation of the sampling method is that it involves biased selection and
thereby leads us to draw erroneous conclusions. Bias arises when the method of selection of sample
employed is faulty. Relative small samples properly selected may be much more reliable than large samples
poorly selected.
2. Difficulties in selecting a truly representative sample-Difficulties in selecting a truly representative
sample produces reliable and accurate results only when they are representative of the whole group. Selection
of a truly representative sample is difficult when the phenomena under study are of a complex nature.
Selecting good samples is difficult.
3. In adequate knowledge in the subject-Use of sampling method requires adequate subject specific
knowledge in sampling technique. Sampling involves statistical analysis and calculation of probable error.
When the researcher lacks specialized knowledge in sampling, he may commit serious mistakes.
Consequently, the results of the study will be misleading.
4. Changeability of units-When the units of the population are not in homogeneous, the sampling technique
will be unscientific. In sampling, though the number of cases is small, it is not always easy to stick to the,
selected cases. The units of sample may be widely dispersed.
Some of the cases of sample may not cooperate with the researcher and some others may be inaccessible.
Because of these problems, all the cases may not be taken up. The selected cases may have to be replaced
by other cases. Changeability of units stands in the way of results of the study.
5. Impossibility of sampling-Deriving a representative sample is di6icult, when the universe is too small or
too heterogeneous. In this case, census study is the only alternative. Moreover, in studies requiring a very high
standard of accuracy, the sampling method may be unsuitable. There will be chances of errors even if
samples are drawn most carefully.

Concepts Pertaining to Sampling

1. Universe/Population: From a statistical point of view, the term ‘universe’ refers to the total of the items or
units in any field of enquiry, whereas the term ‘population’ refers to the total of items about which information is
desired. The attributes that are the object of study are referred to as characteristics and the units possessing
them are called as elementary units.

The aggregate of such units is generally described as population. Thus, all units in any field of enquiry
constitute universe and all elementary units (on the basis of one characteristic or more) constitute population.
Quite often, we do not find any difference between population and universe, and as such the two terms are
taken as interchangeable. However, a researcher must necessarily define these terms precisely.

The population or universe may be finite or infinite. The population is said to be finite if it consists of a fixed
number of elements so that it is possible to enumerate it in its totality. For example, the population of a city, the
number of households in a village, the number of workers in a factory, and the number of students in a
university are the examples of finite population. The symbol ‘N’ is generally used to indicate how many
elements (or items) are there in case of a finite population.

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An infinite population is that population in which it is theoretically impossible to observe all the elements. Thus,
in an infinite population, the number of items is infinite, i.e., we cannot have any idea about the total number of
items.

For example, the number of stars in the sky, sand particles at a sea beach, and pebbles in a riverbed. From a
practical consideration, the term ‘infinite population’ is used for a population that cannot be enumerated in a
reasonable period of time. This way we use the theoretical concept of infinite population as an approximation
of a very large finite population.

2. Sampling Frame: The elementary units or the group of cluster of such units may form the basis of sampling
process in which case they are called as sampling units. A list containing all such sampling units is known as
sampling frame. The sampling frame consists of a list of items from which the sample is to be drawn. For
instance, one can use telephone directory as a frame for conducting opinion survey in a city. Whatever the
frame may be it should be a good representative of the population.

3. Sampling Design:
A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from the sampling frame. It refers to the technique or
the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting some sampling units from which inferences from the
population are drawn. Sampling design is determined before any data is collected.

4. Statistic(s) and Parameter(s):

A statistic is a characteristic of a sample, whereas a parameter is a characteristic of a population. Thus, when
we work out certain measures such as mean, median, mode, etc., from samples, they are called statistics for
they describe the characteristics of a sample. But when such measures describe the characteristics of a
population, they are known as parameters. For example, the population means (μ) is a parameter, whereas
the sample means (X) is a statistic. To obtain the estimate of a parameter from a statistic constitutes the prime
objective of sampling analysis.

5. Sampling Error:
Sampling survey does imply the study of a small portion of population and as such there would naturally be a
certain amount of inaccuracy in the information collected. This inaccuracy may be termed as sampling error or
error variance. In other words, sampling errors are those errors which arise on account of sampling and they
generally happen to be random variations (in case of random sampling) in the sample estimates around the
true population values. It can be numerically described as under:

Sampling error = Frame error + chance error + response error.

6. Precision:
Precision is a range within which the population average (or other parameters) will lie in accordance with
reliability specified in the confidence level as a percentage of the estimate ± or as a numerical quantity. For
example, if the estimate is Rs. 4000 and the precision desired is ± 4 per cent, then the true value will be not
less than Rs. 3840 and not more than Rs. 4160. This is the range (Rs. 3840 to Rs. 4160) within which the true
answer should lie. But if we desire that the estimate should not deviate from the actual value by more than Rs.
200 in either direction, in that case the range would be Rs. 3800 to Rs. 4200.

7. Confidence Level and Significance Level:

The confidence level or reliability is expected percentage of times that the actual value will fall within the stated
precision limit. Thus, if we take a confidence level of 95 per cent, then we mean that there are 95 chances in
100 (or .95 in 1) that the sample results represent the true condition of the population within a specified
precision range against five chances in 100 (or .05 in 1) that it does not.

Precision is the range within which the answer may vary and still be acceptable; confidence level indicates the
likelihood that the answer will fall within that range, and the significance level indicated the likelihood that the
answer will fall outside that range. It may be remembered that if the level of confidence in 95 per cent, then the
significance level will be (100-95), i.e., 5 per cent, if the confidence level is 99 per cent, the significance level is
(100-99), i.e., 1 per cent, and so on.

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4.Social Survey
A social survey in its broadest sense, has a reference to a first-hand investigation, analysis and co-ordination
of economic, sociological and other related aspects of a selected community or group.

A survey may be undertaken with the primary purpose of formulating a programme for amelioration of the
conditions of life and work of a community or a group, implying some ‘frame’ in the mind of the surveyor as to
what the conditions ideally ought to be.

The purpose of a social survey may also be to provide scientifically gathered facts or materials affording some
empirical basis for the social theorists to set up their conclusions.
If the term ‘social survey’ is mainly thought of as referring to an operation having as its central concern ‘social
action’, i.e., social engineering, social reform, social planning and social survey, it is to the distinctive history of
social survey movement that one would have to turn for explanation.

As the history of the development of survey movement unfolds itself, we come across such trail-blazers as
John Howard, a philanthropist and reformer, Fredrick Leplay, a reformer and economist; Charles Booth, a
reformer and statistician.

The life and works of all these men were governed by a deep-seated conviction that constructive reforms must
be founded only on the secure ground provided by scientifically gathered facts. Thus, the survey-operation
might be regarded as a pre-requisite to social reform and often the former implied the latter.

Thus, the terms, ‘social surveyor’ and ‘social practitioner’ came to be used almost interchangeably. It is in this
particularized sense that quite a few books treat of social survey; for them it means scientific study of social
problems acute enough to arouse public opinion and to take a “hand in their solution” or a “scientific study
for the purpose of presenting a constructive programme of social advance.”
It is worthy of note, however, that the notion of social survey as an operation undertaken basically to afford
scientifically gathered material as a basis for theory construction, found its way into the sociological thought as
a result of Leplay’s work.

Process of Social Research

Step 1# Formulation of Research Problem: In real terms research begins with a problem which needs
solution. Such a perception on the part of the researcher, first of all, falls within the general area of interest
indicating to locate the problem either in the quest of some intellectual pursuit or for some practical concern,
such as finding out a practical solution to a problem, evaluation of a programme in the light of new facts,
gathering of relevant facts for social planning or even for policy making.
While selecting a problem for research, the Social Scientists are likely to be influenced by their own personal
values as well as the prevalent social conditions. As scientists differ with regard to their values and societies
differ in respect of their preference of different spheres, the choice of topics in social research vary widely.

Step 2# Review of Related Literature: Since an effective research is based on past knowledge, an
investigator must always take advantage of the knowledge which have been preserved or accumulated earlier.
It not only helps the researcher in avoiding duplication and formulating useful hypothesis, but also provides
him with the evidence that he is familiar with what is already known and what is still unknown and untested in
the field.
Review of related literature implies the analysis of the summary of the writings of recognized authorities and
the earlier researches in the particular area. According to J.W. Best practically all human knowledge can be
found in books and libraries. Unlike other animals…man builds upon the accumulated and recorded
knowledge of the past.

Step 3# Formulation of Hypotheses:The next step in the process of research is the formulation of a tentative
explanation of the problem in the form of a proposition wherever feasible. This tentative explanation or
assumption or proposition refers to a conjectural statement of the relation between two or more variables and
its tenability remains to be tested.
For formulating the hypothesis the researcher gathers information from several sources, such as existing
theories, previous reports of research concerning analogous problems, information from knowledgeable

16
persons, researcher’s own beliefs and insights. However, all studies do not begin with clearly formulated
hypothesis.

Step 4# Working Out Research Design: After formulating the research problem, reviewing the related
literature and formulating hypothesis, wherever feasible, the researcher reaches the stage of embarking upon
working out a design of study as he is guided by the maxim that “work must be planned, if it is to lead to
discoveries”. A research design is the general blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data
incorporating what the researcher will have to perform from the formulating the tentative generalizations and
their operational definitions to final analysis of data.
Step 5# Defining the Universe of Study: The universe of study comprises all the items or individuals under
consideration in any field of inquiry. In statistical terms, a ‘universe’ or ‘population’ refers to the aggregate of
individuals or units from which a ‘sample’ is drawn and to which the results and analysis are to apply. The
researcher may distinguish between the target population and survey population so as to clearly define the
universe of study. The target population is that population for which the results of research are required.
Step 6# Determining Sampling Design: As in practice a complete enumeration of all the items in the
‘universe’ is not possible under many circumstances, due to the requirement of a great deal of time, money
and energy; the researcher embarks upon deciding the way of a selecting a representative sample which is
popularly known as the sample design. It is a definite plan chalked out prior to actual collection of data for
obtaining a sample from the universe. The sample must be representative and adequate.
Broadly speaking there are three types of samples, such as:
(i) Probability samples

(ii) Samples based on purposive or subjective or judgement sampling, and

(iii) Samples based on mixed sampling. Probability samples are drawn from the universe according to some
laws of chance, based on scientific technique, in which each unit in the population has got some definite pre-
assigned probability of being selected in the sample.

Step 7# Administering the Tools of Data Collection: Adequate and appropriate data are required for any
standard research work. The data may differ considerably keeping in view the financial aspect, time and other
resources available to the researcher. The researcher, while collecting data takes into consideration the nature
of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, financial resources, available time and the desired degree
of accuracy. That apart his own ability and experience also counts much in the collection of required data.
Step 8# Analysis of Data: After completion of the collection of data, the researcher embarks upon the
analysis of these data. This involves a number of operations such as establishment of categories, the
application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation. Thereafter statistical inferences are
drawn.
Step 9# Testing of Hypotheses: Sociological studies do not always generate data that confirm the original
hypothesis. In many instance, a hypothesis is refuted and researchers must reformulate their conclusions. In
behavioural sciences it is not possible to test several hypotheses directly. The social scientist can only test the
research hypotheses by establishing some kind of sample of behaviour in order to observe it directly.
Step 10# Generalization and Interpretation: After the hypothesis is tested and found valid, it becomes
possible on the part of researcher to reach the stage of generalization, which may be construed to be the real
value of research. This is only possible in case of hypothesis-testing studies. But in the hypothesis formulating
studies where the researcher has no hypothesis to begin with, he may seek to interpret his findings. In other
words, he may seek to explain the findings of his research on the basis of some theoretical framework, which
may probably raise some new questions for further researches.
Step 11# Reporting the Research: Research report is the end product of a research activity which gives an
account of a long journey on the path of finding a new knowledge or modified knowledge. Writing a research
report is a technical task as it requires not only skill on the part of the researcher but also considerable effort,
patience and penetration, an overall approach to the problem, data and analysis along with grasp over
language and greater objectivity, all springing from considerable thought.
The purposes of research report are:
i. transmission of knowledge;
ii. presentation of findings,
iii. examining the validity of the generalization, and
iv. Inspiration for further research.
The outline of a report comprises:

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(i) The preliminaries incorporating the title page, foreword or preface, acknowledgements; list of tables, charts
or illustrations; and table of contents.
(ii) Contents of the reports which covers the introductory part of research reports which should not only contain
purpose of the study, statement of the problem, hypothesis and operational definition of the concepts but also
should contain a description of the agency, personnel and other aspects of research.
This part of research also covers:
(a) The study design;
(b) The universe and the organisation of sampling procedures;
(c) Methods, tools and techniques employed for collection of data as well as analysis and presentation of
findings;
(iii) The reference material consisting, the bibliography, appendices, glossary of terms and index.

Advantages of Surveys
1. High Representativeness
Surveys provide a high level of general capability in representing a large population. Due to the usual huge
number of people who answers survey, the data being gathered possess a better description of the relative
characteristics of the general populationinvolved in the study. As compared to other methods of data
gathering, surveys are able to extract data that are near to the exact attributes of the larger population.
2. Low Costs
When conducting surveys, you only need to pay for the production of survey questionnaires. If you need a
larger sample of the general population, you can allot an incentive in cash or kind, which can be as low as $2
per person. On the other hand, other data gathering methods such as focus groups and personal interviews
require researchers to pay more.
3. Convenient Data Gathering
Surveys can be administered to the participants through a variety of ways. The questionnaires can simply be
sent via e-mail or fax, or can be administered through the Internet. Nowadays, the online survey method has
been the most popular way of gathering data from target participants. Aside from the convenience of data
gathering, researchers are able to collect data from people around the globe.
4. Good Statistical Significance
Because of the high representativeness brought about by the survey method, it is often easier to
find statistically significant results than other data gathering methods. Multiple variables can also be effectively
analyzed using surveys.
5. Little or No Observer Subjectivity
Surveys are ideal for scientific research studies because they provide all the participants with a standardized
stimulus. With such high reliability obtained, the researcher’s own biases are eliminated.
6. Precise Results
As questions in the survey should undergo careful scrutiny and standardization, they provide uniform
definitions to all the subjects who are to answer the questionnaires. Thus, there is a greater precision in terms
of measuring the data gathered.
Disadvantages of Surveys
1. Inflexible Design
The survey that was used by the researcher from the very beginning, as well as the method of administering it,
cannot be changed all throughout the process of data gathering. Although this inflexibility can be viewed as a
weakness of the survey method, this can also be a strength considering the fact that preciseness and fairness
can both be exercised in the study.
2. Not Ideal for Controversial Issues
Questions that bear controversies may not be precisely answered by the participants because of the probably
difficulty of recalling the information related to them. The truth behind these controversies may not be relieved
as accurately as when using alternative data gathering methods such as face-to-face interviews and focus
groups.
3. Possible Inappropriateness of Questions
Questions in surveys are always standardized before administering them to the subjects. The researcher is
therefore forced to create questions that are general enough to accommodate the general population.
However, these general questions may not be as appropriate for all the participants as they should be.
A good example of this situation is administering a survey which focuses on affective variables, or variables
that deal with emotions.
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Types of Social Surveys
Type 1# Census Survey and Sample Surveys:
In census type of survey all the units of the research universe are contacted for collection of data. On the
contrary, in sample surveys, some representative units are selected for collection of data. If the research
universe is constituted by homogeneous units, sample survey is preferred because it spends less time, energy
and money. But if the research universe is of heterogeneous nature, census survey is found to be more
suitable.

Type 2# General and Specialized Surveys:

In the general survey the entire community is studied in a general manner. On the other hand, a specialized
survey attempts on unearthing some particular aspects of the community such as unemployment, child labour,
problems of the slum, hygienic attitude etc.

Type 3# Direct and Indirect Surveys:

Quantitative description is possible in direct surveys, such as the demographic surveys. On the other hand, the
indirect surveys are not amenable to quantification. For example surveys on level of nutrition or health
condition are of indirect type. However, both the types of social surveys have their own importance in the study
of social problems.

Type 4# Widespread and Limited Surveys:

In a widespread survey a very large area is covered concerning multiple aspects of the purpose of social
survey. But when a survey covers a small area and usually confines itself to some specific questions, it is
called a limited survey. Because of its concern with limited aspects, it maintains greater reliability than the
widespread survey which deals with various aspects depending upon the survey purposes.

Type 5# Primary and Secondary Surveys:

As the name suggests, the primary surveys are undertaken afresh and the field workers collect data directly
from the field. In primary surveys the surveyor has got the liberty to set the goals for procuring the relevant
facts. On the contrary, in the secondary surveys, the surveyor only examines the facts which are already
available. It does not necessitate collecting the facts afresh from the field by a fresh survey. If considered from
the view point of reliability, primary surveys are always more reliable than, the secondary type of surveys.

Type 6# Initial and Repetitive Surveys:

If a survey is conducted for the first time in an area it is called an initial survey. Any subsequent surveys on the
same social problem covering the same area are called the repetitive surveys.

Type 7# Official, Semi-Official and Private Surveys:

Any survey conducted by the governmental organizations is called an official survey. But when any quasi-
governmental institutions like, boards, corporations, universities, etc. conduct any survey it is called semi-
official type of survey. In the like manner, surveys conducted by private individuals, organizations or agencies
are designated the private surveys.

Type 8# Regular and Ad-Hoc Surveys:

As is clear from their names, the regular surveys are conducted at regular intervals without any discontinuity.
In India the SBI conducts such surveys. On the other hand the Ad-hoc surveys are not made periodically
without fail. Rather these are conducted with some specific purpose without regularity.

Type 9# Public and Confidential Surveys:

The data of some surveys are of general type and no secrecy is maintained in collecting data or in publishing
the findings. Such surveys are therefore, called the public surveys. On the contrary, in some surveys the data
required are of highly personal nature needing confidentiality. No information is revealed to the public. Such
surveys are called confidential surveys.

Type 10# Postal and Personal Surveys:

If the data are collected by mailed questionnaires, it is called postal survey. On the other hand the data
collected through direct interview of the informants come under personal survey.

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5. Observation
Observation method has occupied an important place in descriptive sociological research. It is the most
significant and common technique of data collection. Analysis of questionnaire responses is concerned with
what people think and do as revealed by what they put on paper. The responses in interview are revealed by
what people express in conversation with the interviewer. Observation seeks to ascertain what people think
and do by watching them in action as they express themselves in various situations and activities.
Observation is the process in which one or more persons observe what is occurring in some real life situation
and they classify and record pertinent happenings according to some planned schemes. It is used to evaluate
the overt behaviour of individuals in controlled or uncontrolled situation. It is a method of research which deals
with the external behaviour of persons in appropriate situations.
According to P.V. Young, “Observation is a systematic and deliberate study through eye, of spontaneous
occurrences at the time they occur. The purpose of observation is to perceive the nature and extent of
significant interrelated elements within complex social phenomena, culture patterns or human conduct”.
From this definition it is clearly understood that observation is a systematic viewing with the help of the eye. Its
objective is to discover important mutual relations between spontaneously occurring events and explore the
crucial facts of an event or a situation. So it is clearly visible that observation is not simply a random
perceiving, but a close look at crucial facts. It is a planned, purposive, systematic and deliberate effort to focus
on the significant facts of a situation.
Characteristics of Observation
1. Observation is a Systematic Method: Observation is not haphazard or unplanned. The length of the
observation periods, the interval between them, the number of observations, the area or situation of
observation and various techniques used for observation are carefully planned. Often there are systematic
managements for controlling the situation if special factors are to be studied, for example study of honest
behaviour, sportsman spirit, leadership qualities etc.
2. Observation is Specific: It is not just looking around for general aspects of human behaviour. Rather it is
directed at those specific aspects of total situation which are assumed to be significant from the stand point of
the purpose of the study. The layman may frequently overlook what is crucial while observing an event or
phenomenon, but the scientific observer should look for some definite things which suit his purpose of study so
as to economies his time, money and effort for observation.
3. Observation is Objective: Observation should be objective and free from bias as far as possible. It should
generally be guided by a hypothesis. The observer must maintain ethical neutrality. He must consider
hypothesis as something to be tested. But at the same time he must maintain a flexible attitude, so that he can
deviate from his original plan when such deviation appears inevitable.
4. Observation is Quantitative: Although many important phenomena cannot be quantified, it becomes
almost an imperative to use some means for quantifying observations in order to increase their precision and
to facilitate their analysis. Even the quality should be converted into quantity, because qualitative data is
subjective and quantitative one is objective and can further be interpreted in objective manner.
5. Observation is an Affair of Eyes: P.V. Young remarks that observation is a systematic and deliberate
study through eye. An observer gathers the data which he has seen in his own eyes. Collecting information
through eyes is probably the most trustworthy technique of data collection in social research.
6. Definite Aim: Observation must have some definite aims and objectives. It should be clearly defined before
the beginning of the actual observation process. Without the proper aims and objectives observation will be
unsystematic and expensive.
7. The Record of Observation is Made Immediately: During the observation period it is very difficult on the
part of the observer to remember each and every element of observation. He may forget much important
information. If we rely on memory the factor of forgetting will enter and affect the data of observation.
Therefore the observer should record all important information’s as soon as the observation is completed.
8. Observation is Verifiable: Observation result can be checked and verified. Observation must be verified
with usual criteria of reliability, validity and usability. It may be possible to check the findings of the observation
by comparing the results of different observers by repeating the study.
Advantages of Observation:
(1) Simplest Method: Observation is probably the most common and the simplest method of data collection. It
does not require much technical knowledge. Although scientific controlled observation requires some technical
skill of the researcher, still it is easier than other methods. Everybody in this world observes many things in
their daily life. A little training can make a person perfect, to observe his surroundings.
(2) Useful for Framing Hypothesis: Observation is one of the main bases of formulating hypothesis. By
observing a phenomenon continuously, the researcher may get well acquainted with the observed. He came to
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know about their habits, likes, dislikes, problems, perception, different activities and so many other things. All
these help him a lot to form a hypothesis on them. Any researcher, therefore, has to be a good observer.
(3) Greater Accuracy: In other methods like interview, questionnaire etc., the researcher has to depend on
information provided by the respondents. So these are indirect methods and here the investigator does not
have any means to examine the accuracy of the data supplied by them. But in observation the observer can
directly check the accuracy from the observed. He can apply various devices to test the reliability of their
behaviour. So very often the data collected through observation is more reliable than these collected through
interview or questionnaire.
(4) An Universal Method: Observation is a common method used in all sciences, whether physical or social.
So it has greater universality of practice. As a common method, it is very easily followed and accepted.
(5) Observation is the Only Appropriate Tool for Certain Cases: Observation can deal with phenomena
which are not capable of giving verbal information about their behaviour, feeling and activities simply for the
reason that they cannot speak e.g. infants or animals. Observation is indispensable for studies on infants who
can neither understand the quarries of the researcher nor express themselves clearly. In the case of animals
observation is the only way out. For deaf and dumb persons, for serious cases of abnormality or mad persons,
for non-cooperative persons, for too shy persons and for persons who do not understand the language of
researcher, observation will be the only appropriate tool.
(6) Independent of People’s Willingness to Report: Observation does not require the willingness of the
people to provide various information about them. Often some respondents do not like to speak about
themselves to an outsider. Some people do not have time or required skill to provide important information to
the researcher. Although observation cannot always overcome such problems, still relatively speaking it
requires less active co-operation and willingness of respondents. Observation is ever possible without the
knowledge of the respondents.
Limitations of Observation:
(1) Some of the Occurrences may not be Open to Observation: There are many personal behaviours or
secret activities which are not open for observation. For example, no couple will allow the researcher to
observe their sexual activities. In most of the cases people do not allow the outsider to study their activities.
(2) Not all Occurrences Open to Observation can be Observed when Observer is at Hand: Such
problems arise because of the uncertainty of the event. Many social events are very much uncertain in nature.
It is a difficult task on the part of the researcher to determine their time and place. The event may take place in
the absence of the observer. On the other hand, it may not occur in the constant presence of the observer. For
example, the quarrel and fight between two individuals or groups is never certain. Nobody knows when such
an event will take place.
(3) Not all Occurrences Lend Themselves to Observational Study: Most of the social phenomenon is
abstract in nature. For example, love, affection, feeling and emotion of parents towards their children are not
open to our senses and also cannot be quantified by observational techniques. The researcher may employ
other methods like case study; interview etc. to study such phenomena.
(4) Lack of Reliability: Because social phenomena cannot be controlled or used for laboratory experiments,
generalizations made by observation method are not very reliable. The relative-ness of the social phenomena
and the personal bias of the observer again create difficulty for making valid generalization in observation. P.V.
Young remarks that in observation, no attempt is made to use instruments of precision to check the accuracy
of the phenomenon.
(5) Faulty Perception: Observation is a highly technical job. One is never sure that what he is observing is the
same as it appears to his eyes. Two persons may judge the same phenomena differently. One person may
find something meaningful and useful from a situation but the other may find nothing from it. Only those
observers who are having the technical knowledge about the observation can make scientific observation.
(6) Personal Bias of the Observer: The personal bias, personal view or looking at things in a particular way
often creates obstacle for making valid generalization. The observer may have his own ideas of right and
wrong or he may have different pre-conceptions regarding an event which kills the objectivity in social
research.
(7) Slow Investigation: Observation is a time taking process. P.V. Young rightly remarks that the valid
observation cannot be hurried; we cannot complete our investigation in a short period through observation. It
sometimes reduces the interest of both observer and observed to continue their observation process.
(8) Expensive: Observation is a costly affair. It requires high cost, plenty of time and hard effort. Observation
involves travelling, staying at the place of phenomena and purchasing of sophisticated equipment’s. Because
of this it is called as one of the most expensive methods of data collection.
(9) Inadequate Method: According to P.V. Young, “the full answers cannot be collected by observation
alone”. Therefore many suggested that observation must be supplemented by other methods also.

21
(10) Difficulty in Checking Validity: Checking the validity of observation is always difficult. Many of the
phenomena of observation cannot be defined with sufficient precision and does not help in drawing a valid
generalization. The lack of competence of the observer may hamper validity and reliability of observation.

Participant Observation and Non-Participant Observation:

Participant Observation:
The participant observation means watching the events or situation or activities from inside by taking part in
the group to be observed. He freely interacts with the other group members, participates in various activities of
the group, acquires the way of life of the observed group or his own, and studies their behaviour or other
activities not as an outsider but by becoming a member of that group.
Goode and Hatt define participant observation as “the procedure used when the investigator can go disguise
himself as to be accepted as a member of the group”. So in this kind of observation the observer has to stay
as a member in the group he wants to study.
According to P.V. Young, “the participant observer using non-controlled observation, generally lives or
otherwise shares in the life of the group which he is studying”.
Some of the examples of studies using the method of participant observation are: W.F. White’s study of
Cornville social and Athletic Club and P.V. Young’s study of Molokan people. The famous studies of Margaret
Mead on primitive societies were also based on participant observation.
For the success of participant observation it is essential that the respondents being studied should not have
any doubt about the intention of the research worker. A fruitful result of participant observation is very much
dependent upon the resourcefulness, tactfulness, personality manners and wit of the research worker.

Advantages of Participant Observation:

(a) Observation of natural behaviour: The natural behaviour of the respondent can be studied by participant
observation. When a group knows that they are going to be observed by a stranger, they feel conscious,
uncomfortable and therefore neutrality in their behaviour and activity is lost. But in case of the participant
observation, the respondents do not know that they are being observed. So their behaviour is not constrained
by the conscious feeling of being observed by a stranger.
(b) Closeness with the group: In participant observation, the observer has a very good rapport with the
respondents. He has a very close primary relationship with the group members. Because of this he can
participate in all activities from a close angle and thus can better interpret the situation than a non-participant
observer.
(c) Studying the real character: Often in order to study the actual behaviour, the group research requires
close participation and contact with the group members. Through participant observation the observer can
make an intensive and inclusive study of the group and can gain into the real character of such group.
(d) Better Understanding: In participant observation the observer can better understood the feeling of the
respondents than an outsider. For example, a person who is actually living in a slum area can realise the
feeling and hardship of the slum dwellers in a better way than an outsider.
(e) Participation provides opportunity to learn more about an event: The chief advantage of participant
observation is that in it the observer gets an opportunity to interact with the group regarding various activities
of them. He can thus learn the significance of these activities that are actually not open for observation. For
example, if an observer participates in a religious ceremony of a tribe, viz. “Chaitra Parba” of Gadaba tribe, he
can not only observe different aspects of the ceremony but also clear his doubt by asking various questions to
the group members or learn more about that ceremony by discussing with the group in this regard. It is
generally easier for the respondent to describe about the event on right occasion than before or after it.

Disadvantages of Participant Observation:

(a) Lack of objectivity: By becoming members of a group and participating very closely in it, the observer
may lose his objectivity. His emotional and sentimental association with the group kills his impartiality and
unbiased analysis. He may develop some soft corner for that group member and because of this; he may often
justify their evil activities as just activity.
(b) Often close association brings biased interpretation: Because of his close association and emotional
participation with the group members the researcher creates a special position for himself in that group. He
may be influenced or pleased by this and begins to support them blindly. Due to this he observes the things
from his own personal point of view rather than scientific point of view.

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(c) Misses important issues due to familiarity: Due to much familiarity many crucial events appear to the
participant observer as of little or no significance. Therefore, he misses many of the important issues. But a
stranger pays much attention even to a small thing, as this appears new to him.
(d) Limited range of experience: In participant observation the observer is confines himself to a particular
group. So his experience becomes very deep, but the range of his experience becomes very limited.
(e) Involvement in groupism: The active participation and proximity of the observer with the group may
involve him in quarrels and group factionalism. He cannot avoid taking side of one faction. But if he does so,
he loses his status as an impartial observer whom everybody is ready to co-operate. So it destroys the very
purpose of the research and the researcher finds it very difficult to get proper information from the group.
(f) Limits of participant observation: There are certain situations in which the participant observation is not
possible. For example, it is not possible to observe criminals or prisoners.

Non-Participant Observation:
When the observer observes the group passively from a distance without participating in the group activities, it
is known as non-participant observation. Here he does not try to influence them or take part in the group
activities.
However, purely non-participant observation is extremely difficult. One cannot penetrate into the heart of a
matter without proper participation in it. One really cannot imagine a kind of relationship, when the researcher
is always present but never participates. This situation is hardly conducive for both the observer and the
group. A combination of both participant and non-participant method is sometimes selected.
The observer actively participates in some of the ordinary activities and observes passively from distance in
others. Many sociologists therefore treat a non-participant observation in practice as only a quasi-participant
observation. It is easier for the observer to perform both the roles than to disguise himself completely.

Advantages of Non-Participant Observation:

(a) Objectivity and neutrality: If an observer participates in the event actively and emotionally he may try to
justify the evil things of the group as just things. In this frame of mind he cannot analyze the phenomena with
neutrality. But in non-participant observation, the objectivity or neutrality can be maintained. The observer in
this type of observation gives a detached and unbiased view about the group.
(b) Command respect and co-operation: In case of non-participant observation the researcher plays an
impartial role. Therefore every member of the group gives him a special status and co-operate with his study.
(c) More willingness of the respondent:
Often people do not feel shy to disclose their secrets, weaknesses or informal things to a stranger. But they
always become reluctant to disclose these things to a known person.
(d) Careful analysis: In participant observation because of the much familiarity with the events, sometimes
the observer does not realize the significance of same events and neglects them. But in non- participant
observation the researcher does not even miss a minute thing. He carefully judges the merits and demerits of
each and every phenomenon under study.
(e) Freedom from groupism: In non-participant observation the researcher always maintains his impartial
status. His aloofness from petty conflicts helps him to carry his research work more smoothly.

Disadvantages of Non-Participant Observation:

(a) Subjectivity: In non-participant observation the observer does not have clarity about certain events on
activities. He cannot clear his doubts by asking various questions to the group members. Therefore he has to
simply understand and interpret what he sees. This lack of understanding may make some of his findings
biased and coloured by his personal prediction, belief and pre-conception.
(b) Inadequate observation: The observer can observe only those events which take place in front of him.
But that is not enough and only a part of the phenomena as a vast range of information required for the
research. He can know many things about the group when he participates in the group and interacts with the
group members.
(c) Unnatural and formal information: The members of a group become suspicious of a person who
observes them objectively. In front of an outsider or stranger they feel conscious and provide only some formal
information’s in an unnatural way. It creates bias and what the observer collects is not actual or normal thing
but only formal information’s.
(d) Inconvenience to the respondents: The members of a particular group always feel uncomfortable when
they know that their behaviour is critically analyzed by an outsider. Therefore in some cases the tribals do not
allow an outsider to watch their socio-cultural activities. It is always better for a researcher to become a
member of the group in order to learn much about it.
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6.Questionnaire
Questionnaire is the most popularly and widely used tool for collecting the primary data. It suits to any kind of
research problem. In today’s marketing research activities, the questionnaire has become indispensable tool. It
is not used only in marketing field, but also all types of social research projects.
Term ‘questionnaire’ can be defined as:
1. Dictionary meaning. Questionnaire consists of the formulated series of questions.
2. Questionnaire is a set of questions systematically and deliberately prepared to investigate into the problem.
3. Questionnaire is a list of various types of questions related to specific area or problem, expressed in some
logical patterns and order, which can be used for data collection purpose.
Questionnaire provides the most speedy and simple technique of gathering data about groups of individuals
scattered in a wide and extended field. In this method, a questionnaire form is sent usually by post to the
persons concerned, with a request to answer the questions and return the questionnaire.
According to Goode and Hatt “It is a device for securing answers to questions by using a form which the
respondent fills in himself. According to GA. Lundberg “Fundamentally the questionnaire is a set of stimuli to
which illiterate people are exposed in order to observe their verbal behaviour under these stimuli”.
Often the term “questionnaire” and “schedule” are considered as synonyms. Technically, however, there is a
difference between these two terms. A questionnaire consists of a set of questions printed or typed in a
systematic order on a form or set of forms. These form or forms are usually sent by the post to the
respondents who are expected to read and understand the questions and reply to them in writing in the spaces
given for the purposes on the said form or forms. Here the respondents have to answer the questions on their
own.
On the other hand schedule is also a form or set of forms containing a number of questions. But here the
researcher or field worker puts the question to the respondent in a face to face situation, clarifies their doubts,
offers the necessary explanation and most significantly fills their answers in the relevant spaces provided for
the purpose.
Since the questionnaire is sent to a selected number of individuals, its scope is rather limited but within its
limited scope it can prove to be the most effective means of eliciting information, provided that it is well
formulated and the respondent fills it properly.
A properly constructed and administered questionnaire may serve as a most appropriate and useful data
gathering device.

Key Decisions or Issues in Questionnaire (Preparation):

We need to discuss several decisions – problems and issues – related to questionnaire preparation.
Questionnaire preparation is a creative task. It needs a great deal of imagination, expertise, subject
knowledge, and experience. It is prepared in light of response to be sought.

The expert who has to design the questionnaire for the specific marketing problem should consider a large
number of variables, such as research problem, cost, ability of field worker, time, characteristics of
respondents, language, length of questions, number of questions, order of the questions, and so forth.

The key issues related to questionnaire design may include:

1. Deciding on information to be collected by questionnaire.
2. Deciding on type of questionnaires to be used (e.g., questionnaire for mail, telephone, or personal
interview).
3. Deciding on the content and necessity of each question, and determining whether respondents can answer
it.
4. Deciding on methods of administering questionnaire and recording response.
5. Deciding on wording, sentences, and physical layout of questionnaire.
6. Deciding on size of questionnaire or number of questions.
7. Deciding on type of questions (e.g., open-ended, direct, multiple-choice, dichotomous, etc.).
8. Deciding on the order or sequence of questions.
9. Deciding on language to be used.
10. Deciding on pretest, review and final draft.

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Steps in Questionnaire Design:
The task of composing questionnaire may be considered more an art than a science. It needs a great deal of
experience, expertise, and creativity.
Systematic questionnaire preparation involves certain steps listed below:
1. Determine the Data to be collected
2. Determine the Method to be used for Data Collection
3. Evaluate the Contents of the Question
4. Decide on Type of Questions and Response Format
5. Decide on Wording of Questions
6. Determine on Questionnaire Structure or Physical Format
7. Pretest, Review and Final Draft

Types of Questionnaire:
Questionnaire can be classified on the basis of several criteria as stated below:
1. On the basis of structure and distinguishes, there are four types of questionnaire:
i. Structured Undisguised:
This type of questionnaire involves structured and undisguised questions. Response is limited to certain
options. A structured means that answers of the questions are predetermined. Respondents have to select
answer from the given list of answers. Undisguised means questions are open-ended. They are asked directly.
Respondents can know what the researcher wants to know. For example, there are four products a, b, c, and
d. Customers are asked to select the most preferred product.

ii. Unstructured Undisguised:

Unstructured means free questions are asked. Their response is not limited to certain answers only. They
have full freedom to answer the question. In short, answers of the question are not decided in advance. For
example, customer is asked to name the most preferred products in particular category.

iii. Structured Disguised:

Structured means the answers of the questions to be asked are determined in advance. Disguised means
indirect way of asking questions. Customers do not know the exact purpose/intension of question but can
answer easily. For example, which of the following products is more harmful? Why?

iv. Unstructured Disguised:

Here, the response is not fixed. Respondents have full freedom to answer the question. Disguised means
something hidden. For example, which motorbike is more risky? Why?

2. On the basis of use/purpose of questionnaire, there are three types of questionnaire:

i. Questionnaire for Personal Interview:
This questionnaire is prepared to administer for personal interview. It may involve more questions and indirect
questions which requires explanation or clarification.

ii. Questionnaire for Telephone Survey:

This questionnaire is prepared to collect information via telephone. Obviously, such questionnaire involves a
limited number of short and simple questions.

iii. Questionnaire for Mail Survey:

This questionnaire it meant for the mail survey. This questionnaire is sent to respondents with a request to
return it dully filled. It also involves short and simple questions. However, it consists of more questions.

25
3. On the basis of administration, there can be two types of questionnaire:
i. Interviewer-administered Questionnaire:
When this questionnaire is to be administered, the presence of both interviewer and respondents is essential.
Here, questions are asked to respondents one by one. Their response is recorded either in the same
questionnaire or in the separate form. For example, picture or cartoon are shown to respondents and are
asked to describe it. Personal interview and telephone survey are based on this type of questionnaire.

ii. Self-administered Questionnaire:

It is given to respondent by the interviewer to fill in her/his answers. This is possible even in absence of
interviewer. For mail survey, this type of questionnaire is used.

4. On the basis of type of questions, there can be two types of questionnaire:

i. Simple Questionnaire:
This questionnaire involves certain number of questions of the same type. It may involve only dichotomous,
multiple choice, or otherwise. It has limited utility.

ii. Multiple Questionnaires:

Obviously, it involves variety of questions. Such questionnaire consists of certain questions of different
categories. It is a popular questionnaire.

Advantages of Questionnaire:
(1) Economical:
It is an economical way of accumulating information. It is economical both for the sender and for the
respondent in time, effort and cost. The cost of conducting the study with the help of questionnaire method is
very low. In questionnaire the researcher has to spend for paper printing and postage only. There is no need
to visit each and every respondent personally. So it does not require high cost for conduct of the research.

(2) Wide Coverage:

It is probably the best method to collect information, compared to the other methods like interview or
observation, when the sample population is spread over a large territory. It permits a nationwide or even
international coverage.

Questionnaire makes it possible to contact with many people who could not otherwise be reached. It can cover
a large group at the same time. Goode and Hatt say that when the researcher has to cover the group of
respondents who are widely scattered, lie can use the questionnaire in order to minimize the cost.

(3) Rapidity:
Replies may be received very quickly in questionnaire method. In this case there is no need to visit the
respondent personally or continue the study over a long period. Thor “fore in comparison with other methods,
the mailed questionnaire is the quickest method.

(4) Suitable in Special Type of Response:

The information about certain personal, secret matters can be best obtained through questionnaire method.
For example, information about sexual relationship, marital relationship, secret desires etc. can .be easily
obtained by ‘keeping the names of the respondents anonymous.

(5) Repetitive Information:

Compared to other methods like schedule, interview or observation, questionnaire method is regarded as
more useful and cheap, where the repetitive information has to be collected at regular interval.

(6) An Easier Method:

Questionnaire is comparatively an easier method to plan, construct and administer. It does not require much
technical skill or knowledge.

(7) It Puts Less Pressure on the Respondents:

It puts less pressure on the respondents for immediate response. He can answer it at his own leisure, whereas
interview or observation demands specific fixation of time and situation,
26
(8) Uniformity:
It helps in focusing the respondent’s attention on all the significant items. As it is administered, in a written
form, its standardized instructions for recording responses ensure some uniformity. Questionnaire does not
permit much of variation.

(9) Useful Preliminary Tool:

Questionnaire may be used as a preliminary tool for conducting a depth study later on by any other method.

(10) Greater Validity:

Questionnaire has some unique merits as regards validity of information. In methods like interview and
observation, the reliability of responses depends on the way the investigator has recorded them. Here they
may present biased or prejudiced information of their own. But in questionnaire method, the responses given
by the subjects are available in their own language and version. Therefore, it cannot be wrongly interpreted by
the researcher.

(11) Anonymity:
Questionnaire ensures anonymity to its respondents. The respondents have a greater confidence that they will
not be identified by anybody for giving a particular view or opinion. They feel more comfortable and free to
express their view in this method.

(12) Most Flexible Tool for Data Collection:

Questionnaire is no doubt the most flexible tool in collecting both quantitative and qualitative information.

Disadvantages of Questionnaire:
(1) Limited Response:
One of the major limitations of the questionnaire is that it can be applicable only to those respondents who
have a considerable amount of education. It can neither be used for illiterate nor for semi-literate persons.

The questionnaire quite often fails to cover very busy and pre-occupied persons among the respondents, lazy
and indifferent type of persons, the type of respondents who need to conceal a lot about themselves, the easy-
going and shirkers among the respondents, the persons who have a unreasonable contempt for research and
reform and the persons who unnecessarily doubt the research worker’s intentions, sincerity, devotion and
commitment.

(2) Lack of Personal Contact:

As in case of questionnaire the researcher does not go to the field, he is not able to establish a proper
personal relationship with the respondents. If the respondent fails to understand some of the technical terms or
he has any doubt, there is nobody to clarify these technical terms or doubts.

Even though the researcher tries in the best possible manner to make the questionnaire a simple, precise and
convenient one, the aim and objective of the questionnaire can be much better explained personally than
through any other means. Without the proper personal contact it is very difficult to motivate the respondent to
fill up the questionnaire.

(3) Poor Response:

In case of mailed questionnaire method, the proportion of return is usually low. The factors which are likely to
affect the returns are: the layout of the questionnaire, its size, the organisation conducting the research work,
the nature of appeal, the kind of respondents chosen for research, inducement for response etc.

(4) Unreliability: The information collected through questionnaire cannot be said to be very much reliable or
valid. If the subject misinterprets a question or gives an incomplete or indefinite response very little can be
done to connect such response. As against this, in an interview there is always the possibility of rephrasing
questions for further clarification.
The questions can be repeated with adequate elaboration if it is so required. But in questionnaire method there
is no opportunity for repeating questions, explaining them or clarifying the doubts for a particular response.
Therefore, in it the validity of respondent’s response can hardly be examined.

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 (5) Illegibility: Illegible handwriting of the respondent sometimes creates much difficulty for the researcher to
understand the responses. Sometimes the respondents erase and over write too much. These create many
difficulties in reading the answers.
(6) Incomplete Entries: Often most of the respondents fill up the questionnaire form very poorly. They
sometimes leave out many questions altogether or fill in such a way that, it becomes very difficult on the part
of the investigator to follow those responses. Other than this, there may be the problem of language, use of
abbreviations and ambiguous terms etc. All these make a questionnaire an incomplete one.
(7) Possibility of Manipulated Entries: In case of interview the investigator directly interacts with the
respondents personal’ and intensively in a face to face situation. He can judge a respondent, his attitude,
understanding of the research topic and, if necessary, can ask some cross questions to correct various errors.
So usually the respondent cannot manipulate his answer. But in questionnaire it is very difficult to detect the
errors of the respondents. Here the investigator does not have any facility to check the validity and reliability of
the information. In the absence of the researcher, the respondents may supply manipulated information.
(8) Useless in Depth-Studies: In questionnaire method, it is not possible on the part of the researcher to
conduct an intensive or in-depth study of the feelings, reactions and sentiments of the respondents. All these
require a healthy interaction of the researcher with the respondents. But in questionnaire method, the
investigator is not present in the field, so nothing can be done to establish rapport with the respondent. Due to
this lack of interaction with the respondent, the researcher cannot go into the details of the respondent’s life.
So through questionnaire method one cannot conduct an in-depth study.
(9) Response from Improper Representative Section of People: The respondents who return the
questionnaires may not constitute a representative section of the entire group. Only mere responsible,
research minded or those in favour of the issue may prefer to respond. Some of the important sections of the
group may totally remain silent. This vitiates the final conclusions and findings.
(10) Lack of Rapport with the Subject: There are many people who would not like to share any important
information unless and until they are impressed about the rationale of the study and personality of the
investigator. The questionnaire does not provide for any opportunity to the investigator to establish rapport with
the subject and this cannot attract the respondent for a better response.
(11) Not Suitable for Delicate Issues: Some of the research areas are so delicate, sensitive, intricate and
confidential in nature that it becomes difficult to frame questions on them. It is impossible to put down certain
delicate issues in writing.

Schedule:
Schedule is one of the very commonly used tools of data collection in scientific investigation. P.V. Young says
“The schedule has been used for collection of personal preferences, social attitudes, beliefs, opinions,
behaviour patterns, group practices and habits and much other data”. The increasing use of schedule is
probably due to increased emphasis by social scientists on quantitative measurement of uniformly
accumulated data.

Schedule is very much similar to questionnaire and there is very little difference between the two so far as their
construction is concerned. The main difference between these two is that whereas the schedule is used in
direct interview on direct observation and in it the questions are asked and filled by the researcher himself, the
questionnaire is generally mailed to the respondent, who fills it up and returns it to the researcher. Thus the
main difference between them lies in the method of obtaining data.

Goode and Hatt says, “Schedule is the name usually applied to a set of questions which are asked and filled
by an interviewer in a face to face situation with other person”. Webster defines a schedule as “a formal list, a
catalogue or inventory and may be a counting device, used in formal and standardized inquiries, the sole
purpose of which is aiding in the collection of quantitative cross-sectional data”.

The success of schedule largely depends on the efficiency and tactfulness of the interviewer rather than the
quality of questions posed. Because the interviewer himself asks all the questions and fills the answers all by
himself, here the quality of question has less significance.

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Difference between Schedule and Questionnaire.
S.No Questionnaire Schedule

1. Questionnaire is generally sent through mail to A schedule is generally filled by the research
informants to be answered as specified in a worker or enumerator, who can interpret the
covering letter, but otherwise without further questions when necessary.
assistance from the sender.

2. Data collection is cheap and economical as the Data collection is more expensive as money is
money is spent in preparation of questionnaire and spent on enumerators and in imparting trainings
in mailing the same to respondents. to them. Money is also spent in preparing
schedules.

3. Non response is usually high as many people do Non response is very low because this is filled
not respond and many return the questionnaire by enumerators who are able to get answers to
without answering all questions. Bias due to non all questions. But even in this their remains the
response often remains indeterminate. danger of interviewer bias and cheating.

4. It is not clear that who replies. Identity of respondent is not known.

5. The questionnaire method is likely to be very slow Information is collected well in time as they are
since many respondents do not return the filled by enumerators.
questionnaire.

6. No personal contact is possible in case of Direct personal contact is established

questionnaire as the questionnaires are sent to
respondents by post who also in turn returns the
same by post.

7. This method can be used only when respondents The information can be gathered even when the
are literate and cooperative. respondents happen to be illiterate.

8. Wider and more representative distribution of There remains the difficulty in sending
sample is possible. enumerators over a relatively wider area.

9. Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong
information is relatively more under the
questionnaire method, when people are unable to
understand questions properly.
The information collected is generally complete
and accurate as enumerators can remove
difficulties if any faced by respondents in
correctly understanding the questions. As a
result the information collected through schedule
is relatively more accurate than that obtained
through questionnaires.

10. The success of questionnaire methods lies more It depends upon the honesty and competence of
on the quality of the questionnaire itself. enumerators

11. The physical appearance of questionnaire must be This may not be the case as schedules are to be
quite attractive. filled in by enumerators and not by respondents.

12. This is not possible when collecting data through Along with schedule observation method can
questionnaire. also be used.

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7. Interview
Interview as a technique of data collection is very popular and extensively used in every field of social
research. The interview is, in a sense, an oral questionnaire. Instead of writing the response, the interviewee
or subject gives the needed information verbally in a face-to-face relationship. The dynamics of interviewing,
however, involves much more than an oral questionnaire.
Interview is a direct method of inquiry. It is simply stated as a social process in which a person known as the
interviewer asks questions usually in a face to face contact to the other person or persons known as
interviewee or interviewees. The interviewee responds to these and the interviewer collects various
information from these responses through a very healthy and friendly social interaction.
Interview is not a simple two-way conversation between an interrogator and informant. According to P.V.
Young, “interview may be regarded as a systematic method by which a person enters more or less
imaginatively into the life of a comparative stranger”. It is a mutual interaction of each other.
The objectives of the interviewer are to penetrate the outer and inner life of persons and to collect information
pertaining to a wide range of their experiences in which the interviewee may wish to rehearse his past, define
his present and canvass his future possibilities. These answers of the interviewees may not be only a
response to a question but also a stimulus to progressive series of other relevant statements about social and
personal phenomena.
In similar fashion, W.J. Goode and P.K Hatt have observed that “interviewing is fundamentally a process of
social interaction”. In the interview two persons are not merely present at the same place but also influence
each other emotionally and intellectually.

Objectives of Interview
(1) Direct Contact: The first and foremost aim of the interview method is to establish a direct contact between
the researcher and the interviewee, so that both can understand each other’s feeling, attitude and needs. After
the interviewer establishes a friendly relationship with the subject, certain type of confidential information may
be obtained, that an individual might be reluctant to put in writing.
The interviewer can explain the purpose of his investigation, and can explain more clearly just what
information he wants if the subject misinterprets the question, then the interviewer may describe it with a
simple clarifying question and collect various information from them.

(2) Eliciting Intimate Facts: In modern complex society, experiences are highly heterogeneous. Few people
share a common lot, but their attitudes and values are quite varied. Many People can live within the protective
wall of anonymity. There are many facts of personal life, one does not like to reveal. All other methods are not
so effective in order to collect these intimate or personal information’s from a respondent which he does not
want to share.
But P.V. Young has rightly observed that interview is the most effective method through which the interviewer
can penetrate into this protective mask and elicit these intimate facts. By establishing a rapport or a friendly
relationship with the interviewee, the interviewer can gain his confidence and may be able to extract various
confidential information from him.

(3) Establishing Hypothesis: Through the interview techniques the researcher may stimulate the subject to
have greater insight into his own experiences, peculiar attitudes, outlooks, aspirations and thereby explore
significant areas not anticipated by him. These new revelations help him in forming new hypothesis about
personal and social behaviour. P.V. Young says, “Every verbal response and non-verbal reaction may be an
“eye opener” for a whole new train of thoughts.
An answer may not only be a response to a question but also a stimulus to progressive series of other relevant
statements about social and personal phenomena which might indicate cause-effect relationships and at times
may lead to formulation of hypothesis regarding socio-personal interaction”.

(4) Verification of Unique Ideas: When a researcher elicits a novel idea about certain type of behaviour, it is
always desirable to conduct interview with the concerned person and see how far the ideas elicited are true or
valid facts. So one can examine its validity through interview method and safely conclude about it.
Various sociologists have remarked that the objective of interview is two-fold:
(i) Eliciting certain information from the interviewee, which is known only to him and cannot be collected from
any other source,

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(ii) psychological study of verbal and non-verbal behaviour under given circumstances. As regards the first
objective, the interviewer clarifies the topic or area of study to the interviewee. Then interviewee narrates the
experience of his life and his reactions pertaining to it. The interviewer listens to these descriptions carefully
and tries to collect useful information’s out of it.

For the second objective the researcher plays more the role of a social psychologist than a sociologist. His
attention is more centred on the attitude and expressions of the interviewee than the actual facts. It is basically
to learn about what T.W. Adorno terms “levels of personality” of the interviewee.

Both the objectives are required and obtained by the interviewer in any social research. As Lundberg rightly
remarks “the researcher is interested in the objective data secured from the interview such as income, number
of children, their age, etc. and also in the personality of the informants this attitude, prejudices, likes and
dislikes as revealed by his verbal behaviour including the subtle gestures that accompany it, such as facial
expression, tone of voice and so forth”. However one can give special emphasis to one of these above
mentioned objectives for certain reasons.

Uses/Merit of Interview
1. It is self-reporting technique which provides considerable flexibility to the interviewer.
2. Questions can be clarified, if necessary the interview can be given an opportunity to qualify or modify his
answer and the interviewer can carefully observe the individual during the session, noting down the feeling
attached to his answer the topic or cases when he seems to be evasive and areas on which he is most vocal.
3. If the interviewer is experienced and trained, he can go beyond external purposes of the interview and he
understands his inner feelings, wishes, desires, likes and dislikes.
4. While interviewing, the behaviour of the subject can be observed and information with regard to his
emotional complex can be observed which will be greatly helpful for individual guidance.
5. It is a potent and indispensible tool for getting data that no other research tool can do.
6. It can be adaptable, capable of being used with all types of individuals.
Limitations of Interview
1. It is extremely time consuming process.
2. Information obtained is not standardized from one person to another.
3. It suffers from bias of the interviewer.
4. Sometimes interviewer’s own Masses influence the questions that are asked.
5. Some of the interviewers are becoming too rigid in taking judgments, while some others get influenced by
others’ judgments.
6. A great deal of differences are found among the interviewers. As a result, the results obtained can’t be
called reliable.
7. Uniformity can’t be maintained from one interview situation to another.
In spite of the above limitations, interview technique may be quite useful for guidance. If the interviewer is
trained and if he possesses professional knowledge manners, maturity, objectivity, adequacy, well-defined
social values, the interview technique can get a high achieving situation in individual guidance service.

Interview Techniques for Doing a Research

For doing a research we have two main types of interviews—structured and unstructured.

The unstructured or informal interview is mostly conducted on pilot basis for framing a hypothesis.
However, for certain types of research, such as understanding quick response of employees on a changed HR
policy (change in attendance system, transfer, relocation, etc.), we may also make use of this type of informal
interview.
This is done primarily where there is a time and money constraint or if there is a need to have a quick feel of
the people working in the organization. Unstructured interviews are not controlled. Certain pre-assumptions to
map the reactions of people on certain issues guide the researcher here.
The major problem, here, is to consolidate the responses of the respondents. However, at times it helps in
critical management decisions. Focus group interview is one such example. Whatever may be the purpose,

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unstructured interview inputs ultimately help in framing the structured interview questionnaire and also in
refining the thought process.

Structured interview is conducted with a set of specific questionnaire. In most of the quantitative research,
collection of primary source of information is made using this type of interview. The process requires
administering a structured set of questionnaire items in an orderly manner on samples and then drawing the
necessary inferences as per our hypotheses.
During the interview process, respondents are asked uniform type of questions and their responses are
recorded in the questionnaire itself for subsequent quantitative analysis. Since respondents do not get
flexibility to add, remove, or alter questionnaire items, the interview process becomes structured.

Depth Interviews: Depth interviews are face-to-face encounters. Normally, for this type of interview, the
interviewer uses unstructured or semi-structured approach to unearth innate sentiments, emotions, and
attitudes. It is our experience that the respondents often try to evade sensitive issues, when they are required
to give direct answers against structured questionnaire items. At times, their responses may even be
misleading. The success of this type of interview depends largely on the skills of the interviewer, specifically on
psychometric tools and psychoanalysis.

Telephone Interviews: Telephone interviews are mostly conducted in marketing research. It may be done to
assess the likely success or failure of a new product launching, or to map the customers’ satisfaction level or
for some other critical marketing issues like pricing, quality level, expectations from product, or services, etc.
This type of interview is more used in the developed world. But its success is questionable as the response
rate may be very poor, sampling is difficult, and also samples may not represent the population. Moreover, the
interviews may be more unstructured as respondents may not like to answer all the questions raised by the
interviewer.

Focus Group Interviews: Focus group interviews are very powerful survey research instruments in qualitative
research. Avoiding the one-to-one interview approach, the focus group emphasizes on collection and
compilation of information from a target group of people. The interviewer plays the role of a moderator and
always tries to keep the group focused on the issues of concern.

Difference Between Structured and Unstructured Interview

Interview is described as an in-depth conversation between two or more persons, in a formal way, so as to
figure out candidate’s acceptability for the job. It is one of the most effective tools for data collection and
selection. It is one to one communication between the interviewer and interviewee; wherein both the parties
get a chance to learn about each other. Interviews can be structured interview or unstructured interview.

Definition of Structured Interview -Structured Interview is a type of personal interview, in which

the interviewer uses a fixed format, wherein the questions are prepared in advance. It uses highly systematised
techniques of recording. It is a method of quantitative research used for the purpose of the survey, which aims
at presenting the preset questions, in every interview, which the same sequence. It is also known as a patterned
or planned interview.

Definition of Unstructured Interview -Unstructured Interview is one, that does not use any fixed
format, however, the interviewer may have a few planned questions prepared beforehand. It is a qualitative
research method, in which the questions are prepared during the interview. As the interview is unplanned, it
has an informal approach where a friendly conversation takes place between the interviewer and interviewee.

The interviewer has the freedom to ask any questions and can also change the sequence or skip some
questions that are planned in advance, however, it lacks uniformity. Further, the interviewer should possess
deep knowledge and skill on the subject.

Key Differences Between Structured and Unstructured Interview

The difference between structured and unstructured interview can be drawn clearly on the following grounds:
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1. Structured Interview refers to an interview, in which questions to be asked to the candidates are fixed in
advance. An interview in which the questions to be asked to the candidates is rare and not prepared
beforehand.
2. As the structured interview is a pre-planned and same set of questions are put to all the candidates, so the
data collected is quantitative in nature. As opposed to an unstructured interview, wherein different questions
are put to different candidates, and so qualitative data is collected.
3. In descriptive research, the structured interview is used to collect information, because it is relatively
economical and the inferences can be drawn easily. On the contrary, in exploratory research unstructured
interview is used as the basic tool for collecting information.
4. In a structured interview, the questions put before the candidate are close-ended, that demands a certain
piece of information from the applicants, or in fact, he/she has to make a choice among various options
provided. As against this, unstructured interview, the questions are open-ended, that can be answered in
multiple ways, i.e. the candidate is free to give thoughtful answers and thus influence the interviewer.
5. Structured interviews are used by positivists whereas unstructured interview is used by interpretivists.
6. The structured interview is used for validating results when the number of candidates is quite large. Unlike
unstructured interview, which is used to probe personal details of the candidate, so as to judge if he is the right
person for the job.
7. In a structured interview, the characteristics evaluated are explicit which on the other side are implicit in an
unstructured interview.

Comparison Chart
BASIS FOR
STRUCTURED INTERVIEW
COMPARISON

Meaning Structured Interview is one in which a particular set of predetermined questions are prepa
by the interviewer in advance.

Data collection Quantitative

Research Descriptive

Type of Questions Closed-ended questions

Factors evaluated Explicit

Used by Positivist

Application To validate results, when the number of candidates is quite large.

Conclusion - Therefore, when the interview is structured, same questions, are put before the candidates,
which are job-related. On the contrary, when the interview is unstructured, questions may differ from
interviewee to interviewee, for the same job, which may or may not be related to the job. Moreover, in a
structured interview, there is a pre-developed system or guide to check the results. As against this, there is no
such pre-developed system or guide for checking interview results.

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8. Common Errors in the Research Process
Designing a research project takes time, skill and knowledge. With Qualtrics survey software, we make the
survey creation process easier, but still you may feel overwhelmed with the scope of your research project.
Here are 5 common errors in the research process.

1. Population Specification
This type of error occurs when the researcher selects an inappropriate population or universe from which to
obtain data.
Example: Packaged goods manufacturers often conduct surveys of housewives, because they are easier to
contact, and it is assumed they decide what is to be purchased and also do the actual purchasing. In this
situation there often is population specification error. The husband may purchase a significant share of the
packaged goods, and have significant direct and indirect influence over what is bought. For this reason,
excluding husbands from samples may yield results targeted to the wrong audience.

2. Sampling
Sampling error occurs when a probability sampling method is used to select a sample, but the resulting
sample is not representative of the population concern. Unfortunately, some element of sampling error is
unavoidable. This is accounted for in confidence intervals, assuming a probability sampling method is used.
Example: Suppose that we collected a random sample of 500 people from the general U.S. adult population to
gauge their entertainment preferences. Then, upon analysis, found it to be composed of 70% females. This
sample would not be representative of the general adult population and would influence the data. The
entertainment preferences of females would hold more weight, preventing accurate extrapolation to the US
general adult population. Sampling error is affected by the homogeneity of the population being studied and
sampled from and by the size of the sample.

3. Selection
Selection error is the sampling error for a sample selected by a nonprobability method.
Example: Interviewers conducting a mall intercept study have a natural tendency to select those respondents
who are the most accessible and agreeable whenever there is latitude to do so. Such samples often comprise
friends and associates who bear some degree of resemblance in characteristics to those of the desired
population.

4. Non-responsive
Nonresponse error can exist when an obtained sample differs from the original selected sample.
Example: In telephone surveys, some respondents are inaccessible because they are not at home for the
initial call or call-backs. Others have moved or are away from home for the period of the survey. Not-at-home
respondents are typically younger with no small children, and have a much higher proportion of working wives
than households with someone at home. People who have moved or are away for the survey period have a
higher geographic mobility than the average of the population. Thus, most surveys can anticipate errors from
non-contact of respondents. Online surveys seek to avoid this error through e-mail distribution, thus
eliminating not-at-home respondents.

5. Measurement
Measurement error is generated by the measurement process itself, and represents the difference between
the information generated and the information wanted by the researcher.
Example: A retail store would like to assess customer feedback from at-the-counter purchases. The survey is
developed but fails to target those who purchase in the store. Instead, results are skewed by customers who
bought items online.

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9. Research Design
A research design is a broad plan that states objectives of research project and provides the guidelines what is
to be done to realize those objectives. It is, in other words, a master plan for executing a research project.
The word ‘design’ has various meanings. But, in relation to the subject concern, it is a pattern or an outline of
research project’s workings. It is the statement of essential elements of a study that provides basic guidelines
of conducting the project. It is same as the blue print of architect’s work.
Research design is a broad framework that states the total pattern of conducting research project. It specifies
objectives, data collection and analysis methods, time, costs, responsibility, probable outcomes, and actions.
In other words, A research design is a broad plan that states objectives of research project and provides the
guidelines what is to be done to realize those objectives. It is, in other words, a master plan for executing a
research project.
Kerlinger defines a research design as “the plan, structure and strategy of investigation purporting to
answer research questions and control variance.”
E.A. Suchman says that “A research design represents a compromise dictated by many practical
considerations that go into social research. He says further, “A research design is not a highly specific plan to
be followed without deviation, but rather a series of guide posts to keep one headed in the right direction.”
Research design acts as a guide to achieve the goal of the researcher step by step in a calculative and
cautious manner within a prescribed time limit and specified cost. If the study is not completed within the time
limit, it will not only increase the cost but also cause a series of other problems associated with research,
affecting the quality of research. Therefore, “the challenge of a research design is to translate the general
scientific model into a practical research operation. Research design will refer to the entire process of planning
and carrying out a research study”.

Contents of Research Design:

The most common aspects involved in research design include at least followings:
1. Statement of research objectives, i.e., why the research project is to be conducted
2. Type of data needed
3. Definition of population and sampling procedures to be followed
4. Time, costs, and responsibility specification
5. Methods, ways, and procedures used for collection of data
6. Data analysis – tools or methods used to analyze data
7. Probable output or research outcomes and possible actions to be taken based on those outcomes

Need of Research Design:

According to P.V. Young, a research design should be able to provide answer to the following queries:
(i) What is the study about and what type of data are required?
(ii) What is the purpose of the study? What is its scope?
(iii) What are the sources of the needed data?
(iv) What should be the place or area of study?
(v) What time, approximately, is required for the study?
(vi) What should be the amount of material or number of cases for the study?
(vii) What type of sampling should be used?
(viii) What method of data collection would be appropriate?
(ix) How will the data be analyzed?
(x) What should be the approximate expenditure?
(xi) What would be the methodology of study?
(xii) What should be the specific nature of study?

Keeping in view the aforesaid design decisions, the researcher may split the overall practical research
design into the following phases:
(a) The sampling design, dealing with the method of selecting items to be observed for the given study;
(b) The observational design, specifying the conditions under which the observations are to be made;

35
(c) The statistical design, taking into account the quantitative and statistical aspects of the design which
concerns with the questions of how many items are to be observed and how the information and data gathered
are to be analyzed.
(d) The operational design, relating to the use of specific technique for the operation of the model already
designed. It deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified in the sampling, statistical and
observational designs can be carried out.

Basic Purposes of Research Design:

From what has been stated above, we can derive two basic purposes:
(a) To provide answers to the research questions,
(b) To control variance. Indeed, these research purposes are achieved by the researcher himself, not by the
research design.
As regards the first purpose, a research is designed to enable the researcher to arrive at an objective,
accurate, valid and economic solution of the given problem to the maximum possible extent. Since scientific
research begins with a provisional supposition in the form of a hypothesis, the major purpose of the design is
to provide the research with a valid test of the hypothesis on the basis of empirical evidence obtained by the
researcher by utilizing the least amount of money, manpower and time and maximum possibility of its being
approved by other investigators engaged in the given area of investigation.

By providing a sort of blue print for the variation of hypothesis, presuming the relation between two or more
variables on the basis of empirical facts and by directing the process of observation in terms of determining the
facts relevant to the research problem, how and where to look for them and how many observations to make,
the research design becomes indispensable on the part of any researcher in scientific investigation.

Furthermore, it also indicates whether or not the variables of the research are to be manipulated or selected,
what specific values of the manipulated or selected variables are to be utilized in the scientific investigation,
how a conceptual variable can be converted into observable facts.

Research design also makes specification of the method to be adopted for manipulation of the independent
variable and for measurement of the dependent variable along with suggesting the ways by which the
collected data for research are to be analyzed and determining the level of statistical analysis appropriate to
the research situation.

“The design of an experiment and its analysis are interrelated. Indeed it is often said that one should not do an
experiment without knowing how it is to be analyzed.” This statement of Riecken and Boruch not only applies
to experimental design, but also holds good for all kinds of designs of research.

The second purpose of research is to control the effects of the potentially relevant independent variables on
the behaviour of the research subjects. It merely facilitates the process of obtaining answer to relevant
questions in the research study and enables the investigator to exercise control over experimental, extraneous
and error variances pertaining to the particular research problem being studied.

The validity of the research findings would be affected if these variables are not controlled. In a real world, any
observed event of behaviour is influenced by a multiplicity of facts and events. The behaviour, being “a real
world event involving overt or covert responses by one or more actors to a task or situation” and task
being “any impending sequence of acts guided by a goal” both behaviour and task involve a complexity of
events. Each of these may be used as an independent variable.
Of course, consideration of a variable as an independent one depends upon the researcher’s interest or the
nature of the research problem. For example, job satisfaction, educational achievement, individual production,
restriction of birth rate and similar other effects are explainable on the basis of the influence of a number of
related or unrelated facts and events.
But it is not possible to incorporate each one of these variables within the same research undertaking. On the
contrary, a researcher must keep himself restricted only to a limited number which are used as the more
explicitly relevant variables in a given research. If they happen to be active variables, their values are
deliberately changed and thereby they are manipulated in order to be controlled.

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Characteristic Features of a Good Research Design:
Designing a research, particularly in the field of social sciences is very complex as the selection of a method or
methods of logic and planning of the design was not always guarantee sound results. As a blue print, the
research design may at best be only tentative and useful to the extent of providing the researcher with a series
of guide posts to keep him headed is the right direction.
Although every design has its own strengths and weaknesses and simultaneously the possibility of a single
perfect research design is difficult, a good research design is often believed to possess characteristic features
like flexibility, appropriateness, efficiency, economically sound and so on. A design which minimizes bias and
maximizes the reliability of data is construed as a good design.
Similarly the design giving the smallest experimental error is considered to the best design and the design
yielding maximal information covering various aspects of a problem is construed as the most efficient design
because it is appropriate to the research problem. Hence, consideration of a design as good depends too
much upon the objective of the research problem and also the nature of the problem under investigation.
A single design can never serve the purpose of all types of research problems because what appears to be
suitable in one case may be lacking in one respect or the other in the context of some other research
problems. A good research design should always fulfill the following four conditions; objectivity, reliability,
validity and generalizability of the findings.
(a) Objectivity: The findings are said to be objective when they pertain to the method of data collection and
the scoring of the responses. The objectivity in respect of the procedure may be judged by the degree of
agreement between the final scores assigned to various persons by more than one independent observer. The
more the agreement among the observers the more objective are the observation, recording and evaluation of
the responses. Therefore, a good research design should permit fairly objective measuring instruments in
which every observer visualizing a performance comes to the same conclusion.
(b) Reliability: The question of reliability of knowledge is usually raised when the presence of a problem
arouses in the knower a demand, not only for something more than mere conjecture, but for something for
which it shall be useful in a given situation and perhaps in other similar situations. Reliable knowledge means
any claim that is substantiated as trustworthy for a given purpose.
(c) Validity: Validity implies self-consistency or absence of self-contradiction. It is identified with formal truth or
self-consistency. A valid reasoning conforms to the rules of correct reasoning. It is that type of reasoning
where conclusions automatically follow from the premises legitimately.
(d) Generalisability: The degree of generalisability is known in terms of the replicability and reproducibility of
the findings in spite of different measures and settings respectively.

Elements of Research Design:

(a) Selection of Research Problem:As regards the selection of topic for research, anything that is social and
empirical is a relevant problem for social research.
The factors which affect the decisions on selection of topic in social sciences are :
(i) The structure and state of a discipline
(ii) Social problems
(iii) Other determinants like the availability of grants for particular themes, the popularity and prestige of the
particular area ‘of research, public interest and motivation of the researcher etc., and
(iv) Practical considerations.
(b) Selection of Units of Analysis: Determination of the units of analysis is a key factor in social research. In
general, the purpose of the study dictates the selection of the appropriate unit of analysis. The objects or
events or entities under investigation are referred to as units of analysis in social sciences.
(c) Choice of Variable: Since a social scientist is primarily interested in studying the relationship among some
characteristics or properties of the observed units which are subject to variation over cases, over time or over
both cases and time, it is necessary for a researcher to decide which variables should be the focus of
research. Explanatory variables are known as the variables under focus. They are of two types dependent and
independent. The former one is the variable the researcher is interested in explaining and predicting.
Dependent variable is the presumed effect. The independent variable is the presumed cause.
The extraneous variables are those which are not the direct focus of research. Those are of two types:
controlled and uncontrolled. The controlled variables are held constant or prevented from varying during the
course of observation. Apart from the above classification of the variables, a typology of quantitative and
qualitative variables is also made. Whereas a quantitative variable implies values or categories consisting of
numbers, qualitative variables represent certain qualities, attributes or discrete categories.

37
(d) Identification of Relationship: In real terms, very many social researchers directly aim at developing and
testing relationships, apart from gaining familiarity of a phenomenon or description of communities or groups
or exploration of a situation or event. However, on the whole, research findings largely depend on particular
anticipated relationships. Therefore, identification of the anticipated relationship and the guiding theoretical
premises assume greater importance.
(e) The Nature of Causal Relationship:Causal relationships constitute the heart of scientific understanding.
These are very much required for purposes of explanation and prediction. In order to establish causality, the
social scientists take help of three types of evidence: association, direction and non-spuriousness.
Statistical association, such as a pattern of change in one variable is related to the other variable, indicates
that former is the cause. Causal relationships are determined in terms of strong and weak associations.
Another criterion required for establishing a causal connection between events is that the direction of influence
should be from cause to effect. In other words, cause must precede its effect.

The third criterion needed to establish a causal relationship between events is non-spuriousness which implies
that in order to inter a causal relationship from an observed correlation there should be sufficient reason to
believe that no hidden factors have contributed to a spurious relationship. Ideally, the researcher must show
that the connection between the variables is held constant.

(f) Operationalization of Concepts: Since concepts serve a number of important functions, clarity and
precision in the usage of concepts are to be achieved by definitions which must contain the distinctive
characteristics or qualities of the phenomenon under investigation.
Concepts, in order to be operationally existent, should be established through operational definitions which are
instrumental in specifying the contextual meaning of concepts and providing the framework of their application.
Briefly stated, the operational definitions serve as a link between the conceptual theoretical level and the
observational empirical level.

(g) Formulation of Hypothesis: In order to state the research questions in a precise manner so as to give
clear indication of what is to be observed and what kind of information will be gathered, the research questions
must be stated in the form of hypotheses. Hypotheses are tentative generalizations which are expected but
based on unconfirmed relationship between two or more variables.
Types of Research Design:
(i) Exploratory or Formulative Design:
The main purpose of exploratory study is to gather information which will help in future for formulation of a
precise research problem. On the basis of the collected facts the researcher may be able to formulate sound
hypotheses for further research. It may also enable the researcher to get himself acquainted with the
phenomena which he expects to investigate at a later stage. The aim of an exploratory or formulative study
may be clarification of concepts, establishing priorities for future research and collection of data about the
actual conditions which affect an intended research.

Requirement of Exploratory Design:

The essentials for exploratory or formulative design are:
(a) Review of pertinent literature, (b) Experience Survey, (c) Analysis of Insight Stimulating cases.

(a) Review of pertinent literature:

While proceeding in the path of research the researcher has to take help from the work already done by his
predecessors. By doing so, he will not only save himself from the problem of trial and error but also minimize
the expenditure of his energy. Apart from reviewing available literature pertaining to the problem under
investigation, the researcher may also take into account the literature pertinent to analogous problems.

(b) Experience survey:

Because of the complicated nature of social problems, the researcher is not in a position to collect all the
required materials about a particular problem from one place. At times the researcher has to contact the
persons who have earned enough of experience to understand and analyze the social reactions. The
researcher should take advantage of their experience in a very intelligent manner.

Taking good advantage of the experience of the persons involves the following steps:
(i) Selection of respondents:

38
Formulation of a correct exploratory design requires that the investigator should make proper selection of the
respondents. For this purpose he should select only those respondents who are dependable and who have
actual knowledge regarding the problem under investigation.

The selection of the respondents may be made either directly or indirectly. In direct selection the investigator
chooses those persons who are well known for their knowledge in the problem area. In case of indirect
selection the investigator chooses those persons who are indirectly concerned with the problem. Hence, the
selection of the respondents should not be confined to a particular group; rather it should be many sided.

(ii) Questioning of the respondents:

Proper questioning of the respondents ensures relevant information. Therefore while framing the questions,
due attention should be given on clarity of concepts. For this purpose, the investigator should consult the
books and the relevant portions of the bibliographical schemes adequately.

(c) Analysis of insight stimulating cases:

Analysis of insight stimulating cases includes all those events, incidents and phenomena that stimulate the
researcher. Such cases invoke in the investigator the thinking regarding the formulation of the hypotheses. In
this regard, the attitude of the investigator, intensity of the case study and integrative power of investigators
appear to be very important.

As regards the attitude of the investigator, receptivity and sensitivity are needed. These qualities enable the
investigator to take stock of various developments occurring in his field of study and make steady progress.

Intensive case study involves studying the subject matter in all its dimensions and verifications, in the
background of history.

In this regard, the groups, the community and groups of individuals may be treated as the units of study.

Integrative power of the investigator is considered important because on that basis he is able to collect even
the minutest possible information regarding the subject matter. What appears significant, in this regard, is his
attention on new observations rather than on experimentation.

(ii) Descriptive Research Design:

The purpose of descriptive type of design is to describe some event, situation, people, group or community or
some phenomena. Fundamentally, it is a fact finding exercise which focuses on relatively far dimensions of a
well defined entity, aiming at precise and systematic measurement of some dimensions of a phenomenon.

Usually a descriptive design involves detailed numerical descriptions, such as distribution of the population of
a community by age, sex, caste or education. The researcher may also take recourse to descriptive design for
estimating the proportion of people in a particular geographical locality in respect of their specific views or
attitudes.

However, the procedure followed in descriptive design is broadly analogous, notwithstanding the differences
evinced in their field, formulation of hypotheses, objectives, for treatment of the problem and in matters of field
expansion.

(iii) Diagnostic Research Design:

Being concerned with the express characteristics and existing social problems, the diagnostic research design
endeavors to find out relationship between express causes and also suggests ways and means for the
solution. Thus, the diagnostic studies are concerned with discovering and testing whether certain variables are
associated. Such studies may also aim at determining the frequency with which something occurs or the ways
in which a phenomenon is associated with some other factors.

Diagnostic studies are mostly motivated by hypotheses. A primary description of a problem serves the basis
so as to relate the hypotheses with the source of the problem and only those data which form and corroborate
the hypotheses are collected. As regards the objectives of diagnostic research design, it is based on such

39
knowledge which can also be motivated or put into practice in the solution of the problem. Therefore, it is
obvious that the diagnostic design is concerned with both the case as well as the treatment.

Diagnostic studies seek immediate to timely solution of the causal elements. The researcher, before going
through other references, endeavors to remove and solve the factors and the causes responsible for giving
rise to the problem.

The research design of diagnostic studies demands strict adherence to objectivity for elimination of any
chances of personal bias or prejudice. Utmost care is taken while taking decisions regarding the variables,
nature of observation to be made in the field, the type of evidence to be collected and tools of data collection.
Simultaneously the research economy should not be lost sight of. Any faulty decision in these regard will result
in wastage of time, energy and money.

Usually the first step in such designing is accurate formulation of research problem wherein research
objectives are precisely stated and principal areas of investigation are properly linked. Otherwise the
investigator will find it difficult to ensure the collection of required data in a systematic manner. Simultaneously,
the clarification of concepts and the operational definition of the terms should also be ensured so as to make
them emendable to measurement.

At the next stage certain decisions regarding collection of data are taken. In this regard, the researcher should
always bear in mind the advantages and disadvantages of the method to be employed and at the same time
the nature of research problem, type of data needed, degree of desired accuracy etc. should be considered.
That apart, while collecting data, effort must be made to maintain objectivity to the maximum possible extent.

In order to surmount the financial constraints, paucity of time, a representative sample of the research
universe should be drawn so as to gather relevant information. A wide range of sampling techniques is
prevalent which must be made use of, appropriately by the researchers.

At the stage of analysis of data, the researcher must take proper care in placing each item in the appropriate
category, tabulating of data, applying statistical computations and so on.

Sufficient care must be taken to avoid potential errors due to faculty procedures of analysis of data. Advance
decisions regarding the mode of tabulation, whether manual or by machine, accuracy of tabulating procedures,
statistical application etc. will be of immense help in this regard.

(iv) Experimental Design:

The concept of experimental design in sociological research refers to systematic study of human relations by
making the observations under conditions of control. In the words of Jahoda and Cook, ‘an experiment maybe
considered as a way of organizing the collection of evidence so as to permit one to make inference about the
tenability of a hypothesis. According to Chapin, “experiment is simply observation under controlled conditions.
When observation alone fails to disclose the factors that operate in a given problem, it is necessary for the
scientist to resort to experiment.”

In real terms, experimentation is resorted to when it is not possible to solve the problem through observation
and general knowledge. The core of the experimental method lies in drawing inferences by observation of
human relations under controlled conditions. Since a number of factors are in operation in every complex
social situation, the social scientist, while seeking to describe the single causal relation of factor A to factor B,
must attempt to create an artificial situation wherein all other factors, such as C, D, E etc., are controlled.

Such a state is achieved by selecting two groups which are equal in all significant receipts and choosing either
of the groups as experimental group, and the other as the ‘control group’, and thereafter exposing the
‘experimental group’ to the assumed causal variable, while keeping the ‘control’ group under control. After a
specific time period, the two groups are compared in terms of the ‘assumed effect’.

The assumed causal variable and the assumed effect are otherwise called the independent variable and
dependent variable respectively. Required evidence for testing causal relations among variables, already
stated in the form of a hypothesis, is generated by the above method of experiment.

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Demonstration of causal relationship among variables in experimental design involves three clear-cut
operations; such as demonstrating co-variation, eliminating spurious relationships and establishing the time
order of occurrence.

Here we will discuss the third operation which is concerned with establishing the time order of occurrence.
This necessitates that the researcher should demonstrate that one phenomenon occurs first or gets
transformed before the other phenomenon with the premise that the phenomenon which is yet to occur cannot
be the determinant of the present or past phenomena.

Experimental design enables the researcher to draw causal inferences. It also smoothens, the observation of
independent variable causing assumed effect.

The three components of experimental design are: comparison, manipulation, and control.

Through comparison, the correlation between variables is known. It also enables us to demonstrate the
association between two or variables.

Through manipulation the researcher establishes the time order of events. The major evidence which become
essential to determine the sequence of events is that a change occurs only after the activation of the
independent variable. In other words the independent variable precedes the dependent variable.

Types of Experimental Design:

There are numerous ways in which experiments can be done in the field of social sciences. In their work
“Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs of Research on Teaching”, Donald T. Cambell and Julian C.
Stanley have mentioned more than a hundred ways of conducting experiments which may be designated as
experimental design.

But from the analytical point of view seven broad categories may be mentioned:
(i) After only Design:
Among all categories of experimental designs, after only design appears to be the simplest. This consists in
measuring the dependent variable only after the experimental subjects have been exposed to the experimental
variable. This design is considered more appropriate as an exploratory study than a real experiment.

(ii) Before-After Design:

As the name suggests, in this design measurement of the dependent variable is taken before as well as after
exposure of the subject to the experimental variable, and the difference between the two measurements is
taken to be the effect of the experimental variable. For example if the measured value of the dependent
variable before exposure of the subject to the experimental variable is noted as ‘A’ and its measured value
after exposure of the subject to experimental variable is noted as ‘B’ then the effect of the experimental
variable is taken to be (B—A).

(iii) Before-After with Control Group Design:

In this design the research has a control group against which the results of the experimental groups are
compared. The control group and experimental groups are selected in such a way that both the groups are
similar and interchangeable. The control group is measured before as well as after without being exposed to
the experimental variable.

Hence, there may hardly be any difference between before and after measurements. But if there is any
difference between before and after measurement, it represents the result of uncontrolled variables.

On the other hand, the experimental variable is introduced in the experimental group. The difference between
before and after measurements in respect of the experimental group is construed as the result of experimental
variable as well as the uncontrolled variables. To know the exact effect of the experimental variable, the
researcher deducts the difference between the two measurements of the controlled group from the difference
of the two measurements of the experimental group.

The following notation explains this:

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(iv) Four Group-Six Study Design:
In this type of design two experimental groups and two control groups are taken. Measurements are made in
six cases, i.e. before- measurement, and after-measurement in respect of experimental group-I, after-
measurement in experimental group-II, before and after measurements in respect of control group-I; and only
after measurement in control group-II.

Before measurements in all the four identical groups will be almost the same. If the before-measurements
have no effect on the variable being studied, the two experimental groups should provide the same after-
measurements and, similarly, the two control groups should also give the same after measurements. However,
the results of in the two experimental groups are most likely to be different from the results of the two control
groups, if the experimental variable exerts any influence.

(v) After Only with Control Group Design:

This is also known as two group-two study design, which is a modification of the four group-six study design.
Here, the researcher does not study the experimental variable under different conditions. Hence, the effect of
experimental variable is determined simply by finding out the differences between the after-measurements in
respect of experimental and control groups. It so happens because if before-measurements of the
experimental group-II and control group-II are taken, those are likely to be the same due to the identical
characteristics of the groups. On this presumption, the researcher may very well ignore them.

(vi) Ex-Post Facto Design:

In Ex-post facto design the experimental and control groups are selected after the introduction of the
experimental variable. Thus, it can be called as a variation of the after-only design. The main advantage of this
design is that the test subjects are not influenced towards the subject by their knowledge of being tested. It
also enables the researcher to introduce the experimental variable according to his own will and to control his
observations.

(vii) Factorial Design:

All categories of experimental designs discussed above are designed to test experimental variable at one level
only. But, on the other hand, the factorial designs enable the experimenter the testing of two or more variables
simultaneously.

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10.Research Report
“Research report is a research document that contains basic aspects of the research project”.
Mostly, research work is presented in a written form. The practical utility of research study depends heavily on
the way it is presented to those who are expected to act on the basis of research findings. Research report is a
written document containing key aspects of research project.

Research report is a medium to communicate research work with relevant people. It is also a good source of
preservation of research work for the future reference. Many times, research findings are not followed because
of improper presentation. Preparation of research report is not an easy task. It is an art. It requires a good deal
of knowledge, imagination, experience, and expertise. It demands a considerable time and money.
In simple words: Research report is the systematic, articulate, and orderly presentation of research work in a
written form.
Research report is a research document that contains basic aspects of the research project.
Research report involves relevant information on the research work carried out. It may be in form of hand-
written, typed, or computerized.

Report Format:
There is no one best format for all reports. Format depends on several relevant variables. One must employ a
suitable format to create desirable impression with clarity. Report must be attractive. It should be written
systematically and bound carefully. A report must use the format (often called structure) that best fit the needs
and wants of its readers. Normally, following format is suggested as a basic outline, which has sufficient
flexibly to meet the most situations.
esearch report is divided into three parts as:
I. First Part (Formality Part):
(i) Cover page
(ii) Title page
(iii) Certificate or statement
(iv) Index (brief contents)
(v) Table of contents (detailed index)
(vi) Acknowledgement
(vii) List of tables and figures used
(viii) Preface/forwarding/introduction
(ix) Summary report
II. Main Report (Central Part of Report):
(i) Statement of objectives
(ii) Methodology and research design
(iii) Types of data and its sources
(iv) Sampling decisions
(v) Data collection methods
(vi) Data collection tools
(vii) Fieldwork
(viii) Analysis and interpretation (including tables, charts, figures, etc.)
(ix) Findings
(x) Limitations
(xi) Conclusions and recommendations
(xii) Any other relevant detail
III. Appendix (Additional Details):
(i) Copies of forms used
(ii) Tables not included in findings
(iii) A copy of questionnaire
(iv) Detail of sampling and rate of response
(v) Statement of expenses
43
(vi) Bibliography – list of books, magazines, journals, and other reports
(vii) Any other relevant information

Key Considerations/Factors:
While preparing research report, following issues must be considered:
(i) Objectives
(ii) Type of problem/subject
(iii) Nature and type of research
(iv) Audience or users of research work
(v) Size of report
(vi) Form of writing – handwritten, typed, or computerized.
(vii) Time and cost
(viii) Language
(ix) Contents of report
(x) Order of contents
(xi) Number of copies
(xii) Format – type and size of paper; lengths width, and depth of report; and pattern of writing including
paragraph, indent, numbering, font size and type, colouring, etc.
(xiii) Binding (for soft, and, particularly, for hard copy) – type, quality of material, colour, etc., related issues.

Essentials of a Good Report

1. The report should have a proper title to describe the subject matter reported therein. The report should be in
a good form and should have subheadings and paragraph divisions. The name of recipient of the report should
be written on the top of the report.
2. The report-should be factual. The whims and ideas of the person preparing the report should not be allowed
to influence the report.
3. The report should relate to a certain period and the period of time should be indicated on the top of the
report.
4. The report should be clear, brief and concise. Clarity should not be sacrificed at the cost of brevity.
5. The reporting must be prompt because information delayed is information denied. If a considerable time
elapses between happening of events and reporting, opportunity for taking appropriate action may be lost or
some wrong decisions may be taken by management in the absence of information.
The periodicity of a report should be kept in mind and reports should be submitted in time. The report should
be in a good form and should have sub-headings and paragraph divisions.
6. A report should distinguish between controllable and non-controllable factors and should report them
separately. It is because management can take suitable action regarding controllable factors.
7. Appropriate remarks should be given in the report. It saves valuable time of the management and ensures
prompt attention. Adequate data should be given to suggest possible course of action.
8. A report should be periodically reviewed. The form and contents of a report should not be of permanent
nature. They should go on changing with the change in circumstances; otherwise the recipient will take them
as stale useless and routine type.
9. The report should be taken as correct within the permissible degree of inaccuracy. The margin of error
allowed will depend upon the purpose for which the report is prepared.
10. The report should draw manager’s attention immediately to the exceptional matters so that management
by exception may be carried out effectively. Thus, reports should highlight significant deviations from
standards.
11. Visual reporting through graphs, charts and diagrams should be preferred to descriptive reports because
visual reporting attract the eye more quickly and leaves a lasting impression on the mind.

44
12. Where comparison is reflected in a report it should be ensured that the same is between comparable (i.e.,
like) matters so that meaningful comparison may be made and idea about efficiency or inefficiency may be
formed.
13. In all possible cases a detailed analysis should be given for all the resultant variances between actual for
the period compared to standards/budgets, be it sales, purchases, production, profit or loss, capital
expenditure, working capital position, etc., so that exact causes of low performance may be known and timely
corrective action may be taken.
14. The format of a report should not be changed from period to period, if the format is to be changed for
making any improvement, justification for change in the format or contents should be given.

Principles of a Good Research Report

Report writing differs from person to person depending on personality, imaginative and creative abilities,
experience, and training. However, most researchers agree that following general principles must be kept in
mind to produce a better research report. These principles are often called as qualities or requirements of a
good report.
1. Selectiveness:
It is important to exclude the matter, which is known to all. Only necessary contents should be included to save
time, costs, and energy. However, care should be taken that the vital points should not be missed.
2. Comprehensiveness:
Report must be complete. It must include all the necessary contents. In short, it must contain enough detail to
covey meaning.
3. Cost Consideration:
It must be prepared within the budgeted amount. It should not result into excessive costs.
4. Accuracy:
As far as possible, research report must be prepared carefully. It must be free from spelling mistakes and
grammatical errors.
5. Objectivity:
Report must be free from personal bias, i.e., it must be free from one’s personal liking and disliking. The report
must be prepared for impersonal needs. The facts must be stated boldly. It must reveal the bitter truth. It must
suit the objectives and must meet expectations of the relevant audience/readers.
6. Clarity:
Report must reveal the facts clearly. Contents and conclusions drawn must be free from ambiguities. In short,
outcomes must convey clear-cut implications.
7. Preciseness:
Research report must not be unnecessarily lengthy. It must contain only necessary parts with adequate
description.
8. Simplicity:
Report must be simple to understand. Unnecessary technical words or terminologies (jargons) should be
avoided.
9. Proper Language:
Researcher must use a suitable language. Language should be selected as per its target users.
10. Reliability:
Research report must be reliable. Manager can trust on it. He can be convinced to decide on the basis of
research reposts.
11. Proper Format:
An ideal repost is one, which must be prepared as per commonly used format. One must comply with the
contemporary practices; completely a new format should not be used.
12. Attractive:
Report must be attractive in all the important regards like size, colour, paper quality, etc. Similarly, it should
use liberally the charts, diagrams, figures, illustrations, pictures, and multiple colours.

Usefulness of Reporting to Management:

The reporting system enables the management to understand the functioning of the undertaking. When a
particular reporting system fails to meet the requirements, it is either scrapped or readjusted to the needs.
Hence, it is in a state of continuous development.

45
A good reporting system is a handy instrument of management to identify the areas of weaknesses and any
untoward or unusual occurrences. Employees are put under constant control and management is free to
devote fully on policy formulation and future development.

Reports deal with forecast of conditions under which planned operations would be carried out. This applies to
budget estimates on product lines and forecast of business conditions in general.

Reports also provide a useful basis for deciding operating policy, volume of sales or production, stock policy,
quality production, product design, etc.

Current reports enable management at different levels to keep itself abreast of past performance as well as
development and it can keep a check on individual operating levels.

The reports and reporting methods provide executives with factual information for the execution of their duties.
This forms the basis for developing policies by operating executives.

Process for Writing and Designing a Report

Writing and Designing a Report # 1. Deciding the Nature and Purpose of the Report:
Process of writing a report starts with the first stage to know the type of report, whether the report is statutory
or non statutory. Its type shall determine the nature and shape of the report. It is also very essential to know
the purpose or object of the report. Preparation of report, without having clear idea about the purpose or object
of report will not be possible.

The purpose shall determine the other two stages:

Writing and Designing a Report # 2. Planning the Structure of the Report:

There is no universal or common way to design the structure of a report. But following parts are common in
any report. Before writing any report it is necessary to follow various steps in preparation of reports.
(i) Collection of necessary facts and data.
(ii) Analysis of factual information.
(iii) Discussion
Pre preparation process of report involves the collection of necessary facts and figures keeping in view the
basic purpose of report. Once facts have been collected they are analyzed statistically with the help of
computers. Various discussions can be held if the report is to be prepared jointly by two or more persons. It
would be essential to discuss the analyzed data so that proper opinions may be formed. Generally, it is the
duty of the chairman of the committee formed for the preparation of report.
Common parts of a report can be discussed as follows:
(i) Heading:
It is rightly said that “Nothing is dull as solid pages of report text. They are monotonous and discourage the
reader from giving adequate attention to the information presented.” A suitable heading of the report is
essential. Title of the report should indicate the subject matter of the report.

46
A short or clear, meaningful and attractive heading or title is essential for a report. For instance a title or
heading of a report for recommendation on the proposed contracts can be as under. “Statement of Relative
Profitability” this title or heading itself clears the purpose or object of this report.

(ii) Address:
Every report is written for someone who is superior. So it is always essential to write the names of users or
readers. Report must be addressed to some specific person or body of persons. For instance, the Managing
Director, Sales Manager, or Board of Director’s etc.

(iii) Contents:
It is a list of chapters of the report. The contents of report are listed in a serial order along with page numbers
on which such contents are to be found. Contents should be arranged logically. A Table of Contents is
necessary to be given in the beginning of the report. Table of contents gives at a glance a complete picture of
what a report contains.

(iv) Terms of Reference:

It gives the reasons for writing a report. Brief description of the problem is stated. The object and scope of
investigation are given in this part.

(v) Body of the Report:

This part is most important and lengthy. The writer of the report presents the facts and data collected by him or
his team. Use of tables, graphs and diagrams can be made here or in appendices. The analysis of data is
shown in this part. Following is an example of various diagrams shown in Annual Report of Consolidated
Coffee Limited 1999-2000 reproduced as under.

(vi) Recommendations:
This part is the summary of the report and consists of the conclusions and recommendations. The conclusions
are made on the basis of the facts and collected data. Recommendations or suggestions are given on the
basis of conclusions.

For instance recommendations made by management accountants in his report in indicating possible
causes of situation and effects on the cost of production are given below:
(a) Stock of inventory should be reduced by means of suitable inventory control techniques.

(b) Strict credit policy should be followed to realize the amount of debtors in time.

(c) Intensive utilization of capacity be made to reduce the cost of idle capacity.

(d) Purchases should be made in a planned way according to the budget so that maturing obligations may be
met in time.

(vii) References. It is usually a custom to present list of references and bibliography indicating the sources
from where the writer has taken material for writing the report.

(viii) Signatures. Every report should be signed by the person responsible for the preparation of the report. Any
report submitted by a committee should be signed by the chairman. It is advisable to mention the date on the
report.

(ix) Appendix. Any data collected in support of the information given in report should be separated from the
main body of the report and should be shown in report as an appendix. This method of showing supporting
data gains due prominence.

Writing and Designing a Report # 3. Drafting of a Report:

Drafting of a report is an important stage in report writing.

This stage includes following considerations:

(i) Collection of data and its analysis:
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First step in drafting is collecting information, facts and data necessary for the purpose of the report. Data can
be collected from secondary or primary sources. Data is collected by investigations, observations, interviews
or by surveys etc. Collected data has to be classified, tabulated, edited and analyzed. The collected data has
to be arranged logically and conclusions are drawn.

(ii) Format of a report:

The format of a report refers of structure of a report which has already been explained. It is concerned with the
layout of the report and arrangement of the data. It can be standardized for the purpose. Following is a
specimen of a report form. If report is in a letter form then it has salutation and a complimentary close. If report
is in memorandum form, both salutation and complimentary close may be dispensed with.

(iii) Writing of report, (guiding principles):

Report writing is an art which can be developed by practicing report writing and by studying the reports of
other writers. Reports are written for others so the needs and style preferred by the reader should be kept in
mind while writing a report. The general principles of a good reporting system which have been explained
earlier will help in writing the report.

(iv) Presentation of report:

General layout of a report should be pleasing to the eye. Report may be typewritten, printed or handwritten
depending on the number of copies required. Sufficient space and margin should be kept on the left hand side.
Reports should be written on one side of the paper with double spacing. Pages, paras and sections should be
numbered. Use of diagrams, illustrations, charts, tables may be made and these should be numbered. If report
is voluminous or is liable to constant handling it should be in bound form.

Features of Reports:
(1) A report is based upon facts and also very often supported with some statistics data, references etc.
(2) A report has to be prepared in a proper form and style. The form and style depend on the purpose of the
report.
(3) A report has definitely a purpose. One common purpose is spreading of information. Other purposes are—
compiling of record, providing guidance to action or judgement, making of evidence, etc.
(4) A report is meant for circulation either exclusively to an individual, or group of individuals, or members of an
organisation or public at large.
(5) A report shall satisfy all the characteristics for its effectiveness.
(6) Reports are of various types.
(7) Reports are closely related to meetings.
(8) The basic function of a report is that it is a means of communication of some facts.
(9) A report is addressed to some definite reader or readers.
(10) A report has invariably a bearing on time.
(11) A report may be just received or adopted, or tabled (i.e., deferred for taking any action), or referred back
to committee for reconsideration. So, a report may be treated differently.

Types of Reports:
Reports are of various types. They are classified on the basis of various principles. Such classification is also
based on groups.

They are detailed below:

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(1) Routine or Special:
A Routine Report is prepared and presented as a routine work and at a regular period of time. For example,
the annual report of an association or a company which has to be prepared by the secretary or by the Board of
Directors at the end of every financial year and copies have to be distributed among the members.

A routine report contains some facts or information either in detail or in a summarised form. It may also be of
critical type containing some remark or opinion. For example, the auditor’s report on the final accounts of a
company. Departmental managers or branch managers have to regularly submit routine reports to the higher
authorities.

A Special Report is prepared and presented not as a matter of routine. This is prepared on the basis of some
enquiry or investigation either by a single individual or by a body or a committee or a subcommittee or a
commission specially formed and entrusted with the duty.

The secretary of an organisation, by virtue of his position, is often entrusted with the duty of preparing reports
on certain department or person or event to be submitted to the top management people for taking decisions.
The Government very often sets up committees or commissions to make investigation on some matter or
person and to submit report. A special report is in many cases of confidential type and contains apart from
facts and information, some recommendations. A Technical Report prepared by technologists on some
specific issue is a kind of Special Report.

Whether the report is ordinary or special, it may be an item of discussion at any general or committee or Board
meeting and the fact has to be mentioned in the agenda of the meeting.

(2) General or Confidential:

A General Report is that which is for distribution among many, like the members of an organisation- Such
reports may be printed in large numbers or even published in newspapers for the public information. The
Government publishes reports of different committees or commissions and places them on sale to the public.

A Confidential Report is meant for some superior person or persons and is not for general information.
Sometimes the report may be so confidential that the secretary or any other person preparing it. Writes it by
hand or types it out him-self.

(3) Formal or Informal:

A Formal Report is that which is prepared according to some prescribed form and at a prescribed time and is
presented according to a conventional procedure. For example, the annual report of a company or any
association, a report of a branch to its head office, etc.

Sometimes formal reports are further classified into two parts:

Statutory and Non-Statutory.

(a) Statutory reports are those which have to be prepared by a company under the provisions of the
Companies Act or by a registered society registered under the Societies Registration Act or by a co-operative
society registered under the Cooperative Societies Act and a copy of such report have to be submitted to the
respective Registrar. For example, the annual report of a company or a society. The Statutory Report to be
prepared and submitted by every public limited company also comes into this category.

(b) Non-Statutory Reports are those which have to be prepared formally but there is no compulsion under law
to be submitted to any authorised person. For example, a report prepared and submitted by a Committee set
up by the Board of Directors of a company for a particular purpose, e g. on development of market. The
submission of the report shall be to the Board of Directors. Formal but non-statutory reports are also prepared
and submitted by the secretary to the Board of Directors on different issues.

Informal Reports are those which need not be prepared or presented according to some prescribed form or
procedure. An informal report is generally a kind of personal communication and may be even in the form of a
letter. For example, a newly appointed employee has to submit a joining report to his boss.

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(4) Verbatim or Summarised:
Such classification is generally related to reports on meetings. After any meeting is over, a report on the same
has to be prepared and presented by the secretary. A Verbatim Report of a meeting means a report containing
all the details, word for word, on what events have occurred at the meeting, what words have been spoken by
the different participants and what decisions have been taken.

In other words, the record of full proceedings of a meeting can be called verbatim report. Such reports are
necessary for every Assembly or Parliament session or for a case in a court of law.

A Summarised Report means a report taking into consideration the main points of discussion at a meeting and
the short description of events happening at a meeting. For example, a Press Report prepared after a meeting,
whether public or private, to be sent to different newspapers for the favour of publication.

A report, whether verbatim or summarised, must be however, based on facts because the readers of such
reports will depend on the information supplied. A summarised report must not be confused with the minutes
of the meeting.

(5) Privileged or Non-Privileged:

Reports can be further classified into privileged or non-privileged. A Privileged Report is that which contains
statements or remarks made by some people which may be defamatory to some others but permitted to be
spoken under privilege in speech.

A report on proceedings of a case in a court of law or in Assembly or Parliament session, etc. is allowed to be
published in newspapers or otherwise. But such a privilege is a ‘qualified’ privilege and will be allowed
provided the report is accurate and meant for public interest.

But the report containing privileged speeches on a private meetings like the annual general meeting of a
company, cannot be published as a privileged report.

Every other kind of report is a Non-privileged Report. Reports in general are non-privileged.

(6) Other Types:

Reports can be further classified into with or without recommendations. Generally reports prepared for
information only do not contain recommendation but reports prepared by some enquiry committee contain
recommendations.

Lastly, reports can be classified one-man report or group report. A report may be prepared by an individual
only like any report by a secretary or it may be prepared by a group or a committee.

Even in case of a committee, there is a secretary or convenor to each committee who drafts the report on
behalf of the committee and gets it confirmed by others, with or without modifications. A committee may be
divided and two reports, one by the majority and the other by the minority, may be separately submitted.
Therefore, reports may be of majority and minority types.

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