Group 4 Mineralogy and Petrology

MINERALOGY AND
PETROLOGY
GEOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS (CIEN 20032)
This chapter discusses the minerals, its physical and chemical properties, and
its classifications. It also tackles about the coal and petroleum as a geologic
resources made through natural processes.
MINERAL COAL PETROLEUM

MINERALOGY
is the systematic study that deals with the characteristics of
minerals
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY PHYSICAL MINERALOGY

studies crystal forms, i.e. forms in which the minerals DESCRIPTIVE is the study of physical properties of minerals, such as
crystallize, as well as their internal structure, relations cohesion (hardness, cleavage, elasticity, and density),
and distribution of atoms, ions or ionic groups in the
MINERALOGY optical, thermal and magnetic properties, electrical
crystal lattice. conductivity, and radioactivity, and so on.
deals with the classification of

CHEMICAL MINERALOGY minerals into groups based on ENVIRONMENTAL MINERALOGY
their common properties,
is the study of chemical formula and chemical mostly chemical and studies complex and very different conditions of
properties of the minerals. structural properties. the origin of minerals, understand element
behavior in echo-systems, natural and industrial
effects of minerals, and mitigates potential
contamination problems.
AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF CRUSTAL ROCKS
2.60% 2.10% 1.50%
2.80%
3.60%
Oxygen
A
Silicon
Mineral
5.00% Aluminum
Compositions
46.60%
Iron
8.10%
Calcium Only about 50 minerals are
abundant.
Sodium
98.5% of crustal mineral
Potassium
27.70% mass is from 8 elements.
Magnesium
All others
THE MOST ABUNDANT CHEMICAL ELEMENTS
IN EARTH’S CRUST
THE MOST ABUNDANT MINERALS
IN EARTH’S CRUST
8% Plagioclase
3%
Alkali Feldspar
5%
Mineral
Quartz
5%
39% Compositions
Pyroxenes
5%
Amphiboles More than 90% on the crust is
composed of silicate minerals.
Micas Most abundant silicates are
11%
Clay Minerals feldspars.
Other Silicates Only 8% of the crust is composed

12%
12% Non- Silicates
of non-silicates — carbonates,
oxides, sulfides, etc.
THE MOST IMPORTANT GROUP OF MINERALS
BY THEIR CHEMISTRIES
Native Elements Graphite, Diamond, Gold, Sulfur
Sulfides Pyrite, Marcasite, and Pyrrohite
Oxides and Hydroxides Quartz, Opal, Chalcedony, Corundum, Gibbsite, Boehmite, Diaspore, Magnetite,
Hematite, Goethite, Chromite, Limenite, Rutile, Pyrolusite, Psilomelane, and
Spinel
Carbonates Aragonite, Calcite, Magnesite, Siderite, and Dolomite
Halogenides Halite, Silvite, and Camallite
Sulfates Gypsum, Anhydrite, and Berite
Phosphates Apatite, and Phosphorite
Silicates Nesosilicates, Sorosilicates, Cyclosilicates, Inosilicates, Phyllosilicates

ROCK- FORMING MINERALS
CRITERIA
A mineral must be one of
the most abundant
minerals in Earth’s crust.
A mineral must be one of
the original minerals
present at the time of a
crustal rock’s formation.
A mineral must be an
important mineral in
determining a rock’s
classification.
CONTINENTAL CRUST OCEANIC CRUST SEDIMENTARY COVER
-made up mainly of rocks with a -mainly composed of basalt and -consist mainly of clastic rocks
granitic to andesitic gabbro. These two rock types are such as sandstone, siltstone, and
composition. These rocks are made up of mainly of plagioclase shale, along with carbonate rocks
composed mainly of alkali feldspar and pyroxenes, with such as dolostone and limestone.
feldspar, quartz, and plagioclase smaller amounts of olivine, Clastic rocks composed of
feldspar, with smaller amounts micas and amphiboles. quartz, clay minerals, and small
of amphiboles and micas. amounts of micas and feldspar
minerals. Carbonate rocks
consist primarily of calcite and
dolomite.
FELDSPAR QUARTZ AMPHIBOLE MICA
OLIVINE GARNET CALCITE PYROXENE

Minerals occurring within a rock in small quantities are referred to as “accessory minerals”.
ZIRCON MONAZITE TITANITE

APATITE PYRITE
OPAQUE TOURMALINE
ORE- FORMING MINERALS
Ore minerals form as a result of special geologic processes and

often occur in isolated, small, localized rock masses. Such local
concentrations are called mineral deposits.
There is always an abundance of worthless minerals, collectively
called gangue. The more abundant an ore mineral, the more
valuable the mineral deposit.
For every mineral deposit there is a set of conditions, such as the

level of concentration and the size of the deposit that must be
reached if the deposit is to be worked at a profit.
A mineral deposit that is sufficiently rich to be worked at a profit is
called an ore deposit. The assemblage of ore minerals and gangue
in a deposit is called the ore.
TWO FACTORS TO DETERMINE AN ORE MINERAL
The first is the ease with which a mineral can be separated from the gangue and
concentrated for smelting. Concentrating processes, which are based on the
physical properties of the mineral, include magnetic separation, gravity
separation, and flotation.
The second factor is smelting--that is, releasing the metal from the other
elements to which it is chemically bonded in the mineral.
TWO FACTORS TO DETERMINE AN ORE MINERAL
BLAST
FURNACE
PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
1
1. category (oxide, sulfide, silicate,
carbonate, etc.);
2. crystal system (cubic, tetragonal,
hexagonal, etc.);
3. cohesion properties (hardness in Mohs
scale 1-10, cleavage, tenacity, and
PHYSICAL fracture);
4. density/specific gravity;
PROPERTIES 5. macroscopic optical properties (color,
brightness, luster, and streak); and
6. microscopic optical properties
(refractive index, birefringencea, and
pleochroism).
PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
2 1. Ratio of chemical elements (for example, quartz, 46.73%

silicon and 53.27% oxygen).
2. Ratio of oxides (for example, forsterite 57.11% MgO and
42.89% SiO2 or fayalite 70.57% FeO and 29.43% and SiO2).
Minerals may include water as the following:

CHEMICAL 1. Constitutional water in form of hydroxide ions (OH) which are
PROPERTIES an integral part of the crystal lattice and have a steady position
in the grid. By the loss of water, crystal will fall apart and
the water cannot get back into the grid.
2. Crystalline water or adsorption water in the
form of H2O molecules.
CRYSTAL HABIT
If a mineral specimen is well crystallized – meaning that it shows well-developed crystal
faces – then the crystal form can be used to help identify the mineral, and we can say that
the crystal form is diagnostic in our mineral identification. The external crystal form is an
outward expression of the ordered internal atomic arrangement.
Prismatic means that the Acicular means “needlelike,” as

mineral has an elongate habit is common for natrolite, a
with the bounding faces forming member of the zeolite group.
a prism-like shape, as is common The word is derived from the
in members of the pyroxene and Latin word acicula, meaning
amphibole groups of silicates. “needle.”
Columnar exhibits rounded Tabular describes crystal masses

columns, as is common in that are flat like a board, as
tourmaline. commonly seen in barite.
CRYSTAL HABIT
Bladed refers to crystal shapes Massive describes a mineral
that are elongate and flat, as in a specimen that is totally devoid
knife blade. Kyanite shows this of crystal faces.
commonly.
Dendritic describes minerals that

Capillary applies to minerals that show a treelike branching
form hairlike, or threadlike, thin pattern, as is common in
crystals, as shown by millerite. manganese oxide minerals. The
term is derived from the Greek
word dendron, meaning “tree.”
Fibrous refers to threadlike
masses, as exhibited by Foliated refers to a stack of thin
chrysotile, the most common leaves or plates that can be
mineral included in the separated from each other, as in
commercial term asbestos. mica and graphite.
COLOR
Color indicates the appearance of the mineral in reflected light or transmitted light for
translucent minerals. It is the most easily observed. In most minerals, color can be variable
and as such proves an unreliable diagnostic property. It depends on impurities.
IDIOCHROMATIC MINERALS
have constant characteristic color and that does
not change even with small amount of various
additives or impurities.
They have a constant color produced by transition

metals in their crystal structure called
chromophores, which include Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Co,
Ti, V, Cu.
The production of color is dependent on the

absorption of light waves by liable electrons in the
atoms of the mentioned elements.
COLOR
ALLOCHROMATIC MINERALS
occurs most frequently, show colors of their

impurities, such as quartz, which otherwise
should be clear, colorless and often translucent
like glass. It can be milky white, purple, yellow or
black when it contains impurities.
Do not have chromophores as an integral part

of their chemical composition but they can
contain interstitial inclusions that affect their
color.
COLOR
PSEUDOCHROMATIC MINERALS
They are of the color that is induced not by their

chemical composition, but by physical effects
such as the play of light.
Shows false color. Some minerals viewed in

different directions and shows irregular changes
in color.
Light refracted from layers of slightly different

refractive index produces iridescent colors. One
example of a pseudochromatic mineral is
labradorite.
PECULIAR PHENOMENA OF COLOR
PLAY OF COLORS
It is the development of a series of prismatic

colours shown by some minerals on turning
about in light.
The colors change in rapid succession on

rotation.
Example: Diamond.
CHANGE OF COLORS
It is similar to play of colors except that rate of

change of colors on rotation is rather slow; each
color continues over a larger space in the
mineral.
Ex: Labradorite.
TARNISH
Sometimes the surface color is different, rather

dull, than the color of the mineral as seen on
freshly fractured surface.
Property in certain minerals that cause them to

discolor when placed in certain environments.
Although color is never taken as a conclusive

property in the identification of minerals, it is
invariably studied first and is generally helpful.
Ex: Chalcopyrite, an ore of copper.

CHATOYANCY
It is when the specimen (or polished stone) is

tilted, a narrow beam of light moves from side to
side as a result of the tilting.
This is best seen in the satin spar variety of

gypsum, CaSO4•2H2O.
IRIDESCENCE
Some minerals show rainbow colors either in

their interior or on their surface.
It is the result of the scattering of light from a

microstructure that consists of a regular pattern
of closely spaced, parallel planar lamellae
(known as exsolution lamellae), which have
slightly different chemical compositions in
adjoining lamellae.
LABRADORESCENCE
is a highly diagnostic property in the

identification of feldspar specimens that are part
of a specific compositional range of the
plagioclase series.
The scattered light “diffracts” from these

microstructures, producing colors ranging from
blue to green, yellow, and red.
ASTERISM
is a six-rayed optical phenomenon that is the

result of light reflected from minute inclusions
arranged in a starlike (six-rayed) pattern.
It is best seen in star rubies and star sapphires

that have been cut en cabochon.
STREAK
For some minerals with metallic luster, the color of the streak (the powdered mineral) may
be helpful in its identification. The fine powder of the streak of a metallic mineral may be
quite different from that of its color in a hand specimen,
The streak of mineral can be readily observed by scratching it on a streak
plate, which is made up of unglazed porcelain or roughened glass. While
determining streak for a mineral, care should be taken to scratch it from its
obscure part, and to give only a small scratch, producing a small quantity of
its powder.
Minerals with a nonmetallic luster usually show a streak that is close to white
or colorless.
A black, metallic crystal of hematite, Fe2

CLEAVAGE
It is the tendency of a mineral to break easily along zones of weak bonding at flat surfaces.
When a cleavage is poorly developed, it is called parting.
Planar - Describes a cleave along

a single planar direction
Ex. Minerals from mica group

Prismatic - Consists of two
different cleavage directions
Ex. (A) Pyroxenes group (B)

Amphiboles group
Muscovite mica
CLEAVAGE
Cubic - Results in mineral fragments

that have cubic outlines on account of
three cleavage directions at 90° to one
another
Halite Galena
Rhombohedral - Results in fragments

with an external shape with six sides
Beryl Calcite
CLEAVAGE
Octahedral - Results of breakage along four different directions, caused by four sets of
parallel planes, forming eight sides
Fluorite
CLEAVAGE
Planar
Prismatic
Prismatic
Cubic
Rhombohedral
Octahedral
CLEAVAGE BY QUALITIES
Poor – smooth crystal edge is not

visible since rough surface is dominant
Good – leave smooth surfaces, but

often leave minor residual rough
surface
Indistinct – exhibits cleavage but is

Perfect – Full, smooth plane is formed
hardly noticeable
FRACTURE
It is the pattern in which a mineral breaks other than along planes of cleavage with
inconsistent manner. Many minerals fracture into characteristic shapes.
Conchoidal - When a mineral

breaks with curved surfaces or
concentric rings or half-moon
shape
Knapped Glass Obsidian

FRACTURE
Even - Appearance of mineral in

its broken surface is smooth
Biotite Mica Chert Limestone

FRACTURE
Uneven - When the mineral

breaks with very rough and
course surfaces
Chromite Hematite
FRACTURE
Earthy - Fracture of minerals

that crumble when broken
Limonite Kaolinite
FRACTURE
Hackly - Fracture that resembles

broken metal, with rough, Native Copper
jagged, points
LUSTER
The Shining / Brilliance / Reflection of light from the surface of mineral. The luster of
minerals varies with the nature of their surface smooth / rough and the quantity of light
reflected.
Metallic – a mineral that looks

like a polished metal
Magnetite Galena
Sub-metallic - Feebly displaced

metallic luster; less brilliant
Chromite Culprite
LUSTER
reflected.
Adamantine - Hard brilliant

luster
Diamond
LUSTER
reflected.
Vitreous Luster - luster exhibited

by broken glass
Quartz Gypsum
Pearly Luster - luster exhibited

by pearls
Calcite
LUSTER
reflected.
Silky Luster - Luster exhibited by Resinous Luster – Luster

silk fibers exhibited by resin
Asbestos Sphalerite Nephiline

LUSTER
reflected.
Dull/ Earthy - No luster is said to

occur Montmorillonite
Kaolinite
LUSTER
reflected.
Greasy Luster - Luster exhibited

by grease
Talc Molybdenite
STATE OF AGGREGATION
It is an additional description of mineral specimen appearance as aggregates of smaller
grains. Most mineral specimens, unless unusually well crystallized, appear as
aggregates of smaller grains.
Granular - Rock and mineral

specimens that consist of
mineral grains of approximately
equal dimensions, composed
essentially of granular olivine
grains
Dunite
Compact - So fine-grains
specimen that the state of
aggregation is not obvious
Chert
Banded - Shows bands of

different color or texture but
may or may not differ in mineral
composition
Finely banded agate Goethite

Mammillary - Describes
minerals that occur as smoothly
rounded masses resembling
breasts, or portions of spheres
Hematite
Botryoidal - having a surface of

spherical shapes. The rounded
prominences are generally of a
smaller scale than those described
as mammillar. It is like a bunch of
grapes
Reniform - Surface of mineral

aggregate that resembles that of
a kidney
Smithsonite Hematite
Stalactic - Term used for a

mineral that is made up of forms
like small stalactites
Calcite Goethite
Geode - Rock cavity partly filled

with minerals. Common mineral
fill is well-crystallized quartz or
the purple variety of quartz,
amethyst
Quartz
Oolitic - Occurrence of mineral

grains in rounded masses the
size of fish roe
Manganese Oxide
Oolitic limestone
Oolitic iron ore

Pisolitic - Applies to rounded

mineral grains the size of a pea
Manganese Oxide
Bauxite
TRANSPARENCY/DIAPHANEITY
It is the ability of mineral to transmit light through it. It is also measure of how clearly an
object can be seen through a crystal
Transparent – An object is seen Sub-transparent – An object is

clearly through the crystal seen with difficulty
Rock Crystal Stone Selenite Calcite Fluorite

Translucent – An object cannot
be seen, but light is transmitted
through the crystal
Feldspar Agate
Chalcedony
Sub-Translucent – Light is transmitted

only by the edges of a crystal
Opaque – No light is transmitted

even in thin sections or edges.
Includes all metallic mineral and ore
minerals.
Staurolite Malachite
TENACITY
It refers to a mineral's toughness or resistance to breaking or being deformed.
BRITTLE FLEXIBLE ELASTIC
-showing little or no resistance to -bending easily and staying bent -capable of being bent or pulled
breakage, and as such separating after the pressure is removed out of shape but returning to the
into fragments under the blow of original form when relieved
a hammer or when cut by a knife
MALLEABLE
SECTILE -capable of being flattened under DUCTILE

the blows of a hammer into thin
-capable of being severed by the sheets without breaking or -capable of being drawn into the
smooth cut of a knife crumbling into fragments form of a thin wire
TENACITY
It refers to a mineral's toughness or resistance to breaking or being deformed.
When the hammer hit some minerals can become

extended or plate.
Gold, silver, copper.
Mica (turns back to

Chlorite (remains
its original state
twisted)
when twisted),
HARDNESS
The measure of mineral’s resistance to scratching or abrasion which represents the
strength of bonds in the crystal lattice.
MOHS’ HARDNESS SCALE
Proposed by Friedrich Mohs, a

German mineralogist, in 1812.
Observed comparative ease or

difficulty in scratching of mineral
with another of known hardness.
HARDNESS
The measure of mineral’s resistance to scratching or abrasion which represents the
strength of bonds in the crystal lattice.
MOHS’ HARDNESS SCALE
REACTION WITH ACID
(SOLUBILITY IN HCL)
Several carbonate minerals show effervescence, also known as fizz or bubbling, when a
drop of dilute HCL is placed on them.
Ex. Naturally occurring crystal forms of calcium carbonate such as Calcite and Aragonite
When a drop of cold 10% dilute hydrochloric acid is put on certain minerals, a reaction
takes place. In calcite (CaCO3), bubbles of carbon dioxide make the acid froth, and in
some sulphide ores, hydrogen sulphide is produced.
This test is especially useful when some fine- to medium-grained, light-colored mineral, with
no other discernible diagnostic properties, is distributed among other grains in a rock. If the
fizz test works, the mineral is one of several carbonates.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY/RELATIVE DENSITY
Specific gravity (G) is defined as the ratio between the weight of a substance and the
weight of an equal volume of water at 4 °C (39 °F).
A representation of its atomic structures

depends upon the weight and spacing of its
atoms.
A mineral with a specific gravity of 2 weighs

twice as much as the same volume of water.
All minerals have been found to possess a

specific gravity varying between 1 to 20: but
most of them do have specific gravities varying
between 2 to 7.
Anglesite (G=6.4) Kunzite (G=3.2)

For determining this property a steelyard

apparatus such as the Walker Balance can be
used, for crystals or fragments which are not
too small. The mineral (or rock) is weighed in
air and in water, and the specific gravity, G, is
calculated from the formula:
G = W1/(W1 — W2)
where W1 is the weight in air and W1 the

weight in water.
The specific gravity of small mineral grains is

estimated by the use of heavy liquids, of which
the chief are
bromoform (CHBr3), G = 2.80, and

methylene iodide (CH3I2), G = 3.33,
both of which may be diluted with benzene,

and Clerici's solution (G=4.25), a mixture of
thallium salts which may be diluted with water.
The densities of minerals are easily determined by

pycnometer, small glass vials and a thermometer following 5. Calculate density (g) of mineral with formula:
the steps given below:
Density = (Weight in air)/(Weight in air - Weight in
1. The pycnometer is filled with water of +4 °C,
water)
seals and measures the weight of pycnometer
with water (p).
or
2. Measure the weight of mineral crushed to
dust (m).
3. Dust of mineral is put inside the pycnometer
and check the temperature which must be +4
°C.
4. Measure the weight of pycnometer with
mineral dust and water (γ).
RADIOACTIVITY
The radio activity in the minerals comes from the uranium (U) and thorium (Th) found in
them. Some elements such as potassium (K) and rubidium (Rb)also have a small amount of
radioactivity. It is aimed to determine the geological age by making use of the radioactivity
feature in minerals.
Uraninite, UO2, and the massive variety known

as pitchblende, may both contain uranium and
thorium as major constituents.
These elements are radioactive; that is, they

change into daughter elements by emitting
alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays
from the nucleus of the atom.
These rays are easily detected with a Geiger or

scintillation counter. If the test is positive, one is
clearly dealing with a radioactive mineral.
RADIOACTIVITY
The radio activity in the minerals comes from the uranium (U) and thorium (Th) found in
them. Some elements such as potassium (K) and rubidium (Rb)also have a small amount of
radioactivity. It is aimed to determine the geological age by making use of the radioactivity
feature in minerals.
Uraninite, UO2, and the massive variety known

as pitchblende, may both contain uranium and
thorium as major constituents.
These elements are radioactive; that is, they

change into daughter elements by emitting
alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays
from the nucleus of the atom.
These rays are easily detected with a Geiger or

scintillation counter. If the test is positive, one is
clearly dealing with a radioactive mineral.
Geiger Counter
MAGNETISM
Some minerals have natural magnetism in them to an appreciable extent. Magnetic fields
are produced by the movement of the electrons. The magnetic behaviour of a mineral
depends on whether atoms/ ions have orbitals with unpaired electrons.
If no element in the mineral contains unpaired electrons, the mineral is
DIAMAGNETISM diamagnetic. All orbitals of the atoms/ions contained paired electrons.
Ex. Quartz and Silicon
Minerals in which the magnetic moments of the constituent atoms/ions are
not mutually aligned are paramagnetic.
PARAMAGNETISM
Ex. Olivine
A material is ferromagnetic is capable of retaining a magnetic polarity
because the magnetic moments of the constituent atoms with unpaired atoms
FERROMAGNETISM become systematically aligned.
Ex. Iron ore
Some atoms/ions in adjacent structural sites have antiparallel magnetic
FERRIMAGNETISM moments because of exchange coupling, causing them to cancel each other.
Ex. Magnetite
MAGNETISM
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
The ability of minerals to conduct electricity depends directly on the nature

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
of the chemical bonding.
When deformed, certain minerals will generate a voltage so that they are
PIEZOELECTRICITY positively charged on the other.
Ex. Quartz, Topaz, and Tourmaline
PYROELECTRICITY A crystal is pyroelectric if a change in temperature causes displacement of

positive and negative charges and the development of a voltage.
ELECTRICAL
PROPERTIES
PIEZOELECTRICITY
FUSIBILITY
Minerals behave differently on heating to elevated temperature. Some melt easily at lower
temperatures whereas other require very high temperature.
OPTICAL PROPERTIES
It is perceived by a polarizing microscope that is specifically significant if the rocks are
composed mostly of fine grains or microcrystalline mineral aggregates and the mineral
ingredients are mixed together.
ISOTROPHIC MINERALS have the same properties in

all directions.
ANISOTROPHIC MINERALS have different properties, i.e. light travels through them in different ways
and with different velocities, depending on the direction of travel through a
grain.
LUMINESCENCE
It is a phenomenon in which a material absorbs one form of energy and then reemits the
energy as visible light.
Photoluminescence – Materials that

emit light in response to being
Triboluminescence – Some materials exposed to visible or ultraviolet light.
may become faintly luminous if
struck, crushed, scratched, or
rubbed.
Thermoluminescence – If a material FLUORESCENT

emits visible light energy as a PHOSPHORESCENT
Ex. Ruby and Fluorite
consequence of being heated, it is
incandescent or thermoluminescent.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
POLYMORPHISM ISOMORPHISM
It crystallizes in two or more is a phenomenon that represents

crystal systems with small or the minerals of different, but
very large differences in analogous chemical composition
crystallographic and physical in the same crystal system and
properties. shapes.
From the Greek words, “Poly” = “more” and From the Greek words, “Izos” = “same” and
“morphos” = “form”) “morphos” = “form”)
Ex. Graphite and Diamond Ex. Dolomite and Siderite

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
FORMATION OF MINERALS
1. Crystallization of magma (silicate composition), “pyrogenesis” processes, such

as olivine, pyroxenes and plagioclase
2. Crystallization from gases and vapors, “pneumatolysis” processes, such as
tourmaline.
3. Crystallization from the hot solution, “hydrothermal” processes, such as fluorite
and galena.
4. Crystallization and deposition of minerals from aqueous solutions,
“hydatogenesis” processes, such as secretion of aragonite and calcite from
seawater.
5. “Vaporization” of highly concentrated aqueous solutions due to the strong
evaporation, evaporation processes, such as gypsum, anhydrite and halite
FORMATION OF MINERALS
6. “Dynamic metamorphism” is associated with zones of high to moderate strain

such as fault zones.
7. “Contact metamorphism” occurs typically around intrusive igneous rocks as a
result of the temperature increase caused by the intrusion of magma into cooler
country rock.
8. The action of aqueous solutions and the atmospheric conditions on solid
minerals can create “authigenic” minerals.
9. Life processes of organisms, or “biochemical” processes, are biogenic minerals
such as secretion of calcite or aragonite for building shells or coral skeletons
CLASSIFICATION
OF
3
MINERALS
THE SILICATE MINERALS
 The silicate minerals contain the (SiO4)4-
complex anion. Silicates make up about 95
percent of the Earth’s crust.
ACCESSORY MINERALS
are minerals that are common but usually are found only in small
amounts.
Chlorite, garnet, hematite, limonite, magnetite, and pyrite are

common accessory minerals.
Occasionally they may develop to form large crystals and in certain

circumstances can be concentrated to become a major
rock constituent.
SECONDARY MINERALS
These minerals have little mechanical strength and small angles of
friction. Their presence on fractures can significantly reduce the
strength of a rock mass.
under this head are the minerals chlorite, serpentine, talc, kaolin,
epidote and zeolite, all of which result from the alteration of pre-
existent minerals
DARK- COLOURED MINERALS
LIGHT- COLOURED MINERALS
ALTERATION MINERALS
Many silicate minerals alter in the presence of air and water to
form new, stable products. The most commonly altered minerals
include the ferromagnesian silicates and the feldspars.
Ex. Serpentine (Mg3Si2O5[OH]4) is an alteration product which
forms mainly from olivine. Serpentine is green in colour with low
specific gravity (2.6) and hardness (3½). The fibrous variety of
serpentine (chrysotile) is a type of asbestos.
CLAY MINERALS
Clays form mainly by the alteration of other minerals, by the action
of weathering. The specific type of clay formed depends upon the
composition of the original mineral undergoing alteration and the
surface conditions where weathering is taking place. GIBBSITE LAYER
They are sheet silicates with densities betwEen 2.5 and 3.0,
SILICA-OXYGEN
depending on the type of clay and its composition, and with low
TETRAHEDRA
hardness (2 to 2½ (kaolin) and 1 to 2 for all other clays). (SILICA SHEET)
BRUCITE LAYER
CLAY MINERALS
THE NON-SILICATE MINERALS
 The non-silicate minerals can most simply be

grouped mainly on the basis of lustre into
metallic ore minerals and non-metallic
minerals. In general, the former are dark and
the latter are light coloured.
THE NON-SILICATE MINERALS
 NON-METALLIC MINERALS
The most common minerals in this group are calcite (a carbonate)

and gypsum (a sulphate). All have white or colourless streaks.
They are often found in veins, together with metallic ores.
THE METALLIC MINERALS
 Nearly all ore minerals are chemically simple

substances such as native elements,
sulphides (where a metallic element is
combined with sulphur), or oxides (where a
metal is combined with oxygen).
NATIVE ELEMENTS
 About 20 elements occur naturally in their

native states as minerals. Fewer than ten,
however, are common enough to be of
economic importance. Gold, silver, platinum,
and copper are all mined in their pure forms.
CATEGORIES
3
OF
MINERALS
IDENTFICATION OF MINERALS BY HAND
SPECIMEN
 General shape of grains, depending on the crystallization of

the mineral; the faces of well-formed crystals can often be
observed, but where grains have been modified (e.g. by
rounding) other characters may be needed.
 Colour and transparency.
 Presence or absence of cleavage.
 Presence or absence of twinning, and type of twinning.
 Hardness.
AUTOCHTHONOUS ELEMENTS
• The minerals that can be found in
crystallized state as autochthonous elements
are graphite, diamond, gold and sulfur.
• They are the most economic and
important members.
THE METAL GROUP
• GOLD
Gold (Au) is found as autochthonous Formula: Au
cubic mineral in hydrothermal ore Crystal System: Cubic
veins or strings, and as resistant Color/Streak: Gold- yellow if pure, lighter with Ag,
mineral in the debris. reddish with Cu
Luster: Metallic
Hardness/Spec.G.:2.5-3
19.3
Cleavage/Fracture:None.
Origin or Occurrence: Most commonly found in
hydrothermal sulphide deposits.
Major Uses: Valued for its beauty, as an industrial
material, and for monetary value.
THE NONMETAL GROUP
• ARSENIC
Arsenic almost always contains some Formula: As
antimony. Nickel, silver, iron, and Crystal System: Hexagonal
sulfur are also commonly found in a Color/Streak: Tin-white
given specimen. On a fresh or Black
preserved surface, Arsenic has a tin- Luster: Metallic
white color, but otherwise tarnishes Hardness/Spec.G.:3-4
dark gray. 5.6-5.7
Cleavage/Fracture: Uneven
Origin or Occurrence: comes from natural sources,
such as volcanoes, and the rest comes from man-
made sources
Major Uses: as a commodity is largely used in the
manufacturing of glass.
THE NONMETAL GROUP
• DIAMOND
Diamond (C) is a stable cubic Formula: C
polymorphic modification of carbon in Crystal System: Cubic
the form of octahedra. Color/Streak: Colorless
White
Luster: Adamantine to Greasy
Hardness/Spec.G.:10
3.511
Cleavage/Fracture: Perfect, Conchoidal
Origin or Occurrence: generally restricted to
ultramafic igneous rocks
Major Uses: used in cutting tools and as an abrasive
and polishing material
SULFIDES
• Sulfides are compounds of transition

metals with sulfur.
• Sulfides are very frequent and widely
distributed as ore and petrogenic minerals
with most significant are pyrite, marcasite and
pyrrhotite.
• These are based on the sulfide ion, S2–.
Examples include pyrite, FeS2, galena, PbS,
and sphalerite, ZnS in its pure zinc form.
Some sulfides are mined as sources of such
metals as zinc, lead, copper, and tin.
SULFIDES
• PYRITE
Pyrite (FeS2) is a widespread mineral Formula: FeS2
in many rocks and belongs to the Crystal System: Cubic
most widespread sulfide minerals in Color/Streak: Brass- yellow
the lithosphere. Pyrite can turn into Luster: Metallic
limonite and hematite by processes Hardness/Spec.G.:6-6.5
of oxidation 5.02
Cleavage/Fracture: Conchoidal/uneven
Origin or Occurrence: from crystallization
of magma, from hydrothermal solutions,
sediments in reducing conditions and metamorphic
processes.
Major Uses: Feedstock in the manufacture of Fe-
bearing chemicals
SULFIDES
• PYRRHOTITE
Pyrrhotite (FeS) is usually found in Formula: FeS
basic and ultrabasic igneous rocks in Crystal System: Monoclinic
the form of dense aggregates. Color/Streak: Bronze- yellow
Pyrrhotite is often magnetic, has Luster: Metallic
metal shine, opaque, and brownish Hardness/Spec.G.:3.5-4.5
bronze in color. The mineral 4.58-4.65
frequently contains a small amount of Cleavage/Fracture: Uneven to subconchoidal
nickel in basic and ultrabasic rocks. Origin or Occurrence: usually found in
Pyrrhotite is an important component basic and ultrabasic igneous rocks in the form
of some nickel bearing meteorites. of dense aggregates.
Major Uses: source of iron
OXIDES AND HYDROXIDES
• An oxide is a chemical compound

containing at least one oxygen atom as well
as at least one other element. The oxides
result when elements are oxidized by oxygen
in air.
• Hydroxides are compounds in which the
anion OH- groups contain OH- ion as the
OOH- group. Some minerals from the group
of oxide and hydroxide minerals, particularly,
silica, iron and aluminum, are very important
and widespread mineral components of
rocks.
OXIDES AND HYDROXIDES- THE QUARTZ
GROUP
Quartz is a widespread and
abundant component of continental Formula: SiO2
rocks but is rare in the oceanic crust Crystal System: Hexagonal
and mantle. Every piece of quartz Color/Streak:Yellow, Colorless to black
(SiO2) always contains 46.73% brown/white
silicon and 53.27% oxygen. Luster: Vitreous
Hardness/Spec.G.:7.0
2.65
Cleavage/Fracture:Indistinct, Conchoidal
Origin or Occurrence: Occurs in all types of rocks
except limestone, gabbro, marble, basalt, and
periodite
Major Uses:Flux in metallurgical operation .
OXIDES AND HYDROXIDES- THE QUARTZ
GROUP
Opal (SiO2•nH2O) is a mineraloid
(amorphous mineral) of irregular Formula: SiO2•nH2O
shapes and white in color. The color Crystal System: Hexagonal
changes to yellow, gray, brown or Color/Streak: internal play of color
red in the presence of impurities. Luster: Vitreous to waxy
Hardness/Spec.G.:5.5-6.5
2-2.25
Cleavage/Fracture: Conchoidal
Origin or Occurrence: found in hotspring deposits,
petrified woods
Major Uses:display as jewelry. .
Gibbsite (Al(OH)3) is an aluminum

hydroxide, sometimes known as Formula: (Al(OH)3)
hydrargillite and crystallizes in Crystal System: Monoclinic
monoclinic system. It is rarely found Color/Streak: internal play of color
in a pure state and often blended Luster: Vitreous to pearly
with boehmite,kaolinite, hematite and Hardness/Spec.G.:2.5-3
limonite in bauxites and laterites, i.e. 2.34
sedimentary rocks that serve as the Cleavage/Fracture: Perfect
ore to obtain aluminum. Origin or Occurrence: commonly found in lateritic
formations, highly-weathered soils and clay deposits.
Major Uses: use in the production of aluminum
metal and alumina chemicals.
Hematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite

(FeO•Fe2O3) are very common, but Formula: (Fe2O3)
usually minor constituents of many Crystal System: Hexagonal
rocks. However, magmatic and Color/Streak: steel gray/ bright brownish red,
hydrothermal processes may red brown
form large deposits Luster: Metallic
Hardness/Spec.G.:5-6
5.25
Cleavage/Fracture: None
Origin or Occurrence: produced by weathering or
hydrothermal alteration of iron- bearing minerals
Major Uses: pigment and polishing abrasive
CARBONATES
• These are based on the carbonate ion,

(CO3)2–. Calcite, CaCO3, and dolomite,
CaMg(CO3)2, are carbonate minerals.
Carbonate minerals tend to dissolve relatively
easily in water, especially acid water, and
natural rain water is slightly acid.
CARBONATES
Calcite (CaCO3) forms isomorphic

series with magnesite and can contain
up to 28 mol% MgCO3 and there are Formula: CaCO3
also low magnesium calcite (<4 mol% Crystal System: Hexagonal
MgCO3) and high-magnesium calcite Color/Streak: Colorless, white, or gray
(4-28 mol% MgCO3). In the lattice of Luster: Vitreous
calcite, Ca2+ can be replaced with Hardness/Spec.G.:3
Fe2+, Mn2+ and Zn2+, thus resulting 2.71
magnesium carbonate (MnCO3) and Cleavage/Fracture: Perfect
zinc carbonate (ZnCO3). Petrogenic Origin or Occurrence: result of biological activity or
significance have only calcite and by chemical precipitation common in metamorphic
magnesium calcite and in some rocks.
limestone, especially in the form of Major Uses: essential raw material in the
cement or iron calcite (calcite, in which manufacture of Portland cenent
part of the Ca2+ isomorphic is replaced
by Fe2+).
CARBONATES
Dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) with calcite

is the most common mineral in
carbonate rocks. The mineral dolomite Formula: CaMg(CO3)2
crystallizes in the trigonal-rhombohedral Crystal System: Hexagonal
system. It develops white, gray to pink, Color/Streak: Colorless, white, or gray
commonly curved crystals, usually Luster: Vitreous
in the massive forms. It has physical Hardness/Spec.G.:3.5-4
properties similar to those of the mineral 2.86
calcite. Cleavage/Fracture: Perfect
Origin or Occurrence: formed from a limestone due
to diagenetic alteration of calcite to dolomite
Major Uses: used to manufacture of Portland cenent
CARBONATES
Aragonite is a carbonate mineral, one of

the three most common naturally
occurring crystal forms of calcium Formula: CaCO3
carbonate, CaCO3 (the other forms Crystal System: Orthorhombic
being the minerals calcite and vaterite). Color/Streak: Colorless or white
It is formed by biological and physical Luster: Vitreous
processes, including precipitation from Hardness/Spec.G.:3.5-4
marine and freshwater environments 2.94-2.95
Cleavage/Fracture: Imperfect and poor, subconhoidal
Origin or Occurrence: occurs in carbonate- bearing
blueschist facies metamorphic rocks associated with
glaucophane and related minerals
Major Uses: same uses as calcite but lack of large
deposits.
HALIDES
• Halides are the salts of sodium fluoride

and hydrochloric acid. The minerals halite,
sylvite and carnallite from this group only
contain chloride and have petrogenic
significance.
HALIDES
Halite (NaCl) is the mineral form of

sodium chloride, and commonly known
as rock salt. Halite forms isometric Formula: NaCl
crystals. The mineral is typically Crystal System: Cubic
colorless or white, but may also be light Color/Streak: Colorless or white
blue, dark blue, purple, pink, red, Luster: Vitreous
orange, yellow or gray depending on the Hardness/Spec.G.: 2.5
amount and type of impurities. It is an 2.16-2.17
essential mineral component of Cleavage/Fracture: Perfect
evaporite sediments (deposits of Origin or Occurrence: may be found in deposits from
rock salt). saline lakes, associated with borates, sulfates, and
carbonates
Major Uses: has been used for dietary purposes and
serve as a preservative.
HALIDES
Sylvite (KCl) unlike halite, has a bitter

taste that makes these two minerals
distinct. Sylvanite occurs with halite as Formula: KCl
essential mineral ingredient of evaporite Crystal System: Isometric
sediments (salt deposits). Color/Streak: Colorless or white
Luster: Vitreous
Hardness/Spec.G.: 2.5
1.99
Cleavage/Fracture: Perfect
Origin or Occurrence: found in marine evaporate
deposits, but is much less abundant than halite
Major Uses: use in fertilizer to provide potassium
which is essential for plant growth
SULFATES
• Sulfates are salts of sulfuric acid

(H2SO4). The minerals gypsum and
anhydrite, and rarely baryte, kieserite and
polyhalite from the group of sulfate have
petrogenic importance and occur as the main
ingredients of evaporites sediments. The
sulfate minerals contain the sulfate complex
anion (SO4)2.
SULFATES
Gypsum (CaSO4•2H2O) (Fig. 1.17)

crystallizes in monoclinic system and is
usually located in dense aggregates of Formula: CaSO4•2H2O
fine or coarse granulated transparent Crystal System: Monoclinic
aggregates called alabaster. It is very Color/Streak: Colorless or white
soft (hardness 2), white in color or Luster: Vitreous
monochrome, and from the admixture of Hardness/Spec.G.: 2
organic matter and clay may be gray or 2-2.37
brown gray. Cleavage/Fracture: Perfect, massive material
Origin or Occurrence: produced by hydrating primary
anhydrite, and produced as a precipitate from saline
lakes.
Major Uses: known for sheetrock or drywall, and
used in Portland cement to control setting rate
SULFATES
Baryte, or barite (BaSO4), crystallizes

orthorhombic system, commonly found
in tabular crystals or granulated, fibrous Formula: BaSO4
and radial clusters of white or bluish- Crystal System: Orthorhombic
white color. It has a high relative density Color/Streak: White, pale yellow, gray, pale green,
(from 4.3 to 4.7) and excellent cleavage pale blue, red, brown
of plane basal pinacoid (001). Luster: Vitreous
Hardness/Spec.G.: 2-5-3.5
4.5
Cleavage/Fracture: Very good, uneven fracture
Origin or Occurrence: common gangue material in
hydrothermal mineral deposits in association with
galena and related mineral.
Major Uses: mined as an industrial mineral and in
petroleum industry
PHOSPHATES
• Phosphates are salts of phosphoric acid

(H3PO4). The minerals from the apatite
group only have petrogenic significance.
• The key structural element of phosphate
minerals is the presence of tetrahedral
(PO4)3- anionic groups.
PHOSPHATES
Apatite (Ca5 (F, Cl, OH) (PO4)3) is a

group of phosphate minerals, usually
referring to hydroxyapatite, fluorapatite, Formula: (Ca5 (F, Cl, OH) (PO4)3)
chlorapatite and bromapatite, named for Crystal System: Hexagonal
high concentrations of OH-, F-, Cl- or Color/Streak: Most commonly grayish blue-green,
Br- ions, respectively, in the crystal. white
Apatite is the main representative of Luster: Vitreous
isomorphic minerals of the apatite group Hardness/Spec.G.: 5
that crystallizes in hexagonal system. 3.17-3.23
The fluorapatite, a part of F isomorphic Cleavage/Fracture: Poor, conchoidal to uneven
replaced with Cl and OH- group, is Origin or Occurrence: Pegmatite and metamorphosed
mostly located in the rocks. These are limestone
mostly minor minerals, elongated Major Uses: Primary source of silver, jewelry,
prismatic or needle-shaped, glassy photoprocessing, currency and investment bars.
shine, brown, red, green and emerald
green color.
PHOSPHATES
Turquoise is an opaque, blue-to-green

mineral that is a hydrated phosphate of
copper and aluminium, with the Formula: CuAl₆(PO₄)₄(OH)₈·4H₂O
chemical formula Crystal System: Triclinic
CuAl₆(PO₄)₄(OH)₈·4H₂O. It is rare and Color/Streak: Tourquiose green
valuable in finer grades and has been Luster: Waxy, vitreous
prized as a gemstone and ornamental Hardness/Spec.G.: 5-6
stone for thousands of years owing to its 2.6-2.8
unique hue. Cleavage/Fracture: Perfect
Origin or Occurrence: found in hydrothermally altered
volcanic rocks
Major Uses: decorative stone in jewelry and in wide
variety of other art and craft objects
SILICATES
• Silicates are the most common and most

important petrogenic minerals, particularly
feldspars, amphiboles, pyroxenes, olivine,
micas and clay minerals.
• Their main characteristics are difficult to
melt and often have very complex chemical
composition because of isomorphic
replacement.
• Most silicate minerals are formed by
crystallization of magma at high
temperatures, and in metamorphic processes
at high temperature and high pressure.
SILICATES
NESOSILICATES [SiO4]4-
• In the structure of nesosilicates, SiO4

tetrahedra are not directly connected with
mutual oxygen ion, only by interstitial cations.
• The simplest structure in nesosilicates
have mineral forsterite Mg2[SiO4].
SILICATES- THE OLIVINE GROUP
Olivine with little iron is closer to

forsterite with greenish color. The Formula: ((Mg,Fe)2SiO4)
same with more iron is closer to Crystal System: Orthorhombic, Tabular
fayalite with dark green color. Olivine Color/Streak:Yellow, green, blue,
crystallizes in orthorhombic system brown/white
and hardness of 7- 6.5 (depending Luster: Vitreous
on the isomorphous replacement of Hardness/Spec.G.:6.5-7.0
Mg with Fe). It forms by crystallization 3.27-3.37
of magma at high temperatures Cleavage/Fracture:Poor in one direction
(pyrogen minerals). Origin or Occurrence: Constituents of
basic and ultrabasic intrusive magma
Forsterite: Mg2SiO4 Major Uses: Spectacular green colored verities as
Fayalite: Fe2SiO4 gems. Aluminum foundry industries
utilize olivine sand mold to cast objects in aluminum.
SILICATES- THE GARNET GROUP
Garnets consist of the free SiO4

tetrahedral interconnected by ions of Formula: (Ca3Al2(SiO4)3)
various divalent and trivalent metals. Crystal System: Isometric
Garnets have a complex composition Color/Streak: pink, red, brown, green, white
due to the high possibility of Luster: Vitreous
isomorphic substitution of these ions. Hardness/Spec.G.:6.5-7.5
The end members are known as 3.1-4.3
series: pyrope-almandine-spessarite Cleavage/Fracture:Poor Indistinct/ Conchoidal to
and uvarovite-grossular-andradite. uneven
Origin or Occurrence: Widely distributed in
metamorphic rocks, e.g. mica Schist
Major Uses: used as abrasive, steel cutting, leather
and wood polishing and water filtration media. .
SILICATES
SOROSILICATES [Si2O7]6-
• Sorosilicates have isolated double

tetrahedral groups with (Si2O7)6- or a ratio of
2:7. There are no significant petrogenic
minerals among sorosilicates, except epidote,
zoisite and vesuvianite
SILICATES
Zoisite (Ca2Al3 (OH) Si3O12) is a
calcium aluminum-silicate without iron. Formula: (Ca2Al3 (OH) Si3O12)
It crystallizes in orthorhombic system. Crystal System: Orthorhombic
The most common occurrence is in the Color/Streak: Light to blue-gray/White
form of fine-grained aggregates of light Luster: Vitreous to conchoidal
to blue-gray color, usually associated Hardness/Spec.G.: 6-6.5
with epidote and albite, in hydrothermal 3.35
metamorphism of basic plagioclase, in Cleavage/Fracture: Perfect (001). Fractured in an
pegmatitic phase crystallization of even pattern
magma, and regional metamorphism of Origin or Occurrence: in the form of fine-grained
calcium-rich rocks. aggregates in hydrothermal metamorphism of basic
plagioclase, in pegmatitic phase crystallization of
magma, and regional metamorphism of calcium-rich
rocks.
Major Uses: essential ingredient of green schist and
amphibolite eclogites, a common constituent of
secondary pegmatite.
SILICATES
Vesuvianite
(Ca10Al4(Mg,Fe)2Si9O34(OH)4) is a Formula: (Ca10Al4(Mg,Fe)2Si9O34(OH)4Crystal
mineral of complex composition System: Tetragonal
crystallizing in the tetragonal system Color/Streak: Green, brown, yellow, blue, or
because of isomorphic impurities. red/White
It was first discovered in blocks or Luster: Vitreous to Resinous
adjacent to lavas on Mount Vesuvius, Hardness/Spec.G.: 6.5
hence its name. 3.32 - 3.43
Cleavage/Fracture: Poor/Indistinct
Origin or Occurrence: The mineral forms by contact
metamorphism of clay limestone, dolomite and marl.
It usually occurs in conjunction with garnets in
marble, and during crystallization of magma.Major
Uses: known to be beneficial healing stones.
SILICATES
CYCLOSILICATES [SiNO3N]2N-
• Also called “ring silicates”

 From the Greek word “kyklos”, meaning
“circle”
 Closed rings of linked Si-O tetrahedral
sharing two oxygens, Si:O=1:3
SILICATES
Beryl is a mineral composed of beryllium
aluminium cyclosilicate with the Formula: Be3Al2Si6O18
chemical formula Be₃Al₂Si₆O₁₈. Well- Crystal System: hexagonal, prismatic
known varieties of beryl include emerald Color/Streak: emerald green, blue, yellow/white
and aquamarine. Naturally occurring, Luster: vitreous to resinous
hexagonal crystals of beryl can be up to Hardness/Spec.G.: 7.5-8
several meters in size, but terminated 2.63-2.80
crystals are relatively rare. Cleavage/Fracture: imperfect and indistinct,
conchoidal to brittle
Origin or Occurrencegranitic pegmatite, mica schist,
limestone, tungsten ore
Major Uses: primary source of beryllium, varieties of
color and transparency make it attractive gemstones,
astrology, alloys, electronics, and ceramics
SILICATES
Tourmaline is a crystalline boron silicate
mineral compounded with elements Formula: complex borosilicate of Al, Mg, Fe,
such as aluminium, iron, magnesium, Mn, Cr, Li
sodium, lithium, or potassium. Crystal System: rhombohedral, hexagonal
Tourmaline is classified as a semi- Color/Streak: black, brown, green, velvet/ white
precious stone and the gemstone Luster: vitreous to resinous
comes in a wide variety of colors. Hardness/Spec.G.: 7-7.5
3-3.2
Cleavage/Fracture: indistinct glassy, conchoidal,
brittle
Origin or Occurrence: product of pneumatolytic
process of igneous rock formation
Major Uses: transparent varieties as semiprecious
gems, piezoelectricity, therapeutic application as
relaxation of body and mind, hair care products
SILICATES
INOSILICATES [SiNO3N]2N-
• Continuous chains of Si-O tetrahedral,

sharing two oxygens (single chains; Si: 0=1:
3, for example the pyroxene group) or
alternatively sharing two and three oxygens
(double chains, Si:0=4:11, for example the
amphibole group)
SILICATES- THE PYROXENE GROUP
• The pyroxene mineral group comprises

many minerals with compositions that form
solid solutions and those that form mineral
pairs with only partial solid solution.
 Important rock-forming inosilicate minerals
and often exist in many igneous and
metamorphic rocks.
 Single Chains with a multiple of SiO3 in the
chemical formula
Jadeite (NaAlSi2O6) has hardness
between 6.5 and 7.0 depending on the Formula: NaAlSi2O6
composition. The mineral is dense, with Crystal System: monoclinic
a specific gravity of about 3.4.. Color/Streak: light to medium green, white, colorless,
greenish blue
Luster: vitreous
Hardness/Spec.G.: 6
3.24-3.43
Cleavage/Fracture: indistinct glassy, conchoidal,
brittle
Origin or Occurrence: restricted to metamorphic
rocks subjected to relatively high pressures and
moderate temperatures.
Major Uses: principal mineral in jade, which is used
for decorative purposes and jewelry.
Omphacite is a member of the pyroxene
group of silicate minerals with formula: Formula: Si₂O₆
Si₂O₆. It is a variably deep to pale green Crystal System: Monoclinic
or nearly colorless variety of pyroxene. Color/Streak: black, brown, green, velvet/ white
Omphacite compositions are Luster: vitreous to resinous
intermediate between calcium-rich Hardness/Spec.G.: 5-6
augite and sodium-rich jadeit 3.16-3.43
Cleavage/Fracture: Good/ Uneven to conchoidal
Origin or Occurrence: formed in high-pressure
condition such as those found in the upper mantle or
lower crust
Major Uses: major mineral component of eclogite
along with pyrope garnet
SILICATES- THE AMPHIBOLE GROUP
• Amphiboles have compositions and

structures similar to those of pyroxene
 Important group of generally dark-colored
inosilicate minerals
 Double Chains with Si4O11 in the formula
Hornblende is a complex inosilicate
series of minerals. It is not a recognized Formula: (Ca,Na)2(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Al,Si)8O22
mineral in its own right, but the name is (OH)2.
used as a general or field term, to refer Crystal System: Monoclinic
to a dark amphibole.. Color/Streak: green, dark green, black
Luster: vitreous Hardness/Spec.G.: 5-6
3.02-3.59
Cleavage/Fracture: Good/ irregular fracture
Origin or Occurrence: found in wide variety of
igneous rocks but in intermediate varieties
Major Uses: used as dimension stone
Tremolite is a member of the amphibole
group of silicate minerals with Formula: Ca2(Mg,Fe)5Si8O22(OH)2
composition: Ca₂Si₈O₂₂(OH)₂. Tremolite Crystal System: Monoclinic
forms by metamorphism of sediments Color/Streak: White, light to dark gray, black, light
rich in dolomite and quartz. Tremolite yellow, light to dark green, emerald green, pink to
forms a series with actinolite and ferro- purple.
actinolite. Luster: vitreous, silky
Hardness/Spec.G.: 5-6
2.9-3.2
Cleavage/Fracture: Good/ irregular
Origin or Occurrence: esult of contact metamorphism
of calcium and magnesium rich siliceous
sedimentary rocks and in greenschist facies
metamorphic rocks derived from ultramafic or
magnesium carbonate bearing rocks.
Major Uses: The finely fibrous variety of Tremolite is
used for industrial asbestos.
SILICATES
PHYLLOSILICATES [Si2NO5N]2N-
• The basic structure of the phyllosilicates

is based on interconnected six-member rings
of SiO44- tetrahedra that extend outward in
infinite sheets. Three out of the four oxygens
from each tetrahedron are shared with other
tetrahedral
SILICATES- THE MICA GROUP
• Micas have been one of the most

widespread mineral group in the lithosphere.
The group contains minerals that are key
ingredients of many igneous rocks and
metamorphic rocks. The primary minerals
from the mica group, especially muscovite,
are regular constituents of clastic
sedimentary rocks, particularly sand and
sandstone
SILICATES- THE MICA GROUP (LIGHT)
Muscovite (KAl2 (OH)2 AlSi3O10) also
known as common mica (Potash Mica) Formula: (KAl2 (OH)2 AlSi3O10)
whose name originates from Muscovy- Crystal System: Monoclinic
glass, a name formerly used for the Color/Streak: Colorless or light shades of green, red,
mineral because of its use as windows or brown
in Russia. It does not contain iron, so it Luster: Vitreous
is colorless mica, and highly resistant to Hardness/Spec.G.: 2.5-3
weathering. 2.77-2.88
Cleavage/Fracture: Poor/Indistinct
Origin or Occurrence: It is very common in igneous,
metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks.
Major Uses: widely used in industrial applications
and electronics.
SILICATES- THE MICA GROUP (DARK)
Biotite (K(Mg,Fe)3 (OH)2 AlSi3O10) is
iron- magnesium mica, dark brown to Formula: (K(Mg,Fe)3 (OH)2 AlSi3O10)
black color. The black color is due to the Crystal System: Monoclinic
variations of the contents of Fe2+ which Color/Streak: Black or dark brown/ white or gray
is isomorphic replacement with Mg2+ Luster: Vitreous
and Fe3+, which is substituted by Al3+. Hardness/Spec.G.: 2-3
The ratio of Mg/Fe in biotite in igneous 2.7-3.3
rocks decreases from basic to acid, and Cleavage/Fracture: Perfect
biotite in the volcanic rocks typically Origin or Occurrence: found in a wide variety of
contain more Fe3+ than Fe2+ igneous and metamorphic rocks
Major Uses: Ground mica is used as a filler and
extender in paints, as an additive to drilling muds, as
an inert filler and mold-release agent in rubber
products, and as a non-stick surface coating on
asphalt shingles and rolled roofing.
SILICATES- THE CLAY MINERALS GROUP
• Clay mineral, any of a group of important

hydrous aluminum silicates with a layer
(sheetlike) structure and very small particle
size. They may contain significant amounts of
iron, alkali metals, or alkaline earths.
REQUIREMENTS:
 (1) a natural material with plastic properties,
 (2) particles of very fine size, customarily those defined as
particles smaller than two micrometres (7.9 × 10−5 inch)
 (3) very fine mineral fragments or particles composed
mostly of hydrous-layer silicates of aluminum, though
occasionally containing magnesium and iron.
Kaolinite forms small sheet like crystals
or clusters of white earth (clay particles Formula: {Al2(OH)4Si2O5}
with a diameter <2 mm). Plate kaolinite Crystal System: Triclinic
minerals are visible only by electron Color/Streak: White/ Brown
microscopy. It becomes plastic in Luster: Waxy/Dull
contact with water. Hardness/Spec.G.: 2.25
2.25
Origin or Occurrence: secondary mineral formed by
alteration of alkali feldspar. Occurs in abundance in
soils that have formed from the chemical weathering
of rocks in hot, moist climates—for example in
tropical rainforest areas.
Major Uses: production of paper
Chlorite group includes hydrated
magnesium and iron hydrosilicates Formula: (Fe, Mg, Al)6(Si, Al)4O10(OH)8
which make mixed crystals Crystal System: Monoclinic
of complex chemistry. Color/Streak: Various shades of green/pale green
Luster: Vitreous, pearly, or dull
Hardness/Spec.G.: 2-2.5
2.6-3.3
Origin or Occurrence: found in a wide variety of
igneous and metamorphic rocks
Major Uses: Used as a filler and as a constituent of
clay
Montmorillonite (per site
montmorillonite) is the main Formula:(Na,Ca)0,3(Al,Mg)2Si4O10(OH)2•n(H2O)
representative of montmorillonite- Crystal System: Monoclinic
beidellite group with variable Mg Color/Streak: White, pale pink, blue, yellow, red, green
content, and beidellite (per site Beidell Luster: Vitreous
in Colorado), member of the series with Hardness/Spec.G.: 2-3
little or no Mg. 2.7-3.3
Origin or Occurrence: created by the surface weathering of
rocks, particularly acid tuffs, with the
presence of solutions containing Na, Ca, Mg and ferrous iron.
Major Uses: used in the oil drilling industry as a component of
drilling mud, making the mud slurry viscous
SILICATES
TECTOSILICATES [([AlxSiyO2(x+y)]x-)
• Tectosilicates ([AlxSiyO2(x+y)]x-) structure

is composed of interconnected tetrahedrons
going outward in all directions forming an
intricate framework. All the oxygens are
shared with other tetrahedrons in this
subclass.
SILICATES- THE FELDSPAR GROUP
TECTOSILICATES ([AlxSiyO2(x+y)]x-)
 Feldspar group is petrogenic most important

assemblage of silicate minerals, as it covers
almost 58% of the Earth’s crust. The
proportion of feldspar is extremely high in
igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic
rocks. The chemical compositions of feldspar
group represent the aluminosilicates of
potassium (Or-component), sodium (Ab-
component) and calcium (An-component)
Orthoclase (KAlSi3O8) is the
monoclinic medium-temperature K- Formula:KAlSi3O8
feldspar. It occurs in different ways, Crystal System: Monoclinic
usually, by crystallization of magma. It is Color/Streak: White, yellow, colorless, pink, orange, light blue,
an important ingredient of all acidic light green, brown, gray
(granite, granodiorite) to neutral Luster: Vitreous to pearly
(syenite) igneous rocks Hardness/Spec.G.: 6
2.6
Cleavage/Fracture: basal,prismatic,pinacoidal/ conchoidal to
uneven
Origin or Occurrence: forms during the crystallization of a
magma into intrusive igneous rocks such as granite,
granodiorite, diorite, and syenite.
Major Uses: industrially important in the manufacture of glass
and ceramics
Plagioclases are triclinic feldspars that
form a complete isomorphic compounds
which are the final members of the Na- Formula:(Na,Ca)(Si,Al)4O8
plagioclase albite NaAlSi3O8 Crystal System: Triclinic- Pinacoidal
(Ab) and Ca-plagioclase anortite Color/Streak: White, Gray, Bluish white, Reddish white,
CaAl2Si2O8 (An) Greenish white.Luster: Vitreous to pearly
Hardness/Spec.G.: 6-6.5
2.61-2.76
Cleavage/Fracture: Good
Origin or Occurrence: common clast produced during the
weathering of igneous and metamorphic rocks
Major Uses: used in the manufacture of glass and ceramics
Coal and Petroleum
Where did coal come from?
Coal is a fossil fuel

and is the altered
remains of
prehistoric
vegetation that
originally
accumulated in
swamps and peat
bogs.
Uses of Coal
• Generating Electricity
• Production of Steel
• steel production
• cement manufacturing
• as a liquid fuel (liquefaction)
• Carbon fibre
• Fuel for cooking
Formation of Coal
Petroleum
Petroleum is a fossil fuel that naturally occurs in the

liquid form created by the decomposition of organic
matter beneath the surface of the earth millions of
years ago.
Where did Petroleum come from?
A so-called fossil
fuel, petroleum is believed
by most scientists to be the
transformed remains of
long dead organisms. The
majority of petroleum is
thought to come from the
fossils of plants and tiny
marine organisms.
PETROLEUM EXTRACTION
1. An oil company drills a well into a reservoir and pumps the oil to the surface.
2. After the hole has been bored, the expensive drill rig is removed and replaced
by a pumper that slowly extracts the petroleum.
3. Because more than half of the oil too vicious to be pumped, it is left behind but
it can be extracted by secondary and tertiary recovery techniques.
Refining Petroleum
Products of Refining Petroleum
• Gasoline
• Diesel oil
• Kerosene
• Tar
• Heavy fuel oil
• Petroleum coke
• Lubricants
The Difference of Coal and Petroleum
1.Genesis
2.Mode of Deposition
3.Proportion of Production
4.Physical Properties
A. Permeability
B. Rock Strength
Tar Sands
Tar sands (also known as oil sands) are a mixture of mostly sand,
clay, water, and a thick, molasses-like substance called bitumen
(extremely viscous form of petroleum).
Tar Sands
Oil Shale
Oil shale is a
dirty and expensive
source of
unconventional oil.
Oil shale is a mixture
of sand, silt, salt, and
an insoluble organic
substance called
kerogen.
End of Chapter
MINERAL COAL PETROLEUM
MINERALOGY AND PETROLOGY

GROUP 4
AMBROCIO, JOHN ADRIAN ERMITA, ALESSANDRA LOUISE
ARGUELLES, STEVEN KYLE SANTOS, JUSTEN KIER
BSCE 2-3

Group 4 Mineralogy and Petrology

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MINERALOGY AND

MINERAL COAL PETROLEUM

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY PHYSICAL MINERALOGY

deals with the classification of

Other Silicates Only 8% of the crust is composed

Sulfides Pyrite, Marcasite, and Pyrrohite

Halogenides Halite, Silvite, and Camallite

Sulfates Gypsum, Anhydrite, and Berite

Phosphates Apatite, and Phosphorite

Silicates Nesosilicates, Sorosilicates, Cyclosilicates, Inosilicates, Phyllosilicates

CONTINENTAL CRUST OCEANIC CRUST SEDIMENTARY COVER

OLIVINE GARNET CALCITE PYROXENE

ZIRCON MONAZITE TITANITE

Ore minerals form as a result of special geologic processes and

For every mineral deposit there is a set of conditions, such as the

2 1. Ratio of chemical elements (for example, quartz, 46.73%

Minerals may include water as the following:

Prismatic means that the Acicular means “needlelike,” as

Columnar exhibits rounded Tabular describes crystal masses

Dendritic describes minerals that

They have a constant color produced by transition

The production of color is dependent on the

occurs most frequently, show colors of their

Do not have chromophores as an integral part

They are of the color that is induced not by their

Shows false color. Some minerals viewed in

Light refracted from layers of slightly different

It is the development of a series of prismatic

The colors change in rapid succession on

It is similar to play of colors except that rate of

Sometimes the surface color is different, rather

Property in certain minerals that cause them to

Although color is never taken as a conclusive

Ex: Chalcopyrite, an ore of copper.

It is when the specimen (or polished stone) is

This is best seen in the satin spar variety of

Some minerals show rainbow colors either in

It is the result of the scattering of light from a

is a highly diagnostic property in the

The scattered light “diffracts” from these

is a six-rayed optical phenomenon that is the

It is best seen in star rubies and star sapphires

A black, metallic crystal of hematite, Fe2

Planar - Describes a cleave along

Ex. Minerals from mica group

Ex. (A) Pyroxenes group (B)

Cubic - Results in mineral fragments

Rhombohedral - Results in fragments

Poor – smooth crystal edge is not

Good – leave smooth surfaces, but

Indistinct – exhibits cleavage but is

Conchoidal - When a mineral

Knapped Glass Obsidian

Even - Appearance of mineral in

Biotite Mica Chert Limestone

Uneven - When the mineral

Earthy - Fracture of minerals

Hackly - Fracture that resembles

Metallic – a mineral that looks

Sub-metallic - Feebly displaced

Adamantine - Hard brilliant

Vitreous Luster - luster exhibited

Pearly Luster - luster exhibited

Silky Luster - Luster exhibited by Resinous Luster – Luster