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PETROLOGY
GEOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS (CIEN 20032)
This chapter discusses the minerals, its physical and chemical properties, and
its classifications. It also tackles about the coal and petroleum as a geologic
resources made through natural processes.
All others
THE MOST ABUNDANT CHEMICAL ELEMENTS
IN EARTH’S CRUST
THE MOST ABUNDANT MINERALS
IN EARTH’S CRUST
8% Plagioclase
3%
Alkali Feldspar
5%
Mineral
Quartz
5%
39% Compositions
Pyroxenes
5%
Amphiboles More than 90% on the crust is
composed of silicate minerals.
Micas Most abundant silicates are
11%
Clay Minerals feldspars.
Oxides and Hydroxides Quartz, Opal, Chalcedony, Corundum, Gibbsite, Boehmite, Diaspore, Magnetite,
Hematite, Goethite, Chromite, Limenite, Rutile, Pyrolusite, Psilomelane, and
Spinel
Carbonates Aragonite, Calcite, Magnesite, Siderite, and Dolomite
-made up mainly of rocks with a -mainly composed of basalt and -consist mainly of clastic rocks
granitic to andesitic gabbro. These two rock types are such as sandstone, siltstone, and
composition. These rocks are made up of mainly of plagioclase shale, along with carbonate rocks
composed mainly of alkali feldspar and pyroxenes, with such as dolostone and limestone.
feldspar, quartz, and plagioclase smaller amounts of olivine, Clastic rocks composed of
feldspar, with smaller amounts micas and amphiboles. quartz, clay minerals, and small
of amphiboles and micas. amounts of micas and feldspar
minerals. Carbonate rocks
consist primarily of calcite and
dolomite.
FELDSPAR QUARTZ AMPHIBOLE MICA
Minerals occurring within a rock in small quantities are referred to as “accessory minerals”.
OPAQUE TOURMALINE
ORE- FORMING MINERALS
The first is the ease with which a mineral can be separated from the gangue and
concentrated for smelting. Concentrating processes, which are based on the
physical properties of the mineral, include magnetic separation, gravity
separation, and flotation.
The second factor is smelting--that is, releasing the metal from the other
elements to which it is chemically bonded in the mineral.
ORE- FORMING MINERALS
TWO FACTORS TO DETERMINE AN ORE MINERAL
BLAST
FURNACE
PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
1
1. category (oxide, sulfide, silicate,
carbonate, etc.);
2. crystal system (cubic, tetragonal,
hexagonal, etc.);
3. cohesion properties (hardness in Mohs
scale 1-10, cleavage, tenacity, and
PHYSICAL fracture);
4. density/specific gravity;
PROPERTIES 5. macroscopic optical properties (color,
brightness, luster, and streak); and
6. microscopic optical properties
(refractive index, birefringencea, and
pleochroism).
PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
IDIOCHROMATIC MINERALS
have constant characteristic color and that does
not change even with small amount of various
additives or impurities.
Example: Diamond.
PECULIAR PHENOMENA OF COLOR
PECULIAR PHENOMENA OF COLOR
CHANGE OF COLORS
Ex: Labradorite.
PECULIAR PHENOMENA OF COLOR
TARNISH
Muscovite mica
CLEAVAGE
Beryl Calcite
CLEAVAGE
Octahedral - Results of breakage along four different directions, caused by four sets of
parallel planes, forming eight sides
Fluorite
CLEAVAGE
Planar
Prismatic
Prismatic
Cubic
Rhombohedral
Octahedral
CLEAVAGE BY QUALITIES
Chromite Hematite
FRACTURE
It is the pattern in which a mineral breaks other than along planes of cleavage with
inconsistent manner. Many minerals fracture into characteristic shapes.
Limonite Kaolinite
FRACTURE
It is the pattern in which a mineral breaks other than along planes of cleavage with
inconsistent manner. Many minerals fracture into characteristic shapes.
Magnetite Galena
Chromite Culprite
LUSTER
The Shining / Brilliance / Reflection of light from the surface of mineral. The luster of
minerals varies with the nature of their surface smooth / rough and the quantity of light
reflected.
Diamond
LUSTER
The Shining / Brilliance / Reflection of light from the surface of mineral. The luster of
minerals varies with the nature of their surface smooth / rough and the quantity of light
reflected.
Quartz Gypsum
Calcite
LUSTER
The Shining / Brilliance / Reflection of light from the surface of mineral. The luster of
minerals varies with the nature of their surface smooth / rough and the quantity of light
reflected.
Kaolinite
LUSTER
The Shining / Brilliance / Reflection of light from the surface of mineral. The luster of
minerals varies with the nature of their surface smooth / rough and the quantity of light
reflected.
Talc Molybdenite
STATE OF AGGREGATION
It is an additional description of mineral specimen appearance as aggregates of smaller
grains. Most mineral specimens, unless unusually well crystallized, appear as
aggregates of smaller grains.
Dunite
STATE OF AGGREGATION
It is an additional description of mineral specimen appearance as aggregates of smaller
grains. Most mineral specimens, unless unusually well crystallized, appear as
aggregates of smaller grains.
Compact - So fine-grains
specimen that the state of
aggregation is not obvious
Chert
STATE OF AGGREGATION
It is an additional description of mineral specimen appearance as aggregates of smaller
grains. Most mineral specimens, unless unusually well crystallized, appear as
aggregates of smaller grains.
Mammillary - Describes
minerals that occur as smoothly
rounded masses resembling
breasts, or portions of spheres
Hematite
STATE OF AGGREGATION
It is an additional description of mineral specimen appearance as aggregates of smaller
grains. Most mineral specimens, unless unusually well crystallized, appear as
aggregates of smaller grains.
Smithsonite Hematite
STATE OF AGGREGATION
It is an additional description of mineral specimen appearance as aggregates of smaller
grains. Most mineral specimens, unless unusually well crystallized, appear as
aggregates of smaller grains.
Calcite Goethite
STATE OF AGGREGATION
It is an additional description of mineral specimen appearance as aggregates of smaller
grains. Most mineral specimens, unless unusually well crystallized, appear as
aggregates of smaller grains.
Quartz
STATE OF AGGREGATION
It is an additional description of mineral specimen appearance as aggregates of smaller
grains. Most mineral specimens, unless unusually well crystallized, appear as
aggregates of smaller grains.
Manganese Oxide
Oolitic limestone
Manganese Oxide
Bauxite
TRANSPARENCY/DIAPHANEITY
It is the ability of mineral to transmit light through it. It is also measure of how clearly an
object can be seen through a crystal
Feldspar Agate
Chalcedony
TRANSPARENCY/DIAPHANEITY
It is the ability of mineral to transmit light through it. It is also measure of how clearly an
object can be seen through a crystal
Staurolite Malachite
TENACITY
It refers to a mineral's toughness or resistance to breaking or being deformed.
-showing little or no resistance to -bending easily and staying bent -capable of being bent or pulled
breakage, and as such separating after the pressure is removed out of shape but returning to the
into fragments under the blow of original form when relieved
a hammer or when cut by a knife
MALLEABLE
Ex. Naturally occurring crystal forms of calcium carbonate such as Calcite and Aragonite
When a drop of cold 10% dilute hydrochloric acid is put on certain minerals, a reaction
takes place. In calcite (CaCO3), bubbles of carbon dioxide make the acid froth, and in
some sulphide ores, hydrogen sulphide is produced.
This test is especially useful when some fine- to medium-grained, light-colored mineral, with
no other discernible diagnostic properties, is distributed among other grains in a rock. If the
fizz test works, the mineral is one of several carbonates.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY/RELATIVE DENSITY
Specific gravity (G) is defined as the ratio between the weight of a substance and the
weight of an equal volume of water at 4 °C (39 °F).
G = W1/(W1 — W2)
When deformed, certain minerals will generate a voltage so that they are
PIEZOELECTRICITY positively charged on the other.
Ex. Quartz, Topaz, and Tourmaline
PIEZOELECTRICITY
FUSIBILITY
Minerals behave differently on heating to elevated temperature. Some melt easily at lower
temperatures whereas other require very high temperature.
OPTICAL PROPERTIES
It is perceived by a polarizing microscope that is specifically significant if the rocks are
composed mostly of fine grains or microcrystalline mineral aggregates and the mineral
ingredients are mixed together.
ANISOTROPHIC MINERALS have different properties, i.e. light travels through them in different ways
and with different velocities, depending on the direction of travel through a
grain.
LUMINESCENCE
It is a phenomenon in which a material absorbs one form of energy and then reemits the
energy as visible light.
From the Greek words, “Poly” = “more” and From the Greek words, “Izos” = “same” and
“morphos” = “form”) “morphos” = “form”)
OF
3
MINERALS
ROCK- FORMING MINERALS
THE SILICATE MINERALS
The silicate minerals contain the (SiO4)4-
complex anion. Silicates make up about 95
percent of the Earth’s crust.
ROCK- FORMING MINERALS
THE SILICATE MINERALS
ACCESSORY MINERALS
are minerals that are common but usually are found only in small
amounts.
They are sheet silicates with densities betwEen 2.5 and 3.0,
SILICA-OXYGEN
depending on the type of clay and its composition, and with low
TETRAHEDRA
hardness (2 to 2½ (kaolin) and 1 to 2 for all other clays). (SILICA SHEET)
BRUCITE LAYER
ROCK- FORMING MINERALS
THE SILICATE MINERALS
CLAY MINERALS
ROCK- FORMING MINERALS
THE NON-SILICATE MINERALS
NON-METALLIC MINERALS
OF
MINERALS
IDENTFICATION OF MINERALS BY HAND
SPECIMEN
Hardness.
AUTOCHTHONOUS ELEMENTS
• The minerals that can be found in
crystallized state as autochthonous elements
are graphite, diamond, gold and sulfur.
• They are the most economic and
important members.
AUTOCHTHONOUS ELEMENTS
THE METAL GROUP
• GOLD
Gold (Au) is found as autochthonous Formula: Au
cubic mineral in hydrothermal ore Crystal System: Cubic
veins or strings, and as resistant Color/Streak: Gold- yellow if pure, lighter with Ag,
mineral in the debris. reddish with Cu
Luster: Metallic
Hardness/Spec.G.:2.5-3
19.3
Cleavage/Fracture:None.
Origin or Occurrence: Most commonly found in
hydrothermal sulphide deposits.
Major Uses: Valued for its beauty, as an industrial
material, and for monetary value.
AUTOCHTHONOUS ELEMENTS
THE NONMETAL GROUP
• ARSENIC
Arsenic almost always contains some Formula: As
antimony. Nickel, silver, iron, and Crystal System: Hexagonal
sulfur are also commonly found in a Color/Streak: Tin-white
given specimen. On a fresh or Black
preserved surface, Arsenic has a tin- Luster: Metallic
white color, but otherwise tarnishes Hardness/Spec.G.:3-4
dark gray. 5.6-5.7
Cleavage/Fracture: Uneven
Origin or Occurrence: comes from natural sources,
such as volcanoes, and the rest comes from man-
made sources
Major Uses: as a commodity is largely used in the
manufacturing of glass.
AUTOCHTHONOUS ELEMENTS
THE NONMETAL GROUP
• DIAMOND
Diamond (C) is a stable cubic Formula: C
polymorphic modification of carbon in Crystal System: Cubic
the form of octahedra. Color/Streak: Colorless
White
Luster: Adamantine to Greasy
Hardness/Spec.G.:10
3.511
Cleavage/Fracture: Perfect, Conchoidal
Origin or Occurrence: generally restricted to
ultramafic igneous rocks
Major Uses: used in cutting tools and as an abrasive
and polishing material
SULFIDES
• PYRITE
Pyrite (FeS2) is a widespread mineral Formula: FeS2
in many rocks and belongs to the Crystal System: Cubic
most widespread sulfide minerals in Color/Streak: Brass- yellow
the lithosphere. Pyrite can turn into Luster: Metallic
limonite and hematite by processes Hardness/Spec.G.:6-6.5
of oxidation 5.02
Cleavage/Fracture: Conchoidal/uneven
Origin or Occurrence: from crystallization
of magma, from hydrothermal solutions,
sediments in reducing conditions and metamorphic
processes.
Major Uses: Feedstock in the manufacture of Fe-
bearing chemicals
SULFIDES
• PYRRHOTITE
Pyrrhotite (FeS) is usually found in Formula: FeS
basic and ultrabasic igneous rocks in Crystal System: Monoclinic
the form of dense aggregates. Color/Streak: Bronze- yellow
Pyrrhotite is often magnetic, has Luster: Metallic
metal shine, opaque, and brownish Hardness/Spec.G.:3.5-4.5
bronze in color. The mineral 4.58-4.65
frequently contains a small amount of Cleavage/Fracture: Uneven to subconchoidal
nickel in basic and ultrabasic rocks. Origin or Occurrence: usually found in
Pyrrhotite is an important component basic and ultrabasic igneous rocks in the form
of some nickel bearing meteorites. of dense aggregates.
Major Uses: source of iron
OXIDES AND HYDROXIDES
• Generating Electricity
• Production of Steel
• steel production
• cement manufacturing
• as a liquid fuel (liquefaction)
• Carbon fibre
• Fuel for cooking
Formation of Coal
Petroleum
A so-called fossil
fuel, petroleum is believed
by most scientists to be the
transformed remains of
long dead organisms. The
majority of petroleum is
thought to come from the
fossils of plants and tiny
marine organisms.
PETROLEUM EXTRACTION
1. An oil company drills a well into a reservoir and pumps the oil to the surface.
2. After the hole has been bored, the expensive drill rig is removed and replaced
by a pumper that slowly extracts the petroleum.
3. Because more than half of the oil too vicious to be pumped, it is left behind but
it can be extracted by secondary and tertiary recovery techniques.
Refining Petroleum
Products of Refining Petroleum
• Gasoline
• Diesel oil
• Kerosene
• Tar
• Heavy fuel oil
• Petroleum coke
• Lubricants
The Difference of Coal and Petroleum
1.Genesis
2.Mode of Deposition
3.Proportion of Production
4.Physical Properties
A. Permeability
B. Rock Strength
Tar Sands
Tar sands (also known as oil sands) are a mixture of mostly sand,
clay, water, and a thick, molasses-like substance called bitumen
(extremely viscous form of petroleum).
Tar Sands
Oil Shale
Oil shale is a
dirty and expensive
source of
unconventional oil.
Oil shale is a mixture
of sand, silt, salt, and
an insoluble organic
substance called
kerogen.
End of Chapter