BASICS PART-I

Syed Rizwan Naqvi / Sushil Kumar Rajpoot

Learning Objectives:
This chapter describes the different types of transmitters used in radar sets. Upon completion of this chapter
you will be able to:
• Describe the evolution of radar
• Basic principle of operation of radar
• Basic Radar parameters & its measurement.
• Derivation of Radar equation.
• Radar Frequency bands.

1.1 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

Neither a single nation nor single person can say that the discovery and development of radar technology was
his own invention. One must see the knowledge about “Radar” than an accumulation of many developments
and improvements, in which any scientists from several nations took part in parallel. In the past, there are nev-
ertheless some milestones, with the discovery of important basic knowledge and important inventions regarding
radars. They are listed as below in chronological order of occurrences:
• 1865: The Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell presented his Theory of the Electromagnetic
Field (description of the electromagnetic waves and their propagation). He demonstrated that elec-
tric and magnetic fields travel through space in the form of waves, and at the constant speed of light.
• 1886: The German physicist, Heinrich Rudolf Hertz discovered electromagnetic waves, thus
demonstrating the Maxwell theory.
• 1897: The Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi achieved the first long distance transmission of elec-
tromagnetic waves. In his first experiments he used a wire tied to a wooden pole. Today Marconi is
known as pioneer of radio communication.
• 1904: The German engineer Christian Hülsmeyer invented the telemobiloscope for a traffic moni-
toring on the water in poor visibility. This was the first practical radar test. Hülsmeyer applied his
invention for a patent in Germany, France and the United Kingdom.
• 1921: The  invention of the Magnetron  as an efficient transmitting tube by the US-american
physicist Albert Wallace Hull took pace.
• 1922: The American electrical engineers Albert H. Taylor and Leo C. Young of the Naval Research
Laboratory (USA) located a wooden ship for the first time.
• 1930: Lawrence A. Hyland (also of the Naval Research Laboratory), located an aircraft for the first
time.
• 1931: A ship was equipped for the first time with a radar. Parabolic dishes with horn radiators were
used as antennae.

1
2 Basics Part-I
• 1936: The development of the Klystron by the technicians, George F. Metcalf and William C.
Hahn, both from General Electric took place. This was an important component in radar units as an
amplifier or an oscillator tube.
• 1939: Two engineers from the University in Birmingham, John Turton Randall und Henry Albert
Howard Boot built a small but powerful radar using a Multicavity-Magnetron. The B–17 airplanes
were fitted with this radar. They could find and thus combat the German submarines in the night
and in fog.
• 1940: Different radar equipments were developed in the USA, Russia, Germany, France and Japan.
• 1945: Driven by general war events and the development of the Air Force to a major branch of
service, the radar technology underwent a strong development boost during the World War II, and
radar were used during the Cold War in large numbers along the inner German border.
Following these major achievements in the field of radars, the radar technology has boomed up since.
The following section illustrates the basic principles of radar.

1.2 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF PRIMARY RADAR

The following figure shows the operating principle of a primary radar . The radar antenna illuminates the target
with a microwave signal, which is then reflected and picked up by a receiving device. These received signals
are processed and then displayed. The radar display can be the traditional plan position indicator (PPI) or other
more advanced radar display systems. A PPI has a rotating vector with the radar at the origin, which indicates
the pointing direction of the antenna and hence the bearing of targets. The radar signal is generated by a pow-
erful transmitter and received by a highly sensitive receiver. The electrical signals picked up by the receiving
antenna are called echo or returns. All targets produce diffused reflections. Reflections in different directions
are called as scattering. Reflections that are in the opposite direction to the incident rays are called backscatter.

Fig. 1.1: Block diagram of a primary radar

The various blocks as shown in Figure 1 are explained as under:
• Transmitter: The radar transmitter produces the short duration high-power RF pulses of energy
that are into space by the antenna.
• Duplexer: The duplexer alternately switches the antenna between the transmitter and receiver so
that one antenna can be used for both purpose (either transmitter or receiver). This switching is
necessary because the high-power pulses of the transmitter would destroy the receiver if energy
were allowed to enter the receiver.
• Receiver: The receivers in a radar amplify and demodulate the received RF-signals. The receiver
provides input for video signals on the output.
• Antenna: The Antenna transfers the transmitter energy to signals in space with the required distri-
bution and efficiency. This process is applied in an identical way on reception. The same antenna
can be used for reception or there can be different antennas for transmission & reception.
• Indicator: The indicator should present to the observer a continuous, easily understandable &
graphic picture of the relative position of radar targets.
3
Basics Part-I Basics Part-I
3
The radar screen (such as a PPI-scope) displays bright blip produced from the echo signals. The longer
The radar screen (such as a PPI-scope) displays bright blip produced from the echo signals. The longer
the pulses are delayed
the pulses are delayed by
by the
the runtime,
runtime, the
the further
further away
away from
from the
the centre
centre of
of this
this radar
radar scope
scope they
they are
are displayed.
displayed.
The direction of the defl ection on this screen is that in which the antenna is currently
The direction of the deflection on this screen is that in which the antenna is currently pointing.pointing.

1.3
1.3 BASIC PRINCIPLE
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF
OF RADAR
RADAR OPERATION
OPERATION
The basic
The basic principle
principle of
of operation
operation of
of primary
primary radar
radar is
is simple
simple toto understand.
understand. However,
However, the
the theory
theory can
can be
be
quite complex.
quite complex. AnAn understanding
understanding ofof the
the theory
theory is
is essential
essential in
in order
order to
to be
be able
able to
to specify
specify and
and operate
operate primary
primary
radar systems
radar systems correctly.
correctly. The
The implementation
implementation andand operation
operation of of primary
primary radar
radar systems
systems involve
involve aa wide
wide range
range
of disciplines
of disciplines such
such as
as building
building works,
works, heavy
heavy mechanical
mechanical and and electrical
electrical engineering,
engineering, high
high power
power microwave
microwave
engineering and
engineering and advanced
advanced high
high speed
speed signal
signal and
and data
data processing
processing techniques.
techniques. Also
Also some
some laws
laws of
of nature
nature have
have aa
greater importance here.
greater importance here.

Fig. 1.2:
Fig. 1.2: Radar Principle: The measuring of a round trip time of a microwave pulse
Radar Principle: The measuring of a round trip time of a microwave pulse
measurement of
Radar measurement of range,
range, or
or distance,
distance, isis made
made possible
possible because
because of
of the
the properties
properties ofof radiated
radiated elec-
elec-
energy. Some
tromagnetic energy. Some of of them
them areare as
as follows:
follows:
Reflection of
• Reflection of electromagnetic
electromagnetic waves: The
waves: The electromagnetic
electromagnetic waves waves are
are reflected
reflected ifif they
they meet
meet an an
electrically leading
electrically leading surface.
surface. If If these
these reflected
reflected waves
waves are are received
received again
again atat the
the place
place of
of their
their origin,
origin,
then there
then there is
is an
an obstacle
obstacle inin the
the propagation
propagation direction. 
direction.
Electromagnetic energy
• Electromagnetic energy travels
travels through
through airair at
at a constant
a constant speed,
speed, at
at approximately
approximately the the speed
speed of of
light, viz.
light, viz. 300,000
300,000 kilometers
kilometers per per second.
second. This
This constant
constant speed
speed allows
allows the
the determination
determination of of the dis-
the dis-
tance between the
tance between the reflecting
reflecting objects
objects (airplanes,
(airplanes, ships
ships oror cars)
cars) and
and the
the radar
radar site
site by
by measuring
measuring the the
running
running time
time ofof the
the transmitted
transmitted pulses.
pulses.
• The energy normally travels through space in a straight line, and varies only slightly because of
The energy normally travels through space in a straight line, and varies only slightly because of
atmospheric
atmospheric and and weather
weather conditions.
conditions. By By using
using special
special radar
radar antennas,
antennas, this
this energy
energy can
can bebe focused
focused
into aa desired
desired direction.
direction. Thus
Thus thethe direction
direction (in azimuth and elevation) of
(in azimuth and elevation) of the the reflecting
reflecting objects
objects can
can
be measured.
measured.
These principles
principles can
can basically
basically be be implemented
implemented in in aa radar
radar system
system and
and allow
allow the
the determination
determination of of the
the
distance, the direction
direction and
and the
the height
height ofof the
the reflecting
reflecting object.
object.
(The effects
effects which
which atmosphere
atmosphere and and weather
weather have
have onon the
the transmitted
transmitted energy
energy will
willbebetemporarily
temporarilyignored,
ignored,
for this discussion
discussion onon determining
determining rangerange and
and direction).
direction).

1.4
1.4 PRINCIPLE OF
OF MEASUREMENT
MEASUREMENT:

1.4.1
1.4.1 Range Measurement
Measuremen
The distance is determined
determined from
from the
the running
running time
time of
of the
the high-frequency
high-frequency transmitted
transmitted signal
signal and
and the
the propaga-
propaga-
tion speed
tion speed (c00). The
The actual
actual range
range of
of aa target
target from
from the
the radar
radar is
is known
known as slant
as slant range.
range. Slant
Slant range
range isis the
the line
line of
of
4 Basics Part-I
sight distance between the radar and the object illuminated. Ground range is the horizontal distance between the
emitter and its target and its calculation requires knowledge of the target’s elevation. Since the waves travel to
a target and back, the round trip time is dividing by two in order to obtain the time the wave took to reach the
target. Therefore the following formula arises for the slant range:
R = (c0*t)/2
where c0 = speed of light=3.108 m/s;
t = measured running time [s];
R = slant range antenna – aim [m]
The distances are expressed in kilometers or nautical miles (1 NM = 1.852 km).
Derivation of the equation: Range is the distance from the radar site to the target measured along the
line of sight.
v = s/t
where v = velocity of propagation;
s = distance;
t = time taken to cover the distance
thus c0 = 2R/t
The factor of two in the equation comes from the observation that the radar pulse must travel to the
target and back before detection, or twice the range.
R = c0*t/2 (in meters)
where c0= 3·108 m/s, is the speed of light at which all electromagnetic waves propagate.
If the respective running time t is known, then the distance R between a target and the radar can be
calculated by using this equation.

1.4.2 Bearing Measurement

The angular determination of the target is determined by the directivity of the antenna. Directivity, sometimes
known as the directive gain, is the ability of the antenna to concentrate the transmitted energy in a particular
direction. An antenna with high directivity is also called a directive antenna. By measuring the direction in
which the antenna is pointing when the echo is received, both the azimuth and elevation angles from the radar
to the object or target can be determined. The accuracy of angular measurement is determined by the directivity,
which is a function of the size of the antenna.

Fig. 1.3: Direction-determination (bearing)

Radar units usually work with very high frequencies. Reasons for this are:
• High resolution (the smaller the wavelength, the smaller the objects the radar is able to detect).
• Higher the frequency, smaller the antenna size at the same gain.
The True Bearing (referenced to true north) of a radar target is the angle between true north and a line
pointed directly at the target. This angle is measured in the horizontal plane and in a clockwise direction from
true north. (The bearing angle to the radar target may also be measured in a clockwise direction from the cen-
treline of your own ship or aircraft and is referred to as the relative bearing).
Basics Part-I 5

Fig. 1.4: Variation of echo signal strength

The antennas of most radar systems are designed to radiate energy in a one-directional lobe or beam
that can be moved in bearing simply by moving the antenna. The shape of the beam is such that the echo sig-
nal strength varies in amplitude as the antenna beam moves across the target. In actual practice, search radar
antennas move continuously; the point of maximum echo, determined by the detection circuitry or visually by
the operator, is when the beam points direct at the target. Weapons-control and guidance radar systems are po-
sitioned to the point of maximum signal return and maintained at that position either manually or by automatic
tracking circuits.
In order to have an exact determination of the bearing angle, a survey of the north direction is necessary.
Therefore, older radar sets must expensively be surveyed either with a compass or with help of known trigono-
metrically points. More modern radar sets take on this task and with the help of the GPS satellites determine
the north direction independently.
Transfer of Bearing Information: The rapid and accurate transmission of the bearing information be-
tween the turntable with the mounted antenna and the scopes can be carried out for
• servo systems and
• counting of azimuth change pulses
Servo systems are used in older radar antennas and missile launchers and works with the help of de-
vices like synchro torque transmitters and synchro torque receivers. Nowadays radars use the concept of and
Azimuth-Change-Pulses (ACP). Here In every rotation of the antenna a coder sends many pulses and these are
then counted in the scopes.
Newer radar units work completely without or with a partial mechanical motion. These radars employ
electronic phase scanning in bearing and/or in elevation (phased-array-antenna).

1.4.3 Maximum Unambiguous Range

During transmissions of radar pulses, we cannot send out another pulse until a time window has passed, in
which we expect to see a return echo. The maximum measuring distance Rmax of a radar unit depends only on
the value determined in the radar equation but also on the duration of the receiving time.

Fig. 1.5: A second-sweep echo in a distance of 400 km

The radar timing system is reset to zero each time a pulse is radiated. This is to ensure that the range
detected is measured from time zero each time. Echo signals arriving after the reception time can be either of
the following:
• They remain unconsidered since the radar equipment isn’t ready to receive during this time.
• Considered as reception times where they lead to measuring failures (ambiguous returns).
The maximum range at which a target can be located so as to guarantee that the leading edge of the
received backscatter from that target is received before transmission begins for the next pulse is called maxi-
mum unambiguous range or the first range ambiguity. The pulse-repetition frequency (PRF) determines this
maximum unambiguous range of a given radar before ambiguities start to occur. This range can be determined
by using the following equations:
6 Basics Part-I
6 Basics Part-I
Rmax = c0 . (PRT - PW)/2 ...(i)
Rmax = c0 . (PRT - PW)/2 ...(i)
(PRT − PW ) in [µs]
6 Rmax = (PRT6.66 − PWµ)sin [μs] in [km] Basics Part-I...(ii)
Rmax = in [km] ...(ii)
R = c 6.66 μ8 s )/2
. (PRT - P ...(i)
where c0 is the speed of light with 3·10 m/s.
max 0 W

where
The c0 iswidth
pulse the speed
(PW)(PRTof light
in these− PWwith
) in [3·10
equationsμs] m/s.
8
indicates that the complete echo impulse must be received.The
The pulse
pulse repetition timewidthRmax(P=Wof) in
(PRT) these is
a radar equations
important inindicates
[km] that the complete
when determining echo impulse
the maximum must be target
range because received.The
...(ii)
return-
6.66 μs
pulse repetition time (PRT) of a
times that exceed the PRT of the radar is important
system appear when determining
at incorrect the maximum
locations (ranges) onrange
the because targetReturns
radar screen. return-
appear where c0 is the speed of light
arewith 3·108 m/s.
times that exceed the PRT of the radar system appear at incorrect locations (ranges) on the radar screen. Returns
that at these incorrect ranges referred as ambiguous returns or second-sweep echoes.
By The
that appear at pulseincorrect
these
employing  width (PWranges
staggered ) in theseareequations
PRT,  targetindicates
referred
the asambiguousthat the
ambiguous complete
returns
return or echo
isn’t impulse must
second-sweep
represented be received.The
echoes.
any more by small arc.
pulse repetition time (PRT) of a radar is important when determining the maximum range because
By employing
This movement staggered
or instability of thePRT, the target
ambiguous returnambiguous return typically
is represented isn’t represented
as a collection oftarget
any more by return-
points small arc.
in certain
times that exceed the PRT of the radar system appear at incorrect locations (ranges) on the radar screen. Returns
This movement
equipment or instability of the ambiguous return is represented typically as a
because of the change in reception times from impulse to impulse. With this distinction, a computercollection of points in certain
that appear at these incorrect ranges are referred as ambiguous returns or second-sweep echoes.
equipmentsignal
controlled because of the staggered
processing
By employing
change inPRT,
reception
can calculate times
thetarget
the actual from impulse
distance.
ambiguous
to impulse. With this distinction, a computer
return isn’t represented any more by small arc.
controlled signal processing can calculate the actual distance.
This movement or instability of the ambiguous return is represented typically as a collection of points in certain
equipment because of the change in reception times from impulse to impulse. With this distinction, a computer
controlled signal processing can calculate the actual distance.

Fig. 1.6: The ambiguous target does not have a stable position on the screen at staggered PRT.
1.6: The ambiguous target does not have a stable position on the screen at staggered PRT.
Fig. 1.6: The ambiguous target does not have a stable position on the screen at staggered PRT.

unambiguous target ambiguous return(collection of points)

unambiguousFig.
target ambiguous
1.7: return(collection
Unambiguous returns of points)
returns 
Fig. 1.7: Unambiguous returns
Modern 3D- radar with a phased
a phased array antenna don’t
antenna don’t have this problem with an ambiguous range. The
Modernsteers
system computer 3D- radar with a phased
the transmitted array so
beams antenna don’t have this
that ambiguous problem
returns fromwith
theanprevious
ambiguous range.
pulses areThe
not re-
system computer steers the transmitted beams so that ambiguous returns from the previous pulses are not re-
ceived while the antenna beam points in another direction.
ceived while the antenna beam points in another direction.

1.4.4 Minimal
1.4.4 Measuring
Minimal MeasuringRange
Range

Fig.
Fig.1.8:
1.8: The
The Radars “blindrange”
Radars “blind range”
Fig. 1.8: The Radars “blind range”
 Rmin
Monostatic pulse radar uses the same antenna for transmitting and receiving. During the transmit-
ting time, the radar cannot receive any pulses. The radar receiver is switched off using an electronic switch,
called duplexer. The minimal measuring range Rmin (“blind range”) is the minimum distance which the tar-
get must be away from the radar to be detected. Herein it is necessary that the transmitting pulse leaves the
antenna completely and the radar unit switches on the receiver. The transmitting time τ and the recovery
Basics Part-I 7 time
trecovery should be as short aspulse
Monostatic possible, if targets
radar uses areantenna
the same to be detected in theand
for transmitting local area. During the transmit-
receiving.
ting time, the radar cannot receive any pulses. The radar receiver is switched off using an electronic switch,
c0 ⋅ (τ + measuring
called duplexer. The minimal
t re cov ery ) range Rmin (“blind range”) is the minimum distance which the tar-
Rmin =
get must be away from the radar 2 to be detected. Herein it is necessary that the transmitting pulse leaves the
antenna completely and the radar unit switches on the receiver. The transmitting time τ and the recovery time
Targets at a range equivalent to the pulse width from the radar are not detected. A typical value
trecovery should be as short as possible, if targets are to be detected in the local area.
of 1 μs
pulse width of a short range radar corresponds to a minimum range of about 150 m, which is generally accept-
c0 ⋅ (t + t re cov ery )
able. However, radars
R with min
longer
= pulse width suffer a relatively large minimum range, notably pulse compres-
2
sion radars, which can use pulse lengths of the order of tens or even hundreds of microseconds. Targets at ranges
Targets at a range equivalent to the pulse width from the radar are not detected. A typical value of 1 µs
closer thanpulse
thiswidth
minimum arerange
of a short saidradar
to be eclipsed.to a minimum range of about 150 m, which is generally accept-
corresponds
able. However, radars with longer pulse width suffer a relatively large minimum range, notably pulse compres-
sion radars, which can use pulse lengths of the order of tens or even hundreds of microseconds. Targets at ranges
closer than this minimum are said to be eclipsed.

1.4.5 Elevation AngleAngle

1.4.5 Elevation

Fig.Fig.
1.9:1.9:
DeDefinition
nition ofofelevation
elevationangle ε
angle ε
Altitude- or height-finding search radars use a very narrow beam in the vertical plane. The beam is mechanically
Altitude- or
or height- nding
electronically search
scanned radars use
in elevation a verytargets.
to pinpoint narrow beam in theradar
Height-finding vertical
systems plane. The
that also beam isbear-
determine mechanically
or electronically
ing mustscanned in elevation
have a narrow beam in theto horizontal
pinpoint plane
targets. Height-
in addition nding
to the one inradar systems
the vertical that also determine bear-
plane.
ing must have a narrow beamangle
The elevation in the horizontal
is the planetheinhorizontal
angle between additionplane
to the
andonethe in
linethe
of vertical plane.in the
sight, measured
vertical plane. The Greek letter Epsilon (ε) describes the elevation angle. The elevation
The elevation angle is the angle between the horizontal plane and the line of sight, measured angle is positive above in the
the horizon (0° elevation angle), and negative below the horizon.
vertical plane. The Greek letter Epsilon (ε) describes the elevation angle. The elevation angle is positive above
the horizon (0° elevation angle), and negative below the horizon.
1.4.6 Range Resolution

1.4.6 Range Resolution

Fig. 1.10: Range resolution

Fig. 1.10: Range resolution

8 Basics Part-I
The target resolution of a radar is its ability to distinguish between targets that are very close in either range or
bearing. Weapons control radars, which require great precision, should be able to distinguish between targets
that are only yards apart. Search radar is usually less precise and only distinguishes between targets that are
hundreds of yards or even miles apart. Resolution is usually divided into two categories: range resolution and
bearing resolution.
Range resolution is the ability of a radar system to distinguish between two or more targets on the same
bearing but at different ranges. The degree of range resolution depends on the width of the transmitted pulse,
the types and sizes of targets and the efficiency of the receiver and indicator. Pulse width is the primary factor in
range resolution. A well-designed radar system, with all other factors at maximum efficiency, should be able to
distinguish targets separated by one-half the pulse width time τ. Therefore, the theoretical range resolution cell
of a radar system can be calculated from the following equation:
c0 ⋅ t c0 = speed of light
Sr = [m] t = transmitter pulse width
2
Sr = range resolution as a distance between the two targets
The following figures show the range resolution for a pulse width of one microsecond. If the spacing
between two aircrafts is small, then the radar “sees” only one target as shown in Figure 1.11.

Fig. 1.11: Two aim with too small spacing

When the spacing is large enough the Figure 1.12 illustrates the attention.

Fig. 1.12: Two aim with large enough spacing

Basics Part-I 9
1.4.7 Angular Resolution
Angular resolution is the minimum angular separation at which two equal targets at the same range can be sepa-
rated. The angular resolution characteristics of a radar are determined by the antenna beam width represented
by the -3 dB angle Θ which is defined by the half-power (-3 dB) points. The half-power points of the antenna
radiation pattern (i.e. the -3 dB beam width) are normally specified as the limits of the antenna beam width for
the purpose of defining angular resolution; two identical targets at the same distance are, therefore, resolved in
angle if they are separated by more than the antenna beam width. An important remark has to be made immedi-
ately: the smaller the beam width Θ, the higher the directivity of the radar antenna, the better the bearing resolu-
tion. The angular resolution as a distance between two targets depends on the slant-range and can be calculated
with help of the following formula:
Θ
SA < 2 R ⋅ sin [ m]
2
Θ = antenna beam width (Theta), SA = angular resolution as a distance between the two targets R =
slant range aims – antenna

Fig. 1.13: Angular Resolution

1.4.8 Radar Using Intrapulse-Modulation

Fig. 1.14: Range resolution as a function of transmitters bandwidth

In a pulse compression system, the range-resolution of the radar is given by the length of the pulse at the
output-jack of the pulse compressing stage. The ability to compress the pulse depends on the bandwidth of the
transmitted pulse (BWtx) and not by its pulse width. The receiver needs at least the same bandwidth to process
the full spectrum of the echo signals.
c0
Sr >
2 ⋅ BWtx
This allows very high resolution (and a small radar range resolution cell) to be obtained with long puls-
es, thus with a higher average power. Figure 1.13 shows the variation of slant range resolution with bandwidth.
A resolution of 1.5 m will be achieved with a -3 dB bandwidth of 100 MHz theoretically.

1.4.9 Radars Accuracy

Radar accuracy is a measure of the ability of a radar system to determine the correct range, bearing, and, in
some cases, height of an object. Some factors affecting accuracy are pulse shape and atmospheric conditions.
Pulse Shape: In the case of a pulse radar, the shape and width of the RF pulse influences minimum
range, range accuracy, and maximum range. The ideal pulse shape is a square wave having vertical leading and
10 Basics Part-I
trailing edges. However, equipments do not usually produce the ideal waveforms. Since the receiver cannot
receive target reflections while the transmitter is operating, you should be able to see that a narrow pulse is
necessary for short ranges. A sloping trailing edge extends the width of the transmitter pulse, although it may
add very little to the total power generated. Therefore, along with a narrow pulse, the trailing edge should be as
near vertical as possible.
A sloping leading edge also affects minimum range as well as range accuracy since it provides no defi-
nite point from which to measure elapsed time on the indicator time base. Using a starting point at the lower
edge of the pulse’s leading edge would increase minimum range. Using a starting point high up on the slope
would reduce the accuracy of range measurements at short ranges which are so vital for accurate solution of the
fire-control problem. Maximum range is influenced by pulse width and pulse repetition frequency (PRF). Since
a target can reflect only a very small part of the transmitted power, the greater the transmitted power, the greater
the strength of the echo that could be received. Thus, a transmitted pulse should quickly rise to its maximum
amplitude, remain at this amplitude for the duration of the desired pulse width, and decay instantaneously to
zero. Figure 1.13 illustrates the effects of pulse shapes.

Fig. 1.15: Pulse shapes and effects.

Atmospheric Conditions: Electromagnetic wavefronts travel through empty space in straight lines at
the speed of light, but the REFRACTIVE INDEX of the atmosphere affects both the travel path and the speed of
the electromagnetic wavefront. The path followed by electromagnetic energy in the atmosphere, whether direct
or reflected, usually is slightly curved; and the speed is affected by temperature, atmospheric pressure, and the
amount of water vapor present in the atmosphere, which all affect the refractive index. As altitude increases, the
combined effects of these influences, under normal atmospheric conditions, cause a small, uniform increase in
signal speed. This increase in speed causes the travel path to curve slightly downward, as shown in figure 1.14.
The downward curve extends the radar horizon beyond a line tangent to the earth, as illustrated in figure 1.14.

Fig. 1.16: Wavefront path.

Basics Part-I 11
Some results of radar units are indicated in the following table as example:
Table 1.1: Examples
Radar unit Accuracy in bearing Accuracy in range Accuracy in height
Rohini radar < ±0.5° < 50 m  5 millirad
LANZA < ±0.14° < 50 m 340 m ≈ 1150 feet (at 100 NM)
GM 400 < ±0,3° < 50 m 600 m ≈ 2000 feet (at 100 NM)
RRP–117 < ±0,18° < 463 m 1000 m ≈ 3000 feet (at 100 NM)
MSSR-2000 < ±0.049° < 44.4 m  
STAR-2000 < ±0.16° < 60 m  
Variant < ±0.25° < 25 m  

1.5 RADAR TIMING PERFORMANCE

1.5.1
Pulse Repetition Frequency:
Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF)

Pulse width: τ; Pulse Repetition Time :PRT

Fig. 1.17: Radar pulse relationships
The Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF) of the radar system is the number of pulses that are transmitted per
second.
Radar systems radiate each pulse at the carrier frequency during transmit time (or Pulse Width PW),
wait for returning echoes during listening or rest time, and then radiate the next pulse, as shown in the figure 17.
The time between the beginning of one pulse and the start of the next pulse is called pulse-repetition time (PRT)
and is equal to the reciprocal of PRF as follows:
PRT = 1/PRF
The radar system pulse repetition frequency determines its ability to unambiguously measure target
range and range rate in a single coherent processing interval as well as determining the inherent clutter rejec-
tion capabilities of the radar system. In order to obtain an unambiguous measurement of one target range, the
interval between radar pulses must be greater than the time required for a single pulse to propagate to a target
at a given range and back. The maximum unambiguous range is then given by
R unamb = c0/2*PRF= c0.PRT/2
where c0 is the velocity of electromagnetic propagation.
12 Basics Part-I
1.5.2 Duty Cycle
Peak- and Average Power

Ppeak P τ

Ppeak T

T τ
Fig. 1.18: Duty cycle, peak- and average power
The energy content of a continuous-wave radar transmission may be easily figured because the trans-
mitter operates continuously. However, pulsed radar transmitters are switched on and off to provide range tim-
ing information with each pulse. The amount of energy in this waveform is important because maximum range
is directly related to the transmitter output power. The more energy the radar system transmits, the greater the
target detection range will be. The energy content of the pulse is equal to the peak (maximum) power level of
the pulse multiplied by the pulse width. However, meters used to measure power in a radar system do so over a
period of time that is longer than the pulse width. For this reason, pulse-repetition time is included in the power
calculations for transmitters. Power measured over such a period of time is referred to as average power.
P/Pi = P(average)/P(peak) = pulse width(τ)/PRT(T) = Duty cycle
Peak power must be calculated more often than average power. This is because most measurement
instruments measure average power directly. Transposing the upper equation gives us a common way for calcu-
lating peak power/average power.
Because of the storage of the energy in the modulator of a radar’s transmitter, the power supply must
make plant for the transmitter available a little more than the average power only.
Duty cycle: The product of pulse width (pw) and pulse-repetition frequency (PRF) in the above for-
mula is called the duty cycle of a radar system. Duty cycle is the fraction of time that a system is in an “active”
state. In particular, it is used in the following contexts: Duty cycle is the proportion of time during which a
component, device, or system is operated. Suppose a transmitter operates for 1 microsecond, and is shut off
for 99 microseconds, then is run for 1 microsecond again, and so on. The transmitter runs for one out of 100
microseconds, or 1/100 of the time, and its duty cycle is therefore 1/100, or 1 percent. The duty cycle is used to
calculate both the peak power and average power of a radar system.

1.5.3 Dwell Time/Hits Per Scan

Most processes in pulsed radar are time dependent. Some terms established to describe this time-dependence
are as follows:

Fig. 1.19: the target on the screen is a result of hits

Basics Part-I
13 13
Basics Part-I
Dwell Time: The time that an antenna beam spends on a target is called dwell time time (DT).
(DT). The dwell
time of a 2D–search radar depends predominantly on the antennas horizontal beam width width ΘAZ and
ΘAZ and the turn
speed n of
speed n of the antenna (rotations per minute).
The dwell time can be calculated using the following equation:
TD = θAZ*60 / 360°*n
TD 360°*n (in seconds)
(in seconds)
Hits per Scan: The value of hits per scan
scan (m)����������������������������������������������������������
(m)  ���������������������������������������������������������
defines
de nes the number of echo signals signals per
per single target
target dur-
dur-
time TD and
ing every antenna swing received. The dwell time the pulse
TD and the pulse repetition time time PRT determine
PRT determine the value of
hits per scan.
m = TD / PRT=
m PRT= θAZ*60 360°*n
θAZ*60 / 360°*n
To enable radar equipments to evaluate the target information with suf sufficient
cient precision, hit numbers are
required to be between 1 and 20 as necessary, depending on the radar set operating mode.

1.5.4 RPM calculations

1.5.4 Calculations
minute, dwell
Radar parameters such as antenna rotations per minute, time, maximum
dwell time, maximum unambiguous range, pulse rep-
etition frequency (PRF), maximum number of of hits
hits per target are
target are strongly interdependent. Also all other radar
characteristics such as range and azimuth resolution, blind speed etc could be derived from these basic timing
using monopulse
considerations. A classic radar (i.e. radar not using monopulse technology) operating as an ATC-Radar needs a
data renewal time of less than 55 seconds.
seconds. This requirement limits the receiving time and the maximum unam-
biguous range as following:

Fig. 1.20: Time-dependences in Radar

Since the radar processing in surveillance radar is still in real time (with relatively low, but constant
delay), the data renewal time depends on the antenna revolution time. To direct in the same azimuth angle after
55 seconds,
seconds, so that the radar can measure the co-ordinates again, the antenna must turn with 12 12 revolutions
revolutions per
minute at least.
The dwell time which is the time that an antenna beam spends on a target, depends predominantly on
the antenna’s horizontal
horizontal beam width and
beam width and the turn speed of the antenna. If we assume, that a well designed para-
bolic antenna has a beam width of 1.6 1.6 degrees,
degrees, the full circle of 360 degrees is divided by360°/1.6° = 225225 dif-
dif-
ferent directions. 55 seconds
seconds divided by the number of 225 gives a dwell time of of 5 22.22 milliseconds.
5 s / 225 = 22.22 milliseconds.
These radar sets need a given number of hits per scan. This is necessary to integrate the signals of differ-
ent pulse periods for a better distinction of wanted signals from unwanted noise, as well as to measure a correct
angular direction. Assuming a necessary number of 20 hits per scan, the maximum pulse period takes a time of
11 millisecond
millisecond therefore. Assuming a receiving time less than 1 millisecond, the maximum unambiguous range
of the ATC-radar is smaller than 150
150 kilometers.
kilometers. If the radar uses aa staggered pulse
staggered pulse repetition frequency to avoid
blind speeds in radar signal processing, then the smallest period gives the base to the range calculation. So we
must calculate with a period of about 0.80.8 ms
ms instead of 11 ms.
ms. The maximum unambiguous range of this given
120 kilometers
ATC-radar is 120 65 nautical
kilometers or 65 nautical miles therefore.
14 Basics Part-I
So we can see, that the time scheduling of a radar is very important. Most of the parameters are fixed
and the maximum range of given radar set is pre-determined depending on time. Additional measuring of an
elevation angle is not possible often. For a higher range of the radar, fundamental changes in the radar signal
processing like monopulse technology and/or digital beam forming are required. Even small changes in the
required number of hits per scan (as a possible alternative to increase, the receiving time to achieve a better
unambiguous range) have a negative influence on the radars probability of detection.

1.6 THE RADAR EQUATION

1.6.1 Derivation
If the power of the radar transmission is denoted by Pt and if an omnidirectional antenna is used, that is, one
which radiates uniformly in all directions, the power density (power per unit area) at a distance R from the radar
is equal to the transmitter power divided by the surface are 4πR2 of an imaginary sphere of radius R, or
Power density from omni directional antenna = Pt / 4πR2 (1.1)
Radars usually employ directive antennas instead of omnidirectional antenna, to channel most of the
radiated power Pt , into some particular direction. The gain Gt of an antenna is a measure of the increased power
radiated in the direction of the target as compared with the power that would have been radiated from an iso-
tropic antenna.
The power density at the target from an antenna with a transmitting gain Gt is
Power density from directive antenna = PtGt /4πR2
The target intercepts a portion of the radiated power and reradiates it in the direction of the radar
Power reradiated in target direction = PtGtσ /4πR2
The parameter σ is the radar cross section of the target and has the dimensions of area. It is a character-
istics of the target and is a measure of its size as seen by the radar. The power density in the echo signal at the
radar receiving antenna is then
Power density of echo signal at radar = (PtGtσ / (4πR2)2)
The radar antenna captures a portion of the echo power. If the effective capture area of the receiving
antenna is Ae, the echo power Pr received at the radar is
Pr = PtGt Ae σ /(4πR2)2
This is the fundamental form of the radar equation. Note that the important antenna parameters are the
transmitting gain and the receiving area.
Antenna theory gives the relationship between antenna gain and effective are as
Gt = 4πAt /λ2 Gr = 4πAr /λ2
Where the subscripts r and t refer to the receiving and transmitting antennas, respectively. If a common
antenna is used for both transmission and reception (as usually the case), the reciprocity theorem of antenna
theory states that Gt = Gr =G and At = Ar = Ae. Using these relationships, eq becomes
Pr = Pt Ae2 σ/4πR4 λ2
or Pr = Pt G2 λ2 σ / (4π)3 R4
The maximum radar range Rmax is the distance beyond which that the target can no longer be detected.
It occurs when the received echo signal Pr just equals the minimum detectable signal Smin. Therefore
Rmax = [Pt G2 λ 2 σ / (4π)3 Smin] 1/4
An application of this radar equation is to easily visualize how the performances of radar influence the
range.
All considerations, when calculating the radar equation, were made assuming that the electromagnetic
waves propagate under ideal conditions without any disturbing influences. In practice, a number of losses should
be considered since they reduce the effectiveness of the radar considerably.
The radar equation is thus extended by including the loss factor L.
This factor L includes the following losses:
Internal attenuation factors of the radar on the transmitting and receiving paths
Fluctuation losses during reflection
Atmospheric losses during propagation of the electromagnetic waves to and from the target
Basics Part-I 15
High frequency components, such as waveguides, filters and also a radome, generate internal losses. For
a given radar this loss is relatively constant and also easily measured. Atmospheric attenuation and reflections
at the Earth’s surface are permanent influences.

1.6.2 Reflection from Ground

The trigonometric representation shows the influence of the Earth’s surface. The Earth plane surrounding a ra-
dar antenna has a significant impact on the vertical polar diagram. The combination of the direct and re-reflected
ground echo changes the transmitting and receiving patterns of the antenna. This is substantial in the VHF range
and decreases with increasing frequency. For the detection of targets at low heights, a reflection at the Earth’s
surface is necessary. This is possible only if the ripples of the area within the first Fresnel zone do not exceed
the value 0.001 R (i.e.: within a radius of 1000 m no obstacle may be larger than 1 m).

Fig. 1.21: Detour of ground reflections

Specialized Radars at lower (VHF) frequency bands make use of the reflections at the Earth’s surface
and lobing to maximize cover at low levels. At higher frequencies these reflections are more disturbing. The
following picture shows the lobe structure caused by ground reflections. Normally this is highly undesirable as
it introduces intermittent cover as aircrafts fly through the lobes. The technique has been used in ATC ground
mounted radars to extend the range but is only successful at low frequencies where the broad lobe structure
permits adequate cover at higher elevations.

Fig. 1.22: A vertical pattern diagram with influences of ground reflections

Raising the height of the antenna makes the lobe pattern finer. A fine grained lobing structure is often
filled in by irregularities in the ground plane. Specifically, if the ground plane deviates from a flat surface, then
the reinforcement and destruction pattern resulting from the ground reflections breaks down. Avoidance of lobe
effects is one of the prime considerations when selecting a radar location and the height of the antenna.

1.6.3 Radar Cross Section

The size and ability of a target to reflect radar energy can be summarized into a single term, σ, known as the
radar cross-section, which has units of m². This unit shows that the radar cross section is an area. If absolutely
all of the incident radar energy on the target were reflected equally in all directions, then the radar cross sec-
tion would be equal to the target’s cross-sectional area as seen by the transmitter. In practice, some energy is
16 Basics Part-I
absorbed and the reflected energy is not distributed equally in all directions. Therefore, the radar cross-section
is quite difficult to estimate and is normally determined by measurement.

Fig. 1.23: A typical RCS Diagram

The target radar cross sectional area depends on factors such as the following:
• the airplane’s physical geometry and exterior features
• the direction of the illuminating radar
• the radar transmitters frequency
• the used material types
The use of stealth technology to reduce radar cross section increases the survivability and decreases the
target detection of military aircraft.

1.6.4 Calculation of the Radar Cross Section

Radar cross section (RCS) is the measure of a target’s ability to reflect radar signals in the direction of the radar
receiver, i.e. it is a measure of the ratio of backscatter density in the direction of the radar (from the target) to the
power density that is intercepted by the target. Since the power is distributed as the shape of a sphere, a small
part of this ((4·π·r2)) can be received by the radar.
Radar cross section σ is as defined as:
4 ⋅ π ⋅ r 2 ⋅ Sr
s =
St
where σ : measure of the target’s ability to reflect radar signals in direction of the radar receiver
in [m²]
St : power density that is intercepted by the target, in [W/m²]
Sr : scattered power density in the range r, in [W/m²]
The RCS of a target can be viewed as a comparison of the strength of the reflected signal from a target
to the reflected signal from a perfectly smooth sphere of cross sectional area of 1 m².
Table shows Typical values of RCS for point like targets
Table 1.3: RCS for Point-Like Targets
Targets RCS[m2] RCS[dB]
bird 0.01 -20
man 1 0
cabin cruiser 10 10
automobile 100 20
truck 200 23
corner reflector 20379 43.1
Some targets have large values of RCS owing to their size and orientation and consequently, reflect a
large portion of the incident power.
Basics Part-I 17
1.6.5 Radar Loss Budget
A typical Search Radar Loss Budget is as follows:
Table 1.4: Typical Search Radar Loss Budget
Component Symbol Loss
Athmospheric loss La 1.2 dB
Beamshape loss Lant 1.3 dB
Beamwidth factor LB 1.2 dB
Filter matching loss Ln 0.8 dB
Fluctuation loss (for Pd=0.9) Lf 8.4 dB
Integration loss Li 3.2 dB
Miscellaneous signal-processing loss Lx 3.0 dB
Receive line loss Lr 1.0 dB
Transmit line loss Lt 1.0 dB
Total system loss Ltotal 21.1 dB
Every radar system has got miscellaneous losses. Some of these are preventable, or at least reducible
by a well designed radar. Some losses can be even minimized by maintenance. But unfortunately most of these
losses are inevitable. The sum of losses in Table 4 is has a value of 21.1 Decibels. Well designed radars have a
lesser loss of about 13 to 15 Decibels mostly.
Atmospheric Losses: These are losses due to atmospheric absorption by the atmosphere. They are de-
pendent upon the radar operating frequency, the range to the target and the elevation angle of the target relative
to the radar. These losses are insignificant at low frequencies less than 3 Gigahertz at clear weather conditions.
Beamshape Loss: This loss term accounts for the fact that, as the beam scans across the target, the sig-
nal amplitudes of the pulses integrated coherently or non-coherently varies. Because of this, the full integration
gain of the integrator cannot be realized. Typical values of the in integration gain are:
1.6 dB for a scanning, fan beam radar
3.2 dB for a thinner beam, scanning radar
3.2 dB for a phased array radar wherein the beams of a search sector overlap at the 3-dB beam positions.
For phase array radars the beam doesn’t move continuously (in most cases) but in discrete steps. This
means that the phased array radar may not point the beam directly at the target. This means, in turn, that the
antenna gain used in the radar range equation will not be its maximum value. As with the other cases, this phe-
nomena is accommodated through the inclusion of a loss term called, in this case, beam shape loss.
Beam width factor: The azimuth beam width of a radar antenna does not have the same value in all
elevation angles. This is summarized by an additional loss factor.
Fluctuation Loss: This relatively high loss is a result of the fluttering in the values of radar cross sec-
tion. In order to overcome some of the target size fluctuations many radars use two or more different illumi-
nation frequencies. Frequency diversity typically uses two transmitters operating in tandem to illuminate the
target with two separate frequencies.
Miscellaneous Signal Processing Loss: If the radar uses an MTI with a staggered PRF waveform, or
a good MTI and PRF stagger design, it will suffer up to 3 dB signal processing loss.
Transmit Line Losses: These are losses typically associated with wave guides and other components
between the power amplifier and the antenna. The values are typically 1 to 2 dB in a well-designed radar.
Receive Losses: These are associated with the wave guides and other components between the antenna
and RF amplifier. These are also typically 1 to 2 dB for a well-designed radar. If the noise figure is referenced
to the antenna terminals, receive losses are included in the noise figure.

1.7 RADAR FREQUENCY BANDS

Waves and Frequency Ranges: Figure shows traditional IEEE standard and new range for different frequency
bands. Some of the wide band ranges are broken into two such as S is now E & F, C is now G&H band etc.:
18 Basics Part-I

Fig. 1.24: Waves and frequency ranges used by radar.

Radar systems work in a wide band of transmitted frequencies. The higher the frequency of a radar
system, the more it is affected by weather conditions such as rain or clouds. But the higher the transmitted fre-
quency, the better is the accuracy of the radar system.

Fig. 1.25: Some radars and its frequency band

The figure 1.26 shows the frequency bands used by e.g. radar systems.
A- and B-Band (HF- und VHF- Radar): These radar bands below 300 MHz have a long histori-
cal background because these frequencies represented the frontier of radio technology at the time during the
World War II. Today these frequencies are used for early warning radars and the so called Over The Horizon
(OTH) Radars. Using these lower frequencies, it is easier to obtain high-power transmitters. The attenuation of
the electro-magnetic waves is lower than using higher frequencies. On the other hand, the accuracy is limited,
because a lower frequency requires antennas with very large physical size which determines angle accuracy
Basics Part-I 19
and angle resolution. These frequency-bands are used by other communications and broadcasting services too,
therefore the bandwidth of the radar is limited (at the expense of accuracy and resolution again).
C- Band (UHF- Radar): There are some specialized Radar sets developed for this frequency band
(300 MHz to1 GHz). It is a good frequency for the operation of radars for the detection and tracking of satellites
and ballistic missiles over a long range. These radars operate for early warning and target acquisition like the
surveillance radar for the Medium Extended Air Defense System (MEADS). Some weather radar-applications
such as wind profilers work with these frequencies because the electromagnetic waves are rarely affected by
clouds and rain.
The new technology of Ultra wideband (UWB) Radars uses all frequencies from A- to C-Band. UWB-
radars transmit very low pulses in all frequencies simultaneously. They are used for technical material examina-
tion and as Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) for archaeological explorations.
D- Band (L-Band Radar): This frequency band (1 to 2 GHz) is preferred for the operation of long-
range air-surveillance radars out to 250 NM (≈400 km). They transmit pulses with high power, broad bandwidth
and an intrapulse modulation often. Due to the curvature of the earth, the achievable maximum range is limited
for targets flying with low altitude. These objects disappear very fast behind the radar horizon.
In Air Traffic Management (ATM) long-range surveillance radars like the Air Route Surveillance Radar
(ARSR) work in this frequency band. Coupled with a Monopulse Secondary Surveillance Radar (MSSR) they
use a relatively large, but slower rotating antenna.
E/F-Band (S-Band Radar): The atmospheric attenuation is higher than in the D-Band. Radar sets need
a considerably higher transmitting power than in lower frequency ranges to achieve a good maximum range.
For example the Medium Power Radar (MPR) with a pulse power of up to 20 MW. In this frequency range
the influence of weather conditions is higher than in D-band. Therefore a couple of weather radars work in
E/F-Band, but more in subtropic and tropic climatic conditions, because here the radar can see beyond a severe
storm.
Special Airport Surveillance Radars (ASR) are used at airports to detect and display the position of air-
craft in the terminal area with a medium range up to 50…60 NM (≈100 km). An ASR detects aircraft position
and weather conditions in the vicinity of civilian and military airfields.
G- Band (C-Band Radar): In G- Band there are many mobile military battlefield surveillance, missile-
control and ground surveillance radar sets with short or medium range. The size of the antennas provides an
excellent accuracy and resolution, but the relatively small-sized antennas don’t bother a fast relocation. The
influence of bad weather conditions is very high. Therefore air-surveillance radars use an antenna feed with
circular polarization often. This frequency band is predetermined for most types of weather radars used to locate
precipitation in temperate zone like Europe.
I/J- Band (X- and Ku- Band Radars): In this frequency-band (8 to 12 GHz), the relationship between
used wave length and size of the antenna is considerably better than in lower frequency-bands. The I/J- Band
is a relatively popular radar band for military applications like airborne radars for performing the roles of inter-
ceptor, fighter, and attack of enemy fighters and of ground targets. A very small antenna size provides a good
performance. Missile guidance systems at I/J- band are of a convenient size and are, therefore, of interest for
applications where mobility and light weight are important and very long range is not a major requirement.
This frequency band is wide used for maritime civil and military navigation radars. Very small and
cheap antennas with a high rotation speed are adequate for a fair maximum range and a good accuracy. Slotted
waveguide and small patch antennas are used as radar antenna, under a protective radome mostly.
This frequency band is also popular for space borne or airborne imaging radars based on Synthetic
Aperture Radar (SAR) both for military electronic intelligence and civil geographic mapping. A special Inverse
Synthetic Aperture Radar (ISAR) is in use as a maritime airborne instrument of pollution control.
K- Band (K- and Ka- Band Radars): The higher the frequency, the higher is the atmospheric absorp-
tion and attenuation of the waves. Otherwise the achievable accuracy and the range resolution rise too. Radar
applications in this frequency band provide short range, very high resolution and high data renewing rate. In
ATM these radar sets are called Surface Movement Radar (SMR) or Airport Surface Detection Equipment
(ASDE). Using very short transmitting pulses of a few nanoseconds affords a range resolution so that the outline
of the aircraft can be seen on the radar’s display.
V-Band: By the molecular dispersion (such as the influence of air humidity), this frequency band stays
for a high attenuation. Radar applications are limited for a short range of a couple of meters here.
20 Basics Part-I
W-Band: Here there are two phenomena visible: a maximum of attenuation at about 75 GHz and a rela-
tive minimum at about 96 GHz. Both frequency ranges are in use practically. In automotive engineering small
built in radar sets operate at 75…76 GHz for parking assistants, blind spot and brake assists. The high attenu-
ation (here the influence of the oxygen molecules) enhances the immunity to interference of these radar sets.
Today there are radar sets operating at 96 to 98 GHz as laboratory equipments. These applications give
a preview for a use of radar in extremely high frequencies up to the order of 100 GHz.
The different designations for Radar-Frequency Bands are very confusing. This is no problem for a
radar engineer or technician. These skilled persons can handle with these different bands, frequencies and wave
lengths.

1.8 ELECTRONIC WARFARE

Fig. 1.26: Noise-modulated jamming, the jammer in 150° (VHF-Band radar)

Electronic Warfare (EW) is one of the key elements of the modern battle scenario, protecting one’s
own forces from attack, denying information to the enemy, and intercepting and disrupting his own voice com-
munication and data links. In effect, EW is an ongoing war between active systems that “attack” and defensive
systems which protect. A widespread network of electronic intelligence stations is operated by many countries
by land, sea and air, not only to monitor the electromagnetic spectrum, but also to disrupt hostile transmissions
by jamming in a number of ways.
<<<
 BASICS PART-II
Sushil Kumar Rajpoot / Minu Garg

Learning Objectives:
This chapter describes radar basics laying emphasis on more important features of radars. Upon completion
this chapter, you will be able to:
• Understand clarification of radars & device radar equation based on this clarification.
• Understand Radar cross section & Various parameters leading to its fluctuation.
• Understand Radar Clutter and its various types
• Terminologies relating to radar detection & tracking
• Understand ECM & ECCM features is radar.

RADAR TARGET DETECTION

1.9 RADAR CLASSIFICATION

Radar is an electromagnetic system for the detection and location of reflecting objects such as aircrafts, ships,
spacecraft, vehicles, people and the natural environment.
It can be classified as:
• Monostatic radars: Monostatic radars are the most common types having the transmitter and re-
ceiver co-located and sharing the common antenna. Since they use the common radiator, they have
to be of pulsed type. i.e Burst of RF waves are radiated by the antenna. Then the same antenna is
used to receive the echoes. They can be further categorized as:
• Surveillance Radars: These are radars meant for searching the given surveillance volume
periodically and detect the targets. They can be 2D and 3D types. The 2D Surveillance radar
detects the targets and provides the estimates in range and azimuth whereas the 3D type radars
provide elevation/height information. Though the 3D radars measure the elevation angle they
can compute the height taking account of the geographic location. Modern surveillance radars
can provide additional information on the range rate by measuring the Doppler independently.
Thus they are called as 4D radars. Contemporary surveillance radars have the Automatic De-
tection and Tracking (ADT) capability on hundreds of targets in real-time. Surveillance radars
can be ground based or vehicle mounted with static operation, or ship borne or airborne. The
airborne surveillance radars mounted on wide bodied aircrafts form the important element in
the Airborne early Warning and Control System (AWACS). Surveillance radars can be battery
powered and man portable weighing around 30 Kgs or short range type weighing around a few
hundred kgs which can be animal transportable or carried as under slung. These short range
radars can be brought into action within 5-15 minutes and can be deployed in any terrain. (E.g.
BFSR-SR, BFSR-MR, Bharani and Ashlesha)
There are medium range surveillance radars with ranges up to 200 kms which are generally
vehicle mounted or ship mounted. (Eg. INDRA-IIPC, Rohini, Revathi , 3DTactical Control
Radar.

21
22 Basics Part-II
There are emerging requirements to deploy surveillance radars of medium range class in hilly
and mountainous regions. These radars will be unattended or minimally attended types.
There are radars fitted on UAVs or light helicopters to perform maritime surveillance. These
radars can detect and track sea surface targets such as ships, boats etc., They can also detect
periscopes of submarines. Since radars are on elevated platform they can detect targets up to
around 70-80 NMs.
Surveillance Radars are now a days mounted onto balloons. These radars mounted under the
gondola of a stationary balloon can provide surveillance up to 300-400kms. Since the balloons
are located around 15000 ft altitude, the radars on these platforms can detect targets at low and
ultra-low levels such as cruise missiles.
The long range categories with ranges>200kms are static in operation and are relocatable.
radars capable of detecting aircrafts go up to 400 kms of range where the ones engaged in air
breathing targets including ballistic missiles will have ranges up to around 1000kms or so.
• Tracking radars: These are radars which can carry out limited search over azimuth and eleva-
tion and track the targets with high precision. They can be dedicated to specific targets by lock-
ing on to them Thus the Single target Tracking can provide frequent updates so that the radar
can provide accurate real-time information of the selected targets for fir control operations.
These radars which can be static or ship borne are also called as Fire Control Radars (FCRs).
Design of FCRs is closely linked with the type of weapon system used. Tracking radars gener-
ally get target cue information form a surveillance radar or surveillance network containing
target range azimuth and sometimes elevation.
• Multifunction Radars: The radars can carry out simultaneously search as well as tracking on
selected targets. Phase array radars with electronic beam switching capability are used for this
application. The frequency of operation is carefully chosen to provide the required accuracy
and the power-aperture is chosen for achieving the required range and accuracy. Multifunction
radars can operate in short, medium and long ranges.
• Imaging radars: Radars mounted on aerial platforms can provide photographic like images
using synthetic aperture principle. Such radars are also called as Synthetic Aperture Radars
(SARs). SARs operate on stationary objects. On the contrary when the sea surface targets
undergo pitch and roll movements the radars can provide images. These radars are called as
Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radars (ISARs). ISARs are mounted on elevated platforms such as
helicopters are aircrafts. Now a days ground based radars perform excellent range resolution on
targets and thus carry out a range profiling on targets with resolutions up to a foot. This mode
is called as range profiling and can be part of ISARs. ISAR technique is very effective on sea
surface targets in image formation in single and 2-dimensions. ISAR generate better 2D image
when the sea state is 3 or more.
• Bi-static Radars/Multi-static Radars: Bi-static radar is the one in which the transmitter and re-
ceiver are deployed at two separate locations; either or both of these locations can be changing with
time. These sites are separated by a baseline whose length is usually comparable with the ranges of
the targets of interest. Generally bi-static radars will have single or multiple transmitters and receiv-
ers at multiple locations. Receivers can sometimes use ambient illuminations such as FM transmis-
sions or non-co-operative transmitters. Such radars using non-cooperative transmitters with only
set of receivers are called as Passive Radars.
• Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) Radars: This is the most generalized configurations
where there are multiple transmitters and multiple radar receivers. These can be co-located where
each transmitter can emit different waveforms. Or the transmitters and receivers can be spatially
distributed.

Antenna Based Classification

Radar antenna is a key element in any radar. Antenna type decides the personality of any radar. Therefore radars
can be functionally classified based on the type of antenna.
Basics Part-II 23
Mechanically Scanning Antenna (MSA): Here the radar antenna will have performed beams which are
fixed by the design. There can be a single fan beam covering wider elevation and narrow on azimuth. To cover
the entire azimuth the antenna is mechanically rotated at constant rate called as revolutions per minute(RPM).
The beam will be grazing the ground and will cover the entire elevation coverage. Alternately there can be sev-
eral pencil beams stacked closely in elevation. The antenna will be mechanically rotated to cover the azimuth.
In this case the elevation angle can be measured by processing the individual beams. Surveillance radars use
either single fan beam or set of stacked beams in elevation. Tracking radars use single pencil beam.
Electronically Scanning Antenna (ESA): In this case the beam will be steered electronically by con-
trolling the phase of the array of radiating elements or by changing the frequency of the RF carrier. The beams
can be varied through array synthesis to have single or multiple beams in elevation. The scanning can be elec-
tronic either in azimuth or in elevation or both. If scanned only in elevation then the antenna is mechanically
rotated. In the case where elevation and azimuthal scanning is carried out electronically, the antenna can be
static to cover a limited azimuth sector. However to cover the entire the antenna must be rotated. ESA provides
lots of flexibility in forming the beams apart from the ability to rapidly switch the angular position. ESA are
mostly planar.
Electronically scanning antenna operates on the two dimensional or one dimensional array of radiating
elements. The rotating electronically scanning antenna (RESA) technology is becoming more and more popu-
lar. Multifunction radars invariably use electronically scanning antenna.

Continuous Wave (CW) Radars

Here, the radar continuously transmits RF power through a dedicated antenna. The echo signals from moving
targets will generate Doppler shift. This is mixed with a leaked transmitted signal and the Doppler shifted signal
is separated. Thus the measure of Doppler is used to derive the range rate. However by frequency modulating
transmitted signal with a saw tooth or triangular waveform, the ranging can be obtained by the measuring the
shift in frequency. Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW) radars are used to measure aircraft
altitude and in navigation role. Over the years CW radars are replaced with pulsed radars. The main problems in
CW radars are difficulty in isolating the receiver from the transmission, Hence the CW radar requires separated
sites for transmission and reception. Dynamic range and detection in clutter are some of the limitations making
CW radars less attractive.

2. RADAR RANGE EQUATION

Radar range equation forms the basis for any radar system design. It relates the maximum detection range for
given set of system parameters such as transmitter power, antenna gain, frequency of operation, target cross sec-
tion and various system losses. Radar equation depends on the type of radar configuration such as mono-static
or bi-static. Multi-static operation can be derived out the transmitter-receiver pairing in a bi-static configuration.
Mono-static radar:
The range equation is
PT tG 2 λ 2 σFP2
Rmax4 =
(4π)3 kTs ( S / N ) min LP LS
Where PT = Transmitted power
t = Transmitted pulse width
G = gain of the transmit/receive antenna
λ = wavelength of the RF
σ = radar cross-section
FP = polarization factor
k = Boltzmann constant
Ts = noise temperature in deg. Kelvin
(S/N)min = minimum signal-to-noise ratio required
LP = propagation loss factor
Ls = system losses.
24 Basics Part-II
Rmax can be also written as
PT G 2 λ 2 σPG
Rmax4 =
(4π)3 Ts BFn ( S / N )1 L p Ls
Where (S/N)1 is the signal-to-noise required at the detector to give the assured probability of de-
tection with single pulse & Fn is the system noise figure. B is the bandwidth of the matched filter. ‘ k’ is the
Boltzmann’s constant.
However, there will be additional gain provided by the signal processor prior to detection. This comes
out of coherent/non-coherent integration of several pulses. If PG is the processing gain then,
PT G 2 λ 2 σPG
Rmax =
(4π)3 kTs BN n ( S / N )1 L p Ls
It is this equation which is used to design the radar system with the Rmax requirement and for the given
requirement of detecting target whose nominal cross section is σ. Fp is ignored.
(S/N)1 will be set based on the required probability of detection and the set probability of false alarm.
Hence the Rmax , with the set of radar parameters, will vary with the probability of detection Pd and the probability
of false alarm Pfa.
Range Equation in terms of Power Aperture Product for a surveillance radar:
In the surveillance radar design the radar’s important resources can be quantified as the average radiated
power (Pav) and the antenna’s physical aperture A. The max range equation can be alternatively expressed as,
Pav Aρa σEi (n) ts
Rmax4 =
4πkTs Fn ( S / N )1 L p Ls Ω
Where, ts is the scan time ( revisit time)
ρa is the antenna aperture efficiency
Ω is the solid angle of the search volume which will be 2π.SinθE with θE being the
elevation angle to be searched over the 360 degree azimuth.
Ei(n)N is the integration efficiency.
Range equation of an Active Aperture Array Antenna Unit(AAAU) based Radar: If the AAAU
contains ‘N’ number of Transmit/Receive Modules(TRMs) then the range equation will be
Pt Lt Lr Ge2 N 3η2 λ 2 σ
Rmax4 =
(4π)3 Fn KTB ( S / N ) min
Where, Ge = gain of the radiating element
Pt = average output power of the TRM
Lt = losses in transmission including propagation
Lr = losses in receiving path
N = no of TRMs and is equal to the number of radiating elements
η = efficiency of the excitation function of array as compared with uniform illumination.
Bi-static radar: Bi-static version of the range equation will be
Received power
PT GT GR λ 2 σ B
PR =
(4π)3 RT2 RR2 LPT LPR LS
Where PR = received power
PT = transmitted power
GT = transmitter antenna gain in the direction of the target
GR = receiver antenna gain in the direction of the target
σB = bistatic radar cross section
RT = transmitter to target path length
RR = receiver to target path length
LPT = propagation loss over the transmitter-to-target path
LPR = propagation loss over the receiver-to-target path
LS = system losses
λ = radar wavelength, m
Basics Part-II 25
If we substitute
PT GT GR λ 2
K =
(4π)3 LPT LPR LS
Then the biostatic radar equation reduces to
K σB
RT2RR2 =
PR
With the range normalization as
2 RT
rT =
L
2 RR
rR =
L
2 ( K σ B )1/4
and C =
L PR1/4
Then rTrR = C2 representing the ovals of Cassini.

3. RADAR TARGETS

3.1 RADAR CROSS SECTION

Primary characteristic of any radar target is its ability to return energy to the receiving antenna. This called as
the radar cross section which is the effective echoing area or backscattering ( or forward scattering or bistatic-
scattering ) coefficient. It is defined as:
For a given scattering object, upon which a plane wave is incident, that portion of the scattering cross
section corresponding to a specified polarization component of the scattered wave.
Scattering cross section is
The projected area required to intercept and isotrophically radiate the same power as a scatterer(target)
scatter towards the target. Note: the scattering cross-section is equal to 4π times the ratio of the radiation
intensity of the scattered wave in the specified direction to the power flux density of the incident wave.
power reflection toward source/unit solid angle
σ =
incident power density/4π

3.1.1 Radar Cross-section Fluctuations

Popular method for representing the fluctuations of radar is the four statistical models described by Peter Swer-
ling.
Case1: The echo pulse received from the target on any one scan is of constant amplitude throughout the
scan, but is independent (uncorrelated) from scan to scan. This is slow fluctuation. This is applicable to cases
where the target consists of multiple scatterers of comparable size. This is also called as Raleigh scattering
model.
Case2: same as case 1 but the fluctuations are independent from pulse to pulse. This is called fast fluc-
tuation.
Case3: same as case1, radar cross section is assumed to be constant within a scan and independent from
scan to scan. This is representative of one large scatterer with a number of small scatterers.
Case4: same as case3 but the fluctuation is from pulse to pulse.
Assumption of case1 requires larger SNR for higher probabilities of detection. When the number of
pulses getting integrated the fluctuation loss Lf is added.
There is not much of a difference amongst the various Swerling models and the constant cross section
if the probability of detection Pd < 0.5.
26 Basics Part-II
Case 1 puts higher demand on the S/N of the echo signal especially when the Probability of detection is
higher than 0.5 To cater for this a factor called fluctuation loss is accounted in computing the max.range values.
To base the system design on Swerling case1 will give the necessary cushion and margins.
Target Scintillation: A significant source of angle error in scanning radar arises from target fluctuation
or scintillation in pulse amplitudes during the ‘n’ pulses used for measurement by any surveillance radar. The
angle error component will be
σS = 0.10 q3, q3 being the 3 dB beam width.
There is no scintillation component in the range dimension.
Radar Cross-section (RCS) of targets: Target RCS must be defined and evaluated as a function of
transmitted and received polarisations as well as aspect angle and wavelength.
Resonant phenomena: Spherical sized targets exhibit wavelength dependent phenomena. When the
dimension is comparable with the wavelength, then large oscillations occur. For dimensions smaller than wave-
length, called as ‘Rayleigh region’ the RCS rapidly falls. In the optical region wherein the size is much larger
than the wavelength, RCS closely approaches the projected area.
Target Spectrum and correlation time: The rate at which the target RCS changes and the correspond-
ing target correlation time tc are important in both detection and measurement applications.
λ where Lx is the span of the target normal to the line of sight
tc = and w is the rate of change of aspect angle.
2ωa Lx a

When cumulative probability of detection over scans separated by ts > tc is to be determined, the suc-
cessive trials at intervals ts are independent. In sequentially sampled measurement processes, the best perfor-
mance is obtained if the target remains constant during the measurement ( tc >> to) when to is the observation
time.
Fluctuation rate of target is the rate at which the RCS lobes pass across the line of sight of the radar.
The spectrum of the received signal for a target with scatterers uniformly distributed will be
2ωa Lx
fma =
λ
Correlation frequency: Targets that extend for a distance Lr along the radar line of sight have an RCS
that varies with radar frequency. Correlation frequency fc of the target will be
c
fc = .
2L
This is the frequency shift that causes the two way path between the nearest and the farthest scattering
elements to change by λ/2 thus decorrelating the echo.
De-correlation by Frequency Diversity or Frequency Agility: De-correlation of echo signal can be
obtained either by frequency diversity or frequency agility. When aiming for higher probabilities of detection
( i.e Pd > 0.8) there is considerable improvement in the fluctuation loss for Swerling case1. Frequency agility
with wide band transmitter can improve the Pd for ATC applications. However frequency diversity is resorted
to for Doppler processing as pulse to pulse frequency agility cannot be attempted for MTI.
Target Glint: Glint is defined as:
The inherent random component of error in measurement of position and/or Doppler frequency of a
complex target due to interference of the reflections from different elements of the target.
Although the interference between signal components which leads to glint also causes amplitude fluc-
tuations and related to scintillation errors in some tracking systems, the two effects are quite different. The
scintillation error results from the sequential sampling processes used in some measurement systems, and must
be considered as a separate component.
Target Recognition:
Non-Cooperative Target Recognition: This is the scheme where in target recognition information is
obtained without any cooperation of the target itself. Target recognition process consists of the following steps:
• Extracting features from backscattered electromagnetic waves from the known target
• Establishing the database of these features for the known target
• Extracting features of the unknown target with a real-time signal processor
Basics Part-II 27
• Comparing these features with that in the database and making decisions. The most difficult part
is the first one.
Difference between the incident wave and the backscatter wave depends on the following target
features:
• Shape of the target
• Aspect of the target
• Movement of the target, including the movement of the moving parts of the target
• Material of the target, including conductivity, dielectric constant, permeability and even semi-
conductor nonlinearity in the junction of metal parts. All these factors will cause the backscatter
wave to differ from the incident wave in strength, polarization, and fluctuation with time, etc.,
Target feature extraction techniques:
• One dimensional imaging with high range resolution radar: Radar with high range resolution
can resolve different scattering centers and provide the radial profile (the in dimensional image) of
the target. The radial profile can provide the measure of the radial length of the target. Such radial
profiles can provide basic classification of aircrafts and ships.
• Two dimensional Radar imaging of targets: Two dimensional images of target in range and
cross range can be obtained by Synthetic Aperture Radar(SAR) and Inverse Synthetic Aperture
Radar(ISAR) SAR can image stationary objects In ISAR every part of the moving part can have
different relative velocity with respect to the radar. By resolving the Doppler frequency various
parts of the moving object can be imaged in cross range. By combining with finer range resolution
the 2D image can be formed. In ISAR the target’s motion is used to form the image. Images formed
on ships by ISAR are very effective in target classification.
• Radar cross-section modulations: Here radar echoes fr4om moving parts within the target such
as propellers, rotating blades of a rotary wing helicopter, tank treads, rotating antennas, wing beat
of birds etc. Helicopter blades can provide flashes which can help classification. The jet engine
modulation by the rotating compressor can be used for classification.

4. RADAR CLUTTER
Cutter is the unwanted echoes from the natural environment. Clutter includes echoes from land, sea, weather
(particularly rain), birds and insects.
Echoes from land or sea are examples of surface clutter. Echoes from rain and chaff are examples of
volume clutter.
Clutter cross-section per unit area, σ0 is given by
σc
σ0 =
Ac
Similarly volume clutter per unit volume will be
σc
η =
Vc
η is also called as the reflectivity.
Surface clutter: With θB being the 3 dB beam width, and with t as the transmitted pulse width,
Clutter surface cell area will be = RθB(ct/2)secΨ where Ψ is the grazing angle.
0
PGA
t e σ q B (c/2)sec ψ
Surface clutter power per cell will be =
(4π) 2 R 3
The clutter power varies with range as R3.
And the signal to clutter power will be
σt
S/C = 0
σ Rq B (c/2)sec ψ
where σ0 is the radar cross-section of the clutter per unit area and σt is the radar cross-section.
Maximum detection range in the presence of surface clutter at low grazing angles, Rmax will be
28 Basics Part-II
σt
Rmax = 0
( S /C ) min σ q B (c/2)sec ψ
Where θB is the two azimuth beam width and is smaller than the one way beam width by √2. Therefore
the σ0 will be reduced by 1.5 db if oneway beam width is used.
Ψ is the grazing angle defined with respect to the tangent of the surface.
And
It is seen that when clutter is dominating, the max. range does not depend on the transmitted power.
The only requirement will be that the clutter power at radar receiver should be large compared to the receiver
noise. It can be seen under clutter limited max range cases, the Rmax is independent of the transmitted power and
gain of the antenna.
Unlike noise the clutter power returned from successive pulses especially stationary objects will be cor-
related and hence the integration gain on account of addition of pulses will not be effective. However at X-band
the sea clutter de-correlation time is about several milliseconds. Therefore the gain on account of integration
of pulses for stationary clutter should not be considered.
Land Clutter:
At low grazing angles: Significant clutter returns at low angles come from spatially localized or dis-
crete vertical features such as trees, tree lines, buildings, fences, or high points of the terrain. Cell to cell fluc-
tuations decrease with increasing angle. At lower angles clutter is no longer spiky. Variation on polarization or
weather is not much. Echoes at distant mountains are high at VHF than with microwave.
At medium grazing angles: land clutter is described by the parameter
σ0
γ =
sin ψ
The parameter γ is said to be independent of the grazing angle Ψ.
Land clutter at high grazing angles: At high grazing angles, antenna gain can influence. σ0 clutter
will be
8 8G
σ0 = = ≈G
q2B π2
At normal incidence σ0 will be higher than unity.
The surface clutter power C at higher grazing angles will be
πPt Ae σ0
C =
128 R 2 sin ψ
Sea Clutter: Sea clutter depends on the pointing direction of the radar antenna relative to the direction
of the wind. At low grazing angles backscattering from the sea is quite low when the wind speed is < 5 knots.
It increases rapidly with increasing wind up to 20 knots and increases more slowly at higher wind speeds. Sea
clutter is largest when the radar looks into the wind (upwind), smallest when looking with the wind (down-
wind), and intermediate when looking perpendicular to the wind (crosswind). There might be as much as 5 to
10 db variation in σ0 as the antenna rotates 3600 in azimuth. Backscatter is more sensitive to wind direction at
the higher frequencies than at lower frequencies. Horizontal polarization is more sensitive to wind direction
than vertical polarization.
Sea spikes: When sea clutter is viewed by a high resolution radar especially at high frequencies
(X-band) sea clutter is spiky. These are sporadic and have durations of seconds. They are non-stationary in time,
spatially non-homogenous and have pdf which is non-Rayleigh. The sea spikes can be mistaken as targets.
Statistical model of surface clutter: When large number of independent scatterers within the clutter
surface area then the σ0 is assumed to have Rayleigh probability distribution. When the resolution cell size is
smaller log-normal distribution is use. But Weibull distribution with two parameter is more suited to land, sea
and weather clutter modeling.
K-distribution for sea clutter: This has two components; one is fast varying with correlation time
on the order of 5 to 10 ms. This can be decorrelated by pulse to pulse agility.
Weather clutter: With the rainfall there will be backscattering from the rain drops. The received power
out of rain will be
Basics Part-II 29
1.6
2.4 PTr
P =
t
2 2
× 10−8 where r is rainfall in mm/hr.
Rλ
Detection of targets in clutter: Following are the major techniques available for detection of targets
in clutter:
• The Doppler frequency shift in MTI and pulse Doppler is a powerful method for separating moving
targets from stationary clutter.
• High resolution in range and/or angle reduces the amount of clutter with which the target must
compete, thus increasing the signal to noise ratio.
• Lower radar frequencies produce smaller echo power.
• Use of polarization discrimination can increase the target-to-clutter ratio from some types of clut-
ter, such as rain.
• Clutter echo decorrelation by observing the target and clutter at different times or with different
frequencies has some limited potential for allowing improved detectability.
• There are also techniques that help to avoid saturation of the receiver due to large clutter echoes.
These can be important to good radar performance even though do not increase the target-to-clutter
ratio.
• Use of Microwave Sensitivity Time Control (MSTC) can help to prevent the clutter echoes saturat-
ing the receiver.

5. RADAR DETECTION AND TRACKING

Envelope detector: Here the detector extracts the amplitude information and rejects the carrier. Phase infor-
mation is destroyed in this. The detector is linear if the relation between input and output are linear. When the
output is the square of the input voltage it is square law detector. If the output of the receiver is proportional to
the logarithm of the input envelope, it is called as logarithmic detector or logarithmic receiver. In synchronous
detector, the I and Q channels are used to describe the phase and amplitudes. This is also called as coherent
detector.
Coherent Integration: Also called as pre-detection integration, in which the pulse voltages are added
prior to envelope detection.
Non-coherent integration: Also called as video or post detection integration in which each pulse is
envelope detected and the resulting video pulse voltages are added together prior to application of thresholding.
Binary integration: also called as m-out-of-n integration in which each pulse applies to a threshold,
and the number m of threshold crossings is used as the criterion for an output alarm.
Cumulative detection: a special case of binary integration in which m=1 is the alarm criterion.
Fluctuation loss: The apparent loss in radar detectability or measurement accuracy for a target of a
given average echo power return due to target fluctuation. It may be measured as the increase in required aver-
age echo return power of a fluctuating target as compared to a target of constant echo return, to achieve the same
detectability or measurement accuracy. i.e.
D (1)
Lf(1) = 1
D0 (1)
Sequential detection: A method of automatic detection in two or more steps, normally the first using
a high probability of false alarm and the last a low probability of false alarm. In radars with controllable sack-
ing, the first detection can be used to order the scan to return, stop at, or stay longer at suspected target position.
This is also called as detect and confirm process.
Constant False Alarm Rate (CFAR) Detection: A property of threshold or gain control devices spe-
cially designed to suppress false alarms caused by noise, clutter, or ECM of varying levels.
CFAR is essential if output data are directly fed to automatic data processors. The basic CFAR process
is to form an estimate of the noise or interference level in the cell where target detection is being attempted, and
to set the detection threshold based on that estimate, rather than at some constant level determined in advance
of operation.
• The level may be estimated by averaging over adjacent reference cells in range, Doppler, angle or
some combination of radar co-ordinates.
30 Basics Part-II
• The level may be estimated by averaging the output of the detection cell itself over several scans.
The estimate may involve the mean level;, or may use higher moments of the pdf of the interfer-
ence.
Dicke-fix: This a special form of CFAR in which a broad band IF filter is used followed by limiter and
a narrowband matched filter. Here reference samples are taken from frequencies over a band Bw surrounding the
signal bandwidth Bn. is especially effective against impulse-like noise and broadband jamming.
Tracking Radar: Tracking radar is one whose primary function is automatic tracking of targets.
Single target Tracking: The antenna beam follows the target by obtaining angle error signal and em-
ploying a closed loop servo-system to keep the error signal small. Data rate will be high typically 10 times per
second and is used for weapon guidance or Fire Control operations.
Automatic Detection and Tracking (ADT): When a surveillance carries out tracking on multiple
targets automatically (with automatic initiation) it is called as automatic detection and tracking. This done on
several targets. ADT requires a good radar that eliminates clutter echoes and other undesired signals. CFAR
helps the ADT from overloading. ADT functions include target detection, track initiation, track association,
track update, track smoothing (filtering), and track termination. Modern radars use automatic track initiation
and automatic tracking on several hundred targets simultaneously.
Automatic detection is done through moving window detector over multiple scans. Through beam
splitting the angle accuracy is improved by grouping the pulses.
Track before detect: Radar echoes are non-coherently added over several scans. Scan to scan integra-
tion is done taking all possible target trajectories. Target is tracked before it is detected. This is used for non-
manouvering and slow moving sea surface targets with higher false-alarms and sea clutter. Weak echoes also
can be used to form tracks. Outputs of each resolution cell are examined over N-scans to determine whether
they fall logical tracks. This requires longer observation time.
Phased array target tracking: Using electronic scanning technique a phased array radar can dwelve
on multiple targets. Thus precise measurements can be taken on multiple targets through off-axis mono-pulse
measurement. With such measurements multi-target tracking can be achieved.
Multiple-radar Tracking:
Tracking from inputs from co-located radars: Outputs of multiple radars co-located are used to
form tracking. Generally detections are used to update tracks though they may arrive asynchronously. This is
called as Integrated Automatic Detection and Tracking (IADT).
Integrated Tracking from multiple sites: When detections from multiple radars covering common
area and situated at multiple locations are used to form tracking it is called centralized architecture. Instead
when data from the respective sites are used to form tracks and when such tracks are combined to form common
track it is called distributed architecture.
Conical scan: A squinted beam is rotated around the target resulting in the amplitude modulation of the
target echoes. The amplitude is a measure of the target’s angular distance from the axis of movement. The coni-
cal; scan modulation is extracted and applied to a servo-control system that continually positions the antenna
rotation axis in the direction of the target. When the antenna is on the target the conical scan modulation is of
zero amplitude.
Monopulse tracking: Monopulse tracker is defined as one in which information concerning the an-
gular location of a target is obtained by comparison of signals received in two or more simultaneous beams. In
phased array radars angle measurements can be obtained in an open-loop fashion by calibrating the error signal
voltage in terms of angle.
The most popular method is the amplitude comparison monopulse which compares the amplitudes of
the signals simultaneously received in multiple squinted beams to determine the angle. The assemblage of hy-
brid junctioins,waveguides, and other microwave components needed to extract the sum and difference signals
in monopulse radar is called a comparator.
Monopulse radar will have greater angle accuracy since its signal-to-noise ratio is higher. Also its angle
accuracy is not affected by fluctuations in the amplitude of the echo signal as are sequential scanning systems.
It is also robust against ECM.
Tracking errors:
Error: The error ‘x’ in a given measurement is defined as the difference between the value indicated
by the measuring instrument and the true value of the measured quantity.
Basics Part-II 31
x = Umeasured − Utrue
Error analysis: It is to provide a description of the error that will permit the magnitude to be estimated
for any set of operating conditions, without running calibration or tests for all possible combinations of condi-
tions.
Errors are divided into systematic (bias) and random (accidental or noise) components.
Mean error: Instantaneous value xi of the error will lie within a limited range centered about a mean
–
error x ≡ 1∑xi
Radar error budget: many components in each co-ordinate are combined in r.m.s fashion to form
total measurement or tracking error. The total variance is the sum of variances of individual components. Error
budget is constructed during system design to allocate portions of the total variance to each error component.
Range error: Range error σr is given by the monopulse tracking as,
c t0 /2
σr =
1.61 2 E/ N 0
t0 less than the transmitted pulse width.
E = transmitted energy
And N0 is the noise power per unit bandwidth.
Angle error: When angles are estimated by off-axis measurement process,
Error is given by
q
σ =
2( S / N )n
n being the number of pulses getting integrated and θ is the 3 dB beamwidth.
If the 4 beams are independently formed and received separately and if S and ∆ are separately formed
either at IF or after detection then the tolerances on the phases are more stringent than forming the sum and
difference beams at the RF. Except in stacked beam 3D radar where the emphasis is on detection than on estima-
tion accuracy.
Theoretical angle error:

k qB
σ =
k s {B ( S / N ) ( f p /βn )}
Where k = 1 for a monopulse radar
ks = slope of the angle-error signal at bore sight.
B = bandwidth
t = transmitted pulse width
S/N = signal to noise ratio per pulse width
fp is the pulse repetition frequency
and βn is the servo bandwidth and fp/2βn is the number of pulses integrated.

6. ELECTRONIC COUNTER MEASURES(ECM) &

ELECTRONIC COUNTER COUNTER MEASURES (ECCM)
Electronic countermeasures have two objectives:
• They can be intended to mask actual targets by creating broad regions of interference, increasing
the background level to lie above the target signal or high enough to prevent target detection. This
is called masking.
• They can be intended to produce false targets in such numbers and at such locations that the opera-
tor or automated equipment is unable to form track files on real targets. This called deception.
Stand of jamming: These are airborne jammers with directive beams. Jammers are used to cater for
multiple ground based surveillance radars through polarization diversity.
Barrage jammer: The jammer operates over the entire tunable RF band of the radar which is typically
10% of the center frequency.
32 Basics Part-II
Spot jammer: The jammer responds to each radar signal with jamming bandwidth usually matched
to the signal bandwidth. Smart jammers effectively manage the bandwidth coping up with the radar signal
bandwidth continuously. These supported by the Electronic Support Measures (ESM) to detect and analyses the
radar emitted signal.
Escort jammer: Escort jammer accompanies the penetrating aircraft, separated by ∆R in range, ∆A in
azimuth and ∆E in elevation.
Burn-through range: This is the range at which the signal to interference ratio E/I0 equals the detec-
tion requirement.
Repeater jammer: This creates false targets responding to each radar transmission with one or more
amplified copies of the radar pulse.
ECCM features of Surveillance radars:
• Low probability of intercept (LPI): When the transmitted power is reduced for a given mode of
operation the power management is called as LPI where in the signal intercept by the ESM system
is reduced.
• Frequency agility: When radar the transmitted signal’s frequency is varied from pulse to pulse
it will force the jammer to open a large bandwidth like barrage jamming. Thus jammer’s spectral
power density will be brought down to get relief.
• Frequency diversity: Two are more channels are operated inparellel at different frequencies. Or
the frequency can be changed from group of pulses to another.
• PRI stagger: When the PRI is changed the deception jammer will find it difficult to create fictitious
targets.
• Pulse compression: Higher average power is used by increasing the coded transmitted pulse with-
out compromising the range resolution. Since the peak power is reduced this is one form of LPI.
• Deceptive emitters: When several small power transmitters operate with wider beam width at dif-
ferent frequencies then the jammer will be forced to open more jamming bandwidth.
• Side lobe canceller: With the receiving channel from an auxiliary antenna covering the envelope
of the main antenna side lobes, the signal is correlated with the main channel and a control signal
is developed setting the coefficients of a coupling circuit between these channels. A null is created
at the jammer position. Deep and narrow nulls are created in the receiving pattern of the antenna.
This works on many correlation samples and is effective on high duty jammers.
• Side lobe blanker: The output from the auxiliary antenna is compared with that of the main an-
tenna. When the envelope detected signal exceeds that of the main antenna then the interference is
from the sidelobe and the main lobe output is blanked. When the main channel exceeds that of the
auxiliary then the response is from the main lobe. Thus the effect of jammer entry through the side
lobes is nullified.
• Dickefix receiver: When noise is generated by swept FM jamming over wide band, an effective
receiver ECCM is used. Here wide band IF amplifiers are followed by hard limiter and a narrow
band filter is used as fast acting CFAR where reference cells are in frequency domain rather in
range domain.
ECM applicable to Tracking Radars: ECM techniques are used to accomplish the following objec-
tives:
• Preventing the tracker from acquiring the target
• Delaying acquisition of the target
• Preventing the tracker from obtaining range or Doppler data
• Introduce large errors in range or Doppler tracking
• Breaking lock in range or Doppler
• Introducing large errors in angle tracking
• Breaking lock in angle
• Introduction of additional false targets in the tracker
• Destroying or damaging the tracking radar (as with high power microwaves).
<<<
 SYSTEM CALCULATIONS
Ram Pravesh / Manisha Mathur

Learning Objectives:
This chapter describes the Range calculation of Radar sets. Upon completion on of this chapter you will be
able to:
• Describe Radar frequency selection, PRF selection, Pulse Width selection for radar range calculation.
• Describe the Radar Range resolution, Pulse compression technique and cone of silence, effect of S/R
on Radar range calculation.
• Understand Radar Range equation in respect of radar parameters.

First step of Radar design is based on User Operation Requirement.

Operation requirement of user is categorised in two parts.
Functional ORs: Functional Operational requirements include Radar pickup capability, coverage,
resolution, accuracy, data processor capability, ECCM Features, clutter attenuation factors, Radar detection
envelope, cone of silence, minimum detection range Environment Specifications for operations etc.
Support ORs: Support Operational requirements include MTBF, MTTR, BITE, SIMULATORS, and
Radar Maintenance Aspects, Un-processed raw video etc.
In general a series of interaction is required to finalise Functional Operational requirements of radar.
Here we take an example to Radar System calculation based on mandatory operation requirements of customer.
Example-1: Requirement Specifications
• Range: > 150 km for 2m2 target, PD = 0.9
• Azimuth coverage: 360°
• Elevation coverage: 0 - 300
• Azimuth resolution: 30
• Range resolution: less than 150
• Azimuth accuracy: 0.50
• Minimum range: maximum up to 4km

2.1 ELECTION RADAR PARAMETERS TO MEET

“REQUIREMENT SPECIFICATION”

Range and RCS requirements indicate that Radar is to use for long range surveillance and detection of fighter
class of aircraft and bigger cross- sectional aircraft in planned.
Radar Frequency selection: Radar Systems works in a wide band of transmitted frequencies. The
higher the frequency of a radar system, the more it is affected by weather conditions such as rain or clouds.
Radar sets need a considerably higher transmitting power than in lower frequency ranges to achieve a good
maximum range. S band radars operate on a wavelength of 8-15 cm and a frequency of 2-4 GHz. Because of
the wavelength and frequency, S band radars are not easily attenuated. This makes them useful for far range
detection.
33
34 System Calculations
By choosing S-Band we can get advantage of relatively lower antenna size and standard High Power
Transmitter for radar.
PRF Selection: In order to build up a noticeable echo, most radar systems emit pulses continuously and
the repetition rate of these pulses is determined by the role of the system. An echo from a target is integrated
within the signal processor for making detection easier. The higher the PRF that is used, then the more the target
is painted. However with the higher PRF the range that the radar can “see” is reduced. Radar designers try to use
the highest PRF possible corresponding with the other factors that constrain it, as described below.
There are two other aspects related to PRF that the designer must consider very carefully; the beam
width characteristics of the antenna, and the required periodicity with which the radar must sweep the field of
view or RPM of Antenna. Radar with a 0.9° horizontal beam width that sweeps the entire 360° horizon every
4 seconds with a PRF of 800 Hz (fp) will radiate 8 pulses over each 0.9 degree arc. If the receiver needs at least
16 reflected pulses of similar amplitudes to achieve an acceptable probability of detection (90%), then there are
three choices for the designer: double the PRF, halve the sweep speed, or double the beam width.
We have chosen half the sweep speed to meet our requirement. We have to integrate at least 16 pulses
to meet our requirement of 150km of range for target of 2 m2 as we will see in Radar Equation further.
 qb   0.9 
nb = =  × fp  =  × 800 16
 qs   360 
 7.5 ×   
  60  
So we have selected PRF is 800Hz.
Blind speeds is a serious limitation of pulse doppler radars, causes some desired moving targets to be
cancelled along with the undesired clutter at zero frequency. To avoid blind speed PRF staggered is required. To
avoid blind speed at higher side, we will two PRF 1000 and 800
In our case first blind speed (km/h) for
PRF 1000Hz = 0.97 * λ(m) * fp (Hz) * 1.85
= 0.97 * 0.1 * 1000 * 1.85 = 179.45 km/h
In our case first blind speed (km/h) for
PRF 900Hz = 0.97 * λ(m) * fp (Hz) * 1.85
= 0.97 * 0.1 * 800 * 1.85 = 143.56 km/h
New blind speed will be LCM of 179 and 143 is very high speed (approx. 25579km/h).
Using PRF staggering avoids ambiguous target range.
Pulse width Selection: Wider pulses improve the radar’s ability to detect weak target signals at long
ranges but it may leads to higher transmitter duty cycle and minimum radar range.
The radar system’s pulse width, minimum detectable signal (MDS), receiver bandwidth and range
resolution are all related.
Changing the radar transmitter’s pulse width changes the radar’s sensitivity and range resolution. Un-
fortunately, those changes oppose each other. Wider pulses effectively increase the radar’s sensitivity, and in-
crease the radar’s ability to see al longer ranges. Narrower pulses improve the radar’s range resolution. The end
result is that, in a given condition, there is one optimum pulse width that will produce the best result.

Fig. 2.1
System Calculations 35
We will select pulse width 24µs so that we can achieve minimum range less than 4 km as per specifica-
tion requirement also to achieve lower duty cycle of transmitter.
C × Pulse width 3x 108 × 24 x 10−6
Minimum radar range: = = 3600 m = 3.6km
2 2
And maximum range resolution also will be 3.6km (very high). To achieve range resolution in order of
150m, transmitted pulse width must be around 200ns.
Range resolution: is directly related to transmitted pulse width. Pulse width must be shorter than the
propagation time from target 1 to target 2 and back.
2(R2 – R1) = C*t => t = 2(R2 – R1)/C
ΔR (Range gate or range bin) = (C*τ) /2
We take ΔR = 30m.
Pulse width = 2*ΔR/C
= 2* 30 /3 x 108 sec
= 200ns

Fig. 2.2
Actual range resolution is 3 to 4 times of ΔR to avoid unwanted target splitting. If we want range resolu-
tion approximately 150m then ΔR should be around 30meter.
But with 200ns we hardly get 50 km range for 2 RCS target. So we need to increase pulse width. So, to
take advantage of both long and short pulse we use pulse compression technique in processing.
Why Pulse Compression technique: High Range resolution may be obtained with short pulse but
there are limitations of short pulse width.
High Peak power is required for Large Pulse energy.
Handling of Large pulse Energy (Higher Peak Power) is complex and costly especially at higher fre-
quencies.
A long Pulse can have same bandwidth as short pulse if it modulated in frequency and phase.
Pulse compression, using frequency or phase modulation, allows radar to simultaneously achieve en-
ergy of a long pulse and the resolution of short pulse.
We use Linear Frequency Modulation (LFM) for pulse compression. Because of its great popularity,
more approaches for generating and processing linear FM have been developed than for any other coded wave-
form.
We use 24µs pulse width with LFM (Linear frequency modulation) of 5 MHz to achieve 200ns pulse
after pulse compression.
Antenna parameters: Almost all radars use directive antennas with relatively narrow beamwidths
that direct the energy in a particular direction. The antenna is an important part of radar. There is always a trade
between antenna size and transmitter size when long range performance is required.
36 System Calculations
We select antenna in such way that we can achieve gain of 32db, half power azimuth beam width 0.9
degree and half power elevation beamwidth 30 degree for effective Height coverage and minimum cone of
silence. The coverage of simple fan beam is not adequate for the detection of aircraft target at height altitude
even with higher elevation beamwidth. To obtain better illumination of close-in targets at high elevation angles,
the fan beam is modified so that its gain in elevation angle coordinate is proportional to the square of cosecant
of elevation angle.
Cone of Silence: Higher the elevation coverage lesser the Cone of silence. No target detection in the
area of cone of silence.

Fig. 2.3
Radar Transmitter and optimum power to meet required: AS per ‘Specification Requirements’,
Radar must detect target of 2 m2 RCS at 150 km range. By radar range equation, approximately 150kw peak
power to transmit with 24µs pulse width to meet above mentioned requirement of Target detection.
Now we have to select a radar transmitter having the technical and operating characteristics of
• Ability to generate the required mean RF power and the required peak power.
• Have a suitable RF bandwidth.
• High RF stability to meet signal processing requirements,
• The transmitter must be efficient, reliable and easy to maintain and the life expectancy and cost of
the output device must be acceptable.
Parameters considered for calculating the ranges are:
• Peak power : 150kw
• qaz 3dB : 0.9°
• Φel 3dB : 30°
• Antenna Gain Tx/Rx : 32 dB
• Pulse width : 24 µs
• λ Wavelength : 0.1m (3.0GHz)
• Noise Figure of Rx : 3.0dB
• Bandwidth Rx : 6.0MHz
• System Losses : 7dB
• kT : -204.0db (= 10 log(1.38 × 10-23 × (273+25))
Expected detection ranges are computed taking into consideration of the above parameters using,
PT GT GR λ 2 σ[ Bτ]
[R]4 =
[4p]3 kT BFn L[ S / N ]
Where, = Peak RF Power Transmitted
= Gain of Antenna in Transmit Mode
= Gain of antenna in Receive Mode
= Wave length
= Target Cross section
= Time Bandwidth Product
= Boltzmann Constant Temperature
= Noise figure of Receiver
L = Loss budget
System Calculations 37
= Signal to Noise Ratio required per pulse for Pd of 0.8 and Pfa of 10-6, including inte-
gration gain in the Signal Processor.
Calculation of Required[S/N]:
• Signal to Noise ratio required per pulse for Pd = 0.9 and Pfa = 10-6 for non fluctuating targets
= 13.0dB
(Refer “A Guide to Basic Pulse-Radar Maximum-Range Calculation” by L. V. BLAKE)
• Fluctuation Losses
= 5.50dB
Total = 18.5 dB
Integration Gain
= 13.98 dB
• Signal to noise ratio
= S/N for Pd : 0.9 and Pfa : 10-6 + Fluctuation Losses - Integration Gain = 4.52

Fig. 2.4: Required signel-to-noise ratio (visibility factor) at the input terminals of a linearrectifier detector as
a function of probability of detection for a single pulse, with the false-alarm probability (Pfa) as a parameter,
calculated for a nonfluctuating signal. (Note: This figure also appears in an appendix at the end of the report.)
38 System Calculations
Parameter for Required Range calculation
Variable Parameters Values
ARR(RPM) 7.5
PRF (Hz) 800
PW (Tx) in µS 24
Receiver Bandwidth in MHz 6
Peak Power (dB) 150.00
Antenna Gain (dB) 32
Antenna Gain (dB) 32
Wave length (m) 0.1
Noise Figure (dB) 3.00
Cross Section (RCS) 2.00
Temperature (°C) 25
Tx Loss (dB) 1
Receiver Loss (typical value is 1 db) 1
Propagation Loss (typical value is 1 db) 1
Processing Loss (typical value is 2 db) 2
Beam Shape Loss (typical value is 1 db) 1
Beam Width (degree) 0.9
S/N ( for Pd = 0.8, Pfa = 10E-6) (dB) 13
Fluctuation loss (dB) 5.5

Parameters obtain from above values:

No of Pulse integrated (x) 16
Integration Gain= 10 log(x) db 12.04

S/N Radar Parameter Units Symbols Value Numerator Denominator

1 Peak Power kW 150.00 51.76  
2 Antenna Gain dB 32 32  
3 Antenna Gain dB 32 32  
4 Wave length M 0.1   20
5 Cross Section (RCS) M² 2.00 3.01  
6 Bandwidth-Pulse Width   144.00 21.58  
7 Constant   1984.40   32.98
Boltzman Constant Tempera-
8 dBW 203.86 203.86  
ture
9 Bandwidth MHz 6.00   67.78
System Calculations 39

10 Noise Figure dB 3.00   3.00

S/N used for system calculation
11 (S/N for Pd and Pfa + Fluctua- dB 6.46   5.49
tion Loss -Integration gain)
12 Loss Budget: dB 6.00   6.00
      Total 344.31 136.22
[R]4 in dB 208.00
R (Km) 158.46
The tabular representation as shown above of the Radar equation is known as the Blake Chart in honour
of the inventor of this tabular representation, Lamont V. Blake. This representation is used by radar engineers
worldwide to make basic radar performance calculations.
Example 2: For a C-band pulsed radar with a 6.5 m dish antenna and 1,000 kW of peak power (0.1%
duty cycle), what is the maximum detection range on a target with 0 dBsm cross section, a Pd of .9, and Pfa of
10-6 (Assume a Swerling Case 1 target fluctuations and a 1 μsec pulse) ?
Radar Parameters:
Maximum Detection Range ------ km
Probability of Detection 0 .9
Probability of False Alarm 10 -6
Target Cross Section 0 dBsm ( 1 m2 )
Target Fluctuations Swerling Case 1
Peak Power 1,000 Kilowatts
Duty Cycle 0.1 %
Pulsewidth 1 microsecond
Antenna Size 6.5 m dish
Number of Pulses Integrated 50
Frequency 5,500 MHz

Fig. 2.5
40 System Calculations

Ÿ Radar and Target Parameters–Inputs Natural Units (dB)

–  Peak Power (kilowatts) 1,000 60
–  Pulse Duration (microseconds) 1.0 -60.0
–  Noise Bandwidth (MHz) 1.0 60.0
–  Transmit Antenna Gain (dB) 49.6
–  Receiver Antenna Gain (dB) 49.6
–  Freqyency (GHz) 5.5
–  Wavelength (meters) 5.45 -25.3
–  Single Pulse Signal to Noise Ratio 4.2
–  Target Radar Cross Section (meters)2 1.0 0.0
–  k-Boltzmann’s Constant 1.38×10-23 (w/Hz °K) -228.6
–  (4p)3 33.0
–  System Noise Temperature (°K) 598.2 27.8
–  Total System Losses 9.0
–  Range (kilometers) 519

Antenna
Efficiency 65%
Diameter (meters) 6
Gain (dB) 49.6

System Losses (dB) Transmit Losses (dB)

Bandwidth Correction Factor (dB) 0.70 Cirulator (dB) 0.40
Transmit Loss (dB) 1.30 Switches (dB) 0.40
Scanning Antenna Oatterb Kiss (dB) 0.00 Transmission Line 0.50
Signal Processing Losses (dB) 1.90 1.90
Atmospheric Attenuation Loss (dB) 1.80
Lens Effect Loss (dB) 0.25
Integration Loss (dB) 0.00
Target Fluctuation Loss (dB) 0.00 Signal Processing Losses (dB)
Margin/Field Degradation Loss (dB) 3.00 Threshold (dB) 0.50
Total Loss Budget (dB) 8.95 A/D Quantization (dB) 0.10
Range Straddling Loss 0.20
Loss - Input to System Noise Temperature Weighting Loss 1.10
Receiver Noise Factor (dB) 4.00 1.90
Antenna Ohmic Loss (dB) 0.20
Receive Transmission Line Loss (dB) 0.40
Sky Temperature (°K) 50.00
C-Band at 3°

Ts = Ta + Tr + Lr Ts = 598.2°K
Ta = (0.88Ysky – 254) / (La + 290)
Tr = Ttr (Lr – 1)  and  Te = To (Fn – 1)
<<<
 Electronically Steered
Array Antennas (ESAs)

E
lectronically steered array antennas, ESAs, have
been employed in surface based radars since the
1 1. In surface-based radars, they
l950s. But, because of their greater complexity
were called “phased arrays”—
and cost, they have been slow to replace mechani- a name which has carried over
cally steered antennas in airborne applications. to airborne applications. They
are frequently called electroni-
However, with the advent of aircraft of extraordinarily cally “scanned,” as opposed to
low radar cross section and the pressing need for extreme “steered” arrays. In light of the
beam agility, in recent years avionics designers have given versatility of the technique,
the more general “steered” is
the ESA more attention than virtually any other “advanced” used here.
radar concept.
In this chapter, we will briefly review the ESA concept,
become acquainted with the two basic types of ESAs, and
take stock of the ESA’s many compelling advantages, as well
as a couple of significant limitations.

Basic Concepts
ESA
An ESA differs from the conventional mechanically
steered array antenna in two fundamental respects:
Wa
vefr

• It is mounted in a fixed position on the aircraft struc-

θ
Airframe Structure

o
nt*

ture θ Broadside
Direction
• Its beam is steered by individually controlling the
phase of the radio waves transmitted and received by
each radiating element (Fig. 1)
A general purpose digital processor, referred to as the
beam steering controller (BSC) translates the desired deflec-
*Line of equal phase radiation
tion of the beam from the broadside direction (normal to
the plane of the antenna) into phase commands for the Radiating
Elements
individual radiating elements.
1. The ESA is mounted in a fixed position on the airframe. Its
The incremental phase difference, ∆φ, which must be beam is steered by individually controlling the phase of the
applied from one radiating element to the next to deflect waves transmitted and received by each radiating element.

473
PART IX Advanced Concepts

3-dB Beamwidth the beam by a desired angle, θ, is proportional to the sine

Scan Frame
2. For search, the beam steps ahead in increments nominally
equal to the 3-dB beamwidth, dwelling in each position for a
period equal to the desired time-on-target.
of θ (see panel, left center).
2π d sin θ
∆φ =
λ
where d is the element spacing and λ is the wavelength.
For search, the beam is scanned by stepping it in small
increments from one position to the next (Fig. 2), dwelling
in each position for the desired time-on-target, tot . The size
of the steps—typically on the order of the 3-dB beam
width—is optimized by trading off such factors as beam
shape loss and scan frame time.

PHASE SHIFT NEEDED TO STEER THE BEAM Types of ESAs

To steer the beam θ degrees off broadside, the phase of the ESAs are of three basic types: passive, active, and a vari-
excitation for element B must lead that for element A by the
ant of the active ESA, called the true-time-delay (TTD) ESA.
phase lag, ∆φ, that is incurred
in traveling the distance, ∆R,
Radiating Passive ESA. Though considerably more complex than a
Elements from radiator B.
A mechanically steered array (MSA), the passive ESA is far
Lin

In traveling one wavelength simpler than the active ESA. It operates in conjunction with
eo

(λ) a wave incurs a phase lag

f Eq

of 2π radians. So, in traveling the same sort of central transmitter and receiver as the
ual

θ
θ the distance ∆R, it incurs a MSA. To steer the beam formed by the array, an electroni-
Pha

Broadside
d
se

phase lag of cally controlled phase shifter is placed immediately behind

Rad

2 π ∆R radians each radiating element (Fig. 3, below left), or each column

iatio

λ
n

of radiating elements in a one-dimensional array. The phase

As can be seen from the
B ∆R diagram, shifter is controlled either by a local processor called the
∆R = d sin θ
beam steering controller (BSC) or by the central processor.
Hence, the element-to-element phase difference needed Active ESA. The active ESA is an order of magnitude
θ radians off broadside is
to steer the beam q
more complex than the passive ESA. For, distributed within
d sin θ
∆φ = 2 π it, are both the transmitter power-amplifier function and
λ
the receiver front-end functions. Instead of a phase shifter, a
tiny dedicated transmit/receive (T/R) module is placed
directly behind each radiating element (Fig. 4).
PASSIVE ESA ACTIVE ESA

φ T/R
Receiver LNA Receiver
φ T/R

Protection φ T/R
F F
E
φ T/R
E
Exciter Duplexer Exciter
E φ E T/R
D D
φ T/R

φ T/R
Transmitter
φ T/R

The beam steering controller (BSC) function BSC BSC

may be performed in the central processor.

3. The passive ESA uses the same central transmitter and receiv- 4. In the active ESA, a tiny transmit/receive (T/R) module is
er as the MSA. Its beam is steered by placing an electronical- placed immediately behind each radiating element. The cen-
ly controlled phase shifter immediately behind each radiating tralized transmitter, duplexer, and front-end receiving ele-
element. ments are thereby eliminated.

474
 CHAPTER 37 Electronically Steered Array Antennas (ESAs)

This module (Fig. 5) contains a multistage high power T/R MODULE

Low-Noise
amplifier (HPA), a duplexer (circulator), a protection circuit From Exciter Amplifier Protection
to block any leakage of the transmitted pulses through the T R (LNA)

duplexer into the receiving channel, and a low-noise pre-

amplifier (LNA) for the received signals. The RF input and Variable
Gain Amplifier
From
output are passed through a variable gain amplifier and a BSC Logic Duplexer
Variable
variable phase shifter, which typically are time shared Phase Shifter Radiator

between transmission and reception. They, and the associat-

ed switches, are controlled by a logic circuit in accordance R T High-Power
with commands received from the beam steering controller. To Receiver Amplifier
(HPA)
To minimize the cost of the T/R modules and to make
them small enough to fit behind the closely spaced radia- 5. Basic functional elements of a T/R module. Variable gain
tors, the modules are implemented with integrated circuits amplifier, variable phase shifter, and switches are controlled
by the logic element. They may be duplicated for transmit
and miniaturized (Fig. 6). and receive, or time shared as shown here.

6. A representative T/R module. Even a fairly small ESA would

include two to three thousand such modules.

TTD ESA. This is an active ESA in which the phase

shifts for beam steering are obtained by varying the physi-
cal lengths of the feeds for the individual T/R modules.
Drawing on the photonic techniques that have proved so
valuable in communications systems, a fiber-optic feed is
provided for each module. The time delay experienced by
the signals in passing through the feed—hence their
phase—is controlled by switching precisely cut lengths of
fiber into or out of the feed. By avoiding the limitations on
instantaneous bandwidth inherent in electronic phase shift-
ing, the photonic technique makes possible extremely wide
instantaneous bandwidths.
Since TTD is still in its infancy, it will be described in
Chap. 40, Advanced Radar Techniques, rather than here.

Advantages Common to Passive and Active ESAs

Both passive and active ESAs have three key advantages
which have proved to be increasingly important in military
aircraft. They facilitate minimizing the aircraft’s RCS. They
enable extreme beam agility. And they are highly reliable.

475
PART IX Advanced Concepts

Facilitating RCS Reduction. In any aircraft which must

have a low RCS, the installation of a radar antenna is of
critical concern. For even a comparatively small planar
array can have an RCS of several thousand square meters
when illuminated from a direction normal to its face (i.e.,
broadside). With an MSA, which is in continual motion
about its gimbal axes, the contribution of antenna broad-
side reflections to the aircraft’s RCS in the threat window of
interest cannot be readily reduced. With an ESA, which is
fixed relative to the aircraft structure, it can be. How that is
done is explained in Chap. 39.
Extreme Beam Agility. Since no inertia must be over-
come in steering the ESA’s beam, it is far more agile than
the beam of an MSA. To appreciate the difference, consider
some typical magnitudes. The maximum rate at which an
MSA can be deflected, hence the agility of its beam, is limit-
ed by the power of the gimbal drive motors to between 100
and 150 degrees per second. Moreover, to change the direc-
tion of the beam’s motion takes roughly a tenth of a second.
By contrast, the ESA’s beam can be positioned anywhere
100°
within a ±60 degree cone (Fig. 7) in less than a millisecond!
This extreme agility has many advantages. It enables:
1 second • Tracking to be established the instant a target is
detected
• Single-target tracking accuracies to be obtained
Time
against multiple targets
< 1 millisecond
• Targets for missiles controlled by the radar to be illu-
MSA ESA
minated or tracked by the radar even when they are
7. To jump the antenna beam from one to another of two targets outside its search volume
separated by 100°, an MSA would take roughly a second.
An ESA could do it in less than a millisecond. • Dwell times to be individually optimized to meet
detection and tracking needs
2. Such as alert-confirm detec- • Sequential detection techniques2 to be used, signifi-
tion. See Chap. 40.
cantly increasing detection range
• Terrain-following capabilities to be greatly improved
• Spoofing to be employed anywhere within the anten-
na’s field of regard
These capabilities have given rise to a whole new, highly
versatile and efficient approach to allocating the radar front-
end and processing resources and to controlling and inter-
leaving the radar’s various modes of operation (see Chap. 41).
High Reliability. ESAs are both reliable and capable of a
large measure of graceful degradation. They completely
eliminate the need for a gimbal system, drive motors, and
rotary joints—all of which are possible sources of failure.
In a passive ESA, the only active elements are the phase
shifters. High quality phase shifters are remarkably reliable.

476
 CHAPTER 37 Electronically Steered Array Antennas (ESAs)

Moreover, if they fail randomly, as many as 5% can fail

before the antenna’s performance degrades enough to war-
rant replacing them.
The active ESA yields an important additional reliability
advantage by replacing the central transmitter with the T/R
modules’ HPAs. Historically, the central TWT transmitter
and its high-voltage power supply have accounted for a
large percentage of the failures experienced in airborne
radars. The active ESA’s T/R modules, on the other hand,
are inherently highly reliable. Not only are they implement-
ed with integrated solid-state circuitry, but they require
only low-voltage dc power.
In addition, like the phase shifters of the passive ESA, as
many as 5% of the modules can fail without seriously
impairing performance. Even then, the effect of individual
failures can be minimized by suitably modifying the radia-
tion from the failed element’s nearest neighbors. As a result,
the mean time between critical failures (MTBCF) of a well
designed active ESA may be comparable to the lifetime of
the aircraft!

Additional Advantages of the Active ESA

The active ESA has a number of other advantages over PASSIVE ESA ACTIVE ESA
the passive ESA. Several of these accrue from the fact that
the T/R module’s LNA and HPA are placed almost immedi- Loss Element Loss Element

ately behind the radiators, thereby essentially eliminating - 0.7 dB φ Phase Shifter - 0.15 dB Duplexer
the effect of losses not only in the antenna feed system but Low-Power
- 0.10 dB Receiver
also in the phase shifters. - 0.8 dB Level 1 Feed Protection
• Neglecting the comparatively small loss of signal Fn LNA
power in the radiator, the duplexer, and the receiver
protection circuit, the net receiver noise figure is
- 0.6 dB Level 2 Feed
established by the LNA (Fig. 8). It can be designed to Noise Figure:
have a very low noise figure. Fn + 0.25 dB
- 0.25 dB Central
Duplexer
• Loss of transmit power is similarly reduced. This
improvement, though, may be offset by the difference
NOTE
between the modules’ efficiency and the potentially - 0.2 dB Waveguide
For both the passive
very high efficiency of a TWT. Central
ESA and the active
Receiver ESA, the receiver
- 0.5 dB
• Amplitude, as well as phase, can be individually con- Protection noise figure equals the
noise figure of the LNA
trolled for each radiating element on both transmit (Fn) plus the total loss
Fn LNA
and receive, thereby providing superior beam-shape of all elements ahead
agility for such functions as terrain following and of the LNA.

short-range SAR and ISAR imaging. Noise Figure:

Fn + 3.05 dB
• Multiple independently steerable beams may be radi-
ated by dividing the aperture into sub apertures and
8. By eliminating sources of loss ahead of the LNA, the active
providing appropriate feeds.
ESA achieves a dramatic reduction in receiver noise figure
• Through suitable T/R module design, independently over that obtainable with a comparable passive ESA.

steerable beams of widely different frequencies may

simultaneously share the entire aperture.

477
PART IX Advanced Concepts

Key Limitations and Their Circumvention

LIMITATION ON FIELD OF REGARD
Along with its many advantages, the ESA—whether
As an ESA’s beam is steered active or passive—complicates a radar’s design in two areas
off broadside, width, W, of the
effective aperture foreshortens. which are handled relatively simply with an MSA: (a)
θ W' = W cos θ achieving a broad field of regard, and (b) stabilizing the
W'

θ The foreshortening broadens antenna beam in the face of changes in aircraft attitude.
ESA (top view)
the beam. But more import- These complications and the means for circumventing them
antly, it reduces the projected
W area, A', of the array, as view-
are outlined briefly in the following paragraphs.
ed from angle, θ, off broadside. Achieving a Broad Field of Regard. With an MSA, to
A' = A cos θ whatever extent the radome provides unobstructed visibili-
A'
1.0 ty, the antenna’s field of regard may be increased without in
Projected
area of array, any way impairing the radar’s performance. With an ESA,
viewed from however, as the antenna beam is steered away from the
angle θ off
broadside A' broadside direction, the width of the aperture is foreshort-
0.5
A ened in proportion to the cosine of the angle off broadside,
increasing the azimuth beam width (see panel, left).
More importantly, the projected area of the aperture also
0.0 decreases in proportion to the cosine of the angle, causing
A 0 30 60 90° the gain to fall off correspondingly. At large angles off
Angle Off Broadside, θ
Area of array as broadside, the gain falls off still further as a result of the
viewed from Since the gain of the antenna lower gain of the individual radiators at these angles.
broadside is proportional to the projected
area, the maximum practical Depending upon the application, the fall-off in gain may
field of regard for an ESA is be compensated to some extent by increasing the dwell
limited to about ± 60°.
time—at the expense of reduced scan efficiency. Even so,
the maximum usable field of regard is generally limited to
around ±60°.
2. In many applications, because 2
While ±60° coverage is adequate for many applications,
of radome restrictions, ±60˚ is
about all that can be obtained, wider fields of regard may be desired. More than one ESA
even with an MSA. may then be provided—at considerable additional expense.
In one possible configuration, a forward-looking main array
is supplemented with two smaller “cheek” arrays, extending
the field of regard on either side (Fig. 10).

120°

PRIMARY ARRAY
AY

CHE
120°

120°
ARR

EK A
EK

RRA
CHE

9. Where a broad field of regard is desired, more than one ESA

may be used. Here, a central primary array is supplemented
with two smaller, “cheek” arrays providing short-range cover-
age on both sides, for situation awareness.

Beam Stabilization. With an MSA, beam stabilization is

not a problem. For the antenna is mounted in gimbals and
slaved to the desired beam-pointing direction in spatial

478
 CHAPTER 37 Electronically Steered Array Antennas (ESAs)

coordinates by a fast-acting closed-loop servo system incor-

porating rate-integrating gyros on the antenna. If the anten-
na and gimbals are dynamically balanced, this system effec-
tively isolates the antenna from changes in aircraft attitude.
The only beam steering required is that for tracing a search
scan pattern or tracking a target—neither of which necessi-
tate particularly high angular rates.
With an ESA, stabilization is not so simple. Since the
array is fixed to the airframe, every change in aircraft atti-
tude—be it in roll, pitch, or yaw—must be inertially
sensed. Phase commands for steering out the change must
be computed for each radiator, and these commands must
be transmitted to the antenna’s phase shifters or T/R mod-
ules and executed. The entire process must be repeated at a
high enough rate to keep up with the changes in aircraft
attitude.
If the aircraft’s maneuvers are at all severe, this rate may
be exceptionally high. For a nominal “resteer” rate of 2,000
beam positions per second, the phase commands for two to
three thousand radiating elements must be calculated, dis-
tributed, and executed in less than 500 microseconds!
Fortunately, with advanced airborne digital processing
systems, throughputs of this order can be provided.
Summary
Mounted in a fixed position on the aircraft structure, the PASSIVE ESA

ESA produces a beam which is steered by individually con- Receiver LNA

φ

φ
trolling the phase of the signals transmitted and received by Protection φ

each radiating element. F

E
φ
Exciter Duplexer
A passive ESA operates with a conventional central trans- E
D
φ

φ
mitter and receiver; while an active ESA has the transmitter φ
and the receiver front end functions distributed within it at Transmitter
φ

the radiator level. The passive ESA is considerably more

The beam steering controller (BSC) function BSC
complex than a mechanically steered array (MSA); the may be performed in the central processor.

active ESA is an order of magnitude more complex than the

passive ESA. ACTIVE ESA

T/R

Both types have three prime advantages: (1) the contri- Receiver
T/R

bution of their reflectivity to the aircraft’s RCS in the threat F

T/R

window of interest can readily be reduced; (2) their beams Exciter

E T/R

E T/R
are extremely agile; (3) they are highly reliable and capable D
T/R

of graceful degradation. The active ESA also has the advan- T/R

tages of providing an extremely low receiver noise figure, T/R

affording beam-shaping versatility, and enabling radiation BSC

of independent multiple beams of different frequencies.
The principal limitations of the ESAs are (a) restriction of
100°
the maximum field of regard to roughly ±60° by the fore-
shortening of the aperture and consequent reduction in
1 second
gain at large angles off broadside and (b) the requirement
for a substantial amount of processor throughput to stabi-
Time
lize the pointing of the antenna beam in the face of severe < 1 millisecond
aircraft maneuvers. MSA ESA

479
 SAR INDOOR TESTING
Passive ESA of the ultrahigh-resolution SAR radar for the U-2 reconnaissance
aircraft undergoes tests in an indoor range.
 ESA Design

T
o fully realize the compelling advantages of the
ESA, its design and implementation must meet a
number of stringent requirements, not the least of
which is affordable cost.
This chapter begins by discussing those design consider-
ations common to both passive and active ESAs. It then
takes up the considerations pertaining primarily to passive
ESAs and, finally, those pertaining solely to active ESAs.

Considerations Common to Passive and Active ESAs

The cost of both passive and active ESAs increases
rapidly with the number of phase shifters or T/R modules
required, hence with the number of radiators in the array. Main Lobe
Consequently, a key design requirement common to
both types of ESAs is to space the radiators as widely as
possible without creating grating lobes and—if stealth is
required—without creating Bragg lobes either. The number
of radiators may in some cases be further reduced through
judicious selection of radiator lattice. Gr
at
ing be
Lo
Avoiding Grating Lobes. Grating lobes (Fig. 1) are repe- Lo ing
be at
titions of an antenna’s mainlobe1 which are produced if the Gr

spacing of the radiating elements is too large relative to the

operating wavelength. They are undesirable because they
rob power from the mainlobe, radiate this power in spuri- Note: Sidelobes, not
shown, also repeat.
ous directions, and from these directions receive returns
which are ambiguous with the returns received through the 1. Grating lobes are repetitions of the mainlobe. They are pro-
mainlobe. Also, ground return or jamming received duced if the spacing of the radiated elements is too large in
comparison to the wavelength.
through the grating lobes may mask targets of interest or
desensitize the radar by driving down the automatically
controlled gain (AGC). 1. And sidelobes, as well.

481
PART IX Advanced Concepts

Grating lobes are not unique to ESAs. They may be pro-

duced by any array antenna if the radiators are too widely
spaced. Like the mainlobe, they occur in those directions
for which the waves received by a distant observer from all
Broadside Main Lobe of the radiators are in phase. As illustrated by the panel on
Direction
the facing page, in the case of a mechanically steered array,
where the phases of the waves radiated by all radiators are
the same, grating lobes can be avoided even if the radiators
are separated by as much as a wavelength.
In an ESA, however, the element spacing cannot be this
large. For the angles at which the waves from all radiating
Grating elements are in phase depend not only upon the element
Lobe
spacing but also upon the incremental element-to-element
phase shift, ∆φ, which is applied for beam steering. As the
Note: Sidelobes, not
mainlobe is steered away from broadside (i.e., as ∆φ is
shown, also repeat. increased from 0), a grating lobe whose existence was pre-
cluded by the radiators being no more than a wavelength
2. With an ESA, if the radiator spacing is not less than 1 wave-
length, as the mainlobe is steered away from broadside, a apart, may materialize on the opposite side of the broadside
grating lobe will appear and move into the field of regard. direction and move into the field of regard (Fig. 2).
For an ESA, therefore, the greater the desired maximum
look angle, the closer together the radiating elements must
Radiator Spacing Example be. The maximum acceptable spacing is
If the maximum look angle, θ0, is 30°, what radiator
spacing can be used and still avoid grating lobes? λ
dmax =
dmax =
λ
=
λ
= 0.67 λ
1 + sin θ0
1 + sin 30° 1.5

If θ0 is increased to 60°, what must dmax be reduced to?

where λ is the wavelength and θ0 is the maximum desired
λ λ
look angle. As illustrated in the example (left), for a maxi-
dmax = = = 0.54 λ mum look angle to 60°, the maximum radiator spacing is
1 + sin 60° 1.87
little more than half the operating wavelength.
Incidentally, while the possible locations and movement
2. Energy reflected back in the
direction from which it came. of grating lobes may be readily visualized for a one-dimen-
sional array, many people find visualizing them for a two-
dimensional array annoyingly difficult. The difficulty may
be avoided, by plotting the lobe positions in so-called Sine
Rectangular Theta Space, as explained in the panel on page 484.
Lattice
Avoiding Bragg Lobes. Bragg lobes are retrodirective
reflections2 which may occur if an array is illuminated by
another radar from certain angles off broadside. If stealth is
required, they must be avoided. As explained in Chap. 39,
avoiding Bragg lobes may require a much tighter radiator
lattice than is necessary to avoid grating lobes.
Diamond
Lattice Choice of Lattice Pattern. For an ESA, the choice of
radiator-lattice pattern may also influence the number of
radiators required.
The most common lattice patterns are rectangular and
triangular or diamond shaped (Fig. 3). With a diamond lat-
3. Common radiator lattice patterns. With the diamond pattern,
the number of radiators may be reduced by up to 14% with- tice, the number of radiators may be reduced by up to 14%
out compromising grating lobe performance. without compromising grating lobe performance. The

482
 CHAPTER 38 ESA Design

AVOIDING GRATING LOBES

Where Grating Lobes Occur. Like the main lobe, grat- For an ESA, avoiding grating lobes is not quite so
ing lobes occur in those directions, θ n, simple. For an incremental phase difference, ∆φ, is
Main
Lobe
applied to the excitation of successive radiators to
θ2 steer the main lobe to the desired look angle, θ L.
θ1 θL Here, for example, to steer
the beam to the right, the
phase of the excitation for
radiator B is made to lag
∆Rφ that for radiator A by ∆φ.
θL
in which the waves received by a distant observer from A B
d
all of the antenna’s radiating elements are in phase. φ φ – ∆φ
∆Rφ = d sin θ L
For an MSA, where all radiating elements are excited in
phase, θn is simply the direction in which the increment- Consequently, for an ESA, grating lobes occur in
tal difference in range, ∆Rθ, from successive radiating those directions, θ n, where the incremental
elements to a distant observer is a whole multiple, n, of distance, ∆Rθ , from successive radiating elements
the operating wavelength, λ. to a distant observer equals a whole multiple of a
wavelength (nλ) minus the distance, ∆Rφ,
θn corresponding to the phase lag, ∆φ.
To Distant
Observer ∆Rθ = n λ
lφ θL
f eq
ua ∆Rθ n = 1, 2, 3, . . d sin
eo φ=
Lin ∆R
θn θn
To Distant
θn
sin
Observer

The direction, θn, is thus related to λ and the distance, nλ =d

θ
∆R
d, between radiators by the sine function.
θn
nλ
sin θ n = d
nλ d
From this simple relationship,
θn
d sin θn = nλ – d sin θ L
d
we can obtain the positions of all possible grating
lobes. Setting n equal to 1 and θ L equal to the
Now, the gain of each radiator goes to zero as θ maximum desired look angle, θ 0, yields a “worst case”
approaches 90°. equation for the position of the first grating lobe.

d sin θ1 = λ – d sin θ 0
Gain, G

θ θ 90° As with an MSA, to avoid grating lobes the first

G 0 grating lobe must be placed at least 90° off
broadside. As illustrated in the diagram below, θ1
approaches 90° as d is reduced to λ minus d sinθ 0.
And θ 1, the direction of the first grating lobe,
approaches 90° as d is reduced to λ. θ1
θ1 90° d sin
θ0 λ
θ1
To D
Obs istant
λ erve d sin
d r θ1
To D λ θ1
is
Obse tant
rver θ1
d
d
So, since sin 90° = 1, letting sin θ1 equal 1 and solving
So, for an MSA, grating lobes can be avoided by reduc- the above equation for d yields the maximum spacing
ing the spacing of the radiators to 1 wavelength or less. an ESA's radiators may have and avoid grating lobes.
λ
d ≤ λ d ≤
(1 + sin θ 0)

483
PART IX Advanced Concepts

SINE THETA SPACE

For even a mechanically steered array, visualizing
the possible positions of grating lobes is made difficult
by the fact that their directions, θ n, relative to the antenna
broadside direction are related to the distance, d, between
radiators and the wavelength, λ, by the sine function.
λ
sin θn = n n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
d
where n is the number of the lobe. (The main lobe is
number 0.)
The beauty of Sine Theta Space is that the position
of the main lobe can be plotted on it simply by scaling
off (in the direction φ relative to the related lattice axis,
u or v) a distance equal to the sine of the lobe's deflection,
θ0. The positions of any grating lobes can then be
predicted by scaling off on either side of the main lobe
distances equal to n λ divided by the radiator spacings
du and dv. Thus:
• Main lobe distance = sin θ0 (at angle φ)

For an ESA, the difficulty is compounded by θ n λ λ

• Grating lobe distances = ± and ±
being determined not only by the radiator spacing, but du dv
also by the deflection,θ 0 , of the main lobe from broadside.
v
du
λ
sin θn = n ± sin θ0
d u sin θ0
dv λ
du
In the case of a 2-D ESA, these difficulties are further λ φ
compounded by the lobes existing in three-dimensional dv
space. Radiator Lattice
Broadside
Grating Lobe Diagram
Plotted in Sine Theta Space
Main Lobe

Since lobes cannot exist at angles greater than 90°

off broadside, a circle of radius 1 (the sine of 90°) is
drawn around the origin. The area within this circle is
termed “real space”; the area outside it, “imaginary
u space.”

Array
v Imaginary
Space
An engineer named Von Aulock elegantly solved all Real Space
three problems in a single stroke by (a) representing
the main lobe and each grating lobe with a unit vector
(arrow one unit long) and (b) projecting the tip of this Main Lobe
vector onto the plane of the array.
When evaluating radiator lattice patterns and radiator
spacing, potential grating lobe positions are often plotted
in imaginary space.
θ

Real Space

φ = position relative to Main Lobe

v radiator–lattice axis
Plane of array

Since the distance from the center of the plane to each One can then readily see whether any of these lobes
point projected onto it is (1 x sin θ n), Von Aulock named will materialize—i.e., move into real space—when the
the plane Sine Theta Space. main lobe is steered to the limits of the desired field of
regard.

484
 CHAPTER 38 ESA Design

choice of lattice pattern, though, is also influenced by other

considerations, such as RCS-reduction requirements.
The number of radiators may be reduced still further by
selectively thinning the density of elements near the edges
of the array. In assessing thinning schemes, however, their
effects on sidelobes and their interaction with edge treat-
ment for RCS reduction must be carefully considered.
In short, no matter what the scheme, some price is
always paid for reducing the number of radiators beyond
what is achieved by simply limiting their spacing to dmax.

Design of Passive ESAs

Among basic considerations in the design of passive
ESAs are the selection of phase shifters, the choice of feed
type, and the choice of transmission lines.
Selection of Phase Shifters. In a two-dimensional array
employing 2000 or more radiators, phase shifters (Fig. 4)
typically account for more than half the weight and cost of
the array. Consequently, it is critically important that the
individual devices be light weight and low cost. Also, so as
not to reduce the radiated power and not to increase the
receiver noise figure appreciably, the phase shifters’ inser-
tion loss must be very low. Other critical electrical charac-
teristics of the phase shifters are accuracy of phase control,
4. Ferrite phase shifters of the sort used in passives ESAs: X-band
switching speed, and voltage standing-wave ratio. (left); Ku-band (center); Ka-band, removed from its housing
(right).
Choice of Feed Type. The feeds used in passive ESAs are
of two basic types: constrained and space. Constrained
feeds may be either traveling-wave or corporate.
In a traveling-wave feed, the individual radiating ele-
φ φ φ φ φ φ φ φ
ments, or columns of radiating elements, branch off of a
common transmission line (Fig. 5). This type of feed is
comparatively simple. But it has a limited instantaneous Traveling-Wave Feed
bandwidth. The reason is that the electrical length of the
5. Traveling-wave feed is simple and inexpensive. But, since the
feed path in wavelengths, hence also the phase shift from electrical length of the path to each radiator is different, a
the common source to each radiator is different. phase correction must be made for each element, limiting the
instantaneous bandwidth.
The difference may be compensated by adding a suitable
correction to the setting of the phase shifter for each radia- 3. Some feeds get around this
tor. But since the required correction is a function of the limitation but are impractica-
wavelength of the signals passing through the feed, any one bly bulky.
phase setting generally provides compensation over only a
3
narrow band of frequencies.
φ φ φ φ φ φ φ φ
A corporate feed has a pyramidally shaped branching
structure (Fig. 6). It can readily be designed to make the
physical length, hence also the electrical length, of the feed
paths to all radiating elements the same, thereby eliminat-
ing the need for phase compensation. The instantaneous Corporate Feed
bandwidth then is limited only by the bandwidths of the
6. Corporate feed makes the electrical length of paths to all radi-
radiators and of the phase shifters, transmission lines, and ators the same, eliminating the need for phase corrections and
connectors making up the feed system. widening the instantaneous bandwidth.

485
PART IX Advanced Concepts

φ
Space feeds vary widely in design. Figure 7 shows a repre-
sentative feed. In it, a horn or a small primary array of radi-
φ ating elements illuminates an electronic lens filling the
φ
desired aperture. The lens consists of closely spaced radiat-
ing elements, such as short open-ended wave guide sections,
L φ each containing an electronically controlled phase shifter.
e
SPACE FEED n The space feed is simple, lightweight, and inexpensive. It
s φ
has low losses and an instantaneous bandwidth comparable
Primary
Array φ to that of a corporate feed. But the focal length of the pri-
φ
mary array adds considerably to the depth of the antenna.
Also, sidelobe control is difficult to obtain without ampli-
φ tude tapering at the radiator level.
Choice of Transmission Lines. The transmission lines
7. The space feed is simple, inexpensive and has an instantaneous
commonly used in antenna feed systems are of two general
bandwidth comparable to a corporate feed’s. But the focal
length of the primary array adds to the depth of the antenna. types: strip line and hollow waveguide.4
Strip line consists of narrow metal lines (strips) sand-
4. Strip line is more precisely wiched between metal surfaces. It is lightweight, compact,
defined as transverse electro-
magnetic mode (TEM) trans- and low cost. Moreover, it can pass signals having instanta-
mission line; hollow wave neous bandwidths of up to a full octave! It thus meets the
guide, as transverse electric/
transverse magnetic (TE / TM) requirements of applications ranging from ECCM and LPI
transmission line. to high resolution mapping.
Strip line is of two general types (see panel below). In
one, the strips are insulated from the metal surfaces by a
dielectric sheet, making this feed cheaper but lossy. In the
other—called “power” strip line—losses are minimized by
isolating the strips from the metal surfaces with an air gap.

REPRESENTATIVE STRIP LINE CONSTRUCTION

Dielectric Strip Line Air (Power) Strip Line

(RS95-4626)

This type of strip line is made of two thin metalized dielectric
sheets. The bottom sheet (foreground) is metalized on both sides.
Metal on top is etched away leaving a strip-like conductor.
The upper sheet is metalized only on top. When the two sheets
are put together, the conductor is sandwiched between the metal
layers and insulated from them by the dielectric.
The result is lightweight, compact, low cost, and can pass
wideband signals. It is lossy, but good for low-power and strong-
signal applications.
Strip-like conductor, etched from the metalized surface of a
dielectric sheet, is sandwiched between thin aluminized sheets into
which matching grooves have been stamped. Supported by the
dielectric, the conductor is separated from the metal by air in the
groves. Also very wide band, it is more expensive than dielectric strip
line but has much lower losses.
In another version of air strip line, conductor is supported at
intervals by plastic standoffs in groves cut into light metal plates by
an automated machine tool.

486
 CHAPTER 38 ESA Design

Hollow metal waveguide (Fig. 8) is heavier, more expen-

sive, and has a limited instantaneous bandwidth. But it has
very low losses. Consequently, it is required for high trans-
mitted powers, weak signal detection, and long runs.
With advances in plastic molding and plating tech-
niques, high-quality low-cost metal-coated hollow plastic
wave guide has become an attractive option.

Design of Active ESAs

The key element of an active ESA is the T/R module.
Among the many important considerations in its design, are
the number of different types of integrated circuit chips
required, the power output to be provided, the limits
imposed on transmitted noise, and the required precision 8. A section of hollow metal waveguide. It is heavier and more
of phase and amplitude control. Not to be overlooked is the expensive than stripline and has a limited instantaneous band-
width. But, having very low losses, it is required in applica-
array’s crucial physical design. Each of these considerations tions requiring high transmitter powers and/or weak signal
is discussed briefly below. detection.

Chip Set. Ideally, all of a module’s circuitry would be

integrated on a single wafer. However, because of differ-
ences in the requirements of the various functional ele-
ments, technology for achieving this goal is not presently
available. Consequently, the circuitry is partitioned by func-
tion and placed on more than one chip. The chips are then
interconnected in a hybrid microcircuit (Fig. 9).

9. Closeup of a representative T/R module (cover removed). Inte-

grated circuit chips are interconnected in a hybrid microcircuit.
5. Circuits for millimeter wave-
The basic chip set for a T/R module (Fig. 10) includes lengths are called MIMICs.
three monolithic microwave integrated circuits, called MMICs,5
plus a digital VLSI (very large scale integrated circuit): Hybrid Microcircuit LNA
+
• High-power amplifier (MMIC) Protection
Variable Gain Circuit
(MMIC)
• LNA plus protection circuit (MMIC) Amplifier
+
Phase Shifter
• Variable-gain amplifier and variable phase shifter (MMIC)
High-power
(MMIC) Amplifier
(MMIC)
• Digital control circuit (VLSI) Control
(VLSI)
Depending upon the application, to these may be added
other chips, such as a driver MMIC to amplify the input to
10. Basic chip set for a representative T/R module. Set consists of
the high-power amplifier when high peak powers are three monolithic microwave integrated circuits (MMICs) and
required, circuitry for built-in testing, and so on. one digital very large-scale integrated circuit (VLSI).

487
PART IX Advanced Concepts

To date, virtually all MMICs for X-band and higher fre-

quencies have been made of gallium arsenide (GaAs), since
it is the only material yet proven capable of handling such
high frequencies. One limitation of GaAs is its very low
thermal conductivity. For the circuitry on a chip to be ade-
quately cooled, the chip must either be ground very thin—
making it fragile and difficult to handle—or mounted on
the hybrid substrate face down (flip-chip technique).
Power Output. In general, for a given array size, the
array’s average power output is dictated by the desired max-
imum detection range. The realizable average power out-
put, however, is usually constrained by (a) the amounts of
primary electrical power and cooling the aircraft designer
allocates to the ESA and (b) the module’s efficiency. For a
given primary power and cooling capacity, the higher the
efficiency, the higher the average power can be.
Regarding module efficiencies, two terms which often
come up are “power added efficiency” and “power over-
head.” These are explained in the panel on the facing page.
In designing the module’s high-power amplifier, the
For the same peak power output:
required peak power is of greatest concern. It, of course,
equals the desired average power per module divided by
the minimum anticipated duty factor.
For a given peak power output from the array as a
8 sq. ft. 4 sq. ft.
whole, the peak power per module is inversely proportional
to the number of modules, hence to the area of the array.
Consequently, to obtain the same peak power from an array
Required Peak Power Required Peak Power having an area of 4 square feet, as from an array having an
Per Module = P Per Module = 2P area of 8 square feet, the peak power of each module must
11. Relationship between the peak power per module and the be doubled (Fig. 11).
area of an array.
Transmitter Noise Limitations. As with a radar employ-
ing a central transmitter, noise modulation of the transmit-
ted signal must be minimized. The principal sources of noise
modulation in an active ESA are ripple in the dc input volt-
age and fluctuations in the input voltage due to the pulsed
nature of the load. Because the voltages are low and the cur-
rents are high, adequately filtering the input power is a
Radiator
demanding task. It may require distributing the power con-
ditioning function at an intermediate level within the array,
Duplexer
or even including a voltage regulator in every T/R module.

Receiver Receiver Noise Figure. Since one of the main reasons for
Protection
going to an active ESA is reduction of receive losses, to fully
realize the ESA’s potential it is essential that the T/R module
LNA
have an extremely low receiver noise figure. Typically, the
receiver noise figure is quoted for the module as a whole. It
equals the noise figure of the LNA plus the losses ahead of
12. Receiver noise figure equals the noise figure for the LNA plus
the losses in the elements ahead of the LNA: radiator, duplex- the LNA—i.e., losses in the radiator, the duplexer, the pro-
er, receiver protection circuit, and interconnections. tection circuit, and the interconnections (Fig. 12).

488

Phase and Amplitude Control. The precision with which
the phase and amplitude of the transmitted and received
signals must be controlled at the radiator level is dictated
by the maximum acceptable peak sidelobe level of the full
array. The lower it is, the
• Smaller the quantization step sizes of the phase and
amplitude control circuits must be
• Wider the amplitude-control range needed to achieve
the necessary radiation taper across the array for side
lobe reduction
• Smaller the acceptable phase and amplitude errors
Array Physical Design. The performance and cost of an
active ESA depend critically not only upon the design of
the T/R modules, but also upon the physical design of the
assembled array.
In general, the radiators must be precisely positioned
and solidly mounted on a rigid back plane. This is essential
if the antenna’s RCS is to be minimized; for any irregulari-
ties in the face of the array will result in random scattering
which cannot otherwise be reduced (see page 495).
The modules are typically mounted behind the back plane
on cold plates, which carry away the heat they generate.
Behind the cold plates then are: (a) a low-loss feed mani-
fold connecting each module to the exciter and the central
receiver; (b) distribution networks providing control signals
and dc power to each module; and (c) a distribution system
for the coolant that flows through the cold plates.
Just how this general design is implemented may vary
widely. One approach, called stick architecture, is illustrated
in Figs. 13 and 14.
13. A single “stick” for an active ESA of stick-architecture design.
A row of precisely positioned radiators is solidly mounted on a
rigid structure serving as: (a) back plane for the radiators, (b)
cold plate and housing for the T/R modules, and (c) housing
for RF feed, power, and control-signal distribution network.
489
CHAPTER 38 ESA Design
MEASURES OF MODULE EFFICIENCY
Power-Added Efficiency. Since a module’s high-
power amplifier (HPA) typically includes more than
one stage, the efficiency of the final stage is generally
expressed as power added efficiency, EPA.
Po – Pi
EPA =
Pdc
where
Po = RF output power
Pi = RF input power
Pdc = DC input power.
If the gain of the final stage is reasonably high, the
power added efficiency very nearly represents the
efficiency of the entire amplifier chain.
Power Overhead. This is the power consumed by
the other elements of the module—switching circuitry,
LNA, and module control circuit. Because of this
overhead, a module’s efficiency may be considerably
less than the HPA’s efficiency, which typically is
somewhere between 35 and 45%.
Since much of the overhead power is consumed
continuously, while the RF output is pulsed, module
efficiency may vary appreciably with PRF.
Output Power
Loss In HPA
Overhead Power
PRF 1 PRF 2 Aperture
Weighted
Also, since overhead power is independent of
output power, if all modules are identical, as they
reasonably would be, aperture weighting can
significantly reduce the efficiency of many modules.
To minimize this reduction yet achieve extremely low
sidelobes, special weighting algorithms have been
developed for active ESAs.
14. Sticks are rigidly mounted on top of each other to form the
complete array.
PART IX Advanced Concepts

Another approach to the physical design of an active ESA

is a so called “tile” architecture. It employs dime-sized three-
dimensional, four-channel modules (Fig. 15).

Enlarged

15. Dime-sized four-channel, three-dimensional T/R module.

Within each module (Fig. 16), successive sections of four

16. Within the module, successive sections of four T/R circuits are
placed on three boards, the heat from which is conducted out
to the surrounding metal frame.
T/R circuits are placed on three circuit boards, mounted
one on top of the other. Heat generated in the circuits on
each board is conducted to the surrounding metal frame.
The modules are sandwiched between cold plates having
feed-through slots for the RF signals, dc power, and control
signals (Fig. 17).

Radiators

RF Feed-Through

Upper
Cold
Plate
4-Channel T/R Tile Modules

DC and RF Connector
Control
Signal
Connector

r
ve
Co
Feed
Circuit

DC Power and
Control Signal
Feed Through
Lower Cold Plate

DC Power and
Control Signal
Pads

Coaxial
Power and Connector
Control-Signal
Distribution DC and Control
Printed Wiring Signal Connector
Board.

17. “Tile” array architecture. Four-channel three-dimensional T/R modules (such as shown in Fig. 10) are sandwiched between two cold plates.
RF input and output signals, control signals, and dc-power feed through slots in the lower cold plate. RF signals to and from the radiators
feed through slots in the upper cold plate.

490
 CHAPTER 38 ESA Design

For sidelobe reduction, precise control of phase and gain

in each module is essential. Consequently, a comprehensive
automatic self-test and calibration capability is provided. To
account for manufacturing tolerances, the initial calibration
correction for each module is set into a nonvolatile memory
in the module’s control circuit.
Finally, since more than the maximum acceptable num-
ber of modules may malfunction during the operational life
of the aircraft, provisions must be included for removing
and replacing individual modules—a difficult design task,
to say the least.

Summary
To minimize the cost of an ESA—whether passive or
active—the radiating elements must be spaced as far apart
as possible without creating grating lobes. The maximum
spacing is about half a wavelength. For stealth, still closer
spacing may be required to avoid Bragg lobes.
The number of radiators may be reduced by up to 14%
by using a diamond lattice. And it may be reduced still fur- Diamond
Lattice
ther by thinning the density of elements at the array’s edges,
but for such reductions, a price is paid in terms of sidelobe
and RCS performance.
Key elements of a passive ESA are the phase shifters.
They account for more than half the weight and cost of the
φ φ φ φ φ φ φ φ
array, hence must be lightweight and low cost. Also critical
are the transmission lines and feed. For wideband opera-
tion, strip line and either a corporate or a space feed must
be used. For high power and weak-signal detection, hollow Corporate Feed

waveguide is required.
The key element of an active ESA is the T/R module. It is
implemented with a limited number of monolithic integrat-
ed circuits in a hybrid microcircuit. For X-band frequencies
and higher, the monolithic circuits are made of gallium
arsenide. Critical electrical characteristics are the module’s
peak power output, precision of phase and amplitude con-
trol, receiver noise figure, and noise modulation of the
transmitted signal, which must be minimized through fil-
tering of the dc input power.
To minimize the antenna’s RCS, the radiators are mount-
ed on an extremely rigid back plane. The T/R modules are
mounted on cold plates, immediately behind the back
plane. Self-test and self-calibration capabilities are essential.

491