Col Reg Reviewer

Rule 5 -- Lookout
INTERNATIONAL INLAND
Every vessel shall at all
times maintain a proper
lookout by sight and
hearing as well as by all
Every vessel shall at all times maintain a proper lookout by sight
available means
and hearing as well as by all available means appropriate in the
appropriate in the
prevailing circumstances and conditions so as to make a full
prevailing circumstances
appraisal of the situation and of the risk of collision.
and conditions so as to
make a full appraisal of
the situation and of the
risk of collision.
Rule 5 is a short rule that places a large responsibility on the mariner. Rather than specific
duties, equipment, places, times, and number of persons, Rule 5 requires the master to
decide how best to maintain a proper lookout. Instead of giving us precise guidance on the
adequacy of the lookout, the Rule uses vague terms such as "proper" and "appropriate."
Only in this way could the Rule reasonably provide for all vessels at all times. Requirements
covering even the most common situations would have been intolerably detailed and
complex.
The lookout requirement of Rule 5 relies heavily on common sense and good seamanship. If
you are able to comply with the Steering and Sailing Rules (Part B of the Rules) and with
Rule 34--all of which depend on lookout information--you will no doubt have met the
demands of Rule 5. A proper lookout, therefore, provides all the information needed to
comply with those Rules. If the information collected by the lookout is insufficient, then the
master must intensify his or her lookout efforts (for example, by turning on the radar) or
reduce the need for information (for example, by slowing a fogbound vessel).
The "information gap" that sometimes opens between the amount of information collected
and the amount needed to comply with the other Rules is a leading cause of most collisions.
Too often vessels collide because they their masters have either ignored the gap or have
filled it with assumptions. An appreciation of the lookout requirement will take the mariner
halfway toward avoiding collisions.
Definition and Purpose of the Lookout
What is a "lookout"? Perhaps the most common image that leaps to mind is that of a lone
seaman wearing yellow foul-weather gear and a navy watch cap, stationed at the very bow
of the ship and peering out into the gloom to catch a flicker of light or the moan of a
foghorn. This perception is misleading. The term, as used by the Rules, denotes not a person
but rather the systematic collection of information.
Responsibility for maintaining a proper lookout lies with the vessel's operator, not with a
subordinate designated as "lookout." The vessel's operator--that is, master, watch officer, or
person in charge--is the lookout manager. If the operator can keep a lookout personally, then
coordinating the collection and analysis of information is relatively straightforward. But if
the operator, that is, the decision-maker, must rely on others to gather the information, then
management of a proper lookout becomes more complicated. The operator must ensure that
information on the vessel's surroundings is detected in a timely manner and promptly
communicated, so that he or she can correctly analyze the situation.
The purpose of the lookout is simple, so simple that it can easily be overlooked. As the
purpose of the navigation rules is to prevent collisions, it follows that the purpose of the
lookout is to collect the information needed to avoid collisions. This fundamental reason for
maintaining a proper lookout is something to keep in mind.
Duty of the Lookout
Traditionally, the duty of the lookout was to watch out for vessels, lights, and other objects
(such as reefs, shoals, and icebergs) by sight and hearing alone and to report their presence
to the vessel's operator promptly. The lookout was allowed some discretion on what to
report in crowded waters and would be assigned no other duties that would interfere with
this important function.
Although the traditional principles of the lookout are still pertinent, today's mariner has tools
available that greatly extend the distance over which information can be detected. Today, a
proper lookout is a team effort. Yet the master of the vessel is the one held accountable. For
this reason, the master must see to it that each member of the lookout team is competent in
the use of equipment and diligent in the performance of that duty.
The master, who knows the vessel's needs for information and who has the authority and the
Rule 5 responsibility, should determine the duties of each member of the lookout team. It is
the master's duty to ensure that a proper lookout is maintained at all times. That duty cannot
be delegated.
Tools of the Lookout
Sight, hearing, and "all available means" are tools of the lookout. While not too long ago
"all available means" was limited to the spyglass, modern mariners have a wealth of tools
with which to extend the human senses.
Human sight and hearing have, of course, their limitations. Near sightedness may be
uncorrected or poorly corrected. Even good eyesight is affected by environmental factors
such as ambient light, weather conditions, water spray, or wind. Fatigue can also affect
vision, as can moving between extremes of light. Similarly, hearing my be impaired. The
noise of wind and wave and ship's machinery may mask the sound you want to hear. The
blast from a ship's own whistle blocks out other noises and will temporarily, perhaps
permanently, reduce the hearing of the lookout. Hearing testing would be advised.
Fortunately, mechanical means for maintaining a lookout are available. "Available" to Rule
5 means "shall be used" in appropriate circumstances. Some of these "other means" are
listed below:
 Binoculars
 Radar
 VHF bridge-to-bridge radiotelephone
 Automated radar plotting aids (sometimes called collision avoidance radar)
 Differential GPS (DGPS) satellite navigation equipment
 Automatic Identification Systems (AIS) radio transponders
 Vessel traffic services
 Navigation and piloting instruments
Radar has assumed such importance on modern vessels that Rule 6 (Safe Speed) and Rule 7
(Risk of Collision) discuss it specifically. Most commercial vessels are now fitted with
radar, and probably anyone who has seriously ventured out on the water has some concept
of what radar is and what it does. Why then are there so many radar-assisted collisions--
collisions that occur even though the other vessel was observed on the radar screen? And
why are there still night-time collisions when the radar was either not turned on or not
observed? As with most tools, radar will not provide any benefit unless used, and used
correctly.
A lookout may check an empty radar screen and believe nothing is there because he or she
can't see anything. What may have happened, though, is that a weak contact with a small
nearby vessel is lost when the radar operator twisted the sensitivity knob to reduce sea-
surface clutter. Collisions occur because radar observers rely on capabilities the radar does
not have.
A lookout may observe a contact on radar, begin to form a mental pisture of the other
vessel, an possibly make a course change. A few minutes later, upon checking the screen,
the oberver "confirms" the other vessel's imagined course and speed a not leading to a
collision. In making this "confirmation," the radar observer has incorporated a string of
assumptions into the process. If the oberver had taken the time to plot the tracks, rether than
rely on assumptions, he or she would have seen that the vessels were in fact on a collision
course. We cannot emphasize enough how important it is to distinguish between assumption
and fact in your decision making. Consciously seek out, do not unconsciously suppress,
conflicting evidence. It is very difficult to calculate mentally another vessel's relative course
and speed after observing a radar blip two or three times--difficult to the point of
impossibility. Assumption making is not one of the "other means" referenced in Rule 5.
If you are fortunate enough to have more advanced (computer-enhanced) radar equipment,
your job will be easier; just keep in mind that all aids have their limitations. Do not assume
a machine will do your job for you.
Some mariners believe that radar is not necessary on clear nights, yet collisions continue to
happen in those conditions. In one such instance, a ship not using its radar ran into a large,
newly constructed oil platform in the Gulf of Mexico. The platform was inadequately
lighted, but so are many other vessels and objects. Just because you can't see something at
night in good visibility doesn't mean it isn't there.
Rule 5 does not require the installation of radar, but if radar is installed it must be used
whenever it would contribute to the quality of the lookout. What are your obligations if
radar is installed on your vessel but is not working properly? Rule 5 does not require that
mafunctioning radar be used. If the problem is temporary, such as signal blockage caused by
a heavy rainstorm, the use of radar can be suspended but not abandoned.
Radar can be carried one step further by incorporating a computer to calculate the courses
and speeds of other vessels the radar detects. The computer than relates that information to
the vessel's own course and speed. The automated radar plotting aid (ARPA) displays
position, course, and speed for each target and signals when it detects risk of collision. Some
ARPAs will also display the projected future track of each vessel, all against the background
of an electronic chart of the area.
Because all of the information on the vessels comes from radar, ARPA's technical
limitations are the same as radar's. However easy it is to become overdependent on radar, it
is much easier to relinquish the lookout function, including decision-making, to the magic-
box ARPA. A poor understanding of this very useful tool may lead the unwary mariner into
extremis.
Automatic Identification Systems (AIS) have been implemented in some areas to advance
the state of the art even further. AIS uses radio transponders in much the same way as the
mandatory aircraft T-CAS collision avoidance system uses Mode-S radar transponders to
transmit encoded information from each aircraft to other aircraft in the area and to air traffic
controllers. In the case of the shipborne AIS, this information can include vessel
identification, GPS/DGPS position, course, speed, navigation status, dimensions, or cargo.
Combined with a display capability, AIS presents critical navigation and vessel traffic
information to the bridge team. AIS systems at present are limited and have not been
standardized, although an international standard is being actively pursued, and it seems
likely that carriage requirements for such equipment will follow adoption of an international
standard.
In many situations the best way to find out if other vessels are in the area is to ask. A blind
call on the radiotelephone may elicit an answer from an undetected vessel, or a call about
traffic to a known vessel may produce useful information, such as any planned course
changes. In a number of heavily trafficked areas the mariner can call a vessel traffic service
(VTS) for advisory information. The VTS operators keep track of all major vessels'
positions, course, and speeds, as well as accumulate information on navigation hazards. This
service will be discussed in more detail with Rule 10.
The tools available to aid the mariner in maintaining a lookout will continue to develop. The
use of shipboard radar transponders in conjunction with ARPAs and radiotelephones, for
example, is being explored. The continued exploitation of microprocessor technology will
make available new means for maintaining a proper lookout. Whatever changes the future
will bring, Rule 5 will continue to require that the person directing the movement of the
vessel know the benefits and limitations of any new devices and be able to use them.
Continuing education is part of the navigation rules.
Prevailing Circumstances and Conditions
A proper lookout is that which is sufficient to prevent a collision, without any allowance for
good luck, in the prevailing circumstances and conditions. Tp give substance to this
definition, we offer more specific observations:
 A lookout in the open ocean can be less intense than one in coastal or inland waters.
It cannot, however, be abandoned--midocean collisions do occur.
 A lookout on a vessel at anchor is required, with the level of effort depending upon
the location of the anchorage, depth of water, type of ground tackle, wind, currents,
waves, and so forth. The lookout should determine whether the anchor is dragging
and should warn other vessels of the anchored vessel's presence.
 The means and methods for maintaining a lookout vary with night and day. At night,
lookouts should make greater use of binoculars and radar. Masters should post
observers away from the vessel's own lights so as not to impair the night vision of
the lookout. During the day and in good visibility, a vessel can be seen at a much
greater distance , as indicated by the fact that a masthead light for the largest vessel
need be visible for only six miles and for the smallest vessel, only two miles. During
daylight, and under the most favorable conditions, the watch officer on a large vessel
may perform the lookout alone.
 The size and arrangement of a vessel have a direct bearing on the effort required to
maintain a proper lookout. On small vessels where there is an unobstructed all-
around view and where there is no impairment of night vision, the craft's operator
may both steer and keep the lookout. Unobstructed view, simple controls, no
distractions, and high maneuverability are important here.
 Visibility is generally the key factor in maintaining a proper lookout. As the
visibility decreases, the level of effort to maintain a proper lookout increases
tremendously. Sight needs to be augmented by hearing, radar, and radiotelephone.
Unless you are in the open ocean, you should seek precise navigational information.
In the case of low-lying fog, at least one person should be positioned high enough to
see over the fog.
Full Appraisal of the Situation and Risk of Collision

These last words restate the purpose of Rule 5. It is this broad objective that you should
keep in mind when managing the lookout. If there is not enough information to assess the
situation, you should tap all your resources to gather more. If you are still unable to acquire
the information you need, then you should take steps immediately to reduce your
requirement for information--for example, by slowing or stopping. Otherwise, you are
violating Rule 5. This is not one of those circumstances where doing more with less is a
virtue.
Although it is true that the determination of a proper lookout is left to the mariner, it is also
true that courts of law assign as a contributory fault the lack of a proper lookout in a very
large proportion of collision cases.
Rule 6 -- Safe Speed
Every vessel shall at all
times proceed at a safe
speed so that she can take
Every vessel shall at all times proceed at a safe speed so that
proper and effective action
she can take proper and effective action to avoid collision and
to avoid collision and be
be stopped within a distance appropriate to the prevailing
stopped within a distance
circumstances and conditions.
appropriate to the
and conditions.
Like Rule 5, Rule 6 begins with the words "Every vessel shall at all times," indicating its
universal application, in good visibility as well as poor, and like Rule 5, it places a great
deal of responsibility on the good judgment of the mariner.
How much does speed affect safety? Even if excessive speed is not the most glaring cause
of maritime accidents, there have been very few collisions between stopped vessels; vessels
involved in a collision are apt to have been moving too fast.
Some mariners are reluctant to change speeds and so pay more attention to factors that
support their cruising speed and less attention to factors that indicate a need to slow down. It
is very important that you give due consideration to any factor suggesting a change in speed.
Because a closing situation may develop rapidly, the person in charge should feel free to call
for a reduction in speed without having first to notify another person (for example, the
master or engineer). Some powerplants are capable of quicker speed changes if certain
preparatory steps are taken. If a speed change becomes likely (or even a real possibility), the
person in charge should provide timely notification to the engineers so that they can prepare
the engines. Rule 19(b) specifically requires that power-driven vessels have their engines
ready for immediate maneuver when in an area of restricted visibility. (The engines on
smaller power-driven vessels, and on larger automated vessels, are normally controlled from
the helm position and respond immediately.)
While not directly relevant to collisions between vessels, a vessel's speed also is roughly
proportional to its wake. The vessel operator will be liable for damages caused by a wake
that is excessively high (for the circumstances).
Safe Speed versus Moderate Speed

The safe speed rule first came into effect in 1977 for the International Rules and was
adopted for the Inland Rules in 1980. Older repealed rules called for "moderate speed," but
only in restricted visibility. Rule 6 uses the term "safe speed" and applies in all conditions of
visibility. The term "moderate speed" was replaced by "safe speed" because for many
conditions the term "moderate" was too restrictive.
The Rules now recognize speed as an important factor in preventing collisions in good
visibility as well as poor. Newer vessels are bigger and faster and may take longer to stop
and maneuver. Smaller vessels are also much faster, some capable of speeds greater than 50
knots. A vessel's performance limit is often no longer the controlling factor in good
visibility; other conditions must be considered.
Proper and Effective Action
The first objective of maintaining a safe speed is to permit the vessel "to take proper and
effective action to avoid collision." To be able to maneuver as prescribed by the Rules, the
vessel must be moving slowly enough to control its forward motion. In some cases, it must
also be moving fast enough for the rudder to effect a turn promptly.
A vessel passing close to a bank (as in a channel) or close to another vessel generates
hydrodynamic forces that can pull the vessel off its course. If the speed is great enough,
these hydrodynamic forces can overpower the correcting forces of the rudder. Vessel
operators are expected to be familiar with these effects and to reduce their speed sufficiently
to maintain positive rudder control.
Even vessels to which the Rules assign a right-of-way must proceed at a safe speed, which
sometimes involves planning for the unexpected. Because Rule 2 sometimes makes a
departure from the Rules madatory, and Rule 17(b) requires action by the stand-on vessel
when the risk of collision becomes extreme, a fast-moving stand-on vessel may find the
action is expected under the Rules not to be the "proper and effective" action needed to
avoid a collision. Rule 17 requires a stand-on vessel to maintain its course and speed after
risk of collision has been established. A too-high initial speed will therefore place the stand-
on vessel in a dangerously awkward position.
Stopping Distance
The second objective of requirng a safe speed is to enable the vessel to be stopped "within a
distance appropriate to the prevailing circumstances and conditions." In most cases where
the risk of collision exists, a course change will be the most common action. However, if
maneuvering room is limited or if visibility is poor, stopping the vessel (perhaps in
conjunction with a turn) could be the best way to avoid or minimize damage.
Before radar was common, an old rule of thumb was that a vessel should be able to stop
within half the range of visibility. Thus, two vessels on opposite courses would be able to
stop before colliding. This rule of thumb was not widely accepted by the courts, which
wisely decided that the many factors involved warranted a case-by-case consideration.
Older rules concerning moderate speed (applied only in restricted visibility) included a
statement about stopping or maintaining bare steerageway. Although Rule 6 does not
explicitly contain the same provision, Rule 8 requires vessels to slow or stop to avoid
collision or to give more time to assess the situation. Rule 19 requires that vessels in areas of
restricted visibility encountering vessels forward slow to the bare minimum needed for
steering, or stop altogether.
In determining a safe speed
the following factors shall In determining a safe speed the following factors shall be
be among those taken into among those taken into account.
account.
Most of Rule 6 presents factors that must be considered in determing safe speed. These
factors are not necessarily listed in order of importance, and the list is not exhaustive.
Paragraph (a) contains factors to be considered by all vessels; paragraph (b) contains factors
that are to be considered by vessels with operational radar.
(a) By all vessels: (a) By all vessels:
(i) the state of visibility; (i) the state of visibility;
Visibility has traditionally been the most important consideration in setting the speed. Rule
19 (Conduct of Vessels in Restricted Visibility) restates the necessity for limiting speed and
adds that power-driven vessls shall have their engines ready to maneuver. That Rules also
mandates further precautions when another vessel is detected ahead.
(ii) the traffic density
including concentrations of (ii) the traffic density including concentrations of fishing
fishing vessels or any other vessels or any other vessels;
vessels;
Traffic density is important because the probability of a collision increases with the density
and because the probability that three or more vessels will share risk of collision also
increases. In this latter special circumstance (see Rule 2), some departure from the Rules
may be required, leading to unusual and perhaps unexpected action. Areas containing many
small vessels require extra caution since those vessels are often difficult to detect either by
radar or by sight. In either case, slowing will give extra time to assess the situation. Rule
8(e), on slowing or stopping to avoid a collision or to assess the situation, will probably
come into play in these situations.
(iii) the maneuverability of
the vessel with special
(iii) the maneuverability of the vessel with special reference to
reference to stopping
stopping distance and turning ability in the prevailing
distance and turning ability
conditions;
in the prevailing
conditions;
The vessel's operator cannot establish a safe speed without knowing how far the vessel will
travel before stopping, for any normal loading condition or speed. Stopping distances will
vary substantially depending on whether the vessel is turning or proceeding in a straight
line. Many vessels will stop most quickly when put into a sharp turn. Large tankers are a
good example; because their great bulk dwarfs the propeller, turning their broadsides against
the line of travel stops them more efficiently than would running their engines astern alone
(doesn't work in a narrow channel, of course).
Tug and towboat operators should be aware of their vessels' stopping characteristics both
without barges and with different numbers of barges.
The maneuvering characteristics of most larger vessels are required to be posted on the
bridge. Operators should learn the characteristics before the information is needed.
(iv) at night the presence of
background light such as
(iv) at night the presence of background light such as from
from shore lights or from
shore lights or from backscatter of her own lights;
backscatter of her own
lights;
Background lights and backscatter decrease the effectiveness of a lookout by sight and
therefore require a proportional decrease in speed. A small vessel has a particular problem
because the vessel's own lights are close to the operator. Careful design of the navigation
light arrangement will minimize backscatter and reflection from the vessel itself.
(v) the state of wind, sea
and current, and the (v) the state of wind, sea and current, and the proximity of
proximity of navigational navigational hazards;
hazards;
The need to reduce speed in the face of mounting adversity is obvious (we hope).
(vi) the draft in relation to
the available depth of (vi) the draft in relation to the available depth of water.
water.
Draft restrictions relate to speed in several ways. If there is little underkeel clearance, it is
likely that shallower water is nearby. It is easier to avoid running aground from a low speed,
and if a grounding cannot be avoided, the damage will be less.
If a vessel's draft exceeds the depth outside a channel, the vessel will be limited to straight-
line stopping, which is less effective than a combination of slowing or reversing engines and
turning away. Hence a lower speed is usually required. Rule 9 gives further direction for
vessels operating in narrow channels.
In shallower water, a vessel's speed introduces hydrodynamic forces that are not present in
deeper water. As a vessel moves forward, the water in front moves away and then closes in
after the stern passes. In shallow water, especially in channels, the water ahead of the vessel
is squeezed quickly through the relatively small space around the hull to the stern, moving
fastest where it is squeezed the most. This happens under the bottom of the vessel in shallow
water or, if the vessel is near a bank, then along that side. The fast flow of water creates lift,
in the same manner that lift is created by a wing or a sail. On an airplane, the lift is directed
up; on a sailboat, to the side; and on a vessel moving through shallow water, the lift that is
produced is directed down or toward the bank. The force on the moving vessel pushes it
closer to whatever it is close to.
The effect on the vessel is called "squat," and it increases as the underkeel clearance
decreases and as the vessel's speed increases. Thus, a vessel that has ample clearance when
moving slowly through shallow water may at high speed scrape the bottom. The
hydrodynamic effect of high speed through a channel may cause a vessel to be pulled
toward or into the bank or may pull two vessels passing close together off course.
(b) Additionally, by vessels
(b) Additionally, by vessels with operational radar:
with operational radar:
Radar-equiped vessels are obligated to use their radar in restricted visibility unless there is a
compelling reason not to. Rules 5, 6, 7, and 19 together place great emphasis on the
effective use of radar.
Vessels using radar in restricted visibility are justified in going somewhat faster than vessels
without radar, but not as fast as they would go in good visibility. In open waters a ship using
radar may proceed at a relatively high speed, providing the speed is adjusted appropriately
upon detection of another vessel.
(i) the characteristics,
(i) the characteristics, efficiency and limitations of the radar
efficiency and limitations
equipment;
of the radar equipment;
Radar equipment varies greatly in power, sophistication, antenna installation, and so forth.
The mariner needs to understand these qualities and limitations thoroughly. For instance, a
vessel's course might be changed regularly to ensure that any vessel in a blind arc, which
may be caused by a vessel's masts or other structures, could be detected early.
There are two basic types of marine radar--navigation and search. Navigation radars
transmit short-wavelength radio frequencies, and search radars use long-wavelength
transmissions.
Navigation radars send out short high-frequency pulses. These rapid and sharply defined
pulses bounce back from surfaces facing the transmitter, yielding a very accurate and
detailed image of the surrounding area. Because of their lower power and higher pulse
repetition rate, these navigation radars--also called three centimeter (3 cm), X-band, and
high frequency radars--have a limited range.
Search radars, on the other hand, pack a lot of power into their low-frequency, long
wavelength signals and consequently are able to look into and beyond weather. When they
reflect off a target, the signal returns to the receiver with more power, and they can detect
objects at further ranges. These radars go by various names--search, ten-centimeter (10 cm),
S-band, or low-frequency radars. The name used is a matter or personal preference and does
not distinguish variations.
(ii) any constraints
imposed by the radar range (ii) any constraints imposed by the radar range scale in use;
scale in use;
No matter how good a radar set might be, the range scale selected determines the nature of
the information available to the operator. Short range scales give good resolution and enable
the detection of small targets; long range scales sacrifice detail to gain early detection. Radar
equipment is most effective if the operator switches scales regularly, or if the operator has
two or more sets and uses a different range scale on each. To the extent that different range
scales are not available, speed should be reduced.
(iii) the effect on radar
detection of the sea state, (iii) the effect on radar detection of the sea state, weather, and
weather, and other sources other sources of interference;
of interference;
Vessel speed should be reduced when interference (caused by large waves, heavy rain or
snow, or the like) impairs the performance of the radar.
(iv) the possibility that
small vessels, ice and other
(iv) the possibility that small vessels, ice and other floating
floating objects may not be
objects may not be detected by radar at an adequate range;
detected by radar at an
adequate range;
The location of the vessel and the season of the year are important in judging whether
undetected vessels or ice may be present.
(v) the number, location
(v) the number, location and movement of vessels detected by
and movement of vessels
radar;
detected by radar;
Accurate radar plotting becomes more difficult as the number of vessels increases.
Automated radar plotting aids make the task easier.
(vi) the more exact
assessment of the visibility
that may be possible when (vi) the more exact assessment of the visibility that may be
radar is used to determine possible when radar is used to determine the range of vessels or
the range of vessels or other objects in the vicinity.
other objects in the
vicinity.
The observed radar range of a vessel can be correlated to visibility by noting when the
vessel can first be sighted. At night, when the vessel's lights can first be seen, the radar
range of the vessel equates the visibility (assuming that the visibility is not so good that
masthead light intensity becomes the controlling factor.
Rule 7 -- Risk of Collision
(a) Every vessel shall use
all available means
appropriate to the
(a) Every vessel shall use all available means appropriate to the
prevailing circumstances and conditions to determine if risk of
and conditions to
collision exists. If there is any doubt, such risk shall be deemed
determine if risk of
to exist.
collision exists. If there is
any doubt, such risk shall
be deemed to exist.
Nothing grips a mariner's attention so fast as a late determination of risk of collision. The
principles commended by this Rule can be taken lightly only at the risk of some very
unwanted exciting moments on the water. The determination of risk of collision, timely or
otherwise, triggers a number of other Rules on which the mariner must then act.
Rule 12, for instance, requires action by one or two sailing vessels approaching each other
on a collision course. Rule 14 requires action in the case of power-driven vessels
approaching each other on reciprocal or near-reciprocal course so as to involve the risk of
collision. Rule 15 applies to power-driven vessels crossing so as to involve risk of collision.
Rule 19 prescribes action by vessels in restricted visibility when risk of collision exists and
in certain cases when the degree of risk is unknown. The existence of risk of collision is
implicit to the operation of other Rules: Rule 13 (Overtaking), Rule 16 (Action by Give-way
Vessel), Rule 17 (Action by Stand-in Vessel), and Rule 18 (Responsibilities between
Vessels).
It is not surprising then, that Rule 7, like Rules 5 and 6, begins with the words "Every vessel
shall." These three Rules set up the mariner to take the proper and effective action required
by the remaining Steering and Sailing Rules. The full responsibility for Rules 5, 6, and 7 is
not excused or lessened for any vessel.
Like Rule 5 (Lookout), Rule 7 is an information-collection and analysis rule, although the
tracking function of Rule 7 may involve more analysis than does the detection function of
Rule 5. Besides the beginning mandate "Every vessel shall," Rule 7 also shares with Rule 5
the phrase "all available means appropriate to the prevailing circumstances and conditions."
Rule 5 requires the proper lookout "to make a full appraisal of the situation and of the risk of
collision." The transition from Rule 5 detection to Rule 7 tracking is not a sharp one.
The taking of compass bearings is one of the most important means of determining risk of
collision. The technique depends on good visibility, on the vessel being tracked maintaining
a constant course, and on several observations. Observations may be taken with a simple
hand-bearing compass, a pair of binoculars incorporating a magnetic compass in its optics,
or on larger vessels, a bearing or azimuth circle or an alidade on a fixed gyro-compass
repeater. Compass bearings will be discussed more fully below.
In restricted visibility, the primary tracking instrument is radar, if fitted and operational.
Radar should also be used to track a vessel in good visibility in open areas after the vessel
has been sighted visually. Paragraph (b) of Rule 7 gives specific guidance on the use of
radar.
Having sighted a vessel, you may contact it by radiotelephone to confirm its intentions. The
radiotelephone is especially valuable on U.S. inland waters where several vessels may be
involved, maneuvering room is limited, and courses are frequently changed. In the United
States, the Vessel Bridge-to-Bridge Radiotelephone Act and implementing regulations
require larger vessels to monitor channel 13 (VHF-FM), which is used for broadcasting and
exchanging navigation information.
The International Telecommunications Union's Radio Regulations, Appendix 18 (q), now

designates channel 13 for use on a worldwide basis as a navigation safety communications
channel, primarily for intership communications. The International Maritime Organization's
Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (1988 amendments to SOLAS Convention)
includes a requirement for all passenger vessels and for cargo vessels 300 gross tons and
above to be capable of transmitting bridge-to-bridge (channel 13) communications. No
international requirement to guard the channel has been established. Channel 16 can be used
if nobody answers on channel 13.
Once you have detected and tracked another vessel in your vicinity, how do you judge
whether risk of collision exists? What, in fact, is "risk of collision"? The Rules do not say.
Risk of collision certainly exists for two vessels whose paths would take them to the same
spot in two minutes. On the other hand, risk of collision would not exist for two slow-
moving vessels 20 miles apart heading for the same spot of water, nor would it practically
exist for two vessels passing a half mile apart in a busy harbor. What might be the risk of
collision for two large ships would probably not be risk of collision for two small vessels in
the same situation.
A number of factors are involved in such an assessment:
 Closest distance of approach

 Type of waterway
 Vessel size and maneuverability
 Speed
 Distance out from closest point of approach
 Relative bearings
The closest distance of approach is perhaps the prime element in the risk of collision
formula. A collision occurs when the distance of closest approach goes to zero, but a risk of
collision may exist when the distance of closest approach is somewhat greater. A passing
within one vessel length would certainly involve risk of collision, but how much space is
necessary for risk of collision not to exist?
Rule 34 of the Inland (but not International) Rules prescribes whistle signals for power-
driven vessels "meeting or crossing at a distance within half a mile of each other." Each
vessel indicates whether it intends to leave the other on its port or starboard side. As a
general rule then, we can conclude that on inland waters risk of collision exists for vessels
whose paths will take them within half a mile and which are within hearing range of each
other. What is the hearing range? Annex III prescribes ranges for vessels' sound-signal
appliances (horns): one-half mile for vessels less than 20 meters in length, up to two miles
for vessels over 200 meters in length.
International Rule 34 prescribes different sorts of maneuvering signals and requires them
when vessels are "in sight of one another," although there would be no sense in giving a
signal when the nearest vessel in sight is ten miles away, since the sound signal will be very
unlikely to travel as far as five miles. On the open ocean, large vessels traveling at full speed
should probably consider that risk of collision exists if their projected paths would bring
them within a mile of each other.
The type of waterway plays a part in the calculation of risk. On the open ocean the distance
of closest approach triggering risk of collision is greater than in confined waters because on
the ocean it is easier to keep well clear.
Vessel size and maneuverability have a substantial impact on risk of collision. A small
vessel that can stop or turn in its own length has a much smaller zone of risk than a large
vessel that may need a mile or more to stop and only begins to turn after the rudder is put
over.
Speed expands the zone in which risk of collision exists. Higher speeds give the mariner less
time to refine the accuracy of vessel path predictions (remember Rule 6).
Vessels are at risk of collision when they come within a certain distance of their closest
point of approach. For medium-size ships moving at average speeds in open water in good
visibility, risk of collision would probably become a concern at about five miles out from
the closest point of approach. Keep in mind that risk of collision does not arise suddenly like
the light from an on-off switch, but rather increases or decreases gradually, like the light
from a dimmer switch. For small boats maneuvering in a boat basin the distance out from
closest point of approach could be a stone's throw.
An analysis of the Rules themselves will tell us at what distance from closest point of
approach a risk of collision arises. As we noted earlier, risk of collision triggers the
operation of a number of other Rules. Specifically, the existence of risk of collision
obligates certain actions. In crossing situations, for example, the duties are different for each
vessel; in a meeting situation, on the other hand, the duties for each vessel are the same. In
all cases, however, risk of collision must be discovered early enough for each vessel to be
able to carry out its obligations under the Rules.
When one vessel (give-way vessel) is required to keep out of the way of another (stand-on
vessel), the give-way vessel must take "early and substantial action to keep well clear" (Rule
16). That doesn't tell us much except that action should be taken soon after risk of collision
is established.
Rule 17 is more helpful. It provides that the stand-on vessel may take action to avoid
collision as soon as its operator realizes that the give-way vessel is not moving out of the
way. Before the stand-on vessel does this, however, it must hold its course and speed long
enough for the give-way vessel to predict its path and maneuver clear. The mariner should
have a good idea of how long these events will take for the circumstances and types of
vessels involved. Remember that the master of the stand-on vessel probably will be more
conservative in judging when the give-way vessel should begin taking action, since he or
she must hold on and wait, while the master of the give-way vessel knows better what will
happen (use you VHF-FM channel 13).
Finally, the relative bearings of two vessels affect the degree of risk. Two vessels meeting
on near-reciprocal courses would close relatively rapidly, because their closing speed would
be the sum of the two speeds. The risk of collision would arise while while they were still
relatively far apart. On the other hand, where one vessel is overtaking another on nearly the
same course, the closing speed would be the difference between the the individual speeds.
Unless one is traveling a great deal faster than the other, it would take a long time for the
overtaking vessel to draw abeam of the other. In the overtaking situation, the vessels would
be relatively close together before risk of collision arose. Crossing situations would be
somewhere between meeting and overtaking.
All of these factors are interdependent and must be considered as a whole and in context of
the circumstances. The above examples and distances are merely ballpark figures for good
conditions.
Either vessel is, of course, free to act before risk of collision exists in order to avoid it
altogether. Also, in some cases where risk of collision exists, the give-way vessel may not
have to alter its course or speed to keep "well clear" (Rule 16) of the stand-on vessel, as long
as its course and speed will "result in passing at a safe distance" (Rule 8). The closest point
of approach may represent a safe passing distance while at the same time triggering a risk-
of-collision situation. Two vessels in a narrow channel is an example. Risk of collision and
the need to maneuver can be distinguished; risk of collision and the need for extra care
cannot.
Our discussion so far has been based on the premise that each vessel involved knows where
the other is and generally knows where it is going and how fast. Rule 7 states that if there is
any doubt, if the information at hand is not accurate or complete, then risk of collision shall
be deemed to exist.
Doubt commonly arises under conditions of restricted visibility. Rule 19(e) implies that in
restricted visibility when another vessel is detected ahead, risk of collision shall be deemed
to exist until the mariner can positively determine that it doesn't--a guilty-until-proven-
innocent standard.
Doubt can also occur because of instrument and measurement errors in tracking another
vessel. Know the limitations of your instrument and measurement techniques and include
them in the assessment of the situation (much as celestial navigation positions are plotted as
circles rather than points).
Many other factors can cause doubt--wind and currents, the movement of another vessel in a
busy harbor, and the like. For answers, use your radiotelephone.
(b) Proper use shall be
made of radar equipment if
fitted and operational,
including long-range (b) Proper use shall be made of radar equipment if fitted and
scanning to obtain early operational, including long-range scanning to obtain early
warning of risk of collision warning of risk of collision and radar plotting or equivalent
and radar plotting or systematic observation of detected objects.
equivalent systematic
observation of detected
objects.
The second paragraph of Rule 7 covers use of radar in assessing risk of collision. The
requirements extend Rule 5 and 6 to define further the use of properly operating radar in
avoiding collision. Rule 5 introduced the idea of long-range scanning for maintaining
lookout, and Rule 6 made specific mention of using different radar range scales.
The value of radar in assessing risk of collision in poor visibility is obvious. Rule 19
(Conduct of Vessels in Restricted Visibility) requires that a vessel in restricted visibility
determine whether risk of collision exists when it detects by radar alone the presence of
another vessel. But radar is also valuable in clear weather after a target has been sighted
visually, being better able than the human eye to measure range and other distances.
If the vessel's radar is capable of both true-motion/north-up display and relative-

motion/head-up display, the operator must select the display better suited to the operating
conditions. Because of the adoption of both national and international standards, the
accuracy of both displays is the same. In general, true-motion (sea- or ground-stabilized)
radars are preferred for navigation and piloting in confined waters as the position of the
oberver's own ship moves in accordance with its own path. On the other hand, relative-
motion displays allow the observer to assess more quickly the movement of other vessels in
relation to his or her own movement. All but the smallest vessels are required to have radars
stabilized in azimuth (that is, in the horizontal plane). Radars without compass stabilization
are almost useless for determining the actions of other vessels without highly accurate
maneuvering board plotting or unless the vessel's heading does not vary by a degree or two
at the very most.
Radar plotting (or equivalent systematic observation) is required by Rule 7. It is not enough
to just look at the radar, unless plotting would not be helpful, as for example, on meandering
inland rivers where observations of the vessel's position relative to the channel or banks may
be more informative. Plotting is usually appropriate in relatively open water.
Plotting is not required if "equivalent systematic observation" is used. These other

observation techniques include manual and automatic (computerized) radar plotting aids or
the listing of bearing, range, and time at regular intervals. Plotting by the vessel's operator in
congested waters may take so much time that it becomes counterproductive. In such cases
automated radar plotting aids (sometimes improperly called collision-avoidance systems)
are especially appropriate.
(c) Assumptions shall not
be made on the basis of
(c) Assumptions shall not be made on the basis of scanty
scanty information,
information, especially scanty radar information.
especially scanty radar
information.
While Rule 7 requires the full and proper use of radar, it also warns against relying on radar
for more information than it can realistically give. The mariner who assumes an approaching
vessel will pass well clear after making a couple of long-range radar observation is inviting
danger and violating Rule 7.
Distances magnify small errors, and errors are almost inevitable because of the imprecision
of observations made from a moving vessel. Nor can you assume that the other vessel is
maintaining a constant course and speed. Regular and consistent checking of observations is
imperative.
Many collisions continue to happen because vessel operators base their actions on faulty
assumptions. Rule 7 calls attention to the danger of basing actions on scanty information,
requiring that the operator be patient and monitor other vessels in the vicinity until the risk
of collision can be determined with a satisfying degree of certainty. (And remember, as long
as there is doubt, you must assume that risk of collision does exist!)
(d) In determining if risk
of collision exists the
following considerations
shall be among those taken
into account:
(d) In determining if risk of collision exists the following
(i) such risk shall be
considerations shall be among those taken into account:
deemed to exist if the
compass bearing of an
(i) such risk shall be deemed to exist if the compass bearing of
approaching vessel does
an approaching vessel does not appreciably change;
not appreciably change;
(ii) such risk may sometimes exist even when an appreciable
(ii) such risk may
bearing change is evident, particularly when approaching a very
sometimes exist even when
large vessel or a tow or when approaching a vessel at close
an appreciable bearing
range.
change is evident,
particularly when
approaching a very large
vessel or a tow or when
approaching a vessel at
close range.
The classic test of risk of collision is given special attention in the final paragraph of Rule 7:
if your vessel is holding course and speed, and you take several compass bearings on
another vessel and those bearings are all about the same, then you will collide with the other
vessel if it is also holding course and speed and if one does not take evasive action. Even if
the compass bearings do change, there may still be the potential for collision.
If the other vessel is maneuvering, the compass-bearing test doesn't work. Also, the test
works only when the size of the vessels is small when compared to the distance between
them. If you take compass bearings to the bow of an approaching ship from the bridge wing
at the stern of your ship and note that the compass bearings are changing, then all you know
is that a collision is probably not set up between your stern and the other vessel's bow--your
bow and its stern, however, may have other ideas.
If the vessel does not have a compass suitable or convenient for taking bearings, other
reference points on the vessel can be used to sight on approaching vessels. If, as the other
vessel approaches, it remains lined up with the chosen reference points, then risk of collision
exists. This technique, of course, is simply a tool to aid the mariner. Like all tools, it has its
limitations and should not be relied upon as conclusive.
Rule 8 -- Action to Avoid Collision
The Rules preceding Rule 8 address the correct identification of potential danger. Rule 8 begins
a series of Rules that prescribe what to do once the risk of collision has been determined to
exist. Rule 8 tells how the avoiding action must be executed, not which vessels are required to
take the avoiding action. That is left to later Rules.
The International and the Inland Rule 8 are the same. Each applies to all vessels in all
conditions of visibility. In good visibility, one vessel will usually have primary responsibility
for taking avoiding action; in restricted visibility, vessels will share equally in that
responsibility.
(a) Any action taken to
avoid collision shall, if
the circumstances of the
(a) Any action taken to avoid collision shall, if the circumstances
case admit, be positive,
of the case admit, be positive, made in ample time and with due
made in ample time and
regard to the observance of good seamanship.
with due regard to the
observance of good
seamanship.
Paragraph (a) is a general admonition to use care in avoiding collisions. Although the
mandatory word "shall" appears, the paragraph also contains the escape clause "if the
circumstances of the case admit." This means that in taking action you are not required to
put yourself in a worse condition. You are not required to run aground (although in an
extreme situation this may be the best course of action) or enter a collision situation with yet
another vessel. Paragraph (a)'s admonition employs indefinite terms--actions are to be
"positive," "made in ample time," and "with due regard to the observance of good
seamanship."
"Positive" action is a significant change in vessel course or speed; paragraph (b) elaborates.
"Ample time" and "with due regard" remind us to act early and do more than is absolutely
necessary to avoid the collision, allowing a generous margin of safety both in time and in
distance.
(b) Any alteration of
course and/or speed to
avoid collision shall, if
(b) Any alteration of course and/or speed to avoid collision shall,
case admit, be large
if the circumstances of the case admit, be large enough to be
enough to be readily
readily apparent to another vessel observing visually or by radar; a
apparent to another
succession of small alterations of course and/or speed should be
vessel observing visually
avoided.
or by radar; a succession
of small alterations of
course and/or speed
should be avoided.
Let the other vessel know what you are doing. Make it obvious by sight in good visibility
and obvious on the radar screen in areas of restricted visibility. The give-way vessel in a
crossing situation must alter course enough that the stand-on vessel will know it will pass
astern. Give the proper maneuvering signals if operating under the International Rules. Call
the other vessel by radiotelephone.
(c) If there is sufficient
sea room, alteration of
course alone may be the
most effective action to (c) If there is sufficient sea room, alteration of course alone may
avoid a close-quarters be the most effective action to avoid a close-quarters situation
situation provided that it provided that it is made in good time, is substantial and does not
is made in good time, is result in another close-quarters situation.
substantial and does not
result in another close-
quarters situation.
Two variables can be altered to avoid collisions: course and speed. Large commercial
vessels often find it easier to change course rather than to change speed, especially in open
water when engine room personnel may not have taken the preliminary steps for speed
changes. Hence, paragraph (c) allows for a course change alone, which can be made directly
and immediately from the bridge. On smaller vessels, on other vessels with direct bridge-
controlled engines, or especially on vessels with a controllable-pitch propeller, a speed
change may be an equal or more effective action, even when there is ample sea room for a
course change.
Paragraph (c) talks about avoiding a "close-quarters" situation. Does that imply
a requirement to avoid a "close-quarters" situation? Close-quarters situations, of course,
should be avoided where possible, but in rivers, harbors, and other inland waterways close-
quarters situations are unavoidable.
How does "close-quarters" compare with the closest-point-of-approach distance that triggers
risk of collision (see Rule 7 discussion), or with the "safe distance" of paragraph (d) of this
Rule, or with the "well-clear" of Rule 16? As was mentioned in the discussion of Rule 7, the
projected closest-point-of-approach between two vessels is one factor in assessing risk of
collision. The distance between vessels for which "close quarters" would exist will always
be less than the closest-point-of-approach distance that would trigger risk of collision; half
the distance would almost certainly be "close quarters."
On the other hand, paragraph (d)'s "safe distance" and Rule 16's "well clear" mean much the
same thing (the minimum passing distance permitted by the Rules), and both generally
represent a smaller distance than "close-quarters." On inland waters especially, a give-way
vessel passing well clear of (or at a safe distance from) another may, at the same time, be in
a close-quarters/risk-of-collision situation with that vessel. Two vessels meeting in a narrow
channel is an example. Extra caution makes such situations safe.
(d) Action taken to avoid
collision with another
vessel shall be such as to
result in passing at a safe (d) Action taken to avoid collision with another vessel shall be
distance. The such as to result in passing at a safe distance. The effectiveness of
effectiveness of the the action shall be carefully checked until the other vessel is
action shall be carefully finally past and clear.
checked until the other
vessel is finally past and
clear.
Paragraph (d) requires that action taken result in passing at a safe distance. What distance is
safe depends on the circumstances; suffice it to say that if you are obligated to take the
action, the person on the other vessel should not feel compelled to act also to increase the
distance still further.
Paragraph (d) also imposes the obligation to continue with the Rule 7 assessment of risk of
collision until the other vessel is past and clear. You should especially consider the effects
of normal maneuvers that the other vessel may begin while still in the vicinity. If in doubt,
use your radiotelephone or your whistle signal.
(e) If necessary to avoid
collision or allow more
time to assess the
(e) If necessary to avoid collision or allow more time to assess the
situation, a vessel shall
situation, a vessel shall slacken her speed or take all way off by
slacken her speed or take
stopping or reversing her means of propulsion.
all way off by stopping
or reversing her means
of propulsion.
Paragraph (e) should be read in conjunction with paragraph (c). It directs vessels to slow
down or stop to avoid a collision or to give more time in which to determine the best course
of action. This prescription is only one of several on speed--see Rule 6 (Safe Speed), and
Rule 19, paragraphs (b) and (e), relating to speed in restricted visibility.
The separation within Rule 8 of the requirements for course changes (paragraph (c)) and
speed changes (paragraph (e)) should not be taken to mean that one method is preferred over
the other. If action is required, the mariner must take effective and readily apparent action,
whether it be a course change or a speed change or a combination of the two. A course
change works better for meeting situations, whereas for vessels crossing at near-right angles,
a speed change (perhaps in combination with a course change) often works better.
(f)(i) A vessel which, by
(f)(i) A vessel which, by any of these Rules, is required not to
any of these Rules, is
impede the passage or safe passage of another vessel shall, when
required not to impede
required by the circumstances of the case, take early action to
the passage or safe
allow sufficient sea room for the safe passage of the other vessel.
passage of another
vessel shall, when
(ii) A vessel required not to impede the passage or safe passage of
required by the
another vessel is not relieved of this obligation if approaching the
circumstances of the
other vessel so as to involve the risk of collision and shall, when
case, take early action to
taking action, have full regard to the action which may be required
allow sufficient sea
by the Rules of this part.
room for the safe
passage of the other
(iii) A vessel the passage of which is not to be impeded remains
vessel.
fully obligated to comply with the Rules of this part when the two
vessels are approaching one another so as to involve risk of
(ii) A vessel required not
collision.
to impede the passage or
safe passage of another
vessel is not relieved of
this obligation if
approaching the other
vessel so as to involve
the risk of collision and
shall, when taking
action, have full regard
to the action which may
be required by the Rules
of this part.
(iii) A vessel the passage

of which is not to be
impeded remains fully
obligated to comply with
the Rules of this part
when the two vessels are
approaching one another
so as to involve risk of
collision.
International Rule 8(f) was added in 1989. (Parallel language was added to the Inland Rules
in 1990.) This change puts to rest debates that had been ongoing for almost as long as the 72
COLREGS have existed. The "shall not impede" language comes into play in Rule 9
(narrow channels and narrow fairways), in International Rule 10 (traffic separation
schemes), and in International Rule 18 (vessels constrained by draft). In each of these cases,
usually larger vessels find themselves in situations where they are at a substantial
maneuvering disadvantage with respect to smaller vessels in the area--smaller vessels that
otherwise might be stand-on vessels.
The IMO Subcommittee on Safety of Navigation for a time had issued guidance on the
meaning of the term "shall not impede." That guidance said that the "shall not impede"
command meant to maneuver, when practicable, so far out of the way of the other vessel
that risk of collision never develops, with the proviso that if risk of collision by some chance
does develop, the more general Steering and Sailing Rules would take over (that is, the
"shall not impede" rules would no longer be in effect).
The IMO subsequently decided that the guidance, if given at all, should be part of the Rules.
During the course of the debate on the actual language, the delegates decided that the vessel
that had been originally directed to not impede the other should retain that burden even after
risk of collision arose. That does not mean, however, that the (usually larger) vessel that was
not to be impeded continues to have the right of way. The new Rule provides that if the not-
to-be-impeded vessel would be the give-way vessel under the general rules, it has the duty
to stay out of the way of the impeding vessel after risk of collision arises. Under the new
Rule, which changed the earlier official guidance in this respect, the impeding
vessel also continues to have a duty to stay out of the way after risk of collision arises, and
does not gain the stand-on status that the general rules might have given it. Both vessels
would be obligated to stay out of the way.
If on the other hand, the not-to-be-impeded vessel would be the stand-on vessel under the
general Steering and Sailing Rules, it would not lose that status. In that case, the impeding
vessel would have a double duty to stay out of the way.
The "shall not impede" language in these cases creates an exception to the general rules,
making them more practical. Vessels directed "not to impede" other vessels should
take early action to keep clear by wide margins. The other vessel shouldn't become
concerned enough to alter its course or speed, or otherwise feel obligated to act differently
from the way it would if the would-be impeding vessel weren't there.
Rule 9 -- Narrow Channels
With Rule 9, the Rules become more specific. Although Rule 9 applies in all conditions of
visibility, it applies only on certain waters and to certain vessels. Rule 9 is also the first to
contain significant differences between the International and Inland versions.
Two terms are used throughout the Rule that are not defined. They are "narrow channel"
(namesake of the Rule) and "(narrow) fairway." We must assume that the drafters of the Rules
either believed their meanings to be obvious or else were not able to formulate suitably concise
definitions.
Rule 9 applies only on waters described by the two terms. What is "narrow" depends on the type
of vessel and the circumstances. A "channel" is a natural or dredged lane restricted on either
side by shallow water; it is often marked by buoys. A "fairway" is generally in open water, and
the water on either side is not much shallower than within the fairway. Fairways are used to
route vessels away from natural hazards, oil platforms, mines, or smaller vessels. Fairways
should be differentiated from the lanes in traffic separation schemes; vessels in the latter should
follow Rule 10 rather than Rule 9.
(a) A vessel proceeding
along the course of a
narrow channel or
fairway shall keep as (a)(i) A vessel proceeding along the course of a narrow channel or
near to the outer limit of fairway shall keep as near to the outer limit of the channel or
the channel or fairway fairway which lies on her starboard side as is safe and practicable.
which lies on her
starboard side as is safe
and practicable.
Just as all cars drive on the right side of the road (in the United States), paragraph (a)
requires all vessels to navigate on the far right side of a narrow channel, whether or not
traffic is approaching from the other direction. If that is not "safe or practicable," however,
the mariner is justified in moving closer to the center or even over the center to the left side
(providing the traffic permits such action).
INLAND
(ii) Notwithstanding paragraph (a)(i) and Rule 14(a), a power-
driven vessel operating in narrow channels or fairways on the
Great Lakes, Western Rivers, or waters specified by the Secretary,
and proceeding downbound with a following current shall have the
right-of-way over an upbound vessel, shall propose the manner and
place of passage, and shall initiate the maneuvering signals
prescribed by Rule 34 (a)(i), as appropriate. The vessel proceeding
upbound against the current shall hold as necessary to permit safe
passing.
Paragraph (a) of the Inland Rules contains a provision that was added to deal with the
control problems experienced by some downboud vessels on rivers. The provision concerns
power-driven vessels transiting narrow channels and narrow fairways on the Great Lakes
and Western Rivers. In addition, the Coast Guard has specified other bodies of water on
which the provision applies: Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway, Tombigbee River, Black
Warrior River, Alabama River, Coosa River, Mobile River above the Cochrane Bridge at St.
Louis Point, Flint River, Chattachoochee River, and the Apalachicola River above its
confluence with the Jackson River (see Title 33 of the Code of Federal Regulations, Part 89,
Subpart B).
The vessel proceeding downbound with a following current has the right-of-way and is
given the choice of passing arrangements over an upbound vessel. The downbound vessel is
required to contact the upbound vessel and to initiate maneuvering signals. The upbound
vessel is required to accept the downbound vessel's proposed manner of passing unless
doing so would jeopardize its safety. It is also obligated, if necessary, to hold position until
the downbound vessel has passed. Normal port-to-port passing should be the rule except in
the area of bends where both sides of the channel may be needed to make the turn.
(b) A vessel of less than
20 meters in length or a (b) A vessel of less than 20 meters in length or a sailing vessel
sailing vessel shall not shall not impede the passage of a vessel which can safely navigate
impede the passage of a only within a narrow channel or fairway.
vessel which can safely
navigate only within a
narrow channel or
fairway.
Paragraphs (b) and (c) are the same for the International and the Inland Rules and direct
certain vessels not to impede other vessels that can safely navigate only within the narrow
channel or fairway. Rule 8(f) "shall not impede" language says that vessel directed not to
impede shall take early enough action that sufficient sea room exists for safe passage. If risk
of collision does arise (ideally it should not), the impeding vessel retains its duty to stay out
of the way, notwithstanding any stand-on rights the more general Steering and Sailing Rules
may have given it. In other words, the vessel directed not to impede should stay well clear!
Paragraph (b) gives rights to non-sailing vessels that are over twenty meters long and that
can safely navigate only within the narrow channel or fairway. Both conditions must be met.
The Rule does not assign rights between power-driven vessels less than twenty meters long
and sailing vessels, as these vessels fall into the same class--for Rule 9(b) purposes.
(c) A vessel engaged in
fishing shall not impede
the passage of any other (c) A vessel engaged in fishing shall not impede the passage of any
vessel navigating within other vessel navigating within a narrow channel or fairway.
a narrow channel or
fairway.
Paragraph (c), unlike paragraph (b), gives rights to any vessel navigating within a narrow
channel or fairway, not just to those that can safely operate only within the channel or
fairway. Vessels engaged in fishing--defined in Rule 3(d)--must stay out of the way,
although they are permitted to fish in the channel or fairway if it is otherwise not being used.
(d) A vessel shall not
cross a narrow channel
or fairway if such
(d) A vessel shall not cross a narrow channel or fairway if such
crossing impedes tha
crossing impedes tha passage of a vessel which can safely navigate
passage of a vessel
only within such channel or fairway. The latter vessel may use the
which can safely
danger signal prescribed in Rule 34(d) if in doubt as to the
navigate only within
intention of the crossing vessel.
such channel or
fairway. The latter
vessel may use the
sound signal prescribed
in Rule 34(d) if in doubt
as to the intention of the
crossing vessel.
Paragraph (d) of both the International and Inland Rule 9 prohibits all vessels from crossing
a narrow channel or fairway in a way that would impede a vessel that could not safely
operate outside of the channel or fairway. Rule 8(f) "shall not impede" language is operative
here. If your vessel is directed not to impede another, try to avoid causing the other vessel to
change its course or speed. If you blunder into a risk-of-collision situation, the general
Steering and Sailing Rules will not apply to you--you will continue to be obliged to stay out
of the way. Be mindful, however, that Rule 8(f)(iii) says that the general rules will apply to
the vessel you are impeding. It may be helpful to contact the other vessel (for example, on
channel 13 VHF-FM) to inform the operator or your intentions--early, of course.
The Rule also provides for the vessel constrained to the channel to sound five or more short
blasts if in doubt as to the intentions of the vessel sounding the crossing signal. The
International version of Rule 9 says that this sound signal "may" be used--although
International Rule 34(d) requires its use in case of doubt--while the Inland Rule 9 says it
"shall" be used.
Note that the Internation version refers to the "sound signal prescribed in Rule 34(d)," while
the Inland Rule refers to the "danger signal prescribed in Rule 34(d)." Neither version of
Rule 34(d) refers to the five or more short blasts as the "danger" signal, but rather calls for
the signal's use when "either vessel fails to understand the intentions or actions of the other,
or is in doubt whether sufficient action is being taken by the other to avoid collision."
Thinking of the five-blast signal as a danger signal may cause a vessel operator to delay its
use until a situation of potential danger has developed into one of immedite danger.
Its early application in the circumstances of doubt described in Rule 34(d) would likely
focus the attention of the parties while there is still time to act effectively in a non-crisis
environment. Think of the signal as a "doubt" rather than a "danger' signal.
(e)(i) In a narrow
(e)(i) In a narrow channel or fairway when overtaking, the power-
channel or fairway
driven vessel intending to overtake another power-driven vessel
when overtaking can
shall indicate her intention by sounding the appropriate signal
take place only if the
prescribed in Rule 34(c) and take steps to permit safe passing. The
vessel to be overtaken
power-driven vessel being overtaken, if in agreement, shall sound
has to take action to
the same signal and may, if specifically agreed to, take steps to
permit safe passing, the
permit safe passing. If in doubt she shall sound the danger signal
vessel intending to
prescribed in Rule 34(d).
overtake shall indicate
her intention by
sounding the (ii) This Rule does not relieve the overtaking vessel of her
appropriate signal obligation under Rule 13.
prescribed in Rule
34(c)(i). The vessel to
be overtaken shall, if in
agreement, sound the
appropriate signal
prescribed in Rule
34(c)(ii) and take steps
to permit safe passing.
If in doubt she may
sound the signals
prescribed in Rule
34(d).
(ii) This Rule does not

relieve the overtaking
vessel of her obligation
under Rule 13.
Paragraph (e) gives the procedures for overtaking in narrow channels and fairways and
should be read in conjuction with Rule 13, the Rule for overtaking in general, and with Rule
34(c), which prescribes the sound signals for overtaking. The requirements for overtaking in
narrow channels and fairways and the sound signals for overtaking in general vary
substantially between the International Rules and the Inland Rules.
The International Rule 9 requirement for overtaking applies only when the overtaken vessel
(in addition to the overtaking vessel) has to take maneuvering action to permit a safe
passing. If the overtaken vessel agrees with the overtaking vessel's passing proposal, the the
overtaken vessel is required to "take steps to permit safe passing." The Inland Rule
requirements for overtaking in narrow channels and fairways are the same as the general
Inland Rule requirement for overtaking and are therefore redundant.
The sound signals used for overtaking in open water are the same for overtaking in narrow
channels, although the International overtaking signals are different from those used on
inland waters. The Inland Rule signals used for crossing are also used for overtaking. The
International overtaking signals are longer (although perhaps less likely to cause confusion).
The sound signals will be more fully discussed with Rule 34.
International Rule 9(e)(i) says that when doubt exists as to the other vessel's intentions, the
overtaken vessel "may" sound the Rule 34(d) five short blast doubt signal, while the Inland
version requires ("shall sound") the sounding of the signal. Both are legally superfluous and
merely act as reminders of the Rule 34(d) requirement ("shall" in both International and
Inland) for all vessels to sound the five-blast signal when doubt exists.
(f) A vessel nearing a
bend or an area of a
narrow channel or
fairway where other
vessels may be
(f) A vessel nearing a bend or an area of a narrow channel or
obscured by an
fairway where other vessels may be obscured by an intervening
intervening obstruction
obstruction shall navigate with particular alertness and caution and
shall navigate with
shall sound the appropriate signal prescribed in Rule 34(e).
particular alertness and
caution and shall sound
the appropriate signal
prescribed in Rule
34(e).
Paragraph (f) cautions vessels nearing a blind bend or other area where an approaching
vessel may be obscured and reminds them to obey the Rule 34(e) signal requirement. The
requirements in this paragraph (International identical to Inland) offer nothing new--the
requirements for lookout, safe speed, and so forth cover needed precautions and Rule 34(e)
covers the signal requirement.
(g) Any vessel shall, if
(g) Any vessel shall, if the circumstances of the case admit, avoid
case admit, avoid
anchoring in a narrow channel.
anchoring in a narrow
channel.
Anchoring in a narrow channel is obviously not a good practice and is prohibited by Rule
9(g) except under pressing circumstances. A separate and older law (Section 409 of Title 33,
U.S. Code) repeats the prohibition for U.S. waters; it is unlawful to tie up or anchor barges
or other craft in navigable waters in such a manner as to prevent or obstruct the passage of
other vessels or craft.
Anchorage regulations cover background, procedures, rules, and a list of special anchorage
areas and anchorage grounds. These regulations are contained in Title 33 of the Code of
Federal Regulations, Parts 109 and 110.
Rule 10 -- Traffic Separation Schemes
Rule 10 adds an extra dose of traffic management for a number of specially designated areas
having high-density traffic, converging traffic, or some exceptional hazard. In these situations,
more conventional navigation rules do not provide a desirable margin of safety. Traffic
separation schemes have been established all over the world, and are usually associated with the
approaches to busy ports and at turning points in crowded sea lanes. International and Inland
Rule 10 are now virtually identical, and although no TSSs have yet been established in Inland
Rules waters, there are a few inland rules waters, such as the San Francisco Bay area, where a
TSS might be placed.
(a) This Rule applies to traffic (a) This Rule applies to traffic separation schemes and does
separation schemes adopted by not relieve any vessel of her obligation under any other Rule.
the Organization and does not
relieve any vessel of her
obligation under any other rule.
The Organization mentioned in the International Rule paragraph (a) is the International
Maritime Organization (IMO), a body of the United Nations headquartered in London. Traffic
separation schemes are adopted by the IMO after a country (or countries) submits a traffic
separation scheme proposal, which must meet specific IMO guidelines. Normally a scheme
will not be shown on charts until it has been formally adopted by the IMO. The IMO
publishes Ships' Routing, which contains design standards and a list (with diagrams and
coordinates) of all adopted traffic separation schemes. Check with your local authorities for an
up to date list.
The IMO defines "traffic separation scheme" as a plan that organizes traffic proceeding in
opposite or nearly opposite directions by means of a separation zone or line, traffic lane, etc.
There may be obstructions within the traffic separation scheme. Efforts, however, are made to
keep the lanes clear. For known obstructions, such as an oil rig or wreck, within a traffic
separation scheme, notice to mariners will be given. Sometimes a traffic separation scheme
will be temporarily modified to skirt a short-term obstruction. In some cases off U.S. coasts
"safety fairways," in which obstructions are excluded, are superimposed over a traffic
separation scheme. (In most cases safety fairways are used independently, usually in areas
having concentrations of offshore petroleum production and exploration platforms.)
A vessel is said to be "using" a traffic separation scheme when the vessel is within the
boundaries of the scheme and is neither crossing the scheme nor fishing within the separation
zone. The language on vessel obligations dispels any notion that once in a traffic lane, a vessel
acquires absolute rights over vessels outside of the lane. Rule 8(f)(iii) provides an example of
where a vessel in a lane would be obligated to stay out of the way of a presumably less
privileged crossing vessel.
(b) A vessel using a
traffic separation scheme
shall:
(i) proceed in the

appropriate traffic lane
in the general direction (b) A vessel using a traffic separation scheme shall:
of traffic flow for that
lane; (i) proceed in the appropriate traffic lane in the general direction
of traffic flow for that lane;
(ii) so far as practicable
keep clear of a traffic (ii) so far as practicable keep clear of a traffic separation line or
separation line or separation zone;
separation zone;
(iii) normally join or leave a traffic lane at the termination of the
(iii) normally join or lane, but when joining or leaving from either side shall do so at as
leave a traffic lane at the small an angle to the general direction of traffic flow as
termination of the lane, practicable.
but when joining or
leaving from either side
shall do so at as small an
angle to the general
direction of traffic flow
as practicable.
The first rule for using a traffic separation scheme is obvious: go with the flow.
The second rule requires vessels "so far as practicable" not to get too close to a traffic
separation line or zone so as not to drift accidentally into the lane of oncoming traffic or
create doubt about whether or not it is using the traffic separation scheme. Unlike highways
on land, traffic separation schemes do not have double yellow lines down the middle or a
white line on its outside boundary.
The third rule, governing vessels entering or leaving a traffic separation lane, requires a
small angle of approach or departure to differentiate that vessel from one crossing the
scheme. (Crossing instructions are in Rule 10(c).)
(c) A vessel shall, so far
as practicable, avoid
crossing traffic lanes but
if obliged to do so shall (c) A vessel shall, so far as practicable, avoid crossing traffic lanes
cross on a heading as but if obliged to do so shall cross on a heading as nearly as
nearly as practicable at practicable at right angles to the general direction of traffic flow.
right angles to the
general direction of
traffic flow.
Many schemes are short, and you can go around, not through them. Crossing long schemes
at right angles announces that vessel's intentions and minimizes the time the crossing vessel
spends in the scheme. Please note that the angle of crossing is determined by the vessel's
heading, not its course (which could be different, usually because of a side current). When a
crossing vessel encounters a vessel using a traffic separation scheme, the vessel that is
required to stay out of the way is determined by Rule 15 (Crossing Situations).
Fishing vessels, sailing vessels, and power-driven vessels less than twenty meters in length--
see paragraphs (i) and (j)--that are crossing shall always stay out of the way of a vessel
following a traffic separation lane, but be aware that the larger vessel in the traffic lane does
not have absolute rights; see Rule 8(f)(iii).
(d) (i) A vessel shall not
use an inshore traffic
zone when she can
safely use the
appropriate traffic lane
(d) (i) A vessel shall not use an inshore traffic zone when she can
within the adjacent
safely use the appropriate traffic lane within the adjacent traffic
traffic separation
separation scheme. However, vessels of less than twenty meters in
scheme. However,
length, sailing vessels, and vessels engaged in fishing may use the
vessels of less than 20
inshore traffic zone.
meters in length, sailing
vessels, and vessels
(ii) Notwithstanding subparagraph (d)(i), a vessel may use an
engaged in fishing may
inshore traffic zone when en route to or from a port, offshore
use the inshore traffic
installation or structure, pilot station, or any other place situated
zone.
within the inshore traffic zone, or to avoid immediate danger.
(ii) Notwithstanding
subparagraph (d)(i), a
vessel may use an
inshore traffic zone
when en route to or from
a port, offshore
installation or structure,
pilot station, or any other
place situated within the
inshore traffic zone, or
to avoid immediate
danger.
Segregating large fast ships from smaller coastal vessels lessens the anxieties often felt
when big and small vessels share a common waterway. Rule 10(d) provides this separation
through "inshore traffic zones," defined as designated areas between the landward boundary
of a traffic separation scheme and the adjacent coast intended for coastal traffic. The
purpose of inshore traffic zones may be, for example, to keep oil tankers away from
merchant shipping.
When an inshore traffic zone has been adopted as part of a traffic separation scheme, large
through vessels are in effect required to use the traffic lanes or to stay offshore beyond the
traffic separation scheme. The Rule recognizes that sailing vessels and small power-driven
vessels often depend on being near the coast.
(e) A vessel other than a
crossing vessel or a
vessel joining or leaving
a lane shall not normally
(e) A vessel other than a crossing vessel or a vessel joining or
enter a separation zone
leaving a lane shall not normally enter a separation zone or cross a
or cross a separation line
separation line except:
except:
(i) in cases of emergency to avoid immediate danger; or
(i) in cases of emergency
to avoid immediate
(ii) to engage in fishing within a separation zone.
danger;
(ii) to engage in fishing

within a separation zone.
The paragraph (e) restriction on crossing a separation line or entering a separation zone is
similar to the paragraph (b)(ii) restriction, but it explicitly recognizes a right to fish within
separation zones.
(f) A vessel navigating
in areas near the
terminations of traffic (f) A vessel navigating in areas near the terminations of traffic
separation schemes shall separation schemes shall do so with particular caution.
do so with particular
caution.
Most traffic separation schemes guiding traffic flow in and out of ports have "precautionary
areas" at the inshore end of the scheme. Because of the concentration of meeting and
crossing traffic, you should exercise particular care. Paragraph (f) makes it clear that the
mariner is also required to proceed with caution near the ends of traffic separation schemes
that do not have precautionary areas.
(g) A vessel shall so far
as practicable avoid
anchoring in a traffic (g) A vessel shall so far as practicable avoid anchoring in a traffic
separation scheme or in separation scheme or in areas near its terminations.
areas near its
terminations.
Following the reasoning for prohibitions against anchoring in narrow channels, fairways,
and the like, paragraph (g) prohibits anchoring in a traffic separation scheme or near its
ends.
(h) A vessel not using a
traffic separation scheme
(h) A vessel not using a traffic separation scheme shall avoid it by
shall avoid it by as wide
as wide a margin as is practicable.
a margin as is
practicable.
The smooth operation of a traffic separation scheme depends on the absence of outside
disturbances. A vessel not using a traffic separation scheme must stay far enough away that
vessels within the scheme are not obligated, via any other navigation rule--see Rule 8(f)(iii)-
-to take action inconsistent with the flow of traffic.
(i) A vessel engaged in
fishing shall not impede (i) A vessel engaged in fishing shall not impede the passage of any
the passage of any vessel vessel following a traffic lane.
following a traffic lane.
Fishing is permitted within a traffic lane so long as the fishing vessel proceeds along the
lane with the rest of the traffic and does not "impede" other vessels following the traffic
lane. If the vessel engaged in fishing follows a course that obliges a vessel following the
traffic lane to alter course or speed, then the fishing vessel had impeded the other vessel and
is therefore in violation of this requirement.
(j) A vessel of less than
20 meters in length or a
(j) A vessel of less than twenty meters in length or a sailing vessel
sailing vessel shall not
shall not impede the safe passage of a power-driven vessel
impede the safe passage
of a power-driven vessel
The Rules often distinguish among size and types of vessels. Rule 10 distinguishes between
large vessels (power-driven vessels twenty meters and longer) and small (power-driven
vessels less than twenty meters and all sailing vessels). Just as paragraph (d) gives priority
to small vessels for inshore traffic zones, paragraph (j) gives priority to larger vessels in
traffic lanes. Small vessels using traffic separation schemes must stay far away from ships
and, whenever possible, should communicate their intentions by radiotelephone. The "shall
not impede" language, discussed earlier, operates in this requirement too--see Rule 8(f).
(k) A vessel restricted in
her ability to maneuver
(k) A vessel restricted in her ability to maneuver when engaged in
when engaged in an
an operation for the maintenance of safety of navigation in a
operation for the
traffic separation scheme is exempted from complying with this
maintenance of safety of
Rule to the extent necessary to carry out the operation.
navigation in a traffic
separation scheme is
(l) A vessel restricted in her ability to maneuver when engaged in
exempted from
an operation for the laying, servicing, or picking up of a
complying with this
submarine cable, within a traffic separation scheme, is exempted
Rule to the extent
from complying with this Rule to the extent necessary to carry out
necessary to carry out
the operation.
the operation.
(l) A vessel restricted in
her ability to maneuver
when engaged in an
operation for the laying,
servicing, or picking up
of a submarine cable,
within a traffic
separation scheme, is
exempted from
complying with this
Rule to the extent
necessary to carry out
the operation.
Paragraphs (k) and (l) provide exemptions from Rule 10 requirements for two classes of
vessels that, by the nature of their work, cannot always comply with every requirement.
Vessels engaged in the maintenance of navigation safety, such as buoy tenders, are
exempted only while they are restricted in their ability to maneuver and only to the extent
needed to carry out their work. Vessels laying or maintaining submarine cables must go
where the cable goes and while working on cable are normally restricted in their ability to
maneuver. Operations likely to interfere with normal separation scheme traffic may be
publicized by notices to mariners.
Rule 11 -- Application
Rules in this Section apply to vessels in sight Rules in this subpart apply to vessels in sight
of one another. of one another.
Rule 11 begins Section/Subpart II and says that Rules 11 through 18 apply to vessels in
sight of one another. The International and Inland versions are the same except for the
difference in terms ("section" versus "subpart") that is due only to past practices between the
treaty drafters and the U.S. Congress. (We will refer to either as "section.")
Rule 3(k) says that vessels shall be deemed to be in sight of one another only when one can
visually observe the other. If one vessel fails to sight the other only because of an
inadequate lookout (Rule 5), then that vessel is not excused from complying with the Rules
in this section.
The Rules in this section in most cases assign to one vessel in a two-vessel encounter the
primary responsibility for staying out of the way of the other. The vessel obliged to stay out
of the way of the other is called the "give-way" vessel; the other vessel is called the "stand-
on" vessel. The theory behind these Rules is that the give-way vessel is the one better able to
stay out of the way, although in practice this is not always the case.
The execution of these Rules depends on the operator of each vessel being able to assess the
other's relative position, course, speed, and intentions. Hence the Rules in this section
depend on good visibility (day or night). In restricted visibility when vessels are not in sight
of one another (when they cannot visually observe each other), Rules 11-18 do not apply
and the vessel operators are required to follow instead Rule 19 (Conduct of Vessels in
Restricted Visibility).
What Rules you should use depends on whether you can actually see the other vessel, and
only indirectly on the condition of visibility. If you have vessels A and B on your radar
screen but can visually see only vessel A, you must follow Rule 12-18 with respect to A and
Rule 19 with respect to B. In such a situation you may find that obscured vessel B moves
out if its fogbank (or haze or whatever) and become visible. As soon as it does, and when it
is clear that it also sees you, Rules 12-18 would then normally apply. If the other vessel,
upon becoming visible, is too close or is coming on too fast for you to act effectively under
Section II Rules (stand-on / give-way), then Section I and Section III Rules have been
violated (by somebody) and you must take whatever action is needed to avoid collision--
immediately.
Rule 12 -- Sailing Vessels
(a) When two sailing (a) When two sailing vessels are approaching one another, so as to
vessels are approaching one involve risk of collision, one of them shall keep out of the way of
another, so as to involve the other as follows:
risk of collision, one of
them shall keep out of the
way of the other as follows:
Rule 12 tells which of two sailing vessels must stay out of the way of the other and covers all
situations except overtaking. Rule 13 outranks Rule 12 and says the overtaking vessel shall stay
out of the way of the overtaken vessel, whether it be a sailboat overtaking another sailboat or a
sailboat overtaking a power-driven vessel.
(i) when each has the wind on a
(i) when each has the wind on a different side, the
different side, the vessel which has
vessel which has the wind on the port side shall keep
the wind on the port side shall keep
out of the way of the other;
out of the way of the other;
Paragraph (a)(i) refers to a vessel with "the wind on the port side." In this case the "windward
side," as defined in paragraph (b) would be the port side and the vessel would be said to be
on the "port tack." A sailing vessel with the wind on the starboard side (that is, starboard side
is the windward side) carries its mainsail on the port side and stands on for vessels with the
wind on the port side. Or, as more commonly expressed, the starboard-tack boat has the
right-of-way over the port-tack boat. This is true even if the port-tack boat is close-hauled
and the starboard-tack boat is running downwind.
(ii) when both have the wind on the (ii) when both have the wind on the same side, the
same side, the vessel which is to vessel which is to windward shall keep out of the way
of the vessel which is to leeward;
windward shall keep out of the way
of the vessel which is to leeward;
When both vessels have the wind on the same side, the vessel to windward is required to stay
out of the way. If you draw a line through your vessel 90 degrees to the direction of the true
wind (not usually the "relative" wind that you feel while your boat is moving), "to windward"
is everywhere on the side of the line in the direction from where the wind is blowing
(upwind) and "to leeward" is everywhere on the other side of the line (downwind).
(iii) if a vessel with the wind on the
port side sees a vessel to windward (iii) if a vessel with the wind on the port side sees a
and cannot determine with certainty vessel to windward and cannot determine with
whether the other vessel has the wind certainty whether the other vessel has the wind on the
on the port side or on the starboard port side or on the starboard side, she shall keep out of
side, she shall keep out of the way of the way of the other.
the other.
If you can't tell on which side the other vessel's sails are carried and you are on port tack, stay
out of the way. At night it is especially difficult to determine on which tack another vessel is
sailing.
(b) For the purposes of this Rule the
windward side shall be deemed to be (b) For the purposes of this Rule the windward side
the side opposite to that on which the shall be deemed to be the side opposite to that on
mainsail is carried or, in the case of a which the mainsail is carried or, in the case of a
square-rigged vessel, the side square-rigged vessel, the side opposite to that on
opposite to that on which the largest which the largest fore-and-aft sail is carried.
fore-and-aft sail is carried.
Rule 13 -- Overtaking
(a) Notwithstanding (a) Nothwithstanding anything contained in the Rules 4 through 18,
anything contained in the any vessel overtaking any other shall keep out of the way of the
Rules of Part B, Sections I vessel being overtaken.
and II any vessel
overtaking any other shall
keep out of the way of the
vessel being overtaken.
Overtaking on the water is pretty much like overtaking on land: the driver of the faster car is
looking forward at the car to be passed and hence is in a better position to plan and execute the
maneuver. From the bridge of most larger vessels, the view to the rear is substantially more
limited than the view to the front. Should there not be room to pass, the overtaking vessel
always has the option of slowing down; the vessel to be overtaken will often be unable to go
any faster. Rule 13 therefore requires the overtaking vessel to keep out of the way of the vessel
being passed.
Rule 9(e) also has requirements for overtaking in narrow channels and fairways, and the
International version of that Rule requires some action by the vessel to be overtaken. Rule 34(c)
gives requirements for sounding whistle signals in overtaking situations. Rule 16 requires the
give-way (overtaking) vessel to keep well clear of the vessel to be passed. Keeping well clear
while overtaking is especially important because the potentially strong hydrodynamic
interactive forces may cause one or both vessels to veer off course.
Paragraph (a) of this Rule requires that any vessel overtaking another keep out of the way, even
if another rule required otherwise. In overtaking situations, look first to Rule 13. Despite the
seemingly absolute language of paragraph (a), there are a few situations where the overtaking
vessel would retain the stand-on status given by another Rule.
Rule 9(b) and (c) and Rule 10(i) and (j) say that power-driven vessel less than 20 meters in
length, sailing vessels, and vessels engaged in fishing "shall not impede the passage" of larger
vessels following a narrow channel, narrow fairway, or traffic lane. Smaller vessels are usually
slower and larger, faster vessels commonly overtake them. Rule 13 requires overtaking vessels
to put aside the other "shall not impede" requirements and to keep out of the way of the vessel
to be overtaken. But requiring, for example, a large and fast commercial vessel operating in a
long narrow channel such that it cannot safely leave the channel to trail behind a small slow
vessel might be described as an unintended result of a literal and strict following of Rule 13.
Certainly the best solution to this troublesome circumstance is for both vessels to be
accommodating. The smaller vessel should probably not be in the narrow channel in the first
place, if it is wide enough for only one vessel, but of course, the larger vessel would not be
justified in running over the smaller vessel, no matter how tempting!
(b) A vessel shall be
deemed to be overtaking
when coming up with
another vessel from a
direction more than 22.5
(b) A vessel shall be deemed to be overtaking when coming up
degrees abaft her beam,
with another vessel from a direction more than 22.5 degrees abaft
that is, in such a position
her beam; that is, in such a position with reference to the vessel
with reference to the
she is overtaking, that at night she would be able to see only the
vessel she is overtaking,
sternlight of that vessel but neither of her sidelights.
that at night she would
be able to see only the
sternlight of that vessel
but neither of her
sidelights.
Paragraph (b) says what is meant by overtaking. A vessel approaching from a direction
more than 22.5 degrees aft of the beam of another vessel--or stated differently, from within
a 135-degree horizontal sector centered directly astern (the same as the light from the
vessel's sternlight) of that vessel--is overtaking if there is risk of collision. If the
approaching vessel is within the sternlight sector of another vessel but their courses will
bring them no closer together than , say, three miles, then there is no risk of collision and no
overtaking situation exists.
Overtaking continues even as the overtaking vessel moves out of the sternlight sector and
pulls abeam of and then ahead of the overtaken vessel. It ends only when the maneuver has
been completed.
(c) When a vessel is in
any doubt as to whether (c) When a vessel is in any doubt as to whether she is overtaking
she is overtaking another, she shall assume that this is the case and act accordingly.
another, she shall
assume that this is the
case and act
accordingly.
At night if you are approaching a white navigation light but can see no sidelights, you may
be overtaking another vessel (or perhaps approaching an anchored vessel, or meeting a
vessel head-on beyond sidelight range, or . . .) and so you should stay clear until you know
better the actual situation. If you see a white light and later a colored sidelight, either you
could be overtaking and have come up enough to move into horizontal sector of the
sidelight, or you could be crossing or meeting, having first seen the brighter white masthead
light and then later the less visible colored sidelight. The arrangement, if discernible, should
tell you which is the case (although all colored lights are certainly not sidelights). During
daylight it may be difficult to estimate the angle of approach without the navigation lights as
a reference. Paragraph (c) says that if you are in doubt, assume that you are overtaking and
keep out of the way of the other vessel. If you are in doubt, remember that the
radiotelephone and radar are also available.
(d) Any subsequent
alteration of the bearing
between the two vessels
shall not make the
(d) Any subsequent alteration of the bearing between the two
overtaking vessel a
vessels shall not make the overtaking vessel a crossing vessel
crossing vessel within
within the meaning of these Rules or relieve her of the duty of
the meaning of these
keeping clear of the overtaken vessel until she is finally past and
Rules or relieve her of
clear.
the duty of keeping clear
of the overtaken vessel
until she is finally past
and clear.
Paragraph (d) makes clear that the overtaking vessel cannot (by any action of its own) shift
its give-way status to the other vessel. The overtaking vessel remains the give-way vessel
until the risk of collision has passed, that is, until the overtaking vessel "is finally past and
clear." This requirement is a restatement of the Rule 8 duty of all vessels required to take
action to continue their vigilance "until the other vessel is finally past and clear."
Paragraph (d) was included to cover the case of one vessel overtaking on the starboard side
of another and then turning left across the other's bow. In an ordinary crossing situation, the
vessel on the right would have the right-of-way. If this were also the case of the overtaking
vessel crossing the other, the overtaken/stand-on vessel would suddenly become the
crossing/give-way vessel and might not have enough maneuvering room.
Rule 14 -- Head-on Situation
(a) When two (a) Unless otherwise agreed, when two power-driven vessels are meeting
power-driven vessels on reciprocal or nearly reciprocal courses so as to involve risk of collision
are meeting on each shall alter her course to starboard so that each shall pass on the port
reciprocal or nearly side of the other.
reciprocal courses so
as to involve risk of
collision each shall
alter her course to
starboard so that
each shall pass on
the port side of the
other.
Two vessels are approaching each other rapidly head-on, and there is no way to distinguish one
from the other for the purpose of assigning right-of-way. To ensure quick and predictable
action, Rule 14 requires both vessels to do the same thing: to turn right. This procedure reduces
uncertainty (and delay) and also sets Rule 14 apart from the rules around it. Rules 12, 13, 15,
and 18 all assign primary responsibility for taking avoiding action to one vessel, the give-way
vessel; Rule 14 assigns responsibility to both.
The Inland version of this Rule has been modified to accommodate the special needs of vessels
navigating on meandering rivers, where the downbound vessel may have less ability to
maneuver than the vessel it meets head-on traveling upriver. The addition of the words "Unless
otherwise agreed" gives the two vessels the option of passing starboard-to-starboard that
otherwise would be available only to vessels in narrow channels in certain inland waters [See
Rule 9(a)(ii)]
Rule 14 applies only to power-driven vessels meeting head-on with other power-driven vessels.
It does not apply if one of the power-driven vessels is not an "ordinary" power-driven vessel but
rather is one that is made a stand-on vessel with respect to an ordinary power-driven vessel by
Rule 18(a). These other special vessels include vessels not under command, restricted in ability
to maneuver, or engaged in fishing that are not required to take action (initially) when meeting
an ordinary power-driven vessel head-on. Two sailing vessels meeting head-on are governed by
Rule 12.
Rule 14 is easy to follow. Each power-driven vessel approaching another head-on is required to
alter her course to starboard for a port-to-port passing--you must turn right, never left. An
Inland rule exception permits alterations to port for a starboard-to-starboard passing if both
vessels agree in advance.
(b) Such a situation
shall be deemed to exist
when a vessel sees the
other ahead or nearly
ahead and by night she (b) Such a situation shall be deemed to exist when a vessel sees the
could see the masthead other ahead or nearly ahead and by night she could see the
lights of the other in a masthead lights of the other in a line or nearly in a line or both
line or nearly in a line sidelights and by day she observes the corresponding aspect of the
and/or both sidelights other vessel.
and by day she observes
the corresponding
aspect of the other
vessel.
Risk of collision must exist for Rule 14 to apply. In theory, two distant vessels approaching
nearly head-on may by the time they near each other be so far apart (to one side or the other)
that no action is required . In practice, if you are close enough to another vessel to determine
that you are meeting nearly head-on, you most likely will also be in risk of collision.
Deciding whether you are in a head-on situation is also straight-forward (no pun intended).
Paragraph (a) describes it as a "meeting on reciprocal or nearly reciprocal courses."
Paragraph (b) says what that means. The language is clear--look at the aspect of the other
vessel. The decision should not depend on the course made good over the bottom, so do not
delay your action until the path of the other vessel has been plotted. The leeway angle can
be significant with a strong beam wind or current.
The navigation light technical performance requirements contained in Annex I provide for
each sidelight to overlap about two degrees into the other light's horizontal sector. As a
result, there will be approximately a four degree sector directly ahead of a vessel in which
both sidelights may be seen. Because sidelights will not have exactly the same intensities,
and because the human eye is not equally sensitive to red and green light, one sidelight may
appear before the other, even if you are in a head-on situation. It is also difficult to see
colors at low light intensities--a colored light will look the same as a dim white light. Use
your binoculars!
(c) When a vessel is in
any doubt as to whether
such a situation exists (c) When a vessel is in any doubt as to whether such a situation
she shall assume it does exists she shall assume it does exist and act accordingly.
exist and act
accordingly.
Paragraph (c) poses a warning. If it is not plain to you that a crossing situation exists, then
take the action required for a head-on situation.
INLAND
(d) Notwithstanding paragraph (a) of this rule, a power-driven
vessel operating on the Great Lakes, Western Rivers, or waters
specified by the Secretary, and proceeding downbound with a
following current shall have the right-of-way over an upbound
vessel, shall propose the manner of passage, and shall initiate the
maneuvering signals prescribed by Rule 34(a)(i), as appropriate.
Paragraph (d) extends to all channels the general right-of way given by Inland Rule 9(a)(ii)
to vessel in narrow channels in the Great Lakes, western rivers, and waters specified by the
Secretary (see Title 33 of the Code of Federal Regulations--contained in Appendix I of this
website). Although this Rule 14(d) exception contains most of the language in the Rule
9(a)(ii) narrow-channel exception, 14(d) does not give the downbound vessel as much
control as does 9(a)(ii) for the trickier narrow-channel situation. The 14(d) provision does
not require the downbound vessel to propose the place of passage and does not require the
upbound vessel to "hold as necessary to permit safe passing." Presumably if those two added
precautions were needed for a safe passing, the channel would be narrow enough to bring
Rule 9 into effect.
Rule 15 -- Crossing Situation
When two power- (a) When two power-driven vessels are crossing so as to involve risk of
driven vessels are collision, the vessel which has the other on her own starboard side shall
crossing so as to keep out of the way and shall, if the circumstances admit, avoid crossing
involve risk of ahead of the other vessel.
collision, the vessel
which has the other
on her own
starboard side shall
keep out of the way
and shall, if the
circumstances
admit, avoid
crossing ahead of
the other vessel.
Encounters are of three types: overtaking, head-on, and crossing. Rule 15 addresses a crossing
situation between two poer-driven vessels. This is another simple rule, and one that is the same
for International and Inland, with an exception for the rivers of the Great Lakes and western
rivers.
Rule 15 does not apply to power-driven vessels restricted in ability to maneuver, engaged in
fishing, or not under command. Remember, towing vessels with their tows are considered to be
ordinary power-driven vessels unless they are severely restricted in their ability to deviate from
their courses (see Rule 3(g)).
The crossing rule applies only to vessels in visual sight of one another. It soesn;t apply when
your radar screen shows perfectly clearly the approach of another vessel in a "crossing
situation"; if you can't see the other vessel, Rule 15 does not apply and Rule 19 does.
Like the other Rules in this section/subpart, Rule 15 does not apply until risk of collision exists
(see Rule 7). Earlier responsibilities between vessel may exist where "shall not impede"
provisions pertain. These provisions apply to small power-driven vessels, sailing vessels, and
fishing vessels in narrow channels or fairways, and in traffic lanes. Once risk of collision arises,
however, Rule 15 takes over and may change the obligations of the vessels. Thus, if you are
operating a large vessel and are in a narrow channel, narrow fairway, or traffic lane, and you
encounter a crossing smaller vessel involving risk of collision, you must obey Rule 15, even
though the smaller vessel is also required to stay well out of your way. Because of the possible
shift of responsibilities, you should resolve any doubts early by using your radiotelephone or,
failing that, sounding the signal of five or more short blasts described in Rule 34(d).
Rule 15 requires the vessel that has the other on its starboard side to stay out of the way, and to
pass behind. The vessel on the right becomes the stand-on vessel and must follow Rule 17
(Action by Stand-on Vessel). The vessel on the left becomes the give-way vessel and must
follow Rule 16 (Action by Give-way Vessel). At night, the stand-on vessel sees the green
sidelight of the give-way vessel , and the give-way vessel sees the stand-on vessel's red
sidelight. A vessel approaching from the quarter so that it could not see a sidelight would be
overtaking and would look to Rule 13. A vessel seeing both sidelights would be meeting head-
on and would follow Rule 14.
The give-way vessel is required (if the circumstances of the case admit) to pass behind teh
stand-on vessel and so a turn to starboard would be in order. To keep the area to the left of the
stand-on vessel clear for the give-way vessel's maneuvers, Rule 17 directs the stand-on vessel to
refrain from turning to port.
There are few situations where application of the crossing rule is not straightforward. Vessels
following a winding river or channel may approach each other in what may appear to be a
crossing situation. They should, however, follow Rule 9 and stay to the far right of the channel
(general rule). Rule 15 does not apply in such cases, and in other cases where the apparent
"stand-on" vessel cannot or does not hold a steady course.
A stopped vessel that sees another power-driven vessel appproaching on its starboard side
(involving risk of collision) is obligated to get out of the way unless the stopped vessel is not
under command, is restricted in its ability to maneuver, or is engaged in fishing, or unless there
are special circumstances. Special circumstances may consist of, for example, a stopped large
loaded tanker that is physically unable to maneuver out of the way of a fast-approaching "stand-
on" vessel or if the stopped vessel is maneuvering and not on any course. Operators of stopped
vessels that cannot readily be maneuvered should exhibit the lights and shapes for a hampered
vessel (that is, a vessel restricted in ability to maneuver, not under command, or constrained by
draft) and should contact approaching vessels by radiotelephone to warn them of the situation.
INLAND
(b) Notwithstanding paragraph (a), on the Great Lakes, Western Rivers, or
waters specified by the Secretary, a power-driven vessel crossing a river shall
keep out of the way of a power-driven vessel ascending or descending the
river.
The Inland Rule 15 differs from the International Rule 15 in that the Inland version contains
an exception [paragraph (b)] to the general rule. This exception has been extended beyond
the Great Lakes and western rivers to include the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway,
Tombigbee River, Black Warrior River, Alabama River, Coosa River, Mobile River above
the Cochrane Bridge at St. Louis Point, Flint River, Chattachoochee River, and the
Apalachicola River above its confluence with the Jackson River.
Rule 16 -- Action by Give-way Vessel
Every vessel which is directed Every vessel which is directed to keep out of the way of
to keep out of the way of another vessel shall, so far as possible, take early and
another vessel shall, so far as substantial action to keep well clear.
possible, take early and
substantial action to keep well
clear.
Rules 12, 13, 15, and 18 (all of which apply to vessels in sight of each other) direct one of
two approaching vessels to keep out of the way of the other. Rules 16 and 17 assign
respective responsibilities to each vessel. Rule 16 applies to the give-way vessel, the one
directed to stay out of the way of the other. Rule 17 assigns more complicated
responsibilities and privileges to the other vessel, the stand-on vessel.
Rule 16 commands the give-way vessel to take "early and substantial action to keep well
clear," that is, "action to avoid collision," precisely the title of Rule 8.
Rule 8 contains some of the same tenets as Rule 16, but the language differs. Rule 16 says
"take early and substantial action"; Rule 8 says take action that is "positive, made in ample
time." Rule 16 says take action "to keep well clear"; Rule 8 says take action that will "result
in passing at a safe distance." Rule 16 says take the prescribed action "so far as possible";
Rule 8 says take the action "if circumstances of the case admit." Although the language
varies, the meaning is essentially the same.
Rule 8 also provides more specific guidance for the give-way (and other) vessels.
Maneuvers should be large enough to be readily seen. The maneuver may be by course
change alone but slowing or stopping may be necessary. The effectiveness of actions taken
shall be observed (and further measures carried out if need be) until risk of collision has
passed.
Depending on the situation, the give-way vessel may or may not be allowed to cross ahead
of the stand-on vessel. Rule 15 does not permit (under normal circumstances) a power-
driven give-way vessel to cross ahead of a power-driven vessel. A give-way vessel can cross
ahead of a sailing vessel, hampered vessel, or vessel it is overtaking. If you cross ahead of a
stand-on vessel, remember that you must pass "at a safe diatance" (Rule 8) and keep "well
clear" (Rule 16).
Rule 17 -- Action by Stand-on Vessel
(a)(i) Where one of two vessels is to (a)(i) Where one of two vessels is to keep out of the
keep out of the way the other shall way the other shall keep her course and speed.
keep her course and speed.
Rule 17 assigns responsibilities to the vessel with the "right-of-way"--the stand-on vessel. The
text of the Rule does not use the term "stand-on vessel" but instead describes it in paragraph (a)
as the "other" vessel, that is, not the give-way vessel, not the vessel required to keep out of the
way. When does this Rule apply? It applies only in situations covered by Rules 12, 13 ,15, and
18, which require one vessel to stay out of the way of another.
These four Rules apply only when the two vessels are in sight of one another and only when
risk of collision exists. When three or more vessels approach with risk of collision it will likely
will be impossible for all of them to act according to all of the Rules; one vessel may be the
stand-on vessel with respect to a second and a give-way vessel with respect to a third. Rule 17
would require one action while Rule 16 would require a conflicting action. Such a situation is
one of special circumstances and is governed by Rule 2.
Give-way vessels have one obligation--to stay out of the way of stand-on vessels. Stand-on
vessels, however, have more complicated responsibilities, but their basic obligation is to hold
their course and speed, or to "stand-on." Other actions are required or permitted depending on
the circumstances.
Remember that give-way/stand-on situations do not begin until risk of collision (Rule 7) exists.
You are free to maneuver before that risk arises no matter what your obligations would be later
if you were to continue on your initial course.
Once risk of collision develops, however, paragraph (a)(i) requires the stand-on vessel to hold
its course and speed. The purpose of this requirement is to enable the give-way vessel to predict
the action of the stand-on vessel and so be able to stay out of its way. In some circumstances,
the stand-on vessel's normal maneuver would be to slow down or turn (to pick up a pilot or
enter a channel, for example) and such action may be expected of the stand-on vessel by those
on the give-way vessel. In that case, the stand-on vessel is obligated to maneuver as expected,
even though the action is something other than holding course and speed. Again, a
radiotelephone confirmation of intentions is useful.
(ii) The latter vessel
may however take
action to avoid
collision by her
maneuver alone, as (ii) The latter vessel may however take action to avoid collision by her
soon as it becomes maneuver alone, as soon as it becomes apparent to her that the vessel
apparent to her that required to keep out of the way is not taking appropriate action in
the vessel required to compliance with these Rules.
keep out of the way is
not taking appropriate
action in compliance
with these Rules.
The operator of a stand-on vessel that is on a collision course with another vessel expects the
give-way vessel to take the prompt avoiding action required by the Rules. If after time has
passed the give-way vessel persists in its impersonation of a stand-on vessel, it is reasonable to
expect the stand-on vessel's operator to be somewhat concerned about the competence of the
give-way vessel's crew.
As soon as it becomes apparent that the give-way vessel is not taking appropriate action, the
stand-on vessel is free to act to avoid a collision. Rule 17(a)(ii) says that the stand-on
vessel may maneuver at this stage, but it does not require the stand-on vessel to maneuver. The
stand-on vessel may continue on for awhile before maneuvering. As soon as the stand-on
vessel feels entitled to maneuver, however, it is required to immediately sound the doubt signal
of five or more short blasts prescribed by Rule 34(d). Do not wait until danger is imminent. Do
not wait until you are about to crash before sounding this signal!
The stand-on vessel may or may not choose to maneuver after giving the five-blast signal. If it
does change direction and is operating under the International Rules, it must also then give the
appropriate one- or two-blast signal to indicate that maneuver (see Rule 34(a)).
How long do you have to wait before it becomes "apparent" that the other vessel is not taking
appropriate action? You may not take action until the give-way vessel has had time to assess
the situation and to begin to take avoiding action. Precipitous action by the stand-on vessel
may result on simultaneous action by both vessels, which can greatly increase the danger.
How close must you be to the other vessel before the stand-on vessel may maneuver? The
same factors that determined the separation for risk of collision to exist apply here. A two-mile
separation for ships crossing at sea would justify a stand-on vessel's maneuver. The particular
circumstances in any given situation would, of course, determine the distance at which the
stand-on vessel may maneuver to avoid the give-way vessel.
Rule 17(a)(ii) says that the stand-on vessel may act if the give-way vessel does not take
"appropriate" action. Inappropriate action is no action at all or ineffective action.
If you are the operator of a stand-on vessel and decide to take action when the give-way vessel
fails to do so, what action would be best? In a crossing situation (involving power-driven
vessels), you normally would not want to slow down because that makes it more difficult for
the give-way vessel to pass behind you. Remember that Rule 15 directs the give-way vessel to
avoid crossing ahead of you. Rule 8 (Action to Avoid Collision) provides further guidance. For
power-driven vessels, paragraph (c) of Rule 17 applies directly to this situation. It says don't
turn left when the give-way vessel is on your port side. That means appropriate action is a right
turn except when the give-way vessel is overtaking on your starboard side. For situations not
involving two power-driven vessels, the appropriate action depends on the circumstances.
(b) When, from any
(b) When, from any cause, the vessel required to keep her course and
cause, the vessel
speed finds herself so close that collision cannot be avoided by the
required to keep her
course and speed action of the give-way vessel alone, she shall take such action as will
finds herself so close best aid to avoid collision.
that collision cannot
be avoided by the
action of the give-
way vessel alone, she
shall take such action
as will best aid to
avoid collision.
You are on the stand-on vessel, and it becomes apparent that the give-way vessel on your port
side is not taking appropriate action. You sound the five short blast signal, put your engines
on stand-by, but continue holding your course and speed. Thirty seconds pass without any
response. You again sound five short blasts. By this time you are much closer and through
your binoculars observe a figure on an otherwise empty bridge jumping at what you assume to
be the autopilot. The vessel's turn to the right is not fast enough to prevent a collision without
your help, and you recall that Rule 17(b) now requires you to "take such action as will best aid
to avoid collision." But what action? The right turn recommended for early stand-on avoiding
action would at this point swing your stern into the oncoming bow of the give-way vessel.
Aha! Hard left rudder. You pass safely.
Rule 17(b) describes the classic "in extremis" situation, one that every mariner wishes never
to experience. Such a situation--one in which collision is imminent--is defined by the
maneuverability of the give-way vessel alone. But what effect does the maneuverability of the
stand-on vessel have? What will be the outcome if the stand-on vessel waits until the give-
way vessel can't avoid the collision by itself?
If the two vessels are equally maneuverable, avoiding the collision will depend on the actions
of both vessels. If the stand-on vessel is more maneuverable, then its quick action will
probably prevent a collision. If, however, the stand-on vessel is less maneuverable than the
give-way vessel, then the stand-on vessel can most likely do nothing to prevent the collision.
Therefore, if you are operating a stand-on vessel approaching a more maneuverable give-way
vessel, it would behoove you not to wait until the Rules require you to maneuver to avoid
collision. By that time it will probably be too late. If the give-way vessel isn't doing its job,
take early advantage of Rule 17(a)(ii) and maneuver before the situation becomes more
distressing.
You should remember that when the stand-on vessel is required to act to avoid collision (Rule
17(b)), it must take whatever action will best prevent or minimize collision damage. At that
point, other requirements saying don't cross ahead, turn right, or whatever no longer apply. Do
what has to be done.
INTERNATION
INLAND
AL
(c) A power-
driven vessel
which takes
action in a
crossing situation
in accordance
with
subparagraph
(c) A power-driven vessel which takes action in a crossing situation in
(a)(ii) of this Rule
accordance with subparagraph (a)(ii) of this Rule to avoid collision with
to avoid collision
another power-driven vessel shall, if the circumstances of the case admit,
with another
not alter course to port for a vessel on her own port side.
power-driven
vessel shall, if the
circumstances of
the case admit,
not alter course to
port for a vessel
on her own port
side.
Turning away from the give-way vessel decreases the rate of approach and increases the time
each vessel has to take further avoiding action. Turning toward the give-way vessel may well
place the stand-on vessel in a much more dangerous situation if the give-way vessel has
initiated a turn to starboard just before or simultaneously with the stand-on vessel's
maneuver.
(d) This Rule does not relieve the
(d) This Rule does not relieve the give-way vessel of
give-way vessel of her obligation to
her obligation to keep out of the way.
keep out of the way.
Finally, paragraph (d) of Rule 17 makes perfectly clear that the give-way vessel's
responsibility to keep out of the way of the stand-on vessel is in no way diminished by the
stand-on vessel's voluntary action under Rule 17(a)(ii) or by the stand-on vessel's required
action under Rule 17(b). An operator of a give-way vessel is absolutely wrong in assuming
he or she doesn't have to worry about staying out of the way (and passing at a safe distance)
if the stand-on vessel takes avoiding action.
Rule 18 -- Responsibilities Between Vessels
Most of the other Rules for vessels in sight of each other deal with encounters between two
ordinary power-driven vessels, and Rule 12 covers encounters between sailing vessels. Rule
18 tells you what to do when you encounter a vessel that is fundamentally different from
your own.
Rule 18 lists the various classes of vessels in a "pecking order" of privilege. Vessel classes
perceived to be more maneuverable are directed to keep out of the way of classes thought to
be less maneuverable. Naturally, there are exceptions in the Rule because perceptions do not
necessarily hold true in reality. Remember that this Rule applies only to vessels in sight of
each other.
The vessel directed to keep out of the way must follow Rule 8 (Action to Avoid Collision)
and Rule 16 (Action by Give-way Vessel).
(a) A power-driven vessel underway shall keep (a) A power-driven vessel underway shall keep
out of the way of: out of the way of:
(i) a vessel not under command; (i) a vessel not under command;
(ii) a vessel restricted in her ability to (ii) a vessel restricted in her ability to
maneuver; maneuver;
(iii) a vessel engaged in fishing; (iii) a vessel engaged in fishing; and
(iv) a sailing vessel. (iv) a sailing vessel.
Ordinary power-driven vessels that are underway must stay out of the way of the other types of
vessels. Power-driven vessels that are not underway--that is, that are anchored, aground, or
made fast to the shore--of course do not have to keep out of the way of other vessels. Vessels
that are anchored or aground must display the required lights and shapes for those situations.
(b) A sailing vessel underway shall keep out of (b) A sailing vessel underway shall keep out
the way of: of the way of:
(i) a vessel not under command; (i) a vessel not under command;
(ii) a vessel restricted in her ability to maneuver; (ii) a vessel restricted in her ability to
maneuver; and
(iii) a vessel engaged in fishing.
(iii) a vessel engaged in fishing.
Sailing vessels that are underway must stay out of the way of vessels not under command,
restricted in ability to maneuver, or engaged in fishing. (The definitions of these vessel classes
are contained in Rule 3.)
(c) A vessel engaged in fishing when
underway shall, so far as possible, (c) A vessel engaged in fishing when underway shall,
keep out of the way of: so far as possible, keep out of the way of:
(i) a vessel not under command; (i) a vessel not under command; and
(ii) a vessel restricted in her ability to (ii) a vessel restricted in her ability to maneuver.
maneuver.
Vessels engaged in fishing (when underway) must keep out of the way of vessels not under
command or restricted in ability to maneuver, but "only so far as possible." Some fishing
operations so severely hamper a vessel's ability to maneuver that it would be physically
impossible to keep out of the way of another vessel. For example, a trawler's speed is often
limited to a few knots when its trawl is out, and a purse seiner may not be able to move at all
while drawing in its net. Rule 18 certainly does not require that a fishing vessel cut loose its
gear in order to move out of the way of another hampered vessel.
Vessels restricted in ability to maneuver and vessels not under command are given equal
status. All vessels under normal circumstances are required to stay out of the way of these two
classes.
What happens when a vessel not under command encounters a vessel restricted in ability to
maneuver (or if both belong to the same class)? Both should take action to avoid collision.
INTERNATIONAL
(d)(i) Any vessel other than a vessel not under
command or a vessel restricted in her ability to
maneuver shall, if the circumstances of the case admit,
avoid impeding the safe passage of a vessel constrained
by her draft, exhibiting the signals in Rule 28.
Paragraph (d) of International Rule 18 concerns vessels constrained by draft to a relatively

narrow natural or dredged channel. If a vessel in such a situation turned off its course, it
would run aground. Predicting the action the Rule requires of a vessel constrained by draft is
uncertain, so the formal concept of a vessel constrained by draft was not adopted in Inland
Rule 18.
The International Rule requires that vessels (except those not under command and those
restricted in ability to maneuver), if the circumstances of the case admit, avoid impeding the
safe passage of a vessel constrained by draft. The general requirement attempts to resolve a
situation that varies greatly with particular circumstances. As a result, there are two problems
with the requirement.
First, the escape clause "if the circumstances of the case admit" relies on the judgment of the
operator of the vessel approaching the vessel constrained by draft. This introduces
uncertainty on the part of the constrained vessel because the other operator's judgment can
only be guessed.
Second, the "shall not impede the passage" requirement places responsibility on the
nonconstrained vessel to stay out of the way while it is at long range. Notwithstanding that
obligation, if it gets close enough for risk of collision to arise, the constrained vessel will be
obligated to act according to the more general Steering and Sailing Rules, which may make it
the give-way vessel. The non-constrained vessel will in all cases continue to be charged with
staying out of the way. (Confused? See Rule 8(f) for "shall not impede" guidance.)
INTERNATIONAL
(ii) A vessel constrained by her draft shall navigate
with particular caution having full regard to her
special condition.
Perhaps because of the uncertainty involved, the Rule commands vessels constained by draft
to navigate "with particular caution." This means that the constrained vessel must be ready
to take collision-avoiding action at all times, which for a vessel constrained by draft means
limiting speed and having engines ready for maneuver.
(e) A seaplane on the water
shall, in general, keep well
clear of all vessels and
(e) A seaplane on the water shall, in general, keep well clear of
avoid impeding their
all vessels and avoid impeding their navigation. In
navigation. In
circumstances, however, where risk of collision exists, she shall
circumstances, however,
comply with the Rules of this Part.
where risk of collision
exists, she shall comply
with the Rules of this Part.
The last paragraph in Rule 18 covers seaplanes, an encounter with which is probably a rarity
for most mariners. Rule 18 directs seaplanes to stay well clear of other vessels if possible.
Otherwise, a seaplane is to follow the Rules as would a comparable power-driven vessel.
While landing and taking off, seaplanes cannot effectively turn, but they can maneuver
when taxiing. Vessels operating in the vicinity of a seaplane taking off or landing should
note, as a precaution, the pilot's forward visibility may become completely blocked by the
aircraft's raised nose.
Rule 19 -- Conduct of Vessels in Restricted Visibility
Section/Subpart III (Conduct of Vessels in Restricted Visibility) contains but one Rule--
Rule 19. Section I specified Conduct of Vessels in Any Condition of Visibility, and Section
II specified Conduct of Vessels in Sight of One Another. The title of Section III is the same
as that of Rule 19. International Rule 19 is identical to Inland Rule 19 except for a few
minor style changes that do not affect substance.
(a) This Rule applies to vessels not (a) This Rule applies to vessels not in sight of one another
in sight of one another when when navigating in or near an area of restricted visibility.
navigating in or near an area of
restricted visibility.
How poor must visibility be in order to be called "restricted?" The Rule 3 definition does not
explain that but does give examples of natural phenomena that can impair visibility: fog, mist,
falling snow, heavy rainstorms, sandstorms, and so on. Obviously, if visibility is restricted by
haze to ten miles, you would not be in an area of restricted visibility. What would be called
restricted visibility naturally depends on the circumstances. In open water if you cannot see five
miles in all directions you are operating in or near restricted visibility. In more confined bodies
of water the distance may be less.
Why is it that only one Steering and Sailing Rule is devoted exclusively to conditions of
restricted visibility while there are eight Rules for much better conditions? The reason is that
when a situation can be better perceived it merits more detailed and specific recommendations
and requirements. There are simply more options available.
In restricted visibility, on the other hand, you can't see if there are vessels around you, where
they are, how big they are, what kind they are, or what their courses and speeds are. Radar
helps, but not enough.
Without the benefit of good visibility, Rules 4 through 10, which apply to the conduct of vessels
in any condition of visibility, become that much more important. Indeed, much of Rule 19
repeats and emphasizes the contents of Rules 4-10, and it essentially says to be extra careful.
It is important to remember that the navigation rules contain two rather distinct sets of rules: one
for when you can see the other vessel, and one when you can't. The Rules for vessels in sight of
one another (11 through 18) naturally predominate and may become so second nature that they
may be difficult to put aside in conditions of restricted visibility. When the visibility is so poor
that you cannot see the vessels around you, you must forget about Rules 11 through 18. There
will be no "stand-on vessel." There will be no holding course and speed. The overtaken as well
as the overtaking vessel are equally obligated to act to avoid collision. Restricted visibility is the
great equalizer.
Paragraph (a) cites two conditions that make Rule 19 applicable. Both conditions must be
present. The first is that the vessels must not be in sight of one another. If they are, then Rules
11 through 18 apply instead of 19. Remember that "in sight" means "observed visually."
The second is that the vessel must be in or near an area of restricted visibility. Your vessel may
be in an area of good visibility but may also be close to a fogbank or thundershower that could
be concealing one or more vessels. Even though you are in the clear, you must follow Rule 19
(and sound the signal required by Rule 35).
However, with respect to another vessel in your area of good visibility or a vessel that emerges
(early enough) from the fogbank, you must follow Rules 11 through 18 (and sound any signals
required by Rule 34). It is therefore possible for you to be following at the same time rules for
good visibility and the rules for restricted visibility.
(b) Every vessel shall (b) Every vessel shall proceed at a safe speed adapted to the
proceed at a safe speed prevailing circumstances and conditions of restricted visibility. A
adapted to the prevailing power-driven vessel shall have her engines ready for immediate
circumstances and maneuver.
conditions of restricted
visibility. A power-
driven vessel shall have
her engines ready for
immediate maneuver.
Paragraph (b) repeats the mandate of Rule 6 to proceed at a safe speed, making explicit the
requirement to have engines ready for immediate maneuvering when in or near areas of
restricted visibility. This applies to open waters as well as more confined waters.
Safe speed does not necessarily mean slow speed. Sometimes it is better to proceed fast enough
for effective rudder action.
(c) Every vessel shall have
due regard to the prevailing
(c) Every vessel shall have due regard to the prevailing
circumstnces and conditions
circumstnces and conditions of restricted visibility when
of restricted visibility when
complying with the Rules 4 through 10.
complying with the Rules of
Section I of this part.
Paragraph (c) adds no new requirement but does push mariners into closer scrutiny of Rules 4
through 10. Rules 5, 6, and 7 are particularly important for vessels navigating in restricted
visibility.
INTERNATI
INLAND
ONAL
(d) A vessel
which detects (d) A vessel which detects by radar alone the presence of another vessel shall
by radar determine if a close-quarters situation is developing and/or risk of collision
alone the exists. If so, she shall take avoiding action in ample time, provided that when
presence of such action consists of an alteration of course, so far as possible the following
another shall be avoided:
vessel shall
determine if a (i) an alteration of course to port for a vessel forward of the beam, other than
close-quarters for a vessel being overtaken; and
situation is
developing (ii) an alteration of course towards a vessel abeam or abaft the beam.
and/or risk of
collision
exists. If so,
she shall take
avoiding
action in
ample time,
provided that
when such
action
consists of an
alteration of
course, so far
as possible
the following
shall be
avoided:
(i) an
alteration of
course to port
for a vessel
forward of
the beam,
other than for
a vessel being
overtaken;
(ii) an
alteration of
course
towards a
vessel abeam
or abaft the
beam.
Paragraph (d) summarizes the more detailed provisions in Rules 7 and 8 and adds specific
guidance on evasive maneuvering. The recommended course changes are intended to prevent
ships from turning into each other. Not surprisingly, this provision works only if both vessels
follow it. What is surprising is the number of collisions that result because one operator
thought turning the other way would work better. In any case, nothing in this paragraph
suggests that course changes could be made in lieu of a speed reduction in areas of restricted
visibility.
(e) Except where it has
been determined that a
risk of collision does not
exist, every vessel
which hears apparently
forward of her beam the
fog signal of another (e) Except where it has been determined that a risk of collision
vessel, or which cannot does not exist, every vessel which hears apparently forward of her
avoid a close-quarters beam the fog signal of another vessel, or which cannot avoid a
situation with another close-quarters situation with another vessel forward of her beam,
vessel forward of her shall reduce her speed to the minimum at which she can be kept on
beam, shall reduce her her course. She shall if necessary take all her way off and in any
speed to the minimum at event navigate with extreme caution until danger of collision is
which she can be kept over.
on her course. She shall
if necessary take all her
way off and in any event
navigate with extreme
caution until danger of
collision is over.
Paragraph (e) directs every vessel to slow down or stop when it hears the fog signal of
another vessel forward of the beam or knows another vessel lies ahead. This requirement no
longer applies once the vessel knows for sure that risk of collision does not exist and will
not develop. Paragraph (e) adds to Rule 6 (Safe Speed) and relies on the proper execution of
Rule 7 (Risk of Collision). This provision applies to every vessel, not just the other vessel.
After detecting another vessel forward of the beam, a vessel must reduce its speed to the
point of bare steerageway. Stopping engines will slow the vessel and may make it easier to
hear the other vessel's signals. Do not change course until you know the other vessel's
position, course, and speed. The other vessel's signals should indicate whether it is making
way, stopped, or anchored, but do not rely on signals alone. Use all other means available
for collecting information, including radar and radiotelephone. If you cannot quickly clarify
the situation, do not continue blindly into the great unknown. Stop your vessel until you
establish the location and intentions of the vessel(s) ahead.

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Rule 5 -- Lookout

Definition and Purpose of the Lookout

Duty of the Lookout

Tools of the Lookout

Prevailing Circumstances and Conditions

Full Appraisal of the Situation and Risk of Collision

Safe Speed versus Moderate Speed

Proper and Effective Action

(i) the state of visibility; (i) the state of visibility;

The International Telecommunications Union's Radio Regulations, Appendix 18 (q), now

A number of factors are involved in such an assessment:

 Closest distance of approach

If the vessel's radar is capable of both true-motion/north-up display and relative-

Plotting is not required if "equivalent systematic observation" is used. These other

(iii) A vessel the passage

(ii) This Rule does not

(i) proceed in the

(ii) to engage in fishing

Rule 16 -- Action by Give-way Vessel

Rule 17 -- Action by Stand-on Vessel

(iii) a vessel engaged in fishing; (iii) a vessel engaged in fishing; and

(iv) a sailing vessel. (iv) a sailing vessel.

Paragraph (d) of International Rule 18 concerns vessels constrained by draft to a relatively

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