Industrial Psychology Assignment

MOTIVATION THEORIES

Compiled By:

1. Eunike Annice Ariella 171409215

2. Felix Fellieyanto R. 171409137

INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING STUDY PROGRAM

ATMA JAYA UNIVERSITY OF YOGYAKARTA

ODD SEMESTER 2018 – 2019

1. Motivation Theory
Motivation is the physiological aspect behind the certain action or behavior that human do.
Motivation is defined as the desire to achieve a goal or a certain performance level, leading to
goal-directed behavior (Bauer and Erdogan, 2009). Human in doing job performance are
affected by some aspects which are motivation, ability, and environment.

Motivation Ability Environment Performance

Picture 1 Illustration of What’s Affecting Performance

In explaining motivation theory, the theories can be divided into 2 categories:

 Need-based theories: These theories are conducted based on studies and

examination of individual needs. The theories inside are basically explaining about
motivation seen from the perspective of our needs and aspirations. This category
explaining on how motivation can fulfil the needs of individual.

 Process-based theories: These theories view motivation as a rational process rather

than just an action aimed at satisfying a need. According to process-based theories,
individuals analyse their environment, develop thoughts and feelings, and react in
certain ways. As a result, process-based theories explain the thought processes of
individuals who demonstrate motivated behaviour and how process can alter
motivational levels.

Motivation
Theories

Need-based Process-based
Theories Theories

Herzberg's Mayo's Vroom's Skinner's Taylor's

Maslow's Need McClelland's Alderfer's ERG Adam's Equity Locke's Goal McGregor's Bandua's Self-
Motivation- Motivation Expectancy Reinforcement Motivation
Hierarchy Needs Theory Theory Theory Setting Theory Theory X-Y Efficacy Theory
Hygiene Theory Theory Theory Theory Theory

Picture 2 Tree Diagram of Motivation Theories Classification

1.1. Need-based Theories
1.1.1. Maslow's Need Hierarchy
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy is given by Abraham Maslow, who has explained the strength of
certain needs at the different point of time. Maslow has given a framework that helps to
understand the strength of needs and how a person moves from one need to the other when
the basic needs are fulfilled. These needs are arranged in the hierarchical form as shown
below:

Picture 2 Hierarchy of Needs based on Abraham Maslow

According to Berrin Erdogan, Talya Bauer (2010), the most basic of Maslow’s needs
are physiological needs. Physiological needs refer to the need for food, water, and other
biological needs. These needs are basic because when they are lacking, the search for them
may overpower all other urges. Once physiological needs are satisfied, people tend to become
concerned about safety needs. Are they free from the threat of danger, pain, or an uncertain
future. On the next level up, social needs refer to the need to bond with other human beings,
be loved, and form lasting attachments with others. In fact, attachments, or lack of them, are
associated with our health and well-being. Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need
to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human
motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497–529. The satisfaction of social needs
makes esteem needs more salient. Esteem need refers to the desire to be respected by one’s
peers, feel important, and be appreciated. Finally, at the highest level of the hierarchy, the
need for self-actualization refers to “becoming all you are capable of becoming.” This need
manifests itself by the desire to acquire new skills, take on new challenges, and behave in a
way that will lead to the attainment of one’s life goals.
1.1.2. Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory
According to Berrin Erdogan, Talya Bauer (2010) Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory is
given by Fredrick Herzberg and his associates (Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B.), who studied
the variables that are perceived to be desirable to achieve goals and the undesirable
conditions to avoid. Herzberg approached the question of motivation in a different way which
is by asking individuals what satisfies them on the job and what dissatisfies them. Based on
the approach, he conclude two main category that affecting the work motivation which are
hygiene and motivators.

Poor hygine
factor decrease
employee's job
satisfaction

Motivating
factors increase
employee's job
satisfaction

Picture 3 Effect from Two Category

Herzberg labelled factors causing dissatisfaction of workers as “hygiene” factors because

these factors were part of the context in which the job was performed, as opposed to the job
itself. Hygiene factors included company policies, supervision, working conditions, salary,
safety, and security on the job. In contrast, motivators are factors that are intrinsic to the job,
such as achievement, recognition, interesting work, increased responsibilities, advancement,
and growth opportunities. According to Herzberg’s research, motivators are the conditions that
truly encourage employees to try harder.

Motivating factors include:

 Achievement: A job must give an employee a sense of achievement. This will provide
a proud feeling of having done something difficult but worthwhile.
 Recognition: A job must provide an employee with praise and recognition of their
successes. This recognition should come from both their superiors and their peers.
 The work itself: The job itself must be interesting, varied, and provide enough of a
challenge to keep employees motivated.
 Responsibility: Employees should “own” their work. They should hold themselves
responsible for this completion and not feel as though they are being micromanaged.
  Advancement: Promotion opportunities should exist for the employee.
 Growth: The job should give employees the opportunity to learn new skills. This can
happen either on the job or through more formal training.

Hygiene factors include:

 Company policies: These should be fair and clear to every employee. They must also
be equivalent to those of competitors.
 Supervision: Supervision must be fair and appropriate. The employee should be given
as much autonomy as is reasonable.
 Relationships: There should be no tolerance for bullying or cliques. A healthy,
amiable, and appropriate relationship should exist between peers, superiors, and
subordinates.
 Work conditions: Equipment and the working environment should be safe, fit for
purpose, and hygienic.
 Salary: The pay structure should be fair and reasonable. It should also be competitive
with other organizations in the same industry.
 Status: The organization should maintain the status of all employees within the
organization. Performing meaningful work can provide a sense of status.
 Security: It is important that employees feel that their job is secure and they are not
under the constant threat of being laid-off.

•employees are simply •all employees are

there to collect their motivated and have
salary. very few grievances

High High
Hygiene Hygiene
and Low and High
Motivating Motivating

Low Low
Hygiene Hygiene
and High and Low
Motivating Motivating
•not many enthusiasts •employees aren’t
because pay and motivated and the
conditions are behind hygiene factors are
competitors in the not up to scratch
same industry

Picture 3 Relationship Between Two Category

1.1.3. McClelland's Needs Theory
According to Berrin Erdogan, Talya Bauer (2010), Three Needs Theory was developed by
David McClelland in his 1961 book, The Achieving Society. McClelland used a unique method
called the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) to assess the dominant need. The three needs
that he identified were a need for achievement, a need for affiliation, and a need for power.
McClelland states that we all have these three needs in any form regardless of age, gender,
race, or cultural origin. The needs of every individual are learned through their life experiences
and are not innate from birth.

Need for Power (n-pow): Power is the ability to induce or influence the behaviour of
others. The people with high power needs seek high-level positions in the organization, so
as to exercise influence and control over others. Generally, they are outspoken, forceful,
demanding, practical/realistic-not sentimental, and like to get involved in the conversations.

Need for Affiliation (n-affil): People with high need for affiliation derives pleasure from
being loved by all and tend to avoid the pain of being rejected. Since, the human beings are
social animals, they like to interact and be with others where they feel, people accept them.
Thus, people with these needs like to maintain the pleasant social relationships, enjoy the
sense of intimacy and like to help and console others at the time of trouble.

Need for Achievement (n-ach): McClelland found that some people have an intense desire
to achieve. He has identified the following characteristics of high achievers:
 High achievers take the moderate risks, i.e. a calculated risk while performing the
activities in the management context. This is opposite to the belief that high achievers
take high risk.
 High achievers seek to obtain the immediate feedback for the work done by them, so as
to know their progress towards the goal.
 Once the goal is set, the high achiever puts himself completely into the job, until it gets
completed successfully. He will not be satisfied until he has given his 100% in the task
assigned to him.
 A person with a high need for achievement accomplishes the task that is intrinsically
satisfying and is not necessarily accompanied by the material rewards. Though he wants
to earn money, but satisfaction in the accomplishment of work itself gives him more
pleasure than merely the cash reward.
1.1.4. Alderfer's ERG Theory
ERG theory, developed by Clayton Alderfer, is a modification of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
Alderfer proposed that basic human needs may be grouped under three categories, namely,
existence, relatedness, and growth. Existence corresponds to Maslow’s physiological and
safety needs, relatedness corresponds to social needs, and growth refers to Maslow’s esteem
and self-actualization.

Picture 4 Conversion of Maslow’s Hierarchy to ERG Theory

According to Berrin Erdogan, Talya Bauer (2010), the explanation of each element in ERG
Theory are:

 Existence refers to our basic survival needs as humans. In this category are food and
water, shelter, good health, and feeling safe. These needs can be broadly described
as our basic physiological and safety needs.

 Relatedness refers to our need to relate to other people, that is, it refers to the
relationships we have. The relatedness needs refer to the social needs, that an
individual seeks to establish relationships with those for whom he cares. Having good
relationships and interactions with other humans is a need we all share, although
obviously, this need isn’t as strong as our basic survival needs.

 Growth refers to our need for personal development, to be creative and to perform
meaningful work. Growth allows us to explore what our potential might be within our
current environment. Exciting job with lots of small growth opportunities every day to
learn something new will tend to keep us motivated.
1.1.5. Mayo's Motivation Theory
Basing on analyzing the data of the Hawthorn Studies (changes in behavior happen when you
are monitoring or watching employees), Mayo proposed that employees aren’t that motivated
by pay and environmental factors. Instead, positive relational factors play a bigger role in
productivity. The importance of group working cannot be overstressed. It is the group that
determines productivity, not pay and not processes. Mayo's Motivation Theory is based on the
belief that two factors influence motivation in the workplace:

 Job content: the tasks that make up your job.

 Social relations: how you get on and interact with your peers.

Mayo acknowledged that pay and environmental factors play a role in employee motivation,
but he believed that relational factors played an even more significant role.
Mayo believed that it was the group that influenced productivity. The importance of the group
cannot be overstated. It is the group that determines productivity, not pay, and not processes.
Mayo determined how well a group would perform in terms of two factors:

 Norms: Refers to whether the members of the group encourage positive or negative
behavior.
 Group cohesiveness: The comradery of the group. Effectively, how well the group gets
along with each other.

Groups that have high cohesiveness and positive norms will be the most highly motivated and
therefore highest performing. Conversely, groups with negative norms and weak group
cohesiveness will be very unmotivated.

• ineffective productivity - • limited positive impact on

team wouldn’t last very long productivity - each team
- nobody would be member will be working
motivated to be productive their own success rather
in any way than that of the team

High Norm High Norm

and Low and High
Cohesiveness Cohesiveness

Low Norm Low Norm

and High and Low
Cohesiveness Cohesiveness
• negative impact on • greatest positive impact on
productivity - negative productivity - each team
behaviors are encouraged member supports each other
rather than positive ones to succeed - people are
personally committed to
their success and the team’s
success

Picture 5 Relationship Between Two Factors

In order to increase the motivation based on the factors stated by Elton can be by
increasing:
1. Strong communication
2. Group working
3. Involvement each team’s member

1.2. Process-based Theories

1.2.1. Vroom's Expectancy Theory
According to businessballs.com Vroom's expectancy theory separates effort, performance
and outcomes, while Maslow and Herzberg focus on the relationship between internal needs
and the resulting effort expended to fulfil them. Vroom's expectancy theory assumes that
behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize
pleasure and to minimize pain. Vroom realized that an employee's performance is based on
individual factors such as personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities. He stated
that effort, performance and motivation are linked in a person's motivation. He uses the
variables Expectancy, Instrumentality and Valence to account for this.
1. Expectancy
Expectancy is the idea of by increasing the effort will increase the performance as well. There
are some considerations such as, having the right resources, having the right skills, and having
the necessary supports to get the job done.
2. Instrumentality
It talks about the idea if you are performing better, then the outcome will be
achieved. There are some considerations such as clear understanding the
relationship between performances and outcomes, having the trust in people
who makes the decision, also the transparency of the process that decides who
gets what outcome.
3. Valence
Valence is the perceived value the employee puts on the outcome. For the
valence to be positive, the person must prefer attaining the outcome than not
attaining it. (If someone is mainly motivated by money, he or she might not
value offers of additional time off)
The application of vroom’s theory can equally apply to any situation where someone does
something because they expect a certain outcome. For example, when people try to brew an
instant noodle with the right duration, it is expected that the noodle will taste the best.
1.2.2. Adams’ Equity Theory
This theory explains why pay and conditions alone do not determine one’s motivation. When
people feel fairly or advantageously treated they are more likely to be motivated, hence when
they feel unfairly treated they are highly prone to feelings of disaffection and demotivated.
The equity theory encompasses the quality and quantity of the employee’s contributions to his
or her work. Typical inputs include time, effort, loyalty, hard work, commitment, ability,
adaptability, flexibility, tolerance, determination, enthusiasm, personal sacrifice, etc.
The expected outcome is that the positive and negative consequences that an individual
perceives a participant has incurred as a consequence of his/her relationship with another.
Basically, the equity theory consists of four proposed mechanism for motivation, those are:
o Individual seek to maximize their outcomes
o Groups can maximize collective rewards by developing accepted systems for
equitably apportioning rewards and cost among members.
o When individuals find themselves participating in inequitable relationships, they
become distressed. The more inequitable the relationship, the more distress
individuals feel. According to equity theory, both the person who gets "too much" and
the person who gets "too little" feel distressed.

1.2.3. Locke's Goal Setting Theory

Locke’s Goal Setting Theory is a great framework to use when setting goals for yourself or for
your team. The theory is based on research showing that with the right goals your can increase
both productivity and motivation. Locke and Latham were able to demonstrate that when you
set specific and challenging goals, and receive regular feedback on your progress, then your
productivity and motivation will increase. Performance and motivating will increase regardless
of whether your job is highly complex or low in complexity. So, whatever job you or your team
currently do, Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory can help improve productivity and motivation. To
be motivating and increase productivity, goals need to have the following 5 characteristics:
a. Clarity
To be motivating goals need to be clear. When a goal is clear it’s easy to understand
exactly what you need to achieve. It’s not opens to debate or interpretation.
b. Challenge
To be motivating goals need to be challenging, but not too challenging. A goal that is
too easy to achieve won’t motivate you to up your game and increase your
performance. Similarly, a goal that you perceive as way beyond your capability won’t
motivate you either. It may actually demotivate you.
 c. Commitment
For a goal to be motivating you must be committed to it. Likewise, if your setting goals
for others you need to ensure that they bought into the goal. No Commitment: You
decide in a meeting with your boss what your team’s targets will be and then dictate
these targets to your team. Commitment: You work with your team to determine
together what the targets should be and how they can be hit.
d. Feedback
In order for a goal continue to motivate you as you work towards it, you must receive
feedback. For feedback to be effective, there must be a goal, Feedback must be
received regularly. Both positive and negative feedback should be welcomed. If you
are giving someone negative feedback then makes sure you do so in a constructiv
way.
e. Task Complexity
In order for a goal to be motivating it must not be too complex. Highly complicated
goals can be overwhelming and demotivating. Good target setting can be such as
break down complex targets into sub-targets. Bad target settings can be such as set
a complicated target and simply expect your team member to get on with it.

1.2.4. Skinner's Reinforcement Theory

Skinner’s Reinforcement Theory or just Reinforcement Theory is one of the theories focusing
on human motivation. The theory is based on the principles of causality and knowledge that a
worker’s behavior is regulated by the type of reward. The theory does not assess personality,
but focuses on behavior and recognizes three basic rules of consequences. What is
reinforcement theory good for in practice? The results of this theory are part of the incentive
systems. If we want to reinforce the behavior in the organization, we provide a reward for it,
and vice versa if we want to weaken any behavior, we use a punishment. With this theory, we
also know that the time interval for granting rewards should be as short as possible, preferably
imminent.

1.2.5. Taylor's Motivation Theory

Taylor put forward the idea that workers are motivated mainly by pay.
His Theory of Scientific Management argued the following:
 Workers do not naturally enjoy work and so need close supervision and control
 Therefore, managers should break down production into a series of small tasks
 Workers should then be given appropriate training and tools so they can work as
efficiently as possible on one set task.
  Workers are then paid according to the number of items they produce in a set period
of time- piece-rate pay.
 As a result, workers are encouraged to work hard and maximize their productivity.
Taylor's methods were widely adopted as businesses saw the benefits of increased
productivity levels and lower unit costs. Taylor's approach has close links with the concept of
an autocratic management style (managers take all the decisions and simply give orders to
those below them) and Macgregor's Theory X approach to workers (workers are viewed as
lazy and avoid responsibility). However, workers soon came to dislike Taylor's approach as
they were only given boring, repetitive tasks to carry out. Firms could also afford to lay off
workers as productivity levels increased. This led to an increase in strikes and other forms of
industrial action by dissatisfied workers.

1.2.6. Bandura's Self-Efficacy Theory

According to Bandura, self-efficacy is not a trait that some have and others do not. Instead, it
is the ability to exercise and strengthen one’s self-efficacy, regardless of their past or current
environment. By consolidating his research into four action-items, Bandura offers a tangible
way to develop self-efficacy. As people succeed in any of these four ways, their self-efficacy
grows.
a. Mastery Experiences
This refers to experiencing the results of self-efficacy first hand. The key to mastery is
approaching life with dedicated efforts and experimenting with realistic but challenging
goals. People need to acknowledge the satisfaction of goals that are achieved, in order to
reap the pleasure of mastery. Experiencing failure is important so that we can build
resilience to it. This is done by treating every failure as a learning opportunity and a chance
to reach competence with a different approach.
b. Social Modeling
This means that people choose role-models who demonstrate their self-efficacy.
Motivation can be found by observing those who employ this in their lives and have
reached their goals despite adversity. Seeing people similar to oneself succeed with
consistent effort, raises the observers’ beliefs in their own abilities to succeed (Bandura,
2008). With modern technology, it is not necessary to draw role-models from one’s own
social surroundings. The internet and other digital resources can provide windows into the
lives of many inspiring models.
c. Social Persuasion
When people believe in their own ability, they tend to encounter more success. In this way,
self-efficacy becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy. This mode is often about ‘finding the right
mentor.’ While social modeling refers to the observation of a role model, social persuasion
 is about having others directly influence one’s self-efficacy and providing opportunities for
mastery experiences in a safe manner. Due to the specific nature of self-efficacy
strengthening experiences (avoiding easy successes and overwhelming failures), it is
essential that mentors are “knowledgeable and practice what they preach” (Bandura,
2008).
d. States of Physiology
Lastly, our emotions, moods and physical states influence our interpretation of self-efficacy.
It is easy to judge oneself with bias based on the state one in when a failure occurs. While
it is normal to feel tension, anxiety, and weariness, it is common to feel like a societal
disappointment when these feelings occur. Positive and negative emotions are magnets
that influence one’s sense of self-efficacy, especially in the case of a depressed mood
when control can feel out of reach. People with low self-efficacy may give-up sooner than
people with high self-efficacy (Bandura, 2008). Introspection and education can prevent
these physical states from being interpreted negatively. For example, when experiencing
a personal or work-related “failure,” people can practice compassion towards themselves
as people who make mistakes. In short, changing negative misinterpretations of physical
and affective states is key, in order to build self-efficacy (Bandura, 2008). The strength
self-efficacy scale is one tool which can help build insight and introspection, and alleviate
the need for judging ourselves too harshly when we make mistakes.

1.2.7. McGregor's Theory X-Y

The Theory X and Theory Y are the theories of motivation given by Douglas McGregor in
1960’s. These theories are basing on the premise that management has to assemble all the
factors of production, including human beings, to get the work done.
McGregor believed that management can use either of the needs to motivate his employees,
as grouped under theory X and theory Y.
Theory X: Theory X relies on the authoritarian style of management, where the managers are
required to give instructions and keep a close check on each employee. As it is assumed, the
employees are not motivated, and they dislike working. This theory is based on the following
assumptions:
2. The employee is lazy and dislikes work.
3. He is not ambitious and dislikes responsibility and therefore prefers to be led.
4. The employee is self-centered and indifferent towards the organizational interest.
5. Management is responsible for assembling all the factors of production, Viz. Money,
material, equipment, people.
6. The managers are required to control his employees, manage their efforts, motivate
them, modify their behavior to comply with the organizational needs.
 7. The management must intervene to keep the employees working towards the
economic ends. The employees must be persuaded, rewarded, motivated, punished,
controlled to get the work completed.
Theory Y: Theory Y relies on the participative style of management, where the managers
assume that the employees are self-directed and self-motivated to accomplish the
organizational objectives (Democratic or participative). Thus, here the management attempts
to get the maximum output with least efforts on their part. Following are the assumptions of
Theory Y:
1. The average human being does not inherently dislike work, they are creative and self-
motivated and likes to work with greater responsibilities.
2. Employees are self-directed and self-controlled and therefore the threat of punishment
is not only the means for getting the desired results.
3. The extent to which an employee is committed to objectives is determined by the
rewards associated with their achievement. The most significant rewards in this
context could be the satisfaction of the ego and the fulfilment of self-actualization
needs.
4. The average human being is ambitious and is ready to take responsibilities. He likes
to lead rather than to be led by others.
5. The employees exercise a relatively high degree of imagination and creativity in
solving the complex organizational problems.
Thus, theory X and theory Y are two contrasting models that depict the set of assumptions a
manager holds on his employees, which may or may not coincide with their general way of
behaving. It can be concluded that theory X will typically use in managing unskilled production
work in contrast with theory Y that will more likely used in managing knowledge worker.
Therefore, these theories are based on the attitude, not attributes.
 Reference

https://agilevietnam.com/2012/12/08/theories-of-motivation/
https://businessjargons.com/theories-of-motivation.html
https://expertprogrammanagement.com/2019/06/theories-of-motivation/
https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_organizational-behavior-v1.1/s09-theories-of-
motivation.html