Carbohydrates (Sugar) polyhydroxy aldehyde or polyhydroxy ketone

 Hydrates de carbone name by french scientist (CnH2On) not all contain like rhamnose &
dexyribose
Importance and Function
1. They are very effective energy yielding nutrients (primarybasic fuel)
2. They serve as effective building materials (cellulose polymer)
3. They are important water soluble materials (pass one molecules to another)
4. They are important structural components of the living cell.
5. They serve as backbone or precursors substances
General Classifiaction
 Monosaccharide (simple sugars) one sugar and cannot be hydrolyzed
 Dissaccharide (Double Sugar) two monosaccaharide unit
 Oligosaccharide (few or small) two to six monosaccharides
 Polysaccharide hydrolyzed and most complex monosaccharides

Aldose (polyhydroxy adldehyde in terminal side of hydrocarbon)

Ketose (polyhydroxy ketones carbony is in between hydrocarbon)
 Diose (2 carbon atoms)
 Triose (3 carbon atoms)
 Tetrose (4 carbon atoms)
 Pentose (5 carbon atoms)
 Hexose (6 carbon atoms)
 Heptose (7 carbon atoms)

EPIMERS ( two sugars differ in configuration )

Assymetric Carbon – C structure with 4 radicals & gives ff. properties
 Optical Activity or Mutarotation (bend or deflect polarized light)
d or (+) isomers rotates clockwise or right (dextrorotatory)
l or (+) isomers rotates counterclockwise or left (levorotatory)
 Stereoisomerism/Enatiomerism (mirror images)
D-ISOMERS OH written in right
L-ISOMER OH is written in left

MOSACCHARIDES
SOME IMPORTANT MOSACCHARIDES
 Glucose (dextrose, blood sugar, grape sugar)
- Aldohexose found in free state of plant & animal tissue (key sugar for metabolic fuel)
 Galactose (pectin, gums, mucilages)
- Aldohexose combine with glucose in maltose & found in mammary gland
 Fructose (fruit sugar)
- Ketohexose found in fruits
 Ribose
- Nucleic acid RNA
 Deoxyribose
- Nucleic Acid DNA

DISACCHARIDES
SOME IMPORTANT DISACCHARIDES
 Maltose (malt sugar) – reducing saccharide found in starch and glycogen
 Lactose (milk sugar) – one glucose and galactose {least sweetest and not ferment}
  Sucrose (table sugar, beet sugar,cane sugar, saccharose) – glucose & fructose
POLYSACCHARIDES
(TYPES OF POLYSACCHARIDES)

1. Homopolysaccharide - polysaccharide w/ similar and repeating units

 Glucosans (only glucose units like starch and glycogen)
 Fructosans (fructose like Inulin)

2. Heteropolysaccharides- polysaccharide that yields sugar and their derivatives

SOME IMPORTANT POLYSACCHARIDES

 Starch – (amylum) reserved food or storage of carbs for plants {diastase}
 Glycogen – (animal starch) storage of carbs for animals; stored in liver and broken down in
glucose process called Glycogenolysis.
 Cellulose – abundant organic substance & insoluble carbs (plants and woods)
 Chitin- outer covering of insects, crustaceans, fungi, and brain

PHYSICAL Property
Monosaccharides Starch Cellulose
& Disaccharides
APPEARANCE White crystalline Amorphous Fibrous
solids
SOLUBILITY IN WATER Readily soluble in Slightly soluble in Insoluble in Water
(Inversely proportional water water
to the complexity)
TASTE Sweet Tasteless Tasteless
Chemical Property
A. Hydrolysis
-Upon addition of water, disaccharide and polysaccharides are broken into monosaccharides with help
of enzymes (catalyst; stimulate reaction not affects substrate)
B. Dehydration
-Acid of higher concentration act on monosaccharide forming furfural derivatives

1. MOLISCH’S TEST
 Alpha- naphthol and sulfuric acid yields a VIOLET ring
2. SELIWANOFF’S TEST
 Resorcinol and HCL yields a RED ring

C. Reducing Property
-Sugar contain aldehyde reduce metallic ions

1. FEHLING’S TEST
 Copper (II) Sulfate, Sodium Hydroxide , and Rochelle Salt causes brick-red precipitate
2. BENEDICT’S TEST
 Copper (II) Sulfate, Sodium Citrate, and Sodium carbonate causes brick-red precipitate

D. Oxidation
-Terminal functional group (carbonyl and primary alcohol) aldoses can turn to carboxyl.
 1. Aldonic Acid – Aldheyde had been oxidized.
2. Uronic Acid – Alcohol group had been oxidized
3. Saccharic – Both Aldehyde and alcohol had been oxidized

E. Lobry de Bruyn Transformation

-weak alkali takes place one sugar to another & product is ENOL

F. Osazone Transformation
-heated with phenylhydrazine a yellow precipitates obtained called osazone crystal (use to identify
sugars)

G. Ester formation
-they can either to form esters with acids

H. Fermentation
-Conversion of carbohydrate to alcohol
-Yields the enzyme zymase to ferment glucose, mannose & frustose producing alcohol

CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
-Primary energy fuel (GLUCOSE) leads to Metabolic process which is highly integrated, purposeful
activity of MULTI-ENZYME
PROCESS INVOLVED
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the process of breaking down a glucose molecule into two pyruvate molecules, while storing
energy released during this process as ATP and NADH.

- Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas Pathway.

Glucogenesis
Conversion of non-glucose hexoses like mannose, fructose, and galactose to substrate found in glycolytic
pathway.

Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is the reverse process of glycolysis.[6] It involves the conversion of non-carbohydrate
molecules into glucose.[6] The non-carbohydrate molecules that are converted in this pathway include amino
acid, lactate, glycerol, alanine, and glutamine

Glycogenolysis
Glycogenolysis refers to the breakdown of glycogen.[6] In the liver, muscles, and the kidney, this process occurs to provide
glucose when necessary. Process regulated by hormone Glucagon.

Glycogenesis
Glycogenesis refers to the process of synthesizing of excess molecule called glycogen.[6] In humans, excess glucose is
converted to glycogen via this process. Eventually stored in river and regulated by the hormone Insulin.

Pentose phosphate pathway

- Also known as phosphogluconate oxidative or Hexose Monophosphate Shunt
- Is an alternative pathway/method of oxidizing glucose

Kreb’s cycle
- Also known as Citric Acid Cycle or Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
- final common pathway for breakdown of foodstuffs where acetyl coenzymes(helper of enzyme) utilized ATP