Anatomy - study of the structure and relationship between body parts.

Physiology - study of the function of body parts and the body as a whole.

AREAS OF SPECIALIZATION

 Gross or Macroscopic Anatomy - the study of large body structures visible to the naked eye
 Regional Anatomy - all the structures (muscles, bones, blood vessels, nerves, etc.) in a region of the
body, such as the abdomen or leg, are examined at the same time.
 Systemic Anatomy - body structure is studied system by system.
 Surface anatomy - the study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin surface.
 Microscopic anatomy - deals with structures too small to be seen with the naked eye.
 Cytology – study of the cells of the body
 Histology - study of tissues
 Developmental anatomy - traces structural changes that occur in the body throughout the life span.
 Embryology - a subdivision of developmental anatomy, concerns developmental changes that occur
before birth.

BRANCHES OF PHYSIOLOGY

 Renal physiology concerns kidney function and urine production.

 Neurophysiology explains the workings of the nervous system.
 Cardiovascular physiology examines the operation of the heart and blood vessels.
 While anatomy provides us with a static image of the body’s architecture, physiology reveals the body’s
dynamic and animated workings.

Complementarity of Structure and Function – What a structure can do depends on its specific form.

LEVEL OF STRUCTUREL ORGANIZATION

At the chemical level, atoms, molecules (combinations of atoms), and the chemical bonds between atoms
provide the framework upon which all living activity is based.

Cell - smallest unit of life. Organelles within the cell are specialized bodies performing specific cellular functions.
Cells themselves may be specialized. Thus, there are nerve cells, bone cells, and muscle cells.

Tissue - a group of similar cells performing a common function. Muscle tissue, for example, consists of muscle
cells.

Organ - a group of different kinds of tissues working together to perform an activity. The heart is an organ
composed of muscle, nervous, connective, and epithelial tissues.

Organ system - two or more organs working together to accomplish a task. The digestive system, for example,
involves the coordinated activities of many organs, including the mouth, stomach, small and large intestines,
pancreas, and liver.

Organism - a system possessing the characteristics of living things—the ability to obtain and process energy, the
ability to respond to environmental changes, and the ability to reproduce.
NECESSARY LIFE FUNCTIONS

 Every living organism must maintain its boundaries so that its internal environment (its inside) remains
distinct from the external environment surrounding it (its outside).
 Movement includes the activities promoted by the muscular system, such as propelling ourselves from
one place to another by running or swimming and manipulating the external environment with our
nimble fingers.
 Responsiveness, or excitability, is the ability to sense changes (which serve as stimuli) in the
environment and then respond to them.
 Digestion - the breaking down of ingested foodstuffs to simple molecules that can be absorbed into the
blood. The nutrient-rich blood is then distributed to all body cells by the cardiovascular system.
 Metabolism - “a state of change”) is a broad term that includes all chemical reactions that occur within
body cells. Anabolism refers to the process which builds molecules the body needs; it usually requires
energy for completion; example: protein synthesis and photosynthesis. Catabolism refers to the process
that breaks down complex molecules into smaller molecules; example: digestion, cellular respiration.
 Homeostasis - maintenance of stable, internal conditions within specific limits. In many cases, stable
conditions are maintained by negative feedback.

Negative feedback
o These mechanisms cause the variable to change in a direction opposite to that of the initial
change, returning it to its “ideal” value; thus, the name “negative” feedback mechanisms.
o The control of blood sugar (glucose) by insulin is another good example of a negative feedback
mechanism. When blood sugar rises, receptors in the body sense a change. In turn, the control
center (pancreas) secretes insulin into the blood effectively lowering blood sugar levels. Once
blood sugar levels reach homeostasis, the pancreas stops releasing insulin.

Positive feedback

o An action intensifies a condition so that it is driven farther beyond normal limits, when a
response to an event increases the likelihood of the event to continue.
o During blood clotting, childbirth (labor contractions), lactation (where milk production increases
in response to an increase in nursing), and sexual orgasm.
o During labor, a hormone called oxytocin is released that intensifies and speeds up contractions.
The increase in contractions causes more oxytocin to be released and the cycle goes on until the
baby is born. The birth ends the release of oxytocin and ends the positive feedback mechanism.

 Excretion is the process of removing wastes, or excreta (ekskre9tah), from the body. If the body is to
operate as we expect it to, it must get rid of nonuseful substances produced during digestion and
metabolism.
 Reproduction occurs at the cellular and the organismal level. In cellular reproduction, the original cell
divides, producing two identical daughter cells that may then be used for body growth or repair.
 Growth is an increase in size of a body part or the organism. It is usually accomplished by increasing the
number of cells. However, individual cells also increase in size when not dividing.
ANATOMICAL POSITION

Superior (cranial) - Toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body; above. The head is superior to
the abdomen.

Inferior (caudal) - Away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below. The
navel is inferior to the chin.

Ventral (anterior) - Toward or at the front of the body; in front of. The breastbone is anterior to the spine.

Dorsal (posterior) - Toward or at the back of the body; behind. The heart is posterior to the breastbone.

Medial - Toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of. The heart is medial to the arm.

Lateral - Away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of. The arms are lateral to the chest.

Intermediate - Between a more medial and a more lateral structure. The collarbone is intermediate between
the breastbone and shoulder.

Proximal - Closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk. The
elbow is proximal to the wrist.

Distal - Farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk. The knee is
distal to the thigh.

Superficial (external) - Toward or at the body surface. The skin is superficial to the skeletal muscles.

Deep (internal) - Away from the body surface; more internal. The lungs are deep to the skin.
REGIONAL TERMS

Axial - makes up the main axis of our body, includes the head, neck, and trunk.

Appendicular - consists of the appendages, or limbs, which are attached to the body’s axis.

BODY PLANES

Sagittal (Median) plane— is a vertical plane that divides the body into
right and left parts. A sagittal plane that lies exactly in the midline is the
median plane, or midsagittal plane

Frontal (Coronal, vertical, door) plane — a vertical plane that divides the
body into front (anterior or ventral) and back (posterior or dorsal)

Transverse (horizontal, table) plane — this horizontal plane is parallel to the

ground and divides the body into up (toward the head) and down
(toward the feet)

Oblique plane is not shown; it is a slanted plane (at an angle) that lies
between the horizontal and vertical planes.

BODY CAVITIES

Dorsal body cavity - protects the fragile nervous system organs, has two subdivisions; cranial and spinal.

o Cranial cavity, in the skull, encases the brain.

o Vertebral/Spinal cavity - runs within the bony vertebral column, encloses the delicate spinal cord. The
spinal cord is essentially a continuation of the brain, and the cranial and spinal cavities are continuous
with one another.

Ventral Body Cavity - more anterior and larger of the closed body cavities. It has two major subdivisions, the
thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity. It houses internal organs collectively called the viscera or visceral
organs.

o Thoracic cavity - superior subdivision that is surrounded by the ribs and muscles of the chest. It is
further subdivided into lateral pleural cavities, each enveloping a lung, and the medial mediastinum.
The mediastinum contains the pericardial cavity, which encloses the heart, and it also surrounds the
remaining thoracic organs (esophagus, trachea, and others).
o Abdominopelvic cavity - more inferior, separated by the diaphragm. The abdominopelvic cavity, as its
name suggests, has two parts. However, these regions are not physically separated by a muscular or
membrane wall. Its superior portion, the abdominal cavity, contains the stomach, intestines, spleen,
liver, and other organs. The inferior part, the pelvic cavity, lies in the bony pelvis and contains the
urinary bladder, some reproductive organs, and the rectum. The abdominal and pelvic cavities are not
aligned with each other. Instead, the bowl-shaped pelvis tips away from the perpendicular.
MEMBRANES IN THE VENTRAL BODY CAVITY

Serosa/Serous membrane - thin, double-layered membrane that covers the walls of the ventral body cavity and
the outer surfaces of the organs it contains

Parietal serosa - lining the cavity walls

Visceral serosa - covering the organs in the cavity.

Serous fluid - a thin layer of lubricating fluid that separates the serous membranes. It allows the organs to slide
without friction across the cavity walls and one another as they carry out their routine functions.

Parietal pericardium lines the pericardial cavity. Visceral pericardium, which covers the heart.

Parietal pleurae line the walls of the thoracic cavity. Visceral pleurae cover the lungs.

Parietal peritoneum is associated with the walls of the abdominopelvic cavity. Visceral peritoneum covers most
of the organs within that cavity.
ABDOMINOPELVIC REGIONS AND QUADRANTS

Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ) –

right lobe of liver, gallbladder,
part of the transverse colon, part
of pylorus, hepatic flexure, right
kidney, and duodenum.

Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ) –

cecum, ascending colon, small
intestine, appendix, bladder if
distended, right ureter, right
spermatic duct (men), right ovary
and right tube and uterus if
enlarged (women).

Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ) – Left lobe of liver, stomach, small intestine, transverse colon, splenic flexure,
pancreas, left kidney and spleen.

Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ) – small intestine, left ureter, sigmoid flexure, descending colon, bladder if distended,
left spermatic duct (men) left ovary and left tube and uterus if enlarged (women).

REGIONS

 Right and left hypochondriac regions – on either side of the epigastric region. Contains the diaphragm,
some of the kidneys, right side of the liver, the spleen and part of the pancreas.
 Epigastric region – superior (above) the umbilical region and contains most of the pancreas, part of the
stomach, liver, inferior vena cava, abdominal aorta and duodenum
 Right and left lumbar (lateral) regions – on either side of the umbilical region. They contain portions of
the large and small intestines and kidneys.
 Umbilical region – area around the umbilicus (belly button). Includes sections of the large and small
intestines, inferior vena cava and abdominal aorta
 Right and left iliac (inguinal) regions – are on either siasde of the hypogastric region and include
portions of the large and small intestines.
 Hypogastric (pubic) region – inferior (below) the umbilical region. Contains parts of the sigmoid colon,
the urinary bladder and ureters, the uterus and ovaries (women), and portions of the small intestines.
PARTS OF HUMAN TORSO

STRUCTURE OF MATTER

Matter is anything that has weight and takes up space. This includes all the solids, liquids, and gases in our
surroundings, as well as inside our bodies. Matter consists of chemicals.

Mass is related to the amount of a substance, whereas weight refers to how heavy it is.

All matter is composed of fundamental substances called elements.

Elements are composed of tiny particles called atoms (at′omz), which are the smallest complete units of
elements.

Some atoms can combine with atoms like themselves or with other atoms by forming attractions called
chemical bonds, whereas other atoms cannot form such bonds.

An atom consists of a central portion, called the nucleus, and one or more electrons (e-lek′tronz) that constantly
move around it. The nucleus contains one or more relatively large particles called protons (pro′tonz). The
nucleus also usually contains one or more neutrons (nu′tronz), which are similar in size to protons.

The number of protons in the atoms of a particular element is called the element’s atomic number.
The atomic weight of an atom of an element approximately equals the number of protons and neutrons in its
nucleus; electrons have very little weight.

Atoms of an element with different atomic weights are called isotopes (i′so-to¯ ps) of that element.

Atoms that gain or lose electrons become electrically charged and are called ions

Because oppositely charged ions attract, sodium and chloride ions react to form a type of chemical bond called
an ionic bond (electrovalent bond).

The chemical bond between the atoms that share electrons is called a covalent bond.

In between lies the covalent bond in which electrons are not shared equally, resulting in a molecule whose
shape gives an uneven distribution of charges. Such a molecule is called polar. Unlike an ion, a polar molecule
has an equal number of protons and electrons, but more of the electrons are found at one end of the molecule,
making that end slightly negative, while the other end of the molecule is left slightly positive.

The attraction of the positive hydrogen end of a polar molecule to the negative nitrogen or oxygen end of
another polar molecule is called a hydrogen bond. Hydrogen bonds are relatively weak.

When two or more atoms bond, they form a new kind of particle called a molecule

When atoms of different elements bond, they form molecules called compounds.

A molecular formula (mo-lek′u-lar for′mu-lah) represents the numbers and types of atoms in a molecule.

Single lines represent single bonds, and double lines represent double bonds. Illustrations of this type are called
structural formulas

when two or more atoms (reactants) bond to form a more complex structure (product), the reaction is called
synthesis

If the bonds within a reactant molecule break so that simpler molecules, atoms, or ions form, the reaction is
called decomposition

Substances that release ions in water are, therefore, called electrolytes

INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Inorganic compounds are defined as compounds that lack carbon and contains electrolytes (release ions).
Inorganic substances usually dissolve in water and dissociate to release ions; thus, they are electrolytes.

 Most inorganic compounds do not contain carbon. Those found in the body include water, salts, and
inorganic acids and bases.
 Water is the single most abundant compound in the body. It absorbs and releases heat slowly, acts as a
universal solvent, participates in chemical reactions, and cushions body organs.
 Molecules of oxygen (O2) enter the body through the respiratory organs and are transported
throughout the body by the blood. The red blood cells bind and carry most of the oxygen. Cellular
organelles use oxygen to release energy from the sugar glucose and other nutrients. The released
energy drives the cell’s metabolic activities.
  Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a simple, carbon-containing compound of the inorganic group. It is produced as
a waste product when certain metabolic processes release energy, and it is exhaled from the lungs.
 Salts are ionic compounds that dissolve in water and act as electrolytes. Calcium and phosphorus salts
contribute to the hardness of bones and teeth. Ions of salts are involved in many physiological
processes. These ions are important in metabolic processes, including transport of substances into and
out of cells, muscle contraction, and nerve impulse conduction
 All ions are electrolytes (e-lek9tro-līts), substances that conduct an electrical current in solution. (Note
that groups of atoms that bear an overall charge, such as sulfate, are called polyatomic ions.)
 Acids are proton donors; in water, they ionize and dissociate, releasing hydrogen ions (which account for
their properties) and anions.
 Bases are proton acceptors. The most common inorganic bases are the hydroxides; bicarbonate ion and
ammonia are important bases in the body.
 pH is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration of a solution (in moles per liter). A pH of 7 is neutral; a
higher pH is alkaline, and a lower pH is acidic. Normal blood pH is 7.35–7.45; below 7.54 is acidosis and
above 7.45 is alkalosis. Buffers help to prevent excessive changes in the pH of body fluids. The more
hydrogen ions in a solution, the more acidic the solution is. Conversely, the greater the concentration of
hydroxyl ions (the lower the concentration of H1), the more basic, or alkaline, the solution becomes.
 Buffers are chemicals that resist pH change. They combine with hydrogen ions when these ions are in
excess, or they donate hydrogen ions when these ions are depleted.

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Organic compounds are generally distinguished by the fact that they contain hydrogen and carbon, and non-
electrolyte (doesn’t release ions).

Dehydration - Monomers are joined by removal of OH from one monomer and removal of H from the other at
the site of bond formation.

Hydrolysis - Monomers are released by the addition of a water molecule, adding OH to one monomer and H to
the other.

Macromolecule

 It is a term used for large molecules.

 Each macromolecule has a subunit called Monomer.
 When monomer bond together (Polymerization), the resulting structure is a Polymer.
 The term polymer is the same as macromolecule.
 Separation of polymers forming monomers is called Hydrolysis.
 Monomer: one basic unit or subunit
 Polymer: a chain of many basic units

Proteins

 Most abundant organic compound found in living things

 Fundamental structural and functional framework of a cell
  Polymer: Proteins, Monomer: Amino acids
 CHON
 Some of its functions are providing mechanical support, immune protection, generating movement,
transmitting nerve impulses, controlling growth and differentiation, build and repair muscles and
tissues, act as enzymes

Carbohydrates

 Chief energy source of all organisms

 Serves as the backbone of other molecules
 They combine with protein to form the structural component of living cells
 Has 3 main groups: Monosaccharides (simple sugars), Disaccharides (double sugars), Polysaccharides
(complex sugars)
 Polymer: Carbohydrates, Monomer: Saccharine or Glucose
 CHO

Monosaccharide (Simple Sugar)

 Sugars with 6 carbon atoms

 Glucose – also known as blood sugar; It is found in many juices of fruits
 Fructose – also known as fruit sugar, considered to be the sweetest sugar and can extracted from fruits
and honey.
 Galactose – also known as milk sugar and one of the constituents of lactose aside from glucose. ▪
Pentose - any of the class of simple sugars whose molecules contain five carbon atoms ex. Xylose and
Ribose

Disaccharide (Double Sugars)

 Maltose – also known as malt sugar, composed of two glucose molecules bonded together.
 Sucrose – also known as table sugar or cane sugar, composed of glucose and fructose molecule joined
together.
 Lactose – also known as milk sugar because it is formed when glucose and galactose molecules
combined. It is present in milk of all mammals.

Polysaccharides (Complex carbohydrates)

 Starch – composed of about 30 to 1,000 glucose units. This is widely distributed in plants. Plants store up
energy reserves after eating. They store extra glucose in the form of starch which they use when they
are not photosynthesizing.
 Glycogen – highly branched polysaccharide, composed of glucose units and known as animal starch.
 Cellulose – made up of glucose units and found in the cell wall of plant cells.
 Chitin – a fibrous substance consisting of polysaccharides and forming the major constituent in the
exoskeleton of arthropods (crabs and lobsters) and the cell walls of fungi.

Nucleic Acids

 Macromolecules built as a long chain of monomers called nucleotides.

 Primary function is for storage and transmission of genetic information.
 Two types of nucleic acids are: DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (Ribonucleic acid)
  DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) - contains genetic material which is the hereditary information of living
organisms. It also contains the organization of enzymes, thus determining the chemical activities of the
cell. The nitrogenous bases that compose the DNA are always paired and bound together by hydrogen
bonds: Adenine is linked to Thymine (A –T); and Guanine is linked to Cytosine (G-C).
 RNA (Ribonucleic acid) - shares a similar structure as the DNA, except that RNA is single stranded, carries
out genetic material for most of the viruses and is associated with the protein synthesis of all cellular
organisms and contains the following nitrogenous base: Guanine linked to Cytosine (G-C) and Adenine
linked to Uracil (A-U).
 CHONPS

Lipids

 Serves as the highest source of energy for the body. These are stored fats derived from carbohydrates,
which can be oxidized to release energy.
 Fats are very rich in energy; a gram of fat contains over twice the energy content of a gram of
carbohydrates.
 Polymer: Lipids; Monomer: Fatty acids
 Ex. Oil, butter, lard
 Fats - also known as triglycerides, major fuel for animals
 Steroids - ex. Cholesterol – which is one of the most important steroids and a component of animal cell
membrane, and a precursor for the synthesis of a number of steroid hormones such as testosterone,
progesterone and estrogen.
 Phospholipids - this can be found in cell membrane which allows it to be semipermeable or selectively
permeable to certain substances. - has hydrophobic tail and hydrophilic head
 CHO

MEDICAL IMAGING

X ray or radiograph is essentially a shadowy negative image of internal structures.

Computed tomography (CT, formerly called computerized axial tomography, CAT) uses a refined version of X-
ray equipment. The device’s computer translates this information into a detailed, cross-sectional picture of each
body region scanned.

Xenon CT is a CT brain scan enhanced with radioactive xenon gas to quickly trace blood flow.
Dynamic spatial reconstruction (DSR) uses ultrafast CT scanners to provide three dimensional images of body
organs from any angle, and scrutinize their movements and changes in their internal volumes at normal speed,
in slow motion, and at a specific moment

Digital subtraction angiography (DSA) (angiography 5 vessel pictures), provides an unobstructed view of small
arteries. Conventional radiographs are taken before and after a contrast medium is injected into an artery.

Positron emission tomography (PET) excels in observing metabolic processes. The patient is given an injection
of radioisotopes tagged to biological molecules (such as glucose) and is then positioned in the PET scanner. PET’s
greatest value has been its ability to provide insights into brain activity in people affected by mental illness,
stroke, Alzheimer’s disease, and epilepsy.

Sonography, or ultrasound imaging’s energy source seems to be safer than the ionizing forms of radiation used
in nuclear medicine. The body is probed with pulses of sound waves that cause echoes when reflected and
scattered by body tissues.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) produces high-contrast images of our soft tissues, an area in which X rays
and CT scans are weak. MRI distinguishes body tissues based on their water content, so it can differentiate
between the fatty white matter and the waterier gray matter of the brain.

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), which maps the distribution of elements other than hydrogen to
reveal more about how disease changes body chemistry.

M2A Swallowable Imaging Capsule, a tiny camera that a patient swallow like a pill, and then excretes normally
8–72 hours later. As the M2A travels through the digestive tract, it photographs the small intestine and beams
the color images to a small video data recorder worn on a belt or harness.

CELLS

Microscope - an instrument that provides a magnified image of a tiny object.

Robert Hooke

 The discovery of cells is generally credited to Robert Hooke

 Hooke called the pores cells because they reminded him of the cells inhabited by monks living in a
monastery.
 Hooke had observed the empty cell walls of dead plant tissue
 One of Robert Hooke’s more ornate compound (double-lens) microscopes.

Anton van Leeuwenhoek

 Anton van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutchman, was the first to examine a drop of pond water under the
microscope and, to his amazement, observe the teeming microscopic “animalcules”
 Single-lens microscope used by Anton van Leeuwenhoek to observe bacteria and other microorganisms.

Matthias Schleiden

 In 1838, Matthias Schleiden, a German lawyer turned botanist, concluded that plants were made of
cells and that the plant embryo arose from a single cell.
Theodor Schwann

 In 1839, Theodor Schwann, a German zoologist and colleague of Schleiden’s, published a comprehensive
report on the cellular basis of animal life. Schwann concluded that the cells of plants and animals are
similar structures and proposed these two tenets of the cell theory:
 All organisms are composed of one or more cells.
 The cell is the structural unit of life.

Rudolf Virchow

 By 1855, Rudolf Virchow, a German pathologist, had made a convincing case for the third tenet of the
cell theory:
 Cells can arise only by division from a preexisting cell.

Modern Cell Theory

 Cells contain DNA that is passed down during cell division

 The flow of energy in living things takes place in cells
 All cells have similar chemical composition and structure

Basic Properties of Cells

The first culture of human cells was begun by George and Martha Gey of Johns Hopkins University in 1951. The
cells were obtained from a malignant tumor and named HeLa cells after the donor, Henrietta Lacks. HeLa cells—
descended by cell division from this first cell sample are still being grown in laboratories around the world today.
HeLa cells were the first human cells to be kept in culture for long periods of time and are still in use today.
Unlike normal cells, which have a finite lifetime in culture, these cancerous HeLa cells can be cultured
indefinitely as long as conditions are favorable to support cell growth and division.

A. Cells Are Highly Complex and Organized

 Cellular activities can be remarkably precise. DNA duplication occurs with an error rate of less
than one mistake every ten million nucleotides incorporated.
 Each type of cell has a consistent appearance when viewed under a high-powered electron
microscope
 The apical ends of intestinal cells, which face the intestinal channel, have long processes
(microvilli) that facilitate absorption of nutrients.
 A human and a cat have very different anatomical features but the cells that make up their
tissues, and the organelles that make up their cells, are very similar
 Many of the most basic processes, such as the synthesis of proteins, the conservation of
chemical energy, or the construction of a membrane, are remarkably similar in all living
organisms.

B. Cells Possess a Genetic Program and the Means to Use It

 Genes constitute the blueprints for constructing cellular structures, the directions for running
cellular activities, and the program for making more of themselves.
  The molecular structure of genes allows for changes in genetic information (mutations) that
lead to variation among individuals, which forms the basis of biological evolution.
 Discovering the mechanisms by which cells use and transmit their genetic information has been
one of the greatest achievements of science in recent decades.

C. Cells Are Capable of Producing More of Themselves

 Cells reproduce by division, a process in which the contents of a “mother” cell are distributed
into two “daughter” cells.
 Binary Fission, Mitosis, Meiosis

D. Cells Acquire and Utilize Energy

 Every biological process requires the input of energy.

 All of the energy utilized by life on the Earth’s surface arrives in the form of electromagnetic
radiation from the sun.
 Light energy is converted by photosynthesis into chemical energy that is stored in energy-rich
carbohydrates, such as sucrose or starch.
 For most animal cells, energy is in the form of the sugar glucose.
 ATP runs all of the cell’s myriad energy-requiring activities
 Cells expend an enormous amount of energy simply breaking down and rebuilding the
macromolecules and organelles of which they are made.

E. Cells Carry Out a Variety of Chemical Reactions

 Simplest bacterial cell is capable of hundreds of different chemical transformations

 Chemical changes that take place in cells require enzymes—molecules that greatly increase the
rate at which a chemical reaction occurs.
 The sum total of the chemical reactions in a cell represents that cell’s metabolism.
 Anabolism builds complex molecules from simpler ones. Eg. Protein Synthesis, DNA Synthesis
 Catabolism breaks large molecules into smaller ones. Eg. Digestion, Cellular respiration

F. Cells Engage in Mechanical Activities

 Materials are transported from place to place, structures are assembled and then rapidly
disassembled, and, in many cases, the entire cell moves itself from one site to another.
 Motor proteins carry out mechanical activities.

G. Cells Are Able to Respond to Stimuli

 Most cells are covered with receptors that interact with substances in the environment.
 Cells may respond to specific stimuli by altering their metabolic activities, moving from one
place to another, or even committing suicide.
 H. Cells Are Capable of Self-Regulation

 Cells are robust, that is, hearty or durable, because they are protected from dangerous
fluctuations in composition and behavior.
 The importance of a cell’s regulatory mechanisms becomes most evident when they break
down.
 Failure of a cell to correct a mistake may result in a mutation or it can transform into a cancer
cell
 In the cell, the information for product design resides in the nucleic acids, and the construction
workers are primarily proteins.
 Cellular activities are often analogous to this “Rube Goldberg machine” in which one event
“automatically” triggers the next event in a reaction sequence.

I. Cells Evolve

 It is presumed that cells evolved from some type of precellular life form, which in turn evolved
from nonliving organic materials that were present in the primordial seas.
 According to one of the tenets of modern biology, all living organisms have evolved from a
single, common ancestral cell that lived more than three billion years ago. This ancient cell is
often referred to as the last universal common ancestor (or LUCA).

Two Fundamentally Different Classes of Cells

The existence of two distinct classes of cells, without any known intermediates, represents one of the most
fundamental evolutionary divisions in the biological world.

The structurally simpler prokaryotic cells include bacteria, whereas the structurally more complex eukaryotic
cells include protists, fungi, plants, and animals.

Evidence of prokaryotic life has been obtained from rocks approximately 2.7 billion years of age.

Cyanobacteria almost certainly appeared by 2.4 billion years ago, because that is when the atmosphere become
infused with molecular oxygen (O2), which is a byproduct of the photosynthetic activity of these prokaryotes.

We are not sure when prokaryotic cells first appeared on Earth. The dawn of the age of eukaryotic cells is also
shrouded in uncertainty.

Characteristics That Distinguish Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Eukaryotic cells almost certainly evolved from prokaryotic ancestors. They share an identical genetic language, a
common set of metabolic pathways, and many common structural features.

Internally, eukaryotic cells are much more complex—both structurally and functionally—than prokaryotic cells.

Both contain a nuclear region, which houses the cell’s genetic material, surrounded by cytoplasm. The genetic
material of a prokaryotic cell is present in a nucleoid: a poorly demarcated region of the cell that lacks a
boundary membrane to separate it from the surrounding cytoplasm. In contrast, eukaryotic cells possess a
nucleus: a region bounded by a complex membranous structure called the nuclear envelope.

prokaryotic (pro before, karyon nucleus) and eukaryotic (eu true, karyon nucleus).

Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have DNA-containing chromosomes. Eukaryotic cells contain a single
linear molecule of DNA. In contrast, nearly all prokaryotes contain a single, circular chromosome. Eukaryotes is
tightly associated with proteins to form a complex nucleoprotein material known as chromatin.

Even yeast, the simplest eukaryote, is much more complex structurally than an average bacterium even though
these two organisms have a similar number of genes.

Eukaryotic cells contain an array of membrane-bound organelles. Eukaryotic organelles include mitochondria,
where chemical energy is made available to fuel cellular activities; an endoplasmic reticulum, where many of a
cell’s proteins and lipids are manufactured; Golgi complexes, where materials are sorted, modified, and
transported to specific cellular destinations; and a variety of simple membrane-bound vesicles of varying
dimension.

Plant cells contain additional membranous organelles, including chloroplasts, which are the sites of
photosynthesis, and often a single large vacuole that can occupy most of the volume of the cell.

Cytoskeleton, which participate in cell contractility, movement, and support.

Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells possess ribosomes, which are non-membranous particles that
manufactures the proteins of the cell. Those of prokaryotes are smaller and contain fewer components.

Soluble phase of the cytoplasm, which is called the cytosol.

Eukaryotic cells divide by a complex process of mitosis in which duplicated chromosomes condense into
compact structures that are segregated by an elaborate microtubule-containing apparatus called mitotic
spindle, allows each daughter cell to receive an equivalent array of genetic material. In prokaryotes, there is no
compaction of the chromosome and no mitotic spindle. The DNA is duplicated, and the two copies are
separated accurately by the growth of an intervening cell membrane.

For the most part, prokaryotes are nonsexual organisms. They contain only one copy of their single
chromosome and have no processes comparable to meiosis, gamete formation, or true fertilization.

Eukaryotic cells possess a variety of complex locomotor mechanisms, whereas those of prokaryotes are
relatively simple.

The movement of a prokaryotic cell may be accomplished by a thin protein filament, called a flagellum, which
protrudes from the cell and rotates.

Recent insights have shown that Prokaryotes live in complex, multispecies communities called biofilms.

Prokaryotes are very sophisticated, highly evolved organisms.

Features held in common by the two types of cells:

 Plasma membrane of similar construction

  Genetic information encoded in DNA using identical genetic code
 Similar mechanisms for transcription and translation of genetic information, including similar ribosomes
 Shared metabolic pathways (e.g., glycolysis and TCA cycle)
 Similar apparatus for conservation of chemical energy as ATP (located in the plasma membrane of
prokaryotes and the mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotes)
 Similar mechanism of photosynthesis (between cyanobacteria and green plants)
 Similar mechanism for synthesizing and inserting membrane proteins
 Proteasomes (protein digesting structures) of similar construction (between archaebacteria and
eukaryotes)

Features of eukaryotic cells not found in prokaryotes:

 Division of cells into nucleus and cytoplasm, separated by a nuclear envelope containing complex pore
structures
 Complex chromosomes composed of DNA
 Complex membranous cytoplasmic organelles
 Specialized cytoplasmic organelles for aerobic respiration (mitochondria) and photosynthesis
(chloroplasts)
 Complex cytoskeletal system
 Complex flagella and cilia
 Ability to ingest particulate material by enclosure within plasma membrane vesicles (phagocytosis)
 Cellulose-containing cell walls (in plants)
 Cell division using a microtubule-containing mitotic spindle that separates chromosomes
 Presence of two copies of genes per cell (diploidy), one from each parent
 Presence of three different RNA synthesizing enzymes (RNA polymerases)
 Sexual reproduction requiring meiosis and fertilization

Types of Prokaryotic Cells

Prokaryotes are divided into two major taxonomic groups, or domains: The Archaea (or archaebacteria) and the
Bacteria (or eubacteria).

Archaea are species that live in extremely inhospitable environments; they are often referred to as
“extremophiles.” Included among the Archaea are the methanogens [prokaryotes capable of converting CO2
and H2 gases into methane (CH4) gas]; the halophiles (prokaryotes that live in extremely salty environments);
acidophiles (acid-loving prokaryotes); and thermophiles (prokaryotes that live at very high temperatures) and
hyperthermophiles, which live in the hydrothermal vents of the ocean floor. The latest record holder among this
group has been named “strain 121” because it is able to grow and divide in superheated water at a temperature
of 121 C.

All other prokaryotes are classified in the domain Bacteria. This domain includes the smallest known cells, the
mycoplasma (0.2 m diameter), which are the only known prokaryotes to lack a cell wall and to contain a genome
with fewer than 500 genes. Bacteria are present in every conceivable habitat on Earth, from the permanent ice
shelf of the Antarctic to the driest African deserts, to the internal confines of plants and animals.
The most complex prokaryotes are the cyanobacteria. Cyanobacteria contain elaborate arrays of cytoplasmic
membranes, which serve as sites of photosynthesis. The membranes of cyanobacteria are very similar to the
photosynthetic membranes present within the chloroplasts of plant cells.

This is the basis of biological evolution. By using techniques that reveal the variety of DNA sequences of a
particular gene in a particular habitat, one learns directly about the diversity of species that live in that habitat.

This collection of microbes, which is known as the human microbiome.

Specialized cells are formed by a process called differentiation. As a result of differentiation, different types of
cells acquire a distinctive appearance and contain unique materials. Despite their many differences, the various
cells of a multicellular plant or animal are composed of similar organelles.

Model Organisms

Six model organisms—one prokaryote and five eukaryotes—have captured much of the attention: a bacterium,
E. coli; a budding yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae; a flowering plant, Arabidopsis thaliana; a nematode,
Caenorhabditis elegans; a fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster; and a mouse, Mus musculus.

The Sizes of Cells and Their Components

 The greater a cell’s cytoplasmic volume, the longer it will take to synthesize the number of messages
required by that cell.
 The ability of a cell to exchange substances with its environment is proportional to its surface area. If a
cell were to grow beyond a certain size, its surface would not be sufficient to take up the substances .
 A cell depends to a large degree on the random movement of molecules (diffusion).

Synthetic Biology

 Create some minimal type of living cell in the laboratory, essentially from “scratch
 At this point in time, biologists are nowhere near accomplishing this feat, and many members of society
would argue that it would be unethical to do so

Viruses

 By the end of the nineteenth century, the work of Louis Pasteur and others had convinced the scientific
world that infectious diseases of plants and animals were due to bacteria.
 To gain further insight into the size and nature of the infectious agent, Dmitri Ivanovsky, a Russian
biologist, forced the sap from a diseased plant through filters whose pores were so small that they
retarded the passage of the smallest known bacterium. The filtrate was still infective, causing Ivanovsky
to conclude in 1892 that certain diseases were caused by pathogens that were even smaller, and
presumably simpler, than the smallest known bacteria. These pathogens became known as viruses
  Viruses are responsible for dozens of human diseases, including AIDS, polio, influenza, cold sores,
measles, and a few types of cancer
 They cannot reproduce unless present within a host cell.
 Outside of a living cell, the virus exists as a particle, or virion, which is little more than a macromolecular
package.
 Each virus has on its surface a protein that is able to bind to a particular surface component of its host
cell
 There are two basic types of viral infection. (1) In most cases, the virus arrests the normal synthetic
activities of the host and redirects the cell to use its available materials to manufacture viral nucleic
acids and proteins, which assemble into new virions. (2) In other cases, the infecting virus does not lead
to the death of the host cell, but instead inserts (integrates) its DNA into the DNA of the host cell’s
chromosomes. The integrated viral DNA is called a provirus.

PLASMA MEMBRANE

 Thin semi-permeable membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell.

 Protect the integrity of the interior of the cell by allowing certain substances into the cell while keeping
other substances out.
 Ability to transmit signals via complex proteins. Receptors and activators
 Serves to help support the cell and help maintain its shape.
 Regulate cell growth through the balance of endocytosis and exocytosis.
 Primarily composed of a mix of proteins and lipids.
 Lipids help to give membranes their flexibility
 Proteins monitor and maintain the cell's chemical climate and assist in the transfer of molecules across
the membrane.
 The membrane is fluid but also fairly rigid and can burst if penetrated or if a cell takes in too much
water.
 5 to 10 nm wide.
 The plasma membrane is the only lipid-containing structure in the cell
 Late 1950s could be resolved in the electron microscope.

Endocytosis - lipids and proteins are removed from the cell membrane as substances are internalized.

Exocytosis - vesicles containing lipids and proteins fuse with the cell membrane increasing cell size.

Hydrophobic - Molecule that repels water (“water-fearing”); face away from the cytosol and extracellular fluid.

Hydrophilic - Molecule that is attracted to water (“water-loving”); face the aqueous cytosol and the extracellular
fluid

Amphipathic - Molecule that contains both a hydrophobic and a hydrophilic end. Each phospholipid is
amphipathic, with two hydrophobic tails and a hydrophilic head. The hydrophobic tails face inward towards one
another, and the hydrophilic heads face outwards. Therefore, phospholipids form an excellent lipid bilayer cell
membrane that separates fluid within the cell from the fluid outside of the cell.
Phospholipid - Amphipathic lipid made of glycerol, two fatty acid tails, and a phosphate group

Phospholipid bilayer - A biological membrane involving two layers of phospholipids with their tails pointing
inward

Cholesterol molecules - helps to keep cell membranes from becoming stiff by preventing phospholipids from
being too closely packed together.

Glycolipid – lipid with carbohydrate attached; help the cell to recognize other cells of the body.

Glycoprotein – protein with carbohydrate attached

Semipermeable membrane - Membrane that allows certain substances to pass through

Peripheral membrane proteins - exterior to and connected to the membrane by interactions with other
proteins.

Integral membrane - inserted into the membrane and most pass through the membrane. Portions of these
transmembrane proteins are exposed on both sides of the membrane.

Structural proteins - give the cell support and shape.

Cell membrane receptor proteins - help cells communicate with their external environment

Transport proteins, such as globular proteins, transport molecules across cell membranes through facilitated
diffusion.

The fluid mosaic model describes the structure of the plasma membrane as a mosaic of components —including
phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates—that gives the membrane a fluid character. Plasma
membranes range from 5 to 10 nm in thickness. The mosaic nature of the plasma membrane allows a very fine
needle to easily penetrate it without causing it to burst and allows it to self-seal when the needle is extracted.

Cholesterol functions as a buffer, preventing lower temperatures from inhibiting fluidity and preventing higher
temperatures from increasing fluidity.

Proteins make up the second major component of plasma membranes. Integral proteins (some specialized types
are called integrins) are, as their name suggests, integrated completely into the membrane structure, and their
hydrophobic membrane-spanning regions interact with the hydrophobic region of the the phospholipid bilayer.

Carbohydrates are the third major component of plasma membranes. They are always found on the exterior
surface of cells and are bound either to proteins (forming glycoproteins) or to lipids (forming glycolipids).

If saturated fatty acids are compressed by decreasing temperatures, they press in on each other, making a
dense and fairly rigid membrane. If unsaturated fatty acids are compressed, the “kinks” in their tails push
adjacent phospholipid molecules away, which helps maintain fluidity in the membrane. The ratio of saturated
and unsaturated fatty acids determines the fluidity in the membrane at cold temperatures.

Membrane Functions

1. Compartmentalization. Encloses the contents of the entire cell, whereas the nuclear and cytoplasmic
membranes enclose diverse intracellular spaces. possess markedly different contents. allows specialized
 activities to proceed without external interference and enables cellular activities to be regulated
independently of one another.
2. Scaffold for biochemical activities. Because of their construction, membranes provide the cell with an
extensive framework or scaffolding within which components can be ordered for effective interaction.
3. Providing a selectively permeable barrier. Prevent the unrestricted exchange of molecules from one
side to the other. At the same time, membranes provide the means of communication between the
compartments they separate.
4. Transporting solutes. Transporting substances from one side of the membrane to another, often from a
region where the solute is present at low concentration into a region where that solute is present at
much higher concentration
5. Responding to external stimuli. Response of a cell to external stimuli, a process known as signal
transduction. Membranes possess receptors that combine with specific molecules (ligands) or respond
to other types of stimuli such as light or mechanical tension. The interaction of a plasma membrane
receptor with an external stimulus may cause the membrane to generate a signal that stimulates or
inhibits internal activities.
6. Intercellular interaction. Organisms mediate the interactions between a cell and its neighbors. The
plasma membrane allows cells to recognize and signal one another, to adhere when appropriate, and to
exchange materials and information.
7. Energy transduction. Membranes are intimately involved in the processes by which one type of energy
is converted to another type. The most fundamental energy transduction occurs during photosynthesis
when energy in sunlight is absorbed by membrane-bound pigments, converted into chemical energy,
and stored in carbohydrates. Membranes are also involved in the transfer of chemical energy from
carbohydrates and fats to ATP

The Nature and Importance of the Lipid Bilayer

 Lipid composition can determine the physical state of the membrane and influence the activity of
membrane proteins.
 Provide the precursors for highly active chemical messengers that regulate cellular function
 The entire lipid bilayer is only about 60 Å (6 nm) thick
 Because of the flexibility of the lipid bilayer, membranes are deformable, and their overall shape can
change, as occurs during locomotion or cell division
 Facilitate the regulated fusion or budding of membranes
 Fertilization, where two cells fuse to form a single cell, involve processes in which two separate
membranes come together to become one continuous sheet
 Importance of the lipid bilayer in maintaining the proper internal composition of a cell, in separating
electric charges across the plasma membrane
 Its ability to self-assemble
 Fluid-filled spherical vesicles, called liposomes.
 Stealth liposomes (e.g., Caelyx) that contain an outer coating of a synthetic polymer that protects the
liposomes from immune destruction
ORGAN SYSTEMS

A. Integumentary System. Forms the external body covering and protects deeper tissues from injury.
Synthesizes vitamin D, and houses cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.) receptors and sweat and oil glands.
Nails Skin Hair
B. Skeletal System. Protects and supports body organs and provides a framework the muscles use to cause
movement. Blood cells are formed within bones. Bones store minerals. Bones Joint
C. Muscular System. Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression.
Maintains posture and produces heat.
D. Nervous System. As the fast-acting control system of the body, it responds to internal and external
changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands. Brain Nerves Spinal cord
E. Endocrine System. Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and
nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells. Pineal gland Pituitary Thyroid gland gland Thymus Adrenal
gland Pancreas Testis Ovary
F. Cardiovascular System. Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients,
wastes, etc. The heart pumps blood.
G. Lymphatic System/Immunity. Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood. Disposes
of debris in the lymphatic stream. Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in immunity. The
immune response mounts the attack against foreign substances within the body.
H. Respiratory System. Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. The
gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs.
I. Digestive System. Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body
cells. Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.
J. Urinary System. Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body. Regulates water, electrolyte and acid-
base balance of the blood.
K. Male Reproductive System. Overall function is production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and male
sex hormone, and male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract.
L. Female Reproductive System. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. The remaining female
structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus. Mammary glands of female
breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn.