ABSTRACT

Industrial training is must for every student pursuing professional degree

because the ultimate goal of every student is to get the information the
industrial training helps us to get an idea of things.

We should known in order to get a good job i.e. have a good professional
career. Industrial training teaches us a lot of things. It helps us to know the
kind of environment we would be getting in the industry and helps us to get
familiar with that kind of environment. Industrial training helps us to know
what kind of grade an engineer of specific branch plays in an industry. It helps
us to get used to working in groups of known people and it also teaches us
team work as I have done my work in a group and not an individual. As a
whole we can say that industrial training teaches us industrial ethics.

1
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I take this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude to Prof. S Panda, Head
of the Electronics and Communication Engineering department, Narula
Institute of Technology, Agarpara, Kolkata, who gave the permission to be
associated with one of the best organisations, CTTC, Kolkata.

Success of every project depends largely on SELF and encouragement and

guidance of many others. I take this opportunity to express my gratitude to the
people who have been instrumental in the successful completion of this
project.

First of all I would like to thank the Management of BSNL for giving me the
opportunity to do my four weeks project training in their esteemed
organization.

I would like to thank Mr. Somnath Chakraborty and Mr. Pramit Ganguly, our
mentors, for providing me with their valuable advice and endless supply of
new ideas and providing practical exposure for this project.

Signature of Students

2
 CONTENTS

Chapter No.1 Introduction • Objectives of the industrial

training program
• The scope of the industrial
training program
• The importance of the industrial
training program
• Benefits derived from the
training
• Objectives of the report/write-up
Chapter No.2 The Training Organization • The training organization and
training environment
• Business functions of the
organization, staff strength, the
administrative system
• Organizational chart
• Computer system and network
infrastructure
Chapter No.3 Industrial Training • Objectives
• Techniques studied in different
Departments
• Software tools Used: Brief
Descriptions
• Highlights of Training
Exposure(area, scope)
• About your work
• Result Analysis
Chapter No.4 Conclusions • About your decision

3
 CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVES OF THE INDUSTRIAL TRAINING
PROGRAM
Briefly the industrial training program has six main objectives:

➢ To give students the opportunity to apply the knowledge and skills

they have acquired in
➢ A real-life work situation
➢ To provide students with opportunities for practical, hands-on learning
from practitioners
➢ To give students work experience while they are studying their chosen
subject
➢ To expose students to the work environment
➢ To inculcate soft skills relevant to the needs of employers

THE SCOPE OF THE INDUSTRIAL TRAINING

PROGRAM
Industrial training gives a better exposure towards the industry they have
chosen. Once a student starts working with professionals they are able to
implement the theories that they have learned inside the classroom. Moreover
what they actually perform by themselves memorizes easily the concepts
which are tough to understand just by reading or performing mere practical.

➢ Improve their knowledge and skills to their area of study

➢ Relate the knowledge and skills acquired at the work place, to their on-
campus studies
➢ Compete effectively in the job market, because they have been
equipped
➢ Requisite knowledge, skills, attitude and practical experiences

4
 DURATION

8th January -2nd February’2019

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE INDUSTRIAL

TRAINING PROGRAM
Industrial Training refers to a program which aims to provide supervised
practical training within a specified timeframe. The training can be carried out
either in government organizations or in private sector. Industrial Training is
an important strategy to expose students to the real life work situations and to
equip them with the necessary skills that intensify the job acumen. Industrial
Training program can be continuously improved through formal review and
evaluation of its outcome.

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 BENEFITS DERIVED FROM THE TRAINING

➢ First-hand experience working as an engineer professional

➢ Apply technical knowledge and engineering methods to real life

situations

➢ Experience what it like to work in a professional organization

➢ Increase technical, interpersonal and communication skills, both oral

and written

OBJECTIVES OF THE REPORT

➢ Industrial Training Report is an important document for each of the
students. It is a document with activities that have been learned throughout
the industrial training.
➢ This report could be use as the evidence for the students that they have
undergone the industrial training.
➢ Provides guidance as reference materials to students after completing their
studies.

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 CHAPTER-2
THE TRAINING ORGANISATION
It all started in the year 1994 at GB-Block, Sector-III, Saltlake , and
Kolkata-700097. An appreciable change and development had taken place
during this course of journey since then.

CTTC, Salt Lake, Kolakata has evolved from being one of the Circle
Telecom Training Centers of BSNL to a notable Training Centre of BSNL in
just 16 years. An area of more than 24643 sq.m well-planned campus in the
heart of the vibrant city of Kolkata , this training centre provides an idyllic
environment to engage in imparting quality training. It has well-knit
infrastructure that facilitates excellence in teaching as well as learning.
Locational advantage like being in close proximity to Airport and Important
Railway stations gives it an extra edge. Efficient and committed faculty
members in the related disciplines are actively involved in the growth and
excellence of this Telecom Training Centre. In addition to induction training
to JTO, TTA, TOA, SR.TOA and TM and different in-service courses ranging
from telecom fundamentals to latest telecom and IT technologies such as 3G
Mobile, CDMA, MPLS, BB multiplay, DWDM, IP and networking,
Vocational/Industrial training to the engineering students are also imparted
here. To open up new horizons as well as to utilize our resources for the
engineering students and engineers, Short Term Courses, One day Field Visit
& Project Work area introduced.

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 ADMINISTRATIONS
BSNL is divided into a number of administrative units, variously known as:
telecom circles, metro districts, project circles and specialized units. It has 24
telecom circles, two metro districts, six project circles, four maintenance
regions, five telecom factories, three training institutions and four specialized
telecom units. BSNL Mobile has a pan-India presence with presence in all the
21 telecom circles in India. BSNL Mobile provides all of India with roaming
access, including Delhi & Mumbai and International roaming access to more
than 300 networks across the world.
The company’s Cell One network (GSM/GPRS) was launched in late 2002
and has coverage in major cities and towns and more places are being covered.
BSNL Mobile offers both GSM as well as CDMA prepaid and post-paid
services Cell one was renamed BSNL Mobile in 2007. It was the first
company which made incoming roaming charges free across the country.
BSNL has total 101 million subscribers as on 31st March 2017. Talks of its
merger with MTNL are under process.
TRAINING ENVIRONMENT
This training centre is equipped with the labs namely GSM lab, C-Dot
256RAX, MBM & SBM labs, computer lab, BB Multiplay lab, OFC lab &
SDH lab. Further, it has a well equipped seminar hall. It also has the capability
to run fully residential courses as it has two hotels for men and one separate
unit for the ladies accommodating 152 trainees altogether.

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 BUSINESS FUNCTION OF THE ORGANIZATION
BSNL Mobile is a major provider of GSM cellular mobile services under the
brand name Cell one BSNL provides a complete telecom services solution to
enterprise customers including MPLS, P2P and Internet leased lines. It
provides fixed line services and landline using CDMA technology and its own
extensive optical fiber network. BSNL provides Internet access services
through dial-up connections as prepaid, Net One as Postpaid and Data one as
BSNL Broadband.
BSNL offers value-added services such as Free Phone Service (FPH), India
Telephone Card (Prepaid card), Account Card Calling (ACC), Virtual
Private Network (VPN), Tele-voting, Premium Rate Service (PRM) and
Universal Access Number (UAN).BSNL also offers the IPTV which enables
customers to watch television through the Internet and Voice and Video Over
Internet Protocol (VVoIP).In 2007, BSNL announced plans to provide 5
million broadband connections and secured 80% of the INR 25 billion rural
telephony project of the Government of India. On 20 March 2009, BSNL
launched blackberry services across India. BSNL paid Rs. 101.87 billion
for 3G spectrum in 2010. As of 2011, BSNL offered coverage in over 800
cities across India. BSNL launched in 2012 a 3G wireless pocket-sized router
called Winknet Mf50. BSNL 3G provides HSPA+ service with a top speed of
21.1 Mbit/s downlink and 5.76 Mbit/s uplink.

STAFF STRENGTH

Non-Executive( 60%)
Executive (20%)
Technical Staff(10%)
Non-Technical(10%)

Fig: STAFF DISTRIBUTION

9
 THE ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM
BSNL is divided into a number of administrative units, variously known as:
telecom circles, metro districts, project circles and specialized units.

It has 24 telecom circles, two metro districts, six project circles, four
maintenance regions, five telecom factories, three training institutions and four
specialized telecom units.

TYPICAL INFRA : HIGH AVAILABILITY AND

DATA PROTECTION

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 COMPUTER SYSTEM
As the name specified it is the main part of the exchange that deals with the all
services provided by the exchange to the customers with the help of computer.
It is also provides the updated data to all other part of the exchange.

➢ The customers are using the service of the exchange by using the
computer also gets connected to the main server present this room via
an internet room.
➢ It mainly consists of the servers that are providing the different
services. The main servers of this room are :-
➢ IVRS is used for the change number services provided by the
exchange.
➢ CERS are provided by the exchange to avoid the problems that the
users are facing in repairing of telephone. In this system when the user
enters its complained it gets directly enterd to the server and user is
allotted with an ID NUMBER.
➢ LOCAL DIRECTORY ENQUIRY is another service provided by
the exchange, by using this; subscribers call the particular no and
gets the directory enquiry.The server present in the main computer
room provides this service.
➢ INTERNET DIRECTORY ENQUIRY is the latest service provided
by the exchange. In this type of service subscribers make enquiry
using the internet, which get conncted to the main server at the internet
room in the exchange and further to the main server in the computer
room.

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 NETWORK INFRASTRUCTURE

MONITORING AND MANAGEMENT SERVICES

➢ 24*7 monitoring.
➢ Automation of administrative tasks.
➢ Fault, Configuration & Performance Management.
➢ Client help desk.
➢ Contract & third party management.

SERVICE MANAGEMENT AND DLIVERY

➢ Performance & availability

➢ Reporting: Service level, Configuration, Escalation, Threshold.
➢ Fault and resolution reporting

IT AUTOMATION & WORKFLOW

➢ Inventory Management.
➢ Application Deployment.

CUSTOMER SELF SERVICE

➢ Provisioning & Billing.

➢ Automated Provisioning for customers.
➢ Transparent reporting.

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HOW WE GET INTERNET CONNECTION

BSNL MPLS NETWORK

13
 CHAPTER-3
INDUSTRIAL TRAINING
OBJECTIVES
• The main objective of Industrial Training is to expose the students to
actual working environment and enhance their knowledge and skill
from what they have learned in the college.
• Another purpose of this program is to in still the good qualities of
integrity, responsibility and self confidence.
• All ethical values and good working practices must be followed by
student.
• It is also to help the students about the safety practices and regulations
inside the industry and to in still the spirit of teamwork and good
relationship between students and employees.
• The value of developing stronger links with industry in the current
economic climate is being realized more and more by higher education
institutions.

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 TECHNIQUES STUDIED IN DIFFERENT
DIPERMENTS
OTN(OPTICAL TRANSPORT NETWORK)
• Optical Transport Network (OTN) as a set of Optical Network Elements
(ONE) connected by optical fiber links, able to provide functionality of
transport, multiplexing, switching, management, supervision and
survivability of optical channels carrying client signals. An ONE may Re-
time, Re-Amplify, Re-shape (3R) but it does not have to be 3R – it can be
purely photonic.
• OTN was designed to provide support for optical networking
using wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) unlike its
predecessor SONET/SDH.

Fig-OTN

15
 HOW DOES G.709 OTN WORKS?
At a basic level, G.709 OTN defines a frame format that "wraps" data packets,
in a format quite similar to that of a SONET frame. There are six distinct
layers to this format.

• OPU: Optical Channel Payload Unit. This contains the encapsulated

client data, and a header describing the type of that data. It is
analogous to the ‘Path’ layer in SONET/SDH.
• ODU: Optical Data Unit. This level adds optical path-level monitoring,
alarm indication signals and automatic protection switching. It
performs similar functions to the ‘Line Overhead’ in SONET/SDH.
• OTU: Optical Transport Unit. This represents a physical optical port
(such as OTU2, 10Gbps), and adds performance monitoring (for the
optical layer) and the FEC (Forward Error Correction). It is similar to
the ‘Section Overhead’ in SONET/SDH.
• OCH: Optical Channel. This represents an end-to-end optical path.
• OMS: Optical Multiplex Section. This deals with fixed wavelength
DWDM (Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing) between OADMs
(Optical Add Drop Multiplexer).
• OTS: Optical Transport Section. This deals with fixed wavelength
DWDM between relays.

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 THE G.709 OTN CONTROL PLANE
The G.709 OTN control plane extends GMPLS signaling to automate many of
its functions, with corresponding operational benefits relative to a statically
provisioned OTN network.

• The control plane automatically calculates an optimal path for each

client connection when the connection is established.
• It can also automatically calculate a path for a diversely routed
protecting connection, on which resources can either be held in reserve
or pre-empted when required.
• When resources are added to or removed from the network, the control
plane can automatically recalculate optimal routes for all existing
connections to make best use of the newly available resources.

Fig-OTN CONTROL PLANE

17
 SWITCHING
Telecommunication system is an important and integral part of modern
society.

➢ In addition to public switched telephone network (PSTN), it plays vital

role in radio and television networks, internet and Asynchronous
transfer mode (ATM) networks. The switching system provides
various services to the subscribers.
➢ The switching system is a collection of switching elements arranged
and controlled in such a way as to setup a communication path
between any two distant points.
➢ This chapter demonstrates the switching systems of manual exchanges
to the electronic switching systems. The process of transferring
message from one place to another (or line to line) is called switching
related to outside the switching plant or systems.
➢ There are three types of switching namely a circuit switching, message
switching and packet switching.
➢ In telecommunication switching, the circuit switching and message
switching are used. The switching technique used in computer
communication network or data transfer is packet switching.

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 CLASSES OF SWITCHING SYSTEM

There are three classes of switching system based on the division of

information in space, time and frequency.

➢ They are Space division sqitch,Time division switch and Frequency

division switch.
➢ The space division switch provides fixed path for the entire duration of
a call. Simplicity, unlimited bandwidth. Cross talk limitations are the
advantages of space division switches. But these space switches are
slow to operate, bulky and involves large amount of wiring.
➢ In Time division switching, all inlets and outlets are connected to a
common switch mechanism. The switching is fast and compact. Thus
time division switches have more practical value only when the signal
is already in digital form.
➢ In frequency division switching, the incoming signal is modulated onto
a different carrier frequency. Switching is achieved if each outlet is
provided with a demodulator which can have its carrier frequency
changed. Other than radio communication, until recently, there were no
practical applications with this switching. Frequency division
switching is now finding applications in demand assigned satellite
communication links.

Fig: Classes of Switching System

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 REQUIREMENTS OF SWITCHING SYSTEM
➢ High availability-The telephone system must be very reliable. System
reliability can be expressed mathematically as the ratio of uptime to
sum of the uptime and down time.
➢ High speed-The switching speed should be high enough to make use
of the switching system efficiently. The speed of switching depends on
how quickly the control signals are transmitted.
➢ Low down time-The down time is the total time the switching system
is not operating satisfactorily. The down time is low enough to have
high availability. The unavailability of switching system may be due to
failure of equipment, troubles in transmission media, and human errors
in switching etc.
➢ Good facilities-A switching system must have various facilities to
serve the subscriber. For example wake up calls, address identification
on phone number or phone number identification on address, recording
facilities, quick service for the emergency numbers, good accessibility
etc. Also it should have good servicing facilities in case of repair of
equipment, skilled technicians, standby systems, etc.Good facilities is
possible any switching system whether it is at rural or town or in cities,
if that exchange is not overloaded.
➢ High security-To ensure satisfied or correct operation (i.e. providing
path and supervising the entire calls to pass necessary control signals)
provision should be provided in the switching system. Duplicated
common control circuits, registers, processors and standby systems are
used provide high security.

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 FUNCTIONS OF SWITCHING SYSTEM
The switching office performs the following basic functions irrespective of
the system whether it is a manual or electromechanical or electronic switching
system

➢ Identity-The local switching centre must react to a calling signal from

calling subscriber and must be able to receive information to identify
the required destination terminals.
➢ Addressing-The switching system must be able to identify the called
subscriber from the input information (train of pulses or multiple
frequency depends on the dialling facility).The address may be in same
local centre or some other exchange. If the terminal or trunk group is
busy, a suitable signal must be returned to the calling subscriber. If
more than one free circuit, particular one will be selected. iv)Finding
and Path setup. Once the calling subscriber destination is identified and
the called subscriber is available, an accept signal is passed to the
switching system and calling subscriber. Based on the availability,
suitable path will be selected.
➢ Busy testing-If number dialled by the calling subscriber is wrong or
the called subscriber is busy (not attending the phone) or the terminal
may be free (lifting the phone) but no response (not willing to talk or
children handling), a switching system has to pass a corresponding
voice message or busy tone after waiting for some time (status).
➢ Supervision-Once the path is setup between calling and called
subscriber, it should be supervised in order to detect answer and clear
down conditions and recording billing information.
➢ Clear down-When the established call is completed, the path setup
should be disconnected. If the calling subscriber keeps the phone down
first, the signal called clear forward is passed to the switching system.
If the called subscriber keeps the phone down first, a signal called clear
backward signal is passed to the switching system. By clear signal, the
switching system must disconnect the path setup between calling and
called subscriber.
➢ Billing-A switching system should have a mechanism to meter to
count the number of units made during the conversation. The
cumulative number of units made for a particular duration by the
calling subscriber is calculated. This information and if any should be
sent to the called subscriber.

21
CLASSIFICATION OF SWITCHING SYSTEM

➢ In early days, the human exchange provided switching facilities. In

manual exchanges, a
➢ Human operator and the elements like switches, plugs and sacks were
used to connect two subscriber.

➢ Around 1890’s many electromechanical switching devices were

introduced.

➢ Till 1940, different electromechanical switching system were invented,

of which strowger
➢ switching system and cross bar switching system were still popular.

➢ The later invention of electronic switching system ESS) which uses

stored program control (SPC) and computer controlled switching
systems are presently dominating the worldwide exchanges.

Fig: Classification of switching system

22
 STORED PROGRAM CONTROL (SPC)
EXCHANGE

➢ In 1965, Bell system installed the first computer controlled switching

system which uses a stored program digital computer for its control
functions.

➢ The SPC concepts permits the features like abbreviated dialling, call
forwarding, call waiting etc.

➢ The SPC provides significant advantages to end users.

➢ The SPC enables easier number changes, automated call tracing

message unit accounting (for billing) etc.

Fig: SPC Exchange

23
 SWITCHING TECHNIQUES
➢ Switches are hardware and/or software devices used to connect two or
more users’ temporarily.

➢ Message switching, circuit switching and packet switching are the

most important switching methods.

➢ The terminals of the message switching systems are usually tele

printers. In this switching, delays are incurred but no calls are lost as
each message are queued for each link. Thus, much higher link
utilisation is achieved. The reason for the delay is that the system is
designed to maximise the utilization of transmission links by queuing
message awaiting the use of a line. This switching is also called store
and forward switching.

➢ The circuit switching sets up connection between the telephones, telex

networks

➢ etc. which interchange information directly. If a subscriber or system

to which connection to be made as engaged with other connection, path
setup cannot be made. Thus circuit switching is also referred as lost
call system.

➢ The modified form of message switching is called packet switching.

➢ Packet switching system carries data from a terminal or computer as

short packets of information to the required destination.

➢ This system is midway between message switching and circuit

switching.

24
 MESSAGE SWITCHING

➢ There exists no dedicated path to transfer data.

➢ The entire message is treated as a single data unit.

➢ The message is then forwarded from hop to hop.

➢ Store and Forward is an important characteristic of message

switching.

➢ The message carries a header that contains the full information about
the destination.

➢ When any intermediate switch receives the message, it stores the entire
message.

➢ The message is stored until sufficient resources become available to

transfer it to the next switch.

➢ When resources become available, the switch forwards the message to

the next switch.

Fig: Message switching

25
 CIRCUIT SWITCHING

➢ Circuit switching creates a direct physical connection between two

devices such as phones or computers.

➢ In order to setup direct connection over many links it is necessary that

each link to be simultaneously free.

Fig: Circuit switching

26
 PACKET SWITCHING
DEFINATION-Packet switching is a digital network transmission process in
which data is broken into suitably-sized pieces or blocks for fast and efficient
transfer via different network devices. When a computer attempts to send a
file to another computer, the file is broken into packets so that it can be sent
across the network in the most efficient way. These packets are then routed by
network devices to the destination.

There are two major modes of packet switching:

➢ Connectionless Packet Switching: Each packet contains complete
addressing or routing information and is routed individually. This can
result in out-of-order delivery and different paths of transmission,
depending on the variable loads on different network nodes (adapters,
switches and routers) at any given time. Also known as datagram
switching.

➢ In connectionless packet switching, each packet has the following

information written in its header section:
o The destination address
o The source address
o Total number of pieces
o The sequence number (Seq#) needed to enable reassembly
o After reaching the destination through different routes, the
packets are rearranged to form the original message.
➢ Connection-Oriented Packet Switching: Data packets are sent
sequentially over a predefined route. Packets are assembled, given a
sequence number and then transported over the network to a
destination in order. In this mode, address information is not required.
Also known as virtual circuit switching.

27
 SIGNALING
The term “signaling” consists of a word signal, which means
“indication” about some information. In Telecommunication System
signaling has the following meanings.

➢ The use of signals for controlling communications.

➢ The information exchange concerning the establishment and
control of a telecommunication circuit and the management of
the network, in contrast to user information transfer.
➢ The sending of a signal from the transmitting end of
a telecommunication circuit to inform a user at the receiving
end that a message is to be sent.

❖ Signalling systems may be classified based on several

principals :

IN-BAND & OUT-BAND SIGNALING

In the public switched telephone network (PSTN), in-band signaling is the

exchange of call control information within the same channel that the
telephone call itself is using. An example is dual-tone multi-frequency
signaling (DTMF), which is used on most telephone lines to customer
premises.
Out-of-band signaling is telecommunication signaling on a
dedicated channel separate from that used for the telephone call. Out-of-band
signaling has been used since Signaling System No. 6 (SS6) was introduced in
the 1970s, and also in Signaling (SS7) in 1980 which became the standard for
signaling among exchanges ever since.

Fig- In-band & Out-band signaling

28
 LINE & REGISTER SIGNALLING
➢ Line signaling is concerned with conveying information on the state of
the line or channel, such as on-hook, off-hook, ringing current
(alerting), and recall. In the middle 20th century, supervision signals
on long-distance trunks in North America were primarily in-band, for
example at 2600 Hz, necessitating a notch filter to prevent interference.
Late in the century, all supervisory signals had been moved out of
band. With the advent of digital trunks, supervision signals are carried
by robbed bits or other bits in the E1-carrier dedicated to signaling.

➢ Register dialing is concerned with conveying addressing information,

such as the calling and/or called telephone number. In the early days
of telephony, with operator handling calls, the addressing formation is
by voice as "Operator, connect me to Mr. Smith please". In the first
half of the 20th century, addressing formation is done by using a rotary
dial, which rapidly breaks the line current into pulses, with the number
of pulses conveying the address. Finally, starting in the second half of
the century, address signaling is by DTMF.

CHANNEL-ASSOCIATED & COMMON-CHANNEL

SIGNALING

➢ Channel-associated signaling (CAS) employs a signaling channel

which is dedicated to a specific bearer channel.

➢ Common-channel signaling (CCS) employs a signaling channel

which conveys signaling information relating to multiple bearer
channels. These bearer channels therefore have their signaling channel
in common.

29
30
 signaling & switching lab of CTTC Kolkata

SUBSCRIBER & TRUNK SIGNALING

1) Subscriber Signalling: Signaling systems used between the exchange and
subscriber equipment.

2) Trunk Signaling: Trunk signaling are signals used between public

exchanges. They are used to connect exchanges.

Fig: Subscriber to trunk signaling network

31
 INTEGRATED SERVICES DIGITAL
NETWORK

The ISDN is an abbreviation of Integrated Services Digital Network. The

current communications networks vary with the type of service, such as
telephone network, telex network, and digital data transmission network. On
the other hand, the ISDN is an integrated network for various types of
communications services handling digitized voice (telephone) and non voice
(data) information.

ISDN Definition
The CCITT defines the ISDN as follows:
A complete, terminal-to-terminal digital network Fig shows the end-to-end
digital connectivity.

A network that provides both telephone and non-telephone services in the

same network. A network based on a digital telephone network.
A network that utilizes Signaling System No. 7 (SS7) for signaling between
switching systems. A network offers standard user network interface.
ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network system, which also provides
access to packet switched networks, designed to allow digital transmission of
voice and data over ordinary telephone copper wires, resulting in potentially
better voice quality than an analog phone can provide. It offers circuit-
switched connections (for either voice or data), and packet-switched
connections (for data), in increments of 64 kilobit/s. In some countries, ISDN
found major market application for Internet access, in which ISDN typically
provides a maximum of 128 Kbit/s bandwidth in both upstream and
downstream directions.

ISDN Services
1) A wide range of services :
The ISDN provides the following functions-
➢ Packet switching service
➢ Circuit switching service
➢ Leased circuit service

32
 Circuit switching service includes both telephone and data circuit
switching. ISDN can interface with various terminals, such as a telephone .
2) Standard user-network interface:

The Interface between the NT and the ISDN exchange (switching system) is
called U interface. This interface has not been defined in the CCITT
Recommendations because circumstances are different in each country. The
point between the NT and the on-premises terminals is called the S or T
reference point. The ISDN user/network interface refers to these S/T points,
and is defined in the CCITT Recommendations. The S/T interface uses four
wires, two for sending and two for receiving. Since U interface uses two wires,
the NT provides a two-wire/four-wire conversion function.
CCITT recommends the use of AMI (Alternative Mark Inversion) code at the
S/T point. AMI code is a bipolar waveform.
As shown in the figure, the ISDN Terminal provides S/T interface that follows
the CCITT Recommendations, and can be connected directly to the NT. Since
the personal computer and the analog FAX utilize a different interface from
S/T interface, they require protocol conversion by a TA (Terminal Adapter).

Service Access Points (Reference Points)

In the existing telephone network, a point at which a service is provided for a
user, that is, a service access point is located at a rosette between the user’s
telephone set and the subscriber line. Since the ISDN provides various types
of service.
The following describes the user-access points and the function of each for
basic user-network interface.

33
 Network Termination (NT) :
The NT can be split into NT1 and NT2. NT1 and NT2 are terminating
equipment for the network.

In this case, NT1 provides the Layer 1 functions, such as circuit

termination, timing and supply of electricity, while NT2 provides the layer
2 functions, such as protocol, control and concentration functions.

Terminal Equipment (TE) :

The TE can be split into TE1 and TE2. TE1 is an ISDN terminal which is
connected to ISDN via the S/T interface. TE2 is a non-ISDN terminal
which is connected to ISDN via a Terminal Adapter (TA) such as personal
computer or analog FAX as described in Fig.

Terminal Adapter (TA) :

A TA is a physical device which is connected to a non-ISDN terminal
(TE2) to permit access to ISDN.
• S-Interface :
A 4-wire physical interface used for a single customer termination between
a TA and NT2 or between TE1 and NT2.
• T-Interface :
A 4-wire physical interface between NT1 and NT2.
R-Interface:
A physical interface used for single customer terminator between TE2 and
TA.
U-Interface:
The subscriber line is called U-Interface and utilizes 2-wires.

ISDN User Network Interface Points

1) Requirements of User-Network Interface
For us to utilize “integrated services” including voice and non-voice
communications and the use of some new media, such as facsimile in

34
offices and home, the following features must be provided for user-
network interfaces.
Different services for each call
A switching mode (packet switched/circuit switched function) can be
selected.
Data transmission speed can be selected.

2) Basic Structure of User-Network Interface:

The basic conditions for structuring the user-network interface that satisfy
the preceding requirements can be summarized into the following three
points:

• Multi services
Common use of various services telephone/non telephone and
existing/new services. As shown in Fig.12, ISDN terminals, personal
computers, FAX machines, etc. are connected to S/T points to offer
various services.

• Multi points
Up to eight (8) terminals can be connected to one (1) NT as well as point
to point connection.
Fig shows the multi points connection.

Portability
Terminals can be carried from place to place and connected to different
sockets for use, just as home electrical appliances can be carried around
and plugged into AC outlets.

35
3) Channel Classification
Various channels can be used to transmit information between a terminal
and the switching system. These include B, D and H channels. Each
channel has a different bit rate and information carrying attributes.

(a) B-channel
The B-channel carries user information such as voice and packet data at a
rate of 64 kbps. However, the B-channel does not carry signaling
information.

(b) D-channel
The D-channel interface carries mainly signaling information such as
originating or terminating subscriber number, call origination and
disconnect signals for circuit switching and packet switched user data at 16
kbps or 64 kbps.

The D-channel also permits multiple logical channels to be established for

use in packet communications.

36
 IN (INTELLIGENT NETWORK )
1 .It provides a different useful services.

2. All useful services are centralized in a special purpose computer.

3. For normal call, switches do not contact with the special computer.

IN ARCHITECTURE
It consists of the following nodes:

SCP (SERVICE CONTROL POINT):

• It holds service logic I.E. service program, creation, customer data&

SVC management.
• It is the data base centre.
• It communicates with SCP & IP to provide guidelines for handling
IN- service call.

SSP (SERVICE SWITCHING POINT):

• IN- calls from PSTN go to the nearest SSP. then SSP sends query
(TCAP) to the SCP. Getting response from SCP, SSP resume call
processing.

SMP (SERVICE MANAGEMENT POINT):

• It updates SCP with new data & program. New services are credited here
valid at then downloaded to the SCP.

• It enable services subscriber to control his own service parameters via a

remote terminal connected through dial-up connection or x.25.

• One SMP services many SCPs.

IP (INTELLIGENT PERIPHERAL):

• It provides services to all SSPs under the control of SCP.

• IP provides announcement, text to speech converters, voice mail etc.

37
 BLOCK OF IN

Different “IN” services

• Free Phone Service(FPS)

• India Telephone Card(PREPAID CARD)
• Tele – Voting
• Premium Rate Service(PRS)
• Voice VPN
• ACC (Account Card Calling)

1) FPH (FREE PHONE SERVICE) :

• A subscriber can call a FPH subscriber free of charge payment is

made by the called subscriber.

• The user will dial 1800 XYZ (1800 is the access code; XYZ is SCP
code& XXXX Isis 4 digit phone number. It may vary from 3 to 5
digits.

2) VIRTUAL CALLING CARD (INDIAN TELEPHONE CARD):

• This prepaid card enables you to make local, STD or ISD calls even
from a STD/ISD barred telephone. The calls are charged to the
secret number specified in the card and not to the telephone
connection being used.

• This is an access code based service, all IT Cards calls are preceded
by the code 1802 XYZ as shown in the IT Card. This enables you
to dial the IT Card number after dialling the access code. On
dialling, you are informed of the balance amount against your IT
Card, after which you can dial the destination number.

38
 3) VOICE VIRTUAL PRIVATE NETWORK (VPN)

• The Voice VPN service enables the subscribers to establish a

private network using public network resources. The
subscriber's lines connected to different fixed line network
switches constitute a Virtual PABX including a number of
PABX capabilities such as Private Numbering Plan (PNP), Call
Transfer, and Call Hold etc. Restrictions on outgoing and
incoming calls can also be imposed.

• The Voice VPN on the fixed lines, through IN platform, is

offered in three categories namely within SDCA, within Circle
and All India. The charges for such VPN services shall be split
in to two parts namely Fixed Plan charges and Usage charges
per minute. The usage charges shall be ON-Net (within VPN)
and OFF-Net (Outside VPN). The OFF-Net charges shall be as
per the applicable tariff of BSNL

To Dial 1801 XYZ * * * * where XYZ is SCP code, * * * * is 4 digit

no.

4) TELEVOTING:

• Tele voting is a service by which a telephone subscriber can

indicate his opinion on any matter by dialling an IN number of
the service subscriber followed by a single digit for the opinion.
This service is very useful where large number of TV programs
are operating incentive schemes to increase/retain their viewers

• To Dial 1861 XYZ * * * * where XYZ is SCP code, * * * * is

4 digit no. (Local Charging)
• To Dial 1863 XYZ * * * * where XYZ is SCP code, * * * * is
4 digit no. (Charge band coming from SCP )
• To Dial 1803 XYZ * * * * where XYZ is SCP code, * * * * is
4 digit no. ( No Charging )

39
 5) PREMIUM RATE (PRM) SERVICE:

• The local call is charged at higher (premium) rate.

• This is used by service providers like fortune forecast , jobs ,medical

persons etc.

• The revenue is shared by the service provider & the network provider
(BSNL)

To Dial 1867 XYZ * * * * where XYZ is SCP code, * * * * is 4 digit no.

(Specified Charging)

6) ACC (ACCOUNT CARD CALLING):

• User dial access code & gets acceptance tone.

• Then dial PIN (Personal Identification Number).
• There after dial codes number.
• The bill is debited to an account number.
• To dial 1804 XYZ * * * * where XYZ is SCP code, * * * * is 4
digit no.

UAN (UNIVERSAL ACCESS NUMBER):

• What is Universal Access Number service?
➢ A call to a service subscriber will be paid by the calling party or
split between the calling and called party.
➢ Service is accessible from networks of other Operators also.
➢ Help organization to track calls, route calls based on one's
needs, and safeguard one’s traffic against long-term service
interruptions.
➢ 11 digit numbers is 1860-XYZ-ABCD.
• Who can subscribe for Universal Access Number service?
➢ The service is an ideal business promotion tool for business
communities who want the people to call them without any
hassle
➢ Hospitals, Educational institutes, NGO, Law firms
➢ Medium and small firms

40
• What BSNL Offers to Universal Access Number subscribers?

➢ Single All India Number - A single 11 digit number

accessible throughout India including other operators
network. No STD facility required to access the service .
➢ Time of Day/Time Interval Routing - allows organizations to
route calls to different answering locations, depending on the
time of day. For example, if your customer service
department is closed, you can route callers to alternate
location.

CONTD UAN

➢ Day of the Week Routing –Calls can be routed not only as

per the Time of the day but also as per the type of day.
➢ Origin Dependent Routing - Calls can be routed to set of
destinations based on the origin of the call.
➢ Call distribution - allows your organization to route calls
based on staffing levels.

CALL NOW SERVICE

• CALL NOW CARD (Launched on September'07)

➢ A Special type of IT Card with revised tariff for STD/ISD
Calls is having a brand name “CALL NOW” Card. STD/ISD
Calls using “CALL NOW” Card is very cheap where call tariff
is about 76% less than IT Card or PSTN Phone. Even calls can
be made to USA or CANADA @ Rs.1.75 per minute. This
card can be used from any BSNL landline or mobile like IT
Cards by dialling the access code 1802345/1602345.

41
 C-DOT SWITCH

Centre for development of telemetric was formed in year 1985 by an act of

parliament under ministry of telecommunication with prime objective to
develop indigenous state of art electronics switch suitable for Indian
network condition. Various products proposed to be developed by C-DOT
include small RAX exchange of 128 ports for rural network to big C-DOT
MAX-XL exchange for metropolitan applications. C-DOT DSS MAX is a
universal switch and can be used as local, transmit or integrated local and
transmit switch. It can have minimum capacity of 512 ports. The C-DOT DSS
system can be used in telecommunication network at the various switching
nodes for different type of services. Some of them are

• C-DOT DSS AS MAX

This can be used as main automatic exchange which is expandable to large
capacity of order of 2000 lines or beyond. The MAX may be here remote
module (RM) and remote line concentrators (RLC) connected to it.

• C-DOT DSS AS RAX

This can be used as rural automatic exchange and is expandable upto 2000
lines capacity .Single base module configuration comes under the RAX
category. Thus it is universal switch which can be configured as local, transit
and integrated local and transit switch. It provides both local and centralized
operation and maintenance.

• SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
It can serve metropolitan, urban, rural environments. Its architecture is such
that it is possible to upgrade a working C-DOT SBM (single base module) or
MBM (multi base module) exchange to provide ISDN service through RSU
(remote switching unit). RSU can provide switching facility locally even in
case of failure of communication path to parent exchange. In uses TST (time
space switching).

• BASIC GROWTH/BUILDING MODULES:-

C-DOT DSS MAX exchanges can be configured using four basic modules

➢ Base Module (BM)

➢ Central Module (CM)
➢ Administrative Module(AM)
➢ Input Output Module (IOM)

42
BASE MODULE (BM)

Depending upon the capacity of the exchange either single BM or more BMs
are used. In case of 512 ports, only one BM is used. However under low traffic
condition, the capacity of the ports can be increased up to 2048 ports by using
two line modules.

FRAMES OF BM

One BM consists of 6 frames inside it. The top four frames are called terminal
units (TU).TU houses various types of cards in them e.g. Power Supply Card
(PSU), Subscriber
LineCard (SLC), Trunk Cards (TWT), Announcement Card (ANNC), Confere
nce Card(CONF), Terminal Test Controller Card (TTC).The fifth frame of
BM is called Base Processor Unit (BPU) which is the heart of the system. It
consists controller and memory cards. The sixth frame of the BM is called
Time Switch Unit (TSU).
POWER SUPPLY
To energize various cards in the BM, different DC Voltages are required.
They are –48V, +5V, +12V, -12V and –9V.For this purpose two types of
power supply card is employed:
a) PSU-1: It caters various supplies to the four terminal units of the BM.
In each TU, twoPSU-1cards are there which work in load sharing
mode i.e. in case of PSU-1card goes faulty; the other is capable of
taking the full load of the terminal unit.
b) PSU-2: Two cards are used each in BPU and TSU.PSU-1differs from
PSU-2 in one respect i.e. PSU-1besides supplying various D.C.
supplies, generates 75V AC ringing current.

43
The BM hardware is spread over following type of units.

➢ Analogue Terminal Unit – Analogue TU is used for interfacing

analogue lines & trunks & providing special circuits.
➢ Digital Terminal Unit - Digital TU is used for interfacing digital
trunks.
➢ #7 Signaling Unit Module – to support SS7 protocol handlers and
some call processing function for CCS7 calls.
➢ ISDN Terminal Unit- To support termination of BRI/PRI interfaces
and implementation of lower layers of DSS1 signaling protocol.
➢ Time Switch Unit - TSU used for voice and message switching and
provision of service circuits.
➢ Base Processor Unit –BPU used for control message communication
and call processing functions.

44
CENTRAL MODULE (CM)

When in the system the number of BMs exceeds one, the CM is used. The
purpose of CM is to provide setting up of calls between a subscriber of one
BM and a subscriber of the other BM. For this purpose one CM is sufficient
up to 32 BMs.
The basic function of CM is
➢ Bus Termination.
➢ Space Switching.
➢ Space switching control
➢ Administration

Central Module (CM) consists of a message switch and a space switch to

provide inter-module communication and perform voice and data switching
between Base Modules. It provides control message communication between
any two Base Modules and between Base Modules and Administrative
Module for operation and maintenance functions. It also provides clock and
synchronization on a centralized basis.

ADMINISTRATIVE MOFULE (AM) :

Like CM, AM also used when the number of BMs in the system exceeds one.
The AM is housed along with CM in one cabinet called CM.AM performs
administrative and maintenance function.
Administrative Module (AM) performs system-level resource allocation and
processing function on a centralized basis. AM performs all the memory and
time intensive call processing support functions and also administration and
maintenance functions. AM communicates with the Base Module via the
Central Module. It supports the Input Output Module for providing man-
machine interface also supports the Alarm Display Panel for the audio-visual
indication of faults in the system.

INPUT OUTPUT PROCESSOR (IOM)

Input, Output Module (IOM) consists of duplicated Input Output Processor

(IOP). It is used as the front-end processor in C-DOT DSS. The IOP is
connected to AP/BP via HDLC links. During normal operation, two IOP’s
interconnected by a HDLC link, operate in a duplex configuration. Working as
front-end processor, it provides initial code down load to the subsystems, man
machine interface and data storage for billing and other administrative
information. IOP interfaces various secondary storage devices like' disk
drives, cartridge tape drive and floppy drive. It supports printers and up to 8
serial ports for video display units which are used for man- machine
communication interface. All the bulk data processing and storage is done in
this module.

45
The IOM performs following function:

➢ Serves as a media for man machine communication.

➢ Keeps the data concerning system.
➢ Does system initialization.IOP is connected to the following peripheral
units for the purpose noted against each,

C-DOT REAL TIME OPERATING SYSTEM (CDOS)

The operating system is primarily responsible for the following function and
services

➢ Management of Processes
➢ Synchronization and Communication between processes
➢ Time Management
➢ Interrupt Handling
➢ Resource Management
➢ Memory Management
➢ On-Line And Off-Line Debugging Facility

➢ TYPE OF SYSTEM
➢ The system is Stored Programme Controlled (SPC) which makes it
possible to work in attended/non-attended type of working
environment.
➢ TYPE OF NETWORK
➢ The switching network within the system is 4-wire digital.
➢ TYPE OF COMPONENTS
➢ The different type of components used includes integrated
circuits, miniature relays, PCB, etc. The connecting scheme
between various modules emphasis connectorised hardware.
➢ SYSTEM CAPACITY – The capacity of CDOT MAX-XL is defined
in terms of the following parameters.
➢ The termination capacity as lines & trunks – The CDOT MAX-XL can
support up to 40,000 lines & 5500 trunks or up to 14,500 trunks
depending upon its configuration as local exchange or TAX exchange.
➢ The amount of traffic that can be switched – The traffic capacity of
CDOT MAX-XL is up to 8000 Erlangs. This figure is based on the
ideal traffic of one Erlang / switched circuit. Normally a figure of 0.8E
traffic per circuit is considered to be practical & the above capacities
may be reduced accordingly. Capacities are reduced to not less than
7,500 Erlangs.
➢ The number of Busy Hour Call Attempts (BHCA) that can be
processed – Base processor has the capability of handling 12,500
BHCA, which can be increased to 30,000 using upgraded processor
card. The CDOT MAX – XL exchange with 32 BM handle up to
3,00,000 BHCA. By upgrading the processor card, it is increased to
8,00,000 BHCA.

46
SUBSCRIBER FEATURES OF CDOT MAX-XL EXCHANGES

Basic Services

➢ Subscriber can dial local, national, international calls.

➢ Push button dialing services provided to subscribers to use push
button telephone sets employing DTMF signals.
➢ Ordinary & STD Coin collecting Box lines are provided.
➢ Number Identification service (Calling line identification presentation,
Calling line identification restriction & Calling line identification
restriction override)
➢ Call forwarding facilities.
➢ Multi- Party (conference) services.
➢ ISDN Supplementary services.

OTHER SERVICES

➢ Hot line Timed & without timed out services.

➢ Morning alarm facility.
➢ Call restriction services
➢ Call forwarding facility.
➢ Conference facility.
➢ Malicious call identification facility.
➢ Trunk offering Facility.
➢ Priority Subscriber
➢ Subscriber controlled call restriction services

APPLICATIONS:-The C-DOT DSS system can be used in

telecommunication network at the various switching nodes for different type
of services. Some of them are.

➢ C-DOT DSS AS MAX

This can be used as main automatic exchange which is expandable to
large capacity of order of 2000 lines or beyond. The MAX may be here
remote module (RM) and remote line concentrators (RLC) connected to
it.

➢ C-DOT DSS AS RAX

This can be used as rural automatic exchange and is expandable upto
2000 lines capacity . Thus it is universal switch which can be configured as
local, transit and integrated local and transit switch. It provides both local
and centralized operation and maintenance.

47
OPTICAL FIBER CABLE MEASURING MACHINE
Optical fiber cable cutter is used to cut a proper cable in a proper manner.

Fig: Optical Fiber Cable Cutter

CO-AXIALE CABLE
Coaxial cable or coax (is a type of electrical cable that has an inner conductor
surrounded by a tubular insulating layer, surrounded by a tubular conducting
shield. Many coaxial cables also have an insulating outer sheath or jacket. The
term coaxial comes from the inner conductor and the outer shield sharing a
geometric axis. Coaxial cable was invented by English engineer and
mathematician Oliver Heaviside, who patented the design in 1880. Coaxial
cable is a type of transmission line, used to carry high frequency electrical
signals with low losses. It is used in such applications as telephone trunk
lines, broadband internet networking cables, high speed computer data busses,
carrying cable television signals, and connecting radio
transmitters and receivers to their antennas. It differs from other shielded
cables because the dimensions of the cable and connectors are controlled to
give a precise, constant conductor spacing, which is needed for it to function
efficiently as a transmission line.

48
 Coaxial Cable

APPLICATIONS
Coaxial cable is used as a transmission line for radio frequency signals. Its
applications include feedlines connecting radio transmitters and receivers to
their antennas, computer network (e.g., Ethernet) connections, digital
audio (S/PDIF), and distribution of cable television signals. One advantage of
coaxial over other types of radio transmission line is that in an ideal coaxial
cable the electromagnetic field carrying the signal exists only in the space
between the inner and outer conductors. This allows coaxial cable runs to be
installed next to metal objects such as gutters without the power losses that
occur in other types of transmission lines. Coaxial cable also provides
protection of the signal from external electromagnetic interference.

TWISTED PAIR
Twisted pair cabling is a type of wiring in which two conductors of a single
circuit are twisted together for the purposes of improving electromagnetic
compatibility. Compared to a single conductor or an untwisted balanced pair, a
twisted pair reduces electromagnetic radiation from the pair and crosstalk
between neighboring pairs and improves rejection of external electromagnetic
interference. It was invented by Alexander Graham Bell.

49
 ADVANTAGES
➢ Electrical noise going into or coming from the cable can be prevented.
➢ Crosstalk is minimized.
➢ Cheapest form of cable available for networking purpose.
➢ Easy to handle and install.

Fig: Trasfer of information through OFC

50
 DATA NETWORKING
WHAT IS COMPUTER NETWORK
A network is the mechanism that enables distributed computers and their users
to communicate and share resources.

EVOLUTION OF NETWORKS

Networks originally were highly proprietary. Connectivity solutions that were

an integral part of an equally proprietary bundled computing solution.
Companies that automated their data processing or accounting functions
during the primitive days before personal computers had to commit to a single
vendor for a Trunkey solution.

Then two developments occurred that changed the future course of

computing. First the pcs began to appear. These devices were innovative in
that they placed computational power right at the desktop. Second the scientist
at xerox'spalo alto research centre (practical) began to develop something for
sharing of files and data between their intelligent workstations their solution
was the original local area network (LAN) They called it Ethernet. It is also
known as practical ethernet or Ethernet.

51
 STANDARDISATION OF NETWORK
The success of Ethernet demonstrated that the marketplace was tired of the
proprietary approach to bundled networking and computing. Customer began
demanding a more open environment that would enable them to build
applications from mixed and matched products from different vendors.

OPEN SYSTEM INTERCOLLECTION MODEL

(OSI)
OSI Model is divided into 7 layers. They are described below –

LAYER 1 – PHYSICAL LAYER

The bottom layer is called the physical layer and is responsible for the
transmission of the bit stream. It accepts frames of data from layer 2 (data
link layer) and transmits their structure and content serially, one bit at a time.
It is also responsible for the reception of incoming streams of data, one bit at a
time. These streams are then passed on to the data link layer for reframing.

LAYER 2 – DATA LINK LAYER

The second layer of OSI model is called the data link layer. On the transmit
side data link layer is responsible for packing instructions, data and so
forth into frames.

LAYER 3 – NETWORK LAYER

The network layer is responsible for establishing the route to be used between
the originating and destination computers. The network layer is used to
establish communications with computer systems that lie beyond the local
LAN segment.

52
LAYER 4 – TRANSPORT LAYER

The transport layer provides a service similar to the data link layer in that it is
responsible for the end to end integrity of transmissions.

LAYER 5 – SESSION LAYER

The fifth layer of OSI model is called session layer. This layer manages the
flow of communications during a connection between two computer systems.
This flow of communications is known as session. It determines whether
communications can be uni or bi directional. It also ensures that one request is
completed before a new one is accepted.

LAYER 6 – PRESENTATION LAYER

The presentation layer is responsible for managing the way data is encoded.
Not every computer system uses the same data encoding scheme .

LAYER 7 – APPLICATION LAYER

The top layer of OSI model is application layer. It provides interface between
user applications and the network’s services. This layer can be thought of as
the reason for initiating the communications session. For example, an e-mail
client might generate a request to retrieve new messages from the e-mail
server. This client application automatically generates a request to the
appropriate layer 7 protocols and launches a communications session to get
the needed files.

FIG: 7 Layers of OSI

53
 Classification of Networks
Networks are frequently classified according to the geographical boundaries
spanned by the network itself. LAN, WAN, and MAN are the basic types of
classification, of which LAN and WAN are frequently used.

Local area network (LAN): A LAN covers a relatively small area such as a
classroom, school, or a single building. LANs are inexpensive to install and
also provide higher speeds.

Wide area network (WAN): WAN span a larger area than a single city.
These use long distance telecommunication networks for connection, thereby
increasing the cost. The Internet is a good example of a WAN.

Fig : LAN Topologies

54
 SYNCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERARCHY(SDH)

INTRODUCTION

As end-users (particularly business users) become ever more dependent on

effective communications, there has been an explosion in the demand for
sophisticated telecom services. Services such as videoconferencing, remote
database access, and multimedia file transfer require a flexible network with
the availability (on demand) of virtually unlimited bandwidth.

The current plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH) evolved in response to

the demand for plain voice telephony (sometimes called POTS - plain Old
Telephone Service) and as such is not ideally suited to the efficient delivery
and management of high bandwidth connections. Synchronous transmission
systems address the shortcomings of the PDH. Using essentially the same
fiber, a synchronous network is able to significantly increase available
bandwidth while reducing the amount of equipment in the network. In
addition, the provision within the SDH for sophisticated network management
introduces significantly more flexibility into the network.

• SDH DATA RATES :

• Basic SDH Network Elements :

➢ -SDH Regenerator
➢ -Line Terminal Mux (LTM)
➢ -Add Drop Mux (ADM)
➢ -Synchronous Digital Cross Connect System (SDXC)

55
 ❖ Line Terminal Multiplexers

It can accept a number of tributary signals and multiplex them to the

appropriate optical SDH at carrier, i.e. STM–1, STM–4 or STM–16. The
input tributaries can either be existing PDH signals such as 2, 34 and 140 Mb/s
or lower rate SDH signals. LTMs form the main gateway from the PDH
network to the SDH.

❖ Add-drop Multiplexers

A particular type of multiplexer designed to operate in a through mode

fashion. Within the ADM, it is possible to add channels to, or drop
channels from the through signal. ADMs are generally available at the
STM1 and STM4 interface rates and signals, i.e. 2, 34 or 134 Mb/s. The
ADM function is one of the major advantages resulting from the SDH
since the similar function within a PDH network, required banks of
hardwired back terminals.

❖ Synchronous DXC

These devices will form the cornerstone of the new synchronous digital
hierarchy. They can function as semi permanent switches for transmission
channels and can switch at any level from 64 kb/s up to STM1. Generally,
such devices have interfaces at STM1 or STM4. The DXC can be rapidly
reconfigured under software control, to provide digital leased lines and other
services of varying bandwidth.

❖ Regenerators

Regenerators for SDH transmission over 50 km, regenerators are required

with spacing dependent on the transmission technology (i.e. operating
wavelength, receive, etc.). These are not just simple signal regenerators but
have alarm reporting and performance monitoring capability. Since all
network elements have alarm reporting capability, a fault can be isolated
quickly to the individual transmission section with the problem.

56
 SDH MULTIPLEXING STRUCTURES

➢ SDH permits different mappings of the same payload and requires

four hierarchical levels in forming the payload of an STM-l. As
shown in figure below Plesiochronous signals are first mapped into
one of five Containers suitable to their individual bandwidth needs.

➢ Adding POH then results in a Virtual Container (VC). Here, two

types of VCs are defined: higher order VCs (i.e., VC-3 and -4) and
lower order VCs (i.e., VC-2, -3, -II, and - 12), with VC-3 treated as
either higher or lower order. The higher order VCs are mapped to
either Administrative Unit Level-3 (AU-3) or AU-4; lower order
VCs are mapped to higher order VCs, with Tributary Unit (TU)
pointers to locate them. At this point, one AU-4 or three AU-3s are
mapped or multiplexed (respectively) to form the Administrative
Unit Group (AUG)"SPE of an STM-I.

➢ “Byte-interleaved multiplexing of N STM-ls creates an STM-N. As

a final observation, the SDH multiplexing plan carries with it the
notion of viewing one or more TUs as a Tributary Unit Group
(TUG): no special overhead is associated with a TUG; it exists to
facilitate network planning or traffic routing; hence, it becomes the
responsibility of SDH network management to properly administer
its path. SDH signals are transported optically, electrically, via
terrestrial microwave radio, or satellite.

57
 NETWORK TOPOLOGY

• Point to point link

1. Bus Topology
2. Ring Topology

❖ Collapsed ring
❖ Nested ring

3. Hub Topology
4. Star Topology
5. Mesh Topology

Rings
➢ The definition of the Add-Drop Multiplexer function makes SDH
special because it allows operators to make rings of ADMs which can
add and drop channels at any node. Rings are great because they give
greater flexibility in the allocation of bandwidth to the different users
and they allow rerouting of traffic should a link fail.

➢ Under normal operation, a 2 Mb/s tributary is sent round the ring in

both the directions. The ADM assigned to drop the 2 Mb/s tributary
monitors the two SDH signals for errors and delivers the one with
better performance. This is known as path switching.

➢ When a catastrophic failure occurs, for example, when the fiber is cut
by a road digger, the nodes either side of the failure loop the clockwise
ring to the anticlockwise ring, allowing traffic to avoid the failed ring
segment. This forms an extended ring which carries all the traffic to
each node in the ring, allowing service to continue.

SDH Ring Topology

❖ -Highly survivable in nature.

❖ -Cost benefits Point to Point. Fibre Installation may be costlier.
❖ -Number of NEs will be less compared to Point to Point links.
❖ -Modified NEs are building blocks

58
 GSM (GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE
COMMUNICATION)
GSM (Global System for Mobile communications) is a standard developed by
the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) to describe the
protocols for second-generation (2G) digital cellular networks used by mobile
devices such as mobile phones and tablets. It was first deployed in Finland in
December 1991. As of 2014, it has become the global standard for mobile
communications – with over 90% market share, operating in over 193
countries and territories.

2G networks developed as a replacement for first generation (1G) analog

cellular networks, and the GSM standard originally described a digital, circuit-
switched network optimized for full duplex voice telephony. This expanded
over time to include data communications, first by circuit-switched transport,
then by packet data transport via GPRS (General Packet Radio Services)
and EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution, or EGPRS).

59
 NETWORK IDENTITIES
THE INTERNATIONAL MOBILE STATION EQUIPMENT (IMEI)

The International Mobile Station Equipment Identity (IMEI) looks more like a
serial number which distinctively identifies a mobile station internationally.
This is allocated by the equipment manufacturer and registered by the network
operator, who stores it in the Equipment Identity Register (EIR). By means of
IMEI, one recognizes obsolete, stolen, or non-functional equipment.

Following are the parts of IMEI:

• Type Approval Code (TAC): 6 decimal places, centrally assigned.

• Final Assembly Code (FAC): 6 decimal places, assigned by the
manufacturer.
• Serial Number (SNR): 6 decimal places, assigned by the manufacturer.
• Spare (SP): 1 decimal place.
Thus, IMEI = TAC + FAC + SNR + SP. It uniquely characterizes a mobile
station and gives clues about the manufacturer and the date of manufacturing.

INTERNATIONAL MOBILE SUBSCRIBER IDENTITY (IMSI)

Every registered user has an original International Mobile Subscriber Identity

(IMSI) with a valid IMEI stored in their Subscriber Identity Module (SIM).

IMSI comprises of the following parts:

• Mobile Country Code (MCC): 3 decimal places, internationally

standardized.
• Mobile Network Code (MNC): 2 decimal places, for unique
identification of mobile network within the country.
• Mobile Subscriber Identification Number (MSIN): Maximum 10
decimal places, identification number of the subscriber in the home
mobile network.
MOBILE SUBSCRIBER ISDN NUMBER (MSISDN)
The authentic telephone number of a mobile station is the Mobile Subscriber
ISDN Number (MSISDN). Based on the SIM, a mobile station can have many
MSISDNs, as each subscriber is assigned with a separate MSISDN to their
SIM respectively.

Listed below is the structure followed by MSISDN categories, as they are

defined based on international ISDN number plan:

• Country Code (CC): Up to 3 decimal places.

• National Destination Code (NDC): Typically 2-3 decimal places.
• Subscriber Number (SN): Maximum 10 decimal places.

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MOBILE STATION ROAMING NUMBER (MSRN)

Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN) is an interim location dependent

ISDN number, assigned to a mobile station by a regionally responsible Visitor
Location Register (VLA). Using MSRN, the incoming calls are channeled to
the MS.

The MSRN has the same structure as the MSISDN.

• Country Code (CC): of the visited network.

• National Destination Code (NDC): of the visited network.
• Subscriber Number (SN): in the current mobile network.
LOCATION AREA IDENTITY (LAI)

Within a PLMN, a Location Area identifies its own authentic Location Area
Identity (LAI). The LAI hierarchy is based on international standard and
structured in a unique format as mentioned below:

• Country Code (CC): 3 decimal places.

• Mobile Network Code (MNC): 2 decimal places.
• Location Area Code (LAC): maximum 5 decimal places or maximum
twice 8 bits coded in hexadecimal (LAC < FFFF).
TEMPORARY MOBILE SUBSCRIBER IDENTITY (TMSI)

Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI) can be assigned by the VLR,

which is responsible for the current location of a subscriber. The TMSI needs
to have only local significance in the area handled by the VLR. This is stored
on the network side only in the VLR and is not passed to the Home Location
Register (HLR).

Together with the current location area, the TMSI identifies a subscriber
uniquely. It can contain up to 4 × 8 bits.

LOCAL MOBILE SUBSCRIBER IDENTITY (LMSI)

Each mobile station can be assigned with a Local Mobile Subscriber Identity
(LMSI), which is an original key, by the VLR. This key can be used as the
auxiliary searching key for each mobile station within its region. It can also
help accelerate the database access. An LMSI is assigned if the mobile station
is registered with the VLR and sent to the HLR. LMSI comprises of four
octets (4x8 bits).

CELL IDENTIFIER (CI)

Using Cell Identifier (CI) (maximum 2 × 8) bits, the individual cells that are
within an LA can be recognized. When the Global Cell Identity (LAI + CI)
calls are combined, then it is uniquely defined.

61
WHAT IS MOBILE STATION?

Mobile stations (MS), mobile equipment (ME) or as they are most widely
known, cell or mobile phones are the section of a GSM cellular network that
the user sees and operates. In recent years their size has fallen dramatically
while the level of functionality has greatly increased. A further advantage is
that the time between charges has significantly increased.

There are a number of elements to the cell phone, although the two main
elements are the main hardware and the SIM.

NETWORK SWITCHING SUBSYSTEM (NSS)

The GSM system architecture contains a variety of different elements, and is

often termed the core network. It provides the main control and interfacing
for the whole mobile network.

The major elements within the core network include:

MOBILE SERVICES SWITCHING CENTRE (MSC): The main element

within the core network area of the overall GSM network architecture is the
Mobile switching Services Centre (MSC). The MSC acts like a normal
switching node within a PSTN or ISDN, but also provides additional
functionality to enable the requirements of a mobile user to be supported.
These include registration, authentication, call location, inter-MSC handovers
and call routing to a mobile subscriber. It also provides an interface to the
PSTN so that calls can be routed from the mobile network to a phone
connected to a landline. Interfaces to other MSCs are provided to enable calls
to be made to mobiles on different networks.

HOME LOCATION REGISTER (HLR): This database contains all the

administrative information about each subscriber along with their last known
location. In this way, the GSM network is able to route calls to the relevant

62
base station for the MS. When a user switches on their phone, the phone
registers with the network and from this it is possible to determine which BTS
it communicates with so that incoming calls can be routed appropriately. Even
when the phone is not active (but switched on) it re-registers periodically to
ensure that the network (HLR) is aware of its latest position. There is one
HLR per network, although it may be distributed across various sub-centers to
for operational reasons. Visitor Location Register (VLR): This contains
selected information from the HLR that enables the selected services for the
individual subscriber to be provided. The VLR can be implemented as a
separate entity, but it is commonly realized as an integral part of the MSC,
rather than a separate entity. In this way access is made faster and more
convenient.

EQUIPMENT IDENTITY REGISTER (EIR): The EIR is the entity that

decides whether given mobile equipment may be allowed onto the network.
Each mobile equipment has a number known as the International Mobile
Equipment Identity. This number, as mentioned above, is installed in the
equipment and is checked by the network during registration. Dependent upon
the information held in the EIR, the mobile may be allocated one of three
states - allowed onto the network, barred access, or monitored in case its
problems.

AUTHENTICATION CENTRE (AUC): The AUC is a protected database

that contains the secret key also contained in the user's SIM card. It is used for
authentication and for ciphering on the radio channel.

BASE STATION SYSTEM (BSS)

The Base Station Subsystem (BSS) section of the 2G GSM network

architecture that is fundamentally associated with communicating with the
mobiles on the network.

63
BASE TRANCEIVER STATION (BTS): The BTS used in a GSM network
comprises the radio transmitter receivers, and their associated antennas that
transmit and receive to directly communicate with the mobiles. The BTS is the
defining element for each cell. The BTS communicates with the mobiles and
the interface between the two is known as the Um interface with its associated
protocols.

BASE STATION CONTROLLER (BSC): The BSC forms the next stage
back into the GSM network. It controls a group of BTSs, and is often co-
located with one of the BTSs in its group. It manages the radio resources and
controls items such as handover within the group of BTSs, allocates channels
and the like. It communicates with the BTSs over what is termed the Abis
interface.

OPERATION AND SUPPORT SUBSYSTEM (OSS):The OSS or operation

support subsystem is an element within the overall GSM network architecture
that is connected to components of the NSS and the BSC. It is used to control
and monitor the overall GSM network and it is also used to control the traffic
load of the BSS. It must be noted that as the number of BS increases with the
scaling of the subscriber population some of the maintenance tasks are
transferred to the BTS, allowing savings in the cost of ownership of the
system. The 2G GSM network architecture follows a logical method of
operation. It is far simpler than current mobile phone network architectures
which use software defined entities to enable very flexible operation. However
the 2G GSM architecture does show the voice and operational basic functions
that are needed and how they fit together.

GSM SECURITY
GSM was intended to be a secure wireless system. It has considered the user
authentication using a pre-shared key and challenge-response, and over-the-air
encryption. However, GSM is vulnerable to different types of attack, each of
them aimed at a different part of the network.

The development of UMTS introduced an optional Universal Subscriber

Identity Module(USIM), that uses a longer authentication key to give greater
security, as well as mutually authenticating the network and the user, whereas
GSM only authenticates the user to the network (and not vice versa). The
security model therefore offers confidentiality and authentication, but limited
authorization capabilities, and no non-repudiation.

64
 DWDM(Dense Wavelength-Division Multiplexing)
Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) is an optical multiplexing
technology used to increase bandwidth over existing fiber
networks. DWDM works by combining and transmitting multiple signals
simultaneously at different wavelengths on the same fiber.
The emergence of DWDM is one of the most recent and important phenomena
in the development of fiber optic transmission technology. Dense wavelength-
division multiplexing (DWDM) revolutionized transmission technology by
increasing the capacity signal of embedded fiber. One of the major issues in
the networking industry today is tremendous demand for more and more
bandwidth. Before the introduction of optical networks, the reduced
availability of fibers became a big problem for the network providers.
However, with the development of optical networks and the use of Dense
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) technology, a new and probably,
a very crucial milestone is being reached in network evolution. The existing
SONET/SDH network architecture is best suited for voice traffic rather than
today’s high-speed data traffic. To upgrade the system to handle this kind of
traffic is very expensive and hence the need for the development of an
intelligent all-optical network. Such a network will bring intelligence and
scalability to the optical domain by combining the intelligence and functional
capability of SONET/SDH, the tremendous bandwidth of DWDM and
innovative networking software to spawn a variety of optical transport,
switching and management related products.
DEVELOPMENT OF DWDM TECHNOLOGY
Early WDM began in the late 1980s using the two widely spaced wavelengths
in the 1310 nm and 1550 nm (or 850 nm and 1310 nm) regions, sometimes
called wideband WDM. The early 1990s saw a second generation of WDM,
sometimes called narrowband WDM, in which two to eight channels were
used. These channels were now spaced at an interval of about 400 GHz in the
1550-nm window. By the mid-1990s, dense WDM (DWDM) systems were
emerging with 16 to 40 channels and spacing from 100 to 200 GHz. By the
late 1990s DWDM systems had evolved to the point where they were capable
of 64 to 160 parallel channels, densely packed at 50 or even 25 GHz intervals.
As fig. 1shows, the progression of the technology can be seen as an increase in
the number of wavelengths accompanied by a decrease in the spacing of the
wavelengths. Along with increased density of wavelengths, systems also

Advanced in their flexibility of configuration, through add-drop functions, and

management capabilities.

65
 Figure 1 Evolution of DWDM

VARIETIES OF WDM

Early WDM systems transported two or four wavelengths that were widely
spaced. WDM and the “follow-on” technologies of CWDM and DWDM have
evolved well beyond this early limitation.

WDM

Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is a technology

which multiplexes a number of optical carrier signals onto a single optical
fiber by using different wave lengths(i.e., colors) of laser light.
Traditional, passive WDM systems are wide-spread with 2, 4, 8, 12, and 16
channel counts being the normal deployments. This technique usually has a
distance limitation of less than 100 km.

CWDM

The term coarse wavelength division multiplexing (CWDM) was fairly

generic and described a number of different channel configurations.
Today, coarse WDM (CWDM) typically uses 20-nm spacing (3000 GHz) of
up to 18 channels. The CWDM Recommendation ITU-T G.694.2 provides a
grid of wavelengths for target distances up to about 50 km on single mode
fibers as specified in ITU-T Recommendations G.652, G.653 and G.655. The
CWDM grid is made up of 18 wavelengths defined within the range 1270 nm
to 1610 nm spaced by 20 nm.

DWDM: Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) is an optical

multiplexing technology used to increase bandwidth over existing fiber
networks. DWDM works by combining and transmitting multiple signals
simultaneously at different wavelengths on the same fiber.

66
Dense WDM common spacing may be 200, 100, 50, or 25 GHz with channel
count reaching up to 128 or more channels at distances of several thousand
kilometers with amplification and regeneration along such a route.

DWDM SYSTEM FUNTION

DWDM stands for Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing, an optical
technology used to increase Band width over existing fiber optic backbones.
Dense wavelength division multiplexing systems allow many discrete
transports channels by combining and transmitting multiple signals
simultaneously at different wavelengths on the same fiber. In effect, one fiber
is transformed into multiple virtual fibers. So, if you were to multiplex 32
STM-16 signals into one fiber, you would increase the carrying capacity of
that fiber from 2.5 Gb/s to 80 Gb/s. Currently, because of DWDM, single
fibers have been able to transmit data at speeds up to 400Gb/s.
A key advantage to DWDM is that it's protocol and bit rate-independent.
DWDM-based networks can transmit data in SDH, IP, ATM and Ethernet etc.
Therefore, DWDM-based networks can carry different types of traffic at
different speeds over an optical channel. DWDM is a core technology in an
optical transport network. Dense WDM common spacing may be 200, 100, 50,
or 25 GHz with channel count reaching up to 128 or more channels at
distances of several thousand kilometers with amplification and regeneration
along such a route.

 1

   

1 2 .. 32
2

32

Fig. 2 Block Diagram of a DWDM System

The concepts of optical fiber transmission, loss control, packet switching,

network topology and synchronization play a major role in deciding the
throughput of the network.

67
TRANSMISSION WINDOW
Today, usually the second transmission window (around 1300 nm) and the
third and fourth transmission windows from 1530 to 1565 nm (also called
conventional band) and from 1565 to 1620 nm (also called Long Band) are
used. Technological reasons limit DWDM applications at the moment to the
third and fourth window. The losses caused by the physical effects on the
signal due by the type of materials used to produce fibers limit the usable
wavelengths to between 1280 nm and 1650 nm. Within this usable range the
techniques used to produce the fibers can cause particular wavelengths to have
more loss so we avoid the use of these wavelengths as well.
DWDM SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Figure 3 shows an optical network using DWDM techniques that consists of

five main components:

1. Transmitter (transmit transponder):

➢ Changes electrical bits to optical pulses
➢ Is frequency specific
➢ Uses a narrowband laser to generate the optical pulse
2. Multiplexer/ demultiplexer:
➢ Combines/separates discrete wavelengths
3. Amplifier:
➢ Pre-amplifier boosts signal pulses at the receive side
➢ Post-amplifier boosts signal pulses at the transmit side (post amplifier)
and on the receive side (preamplifier)
➢ In line amplifiers (ILA) are placed at different distances from the
source to provide recovery of the signal before it is degraded by loss.
➢ EDFA (Erbium Doped Fibre Amplifier) is the most popular amplifier.
4. Optical fiber (media):
➢ Transmission media to carry optical pulses
➢ Many different kinds of fibre are used
➢ Often deployed in sheaths of 144–256 fibres

6. Receiver (receive transponder):

➢ Changes optical pulses back to electrical bits
➢ Uses wideband laser to provide the optical pulse

68
 Figure 3: DWDM System Components

ADVANTAGES OF WDM

• Increases bandwidth (speed and distance)

• Does not require replacement or upgrade their existing legacy systems
• Provides "next generation" technologies to meet growing data needs
• Less costly in the long run because increased fiber capacity is
automatically available; don't have to upgrade all the time.

DISADANTAGES OF DWDM

• Not cost-effective for low channels, low channel recommend

CWDM
• Complicated transmitters and receivers
• Wide-band channel, CAPEX and OPEX high
• The frequency domain involved in the network design and
management, increase the difficulty for implementation.

APPLICATION OF DWDM

• Long-haul optical networks either in point-to-point or ring topology.

• Expanding the capacity of an existing optical network.
• Capacity leasing for network wholesalers.

69
 BROADBAND BASICS
Many of us would be to find information completely lost without the
internet.

We use it to keep in touch, and to watch our favorite films and TV shows. It
can also be vital for work, to shop and bank - and we can do all this from our
homes thanks to broadband. If you’re new to broadband and want to find out
more about it, or how to get the most from your existing service, then read on.

What is broadband?

Broadband is a way of connecting to the internet. It allows information to be

carried at high speed to your personal computer, laptop, tablet, Smartphone,
smart TV or other web-enabled device.

Broadband has largely replaced the original ‘dial-up’ (narrowband) method of

connecting to the internet, which was much slower.

What types of broadband are available?

The three most common types of fixed-line broadband in the UK are ADSL,
cable and fiber.

1. ADSL
ADSL stands for Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line and is the most
commonly available type of broadband. There are two different types
of ADSL technology which are used in the UK - ADSL1 and
ADSL2+.Both deliver broadband through the copper wires of your
phone line.ADSL1 is capable of a maximum speed of about 8Mbit/s,
and ADSL2+ is able to provide a maximum speed of about 24Mbit/s.
However, the broadband speeds you can achieve via both types of
ADSL connection will depend on how far you live from your
telephone exchange - the further away you are, the lower the speeds.
This means that the actual speeds you receive will typically be much
lower than the maximum speeds shown above.
2. Cable

Cable networks use fiber optic and coaxial cables to deliver superfast
broadband services - as well as TV and phone services – direct to homes.
Unlike with ADSL, speeds are not lost with distance. Cable technology is
capable of delivering vastly increased broadband speeds. The fastest
cable broadband packages now offer speeds of ‘up to’ 152Mbit/s.

70
3. Fiber

➢ Fiber broadband is delivered via clusters of fiber optic cables (each one
thinner than a human hair) and speeds are faster than ADSL.

➢ There are two types of superfast fiber broadband- ‘fiber-to-the-cabinet’

(FTTC) and ‘fiber-to-the-premises’ (FTTP).With fiber-to-the-cabinet,
fiber optic cables run from the telephone exchange to street cabinets before
using standard copper telephone wires to connect to homes.

➢ Most fiber connections in the UK are fiber-to-the-cabinet services, and are

typically sold as offering speeds of ‘up to’ 38Mbit/s or 76Mbit/s. Fiber-to-
the-premises broadband – which, as the name suggests, involve fiber optic
cables running directly to your home – is faster than fiber-to-the-cabinet
but currently only represents a minority of broadband connections.

➢ Fiber-to-the-premises broadband services can offer speeds of anything up

to 1Gbit/s (i.e. 1,000Mbit/s).

71
 CDMA (Code-division multiple access)
➢ Code-division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method used
by various radio communication technologies.
➢ CDMA is an example of multiple access, where several transmitters can
send information simultaneously over a single communication channel.
This allows several users to share a band of frequencies. To permit this
without undue interference between the users, CDMA employs spread
spectrum technology and a special coding scheme.

FIG : General Architecture Of CD

72
 CDMA MODULATION
CDMA is a spread-spectrum multiple-access technique. A spread-spectrum
technique spreads the bandwidth of the data uniformly for the same transmitted
power. A spreading code is a pseudo-random code that has a narrow ambiguity
function, unlike other narrow pulse codes. In CDMA a locally generated code
runs at a much higher rate than the data to be transmitted. Data for transmission is
combined by bitwise XOR (exclusive OR) with the faster code.

FIG : CDMA Modulation

FIG : Picture of CDMA , FDMA, TDMA

73
 ADVANGATES OF ASYNCHRONOUS CDMA
OVER OTHER TECHNIQUES

➢ Efficient practical utilization of the fixed frequency spectrum.

➢ Fixed allocation of resources.
➢ Spread-spectrum characteristics of CDMA.

APPLICATION OF CDMA
➢ One of the early applications for code-division multiplexing is in
the global positioning sevice (GPS). This predates and is distinct from its
use in mobile phones.
➢ The Qualcomm standard IS-2000, known as CDMA2000, is used by
several mobile phone companies, including the globalstar network.
➢ The UMTS 3G mobile phone standard, which uses W-CDMA.
➢ CDMA has been used in the OmniTRACS satellite system for
transportation logistics.

FIG : Application Of CDMA

74
 THEORITICAL PROJECT
Each and every day at the end of the daily classes I had to give an examination
over the topic of that day. On the basis of our performance we also get honest
marks. In the laboratory before starting practical classes it is compulsory to
participate in viva exam over that class. On the basis of our daily performance
ranking system was also there.

RESULT ANALYSIS
The main achievement of the BSNL training is that I get exposure and deep
insight of live working equipment which Is otherwise impossible for me as these
equipments are costing corers of rupees. Hands on training were also conducted
on these costly equipments under the supervision of experienced faculty. Hence, I
also aware of real working knowledge of technologies instead of pure theoretical
knowledge. I consider myself job ready and confident after undergoing through
the rigorous practical training. The certificate and knowledge gained through this
training will play a key role in the future performance of my carrier.

75
 CONCLUSION

Circle Telecom Training Centre, Kolkata is a dedicated Training unit Bharat

Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL). West Bengal for the new entrants of BSNL as
well as fresher’s. Through the years it had not only earned a reputation of its own,
but also crossed over many landmarks in the field of imparting quality training on
the related field of telecommunication. I think my training was success and I
consider that BSNL is an excellent training center for engineering students. The
training is given to engineering aspirant desiring to secure future in the dynamic
world of Telecommunication. The main achievements of the training at BSNL are
that I got familiar with the latest technologies and principles of networking. After
the completion of the training I consider myself is capable of facing any kind of
challenge in service sector. The training at BSNL cultivated the zeal of
inquisitiveness and the excitement to know more about this field in limited
duration.

Thank you

76
 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES
[A] BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] Behrouz A.Foruzan,with Catherine Coombs and Sophia Chung Fegan”Data

Communication And Networking”,The McGraw Publishing Company Limited.

[2] William Stallings,”Wireless Communication and Network”

[3] Kurose & Ross,”Computer Networking”.

[B] REFERENCES

[4] www.bsnl.co.in

[5] www.newbsnl.co.in

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