Such kind of sequence, x(n)=0 for n<0 is also called causal.

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x(k–1)u(k–1) <-> z–1X(z)  so z–1 is delay operator
x(k –1)u(k) <-> z–1X(z) +x(-1) so called initial value property
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The z-transform of the sequence is

Signal, Z-transform, ROC

1 1 all z
2

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21
PROPERTIES OF Z-TRANSFORMS
And if you prefer z as independent variable

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First example  directly from definition.

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and it’s true because

denominator
_Example/convolution__________________________________
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y(0) = 1*2 = 2; y(1) = 1*0 +2*2 = 4; … y(5) = H(2)*X(5-2)=

1*4 = 4.
 Partial-Fraction Decomposition
Previously, you have added and simplified rational expressions, such
as:

Partial-fraction decomposition is the process of starting with the

simplified answer and taking it back apart, of "decomposing" the
final expression into its initial polynomial fractions.

To decompose a fraction, you first factor the denominator. Let's

work backwards from the example above. The denominator is x2 + x,
which factors as x(x + 1).

Then you write the fractions with one of the factors for each of the
denominators. Of course, you don't know what the numerators are
yet, so you assign variables (usually capital letters) for these
unknown values:

Then you set this sum equal to the simplified result:

Multiply through by the common denominator of x(x + 1) gets rid of

all of the denominators:

3x + 2 = A(x + 1) + B(x) Copyright © Elizabeth Stapel

2006-2011 All Rights Reserved

Multiply things out, and group the x-terms and the constant terms:

3x + 2 = Ax + A1 + Bx
3x + 2 = (A + B)x + (A)1
(3)x + (2)1 = (A + B)x + (A)1

For the two sides to be equal, the coefficients of the two polynomials
must be equal. So you "equate the coefficients" to get:
 3=A+B
2=A

This creates a system of equations that you can solve:

A=2
B=1

Then the original fractions were (as we already know) the following:

There is another method for solving for the values of A and B. Since
the equation "3x + 2 = A(x + 1) + B(x)" is supposed to be true for
any value of x, we can pick useful values of x, plug-n-chug, and find
the values for A and B. Looking at the equation "3x + 2 = A(x + 1) +
B(x)", you can see that, if x = 0, then we quickly find that 2 = A:

3x + 2 = A(x + 1) + B(x)
3(0) + 2 = A(0 + 1) + B(0)

0 + 2 = A(1) + 0
2=A

And if x = –1, then we easily get –3 + 2 = –B, so B = 1.

The roots of denominator in Z transform theory are called poles,

the coefficients A, B – residuals.
Second method can be used only if the roots of denominator are real
of multiplicity 1.
 Inverse Z Transform

Inverse Z Transform by Long Division

To understand how an inverse Z Transform can be obtained by long
division, consider the function

If we perform long division

we can see that

So the sequence f[k] is given by

Upon inspection
Inverse Z Transform by Partial Fraction
Expansion
This technique uses Partial Fraction Expansion to split up a
complicated fraction into forms that are in the Z Transform table. As
an example consider the function

For reasons that will become obvious soon, we rewrite the fraction
before expanding it by dividing the left side of the equation by "z."

Now we can perform a partial fraction expansion

These fractions are not in our table of Z Transforms. However if we

bring the "z" from the denominator of the left side of the equation
into the numerator of the right side, we get forms that are in the table
of Z Transforms; this is why we performed the first step of dividing
the equation by "z."

F(z) = 6/(1– z–1) –4/(1– z–1)

So

or
 Example

Verify the previous example by long division.

So

and the sequence f[k] is given by

So, if the inverse Z transform given in tern of z we should perform such

steps:

a)Compute poles/ zeroes of denominator

b)Write expansion for ratio of transform to z

c)Compute residues, the coefficients for expansion

d) Multiply by z

e) Invert by recognition

Let look for case when inverse transform is given in term of z–1
Another method: substitute z -1 =(1/2) in (9) and you obtain A2 = 2
substitute z -1 =(1) in (9) and you obtain A1 = -1
Assume that system is passive: y(0) = 0.