Electricity and Electronics Ebook - January 2012 PDF

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Electricity and Electronics, January 2012

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ISBN: 978-0-9849566-0-9
About the Authors
This textbook (eBook) was written by John Connell and Rick Haworth, who are both instructors for A-T
Solutions.
Short Biography of John Connell

John Connell has more than 25 years experience in the IED and Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) related realm
of anti-/counter-terrorism. Mr. Connell joined A-T Solutions in June 2003 after a 20 year career in the US Navy. He
retired as a Master Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) Technician specializing in the detection and defeat of IEDs
and WMD. Mr. Connell has a long history with A-T Solutions and as one of the founding employees has unrivaled
breadth and depth of knowledge of our business operations. As Vice President of Mission Support Services, Mr.
Connell manages the day-to-day operations for A-T Solutions’ production and manufacturing functions as well as
internal and external global logistics support. He also spearheaded the A-T Solutions Innovation and Relevancy process
that is responsible for keeping A-T Solutions products and services aligned with current threats worldwide.
Short Biography of Rick Haworth

Rick Haworth is an electronics engineer with over 28 years of experience, beginning at the United Kingdom’s (UK)
Atomic Weapons Establishment (AWE), developing security, firing and explosive initiation systems. Mr. Haworth
was the electronics lead in the UK development of a nuclear weapon security system which led to him becoming an
electronics and disablement advisor to the UK’s Service and Improvised Nuclear Weapons Crisis Response Teams.
He spent his last 5 years at AWE supporting counter-terrorist and counter-proliferation operations for specialist
military EOD teams and other government departments. Mr. Haworth has trained UK and US special operations
teams in advanced electronic firing and security systems defeat techniques, as well as lecturing on improvised devices at
international seminars.
Mr. Haworth moved to the US in 2004 as an alien of extraordinary ability, enabling him to become a US citizen in June
2010, and immediately began work as a consultant and trainer in support of the Department of Homeland Security
(DHS) Protective Services Division. Mr. Haworth has designed courses for and instructed well over 1,000 federal,
military, state and local EOD/Bomb Technicians in IED electronics, micro-controller programming, Radio Frequency/
Remote Controlled IED (RF/RCIED) systems and IED exploitation. Mr. Haworth and has also developed several
tools and techniques for specialist EOD operations, including Kukri, Saber, DetSim and A-T Simulator.
This textbook was edited by Wayne G. Shelton, A-T Solutions. Mr. Shelton also designed and developed the
computer-based training application, Self-Paced Education on Electronic Devices (SPEED), in which this textbook
is bundled.
This textbook and was reviewed, approved and published by Dr. Robert “Bob” Dawkins, Director of Education
and Standards, A-T Solutions.
Page Intentionally Blank
Contents
Chapter 1 - Basic Electrical Theory �� 1
Learning Objectives �� 1
The Atom �� 2
Electromagnetism �� 3
Early Experiments �� 4
Static Electricity �� 5
Electrical Current �� 6
Voltage and Electromotive Force (EMF) �� 8
Voltage Production �� 10
Electrical Circuits �� 12
Resistance �� 15
Basic Electrical Theory: Types of Circuits �� 16
Ohm’s Law �� 20
Ohm’s Law in Series Circuits �� 25
Ohm’s Law in Parallel Circuits �� 26
Ohm’s Law in Series/Parallel Circuits �� 28
Chapter 2 - Electrical and Electronic Components �� 35

Switches�� 35
Mechanical Switch Configurations �� 38
Special Purpose Switches �� 40
Batteries �� 43
Resistors �� 45
Relays�� 48
Capacitors �� 51
Chapter 3 - Solid State Components and Semiconductors �� 55

History �� 55
Semiconductors: The Basics �� 56
Semiconductors: The PN Junction �� 57
Semiconductors: Biasing the PN Junction �� 58
Semiconductor Components �� 59
Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs) �� 64
Integrated Circuits �� 65
IC Basics �� 66
The 555 IC Timer �� 68
The Operational Amplifier �� 69
Chapter 4 - DTMF and RCIED �� 73

The Electromagnetic Spectrum �� 73
EOD Significant Frequencies �� 76
Modulation �� 77
Types of Modulation�� 77
Digital Modulation Techniques �� 78
Remote Control (RC) Firing System Components �� 79
Types of Devices Used for RCIED Construction�� 80
Dual-Tone Multi-Frequency (DTMF) Signalling �� 84
Electronic Countermeasures �� 86
Factors Affecting ECM�� 87
Considerations �� 88
�� 91
Lesson Objectives �� 91
The Basics �� 91
Voltage Measurements �� 93
Measuring Continuity �� 94
Resistance Measurement �� 94
Current Measurement �� 95
Glossary �� 101

Introduction
The attacks of September 11, 2001 changed the face of modern warfare. Subsequent attacks
worldwide - from Bali to London - coupled with the conflicts of Afghanistan and Iraq reveal the
hard reality that improvised explosive devices (IEDs) have become our enemy’ s weapon of choice.
This weapon ranges in size, construction, and complexity from simple mechanical devices used in
Northern Ireland and the Balkans to more complex electronic circuitry used in Afghanistan and Iraq.
From 2007 to 2011, IEDs caused a majority of the America combat casualties in both Iraq and
Afghanistan. Even as experts develop countermeasures, the terrorists adapt their tactics, techniques
and procedures (TTPs) to deploy and trigger more sophisticated - and deadly - weapons. There is
growing concern - and evidence - that some terrorist organizations are seeking chemical, biological,
radiological and nuclear weapons. If the terrorists achieve their goals and acquire these weapons, the
prevailing presumption is that the firing system will involve sophisticated electronic circuitry.
The purpose of this textbook (e-Book), used in conjunction with the Self-Paced Education on
Electronic Devices (SPEED) computer-based training (CBT) application, is to provide first
responders with a basic knowledge of electricity and electronics. This knowledge can by first
responders to expound on the seriousness and utilization of electricity and electronics as applied to
explosive threats and associated IED situations.
This textbook does not supplant the technical training provided to military and civilian law
enforcement bomb disposal technicians. However, this textbook does provide essential information
all responders and personnel (in general) should become aware of regarding the growing threat and
utilization of electronics utilized in the configuration and functioning of IEDs.
This textbook covers the following:
R5 Chapter 1 is a discussion of basic electricity and the elements that produce or affect it.
R5 Chapter 2 outlines basic electronic including components used in electrical and electronic
components.
R5 Chapter 3 covers semiconductors and solid state components, the heart of modern
electronics.
R5 Chapter 4 describes various equipment with the ability to transmit an electromagnetic signal
and with an associated receiver. Theses devices provide terrorists a means to remotely detonate
an improvised explosive device (IED).
R5 Chapter 5 is a guide on the use of digital multi-meters
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Introduction
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Chapter 1 - Basic Electrical Theory
Electricity is the science dealing with electrical charges and currents. It is an element of nature,
responsible for numerous natural events. Lightning, for example, is a large-scale, high-tension
natural electric discharge in the atmosphere. Understanding electricity and how it affects mankind is
a recent achievement. Utilizing it for the benefit of mankind is an even more recent accomplishment.
Although electricity has become a vital part of life in the 21st century, it still remains a mystery for
many.
But before one can understand the basic properties of electricity, it is important to have a
rudimentary understanding of the fundamentals that produce or have an effect on this strange force
that we rely on every day of our lives.
Learning Objectives
At the conclusion of this chapter you will be able to:
R5 Describe the composition of an atom.
R5 Describe the characteristics of each sub-atomic particle.
R5 Explain the theory of electromagnetism.
R5 Describe how electromagnetism applies to electrical neutrality.
R5 Explain Benjamin Franklin’s early experiment.
R5 Compare Benjamin Franklin’s assumptions with today’s understanding of electricity.
R5 Describe strong nuclear force.
R5 Describe weak nuclear force.
R5 Explain static electricity.
R5 Describe electrical current flow.
R5 Explain positive and negative ions.
R5 Delineate the flow of conventional current and electrons along a conductor.
R5 Define the term electromotive force.
R5 Discuss the term potential energy and how it applies to electrical theory.
R5 Describe the three criteria that must be met for voltage production using electromagnetic
induction.
R5 Define resistance.
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R5 Explain the theory of electromagnetism and how it applies to electrical neutrality.
R5 Explain the differences between series, parallel, and series/parallel circuits.
R5 Discuss conductors and insulators, outline the characteristics, and cite several examples of
each.
R5 Cite two examples of voltage production, and explain the theory of each.
The Atom
Atoms are minute particles that make up all matter whether solid, liquid, or gas. If you took a certain
quantity of a pure element — such as copper — and divide it in half, then half again, and continue
this process, you would reach a point when the substance could no longer be divided and still be
considered copper. At this point, you have the atom, the basic building block of the universe.
The physical makeup of an atom is analogous to the solar system where smaller planets orbit the
much larger sun. The atom is broken down into smaller particles called protons, neutrons, and
electrons. Protons and neutrons form the nucleus or the center portion of the atom, as depicted in
Figure 1. Electrons orbit outside the nucleus.
Nucleus - Protons and Neutrons
Orbiting Electrons
Figure 1
The nucleus is the part of the atom that determines its elemental makeup, e.g., copper, silver, or
lithium. Protons hold a positive charge, electrons hold a negative charge, and neutrons are neutral.
Charge — also known as electrical charge — is the fundamental property of subatomic particles that
determines their electromagnetic interactions.
2
If the atom were made up of only protons and neutrons, it would possess a positive charge. (See
Figure 2) However, the electron balances the positively-charged proton with its negative charge.
When an atom contains the same number of electrons as protons, it is electrically neutral because it
has the same number of positively-charged particles as negatively-charged particles.
(See Figure 3)
Figure 2
Figure 3
Electromagnetism
As one of the fundamental forces in nature, electromagnetism is responsible for much of
the phenomena experienced in daily living. Forces involved within atoms can be traced to
electromagnetism as can forces in the interactions among the atoms.
Electromagnetism works on the principle that opposite charges attract and like charges repel. The
name was coined because both forces — electrical and magnetic — are involved at the same time.
Electromagnetism causes metal objects to stick to magnets.
Magnets are polarized, meaning that each end has its own charge. These ends of a magnet, called
poles, are designated north and south. If the magnets are placed with north poles opposite each other
and south poles opposite each other, they will repel, as shown below in Figure 4. However, if the
magnets are placed with a north pole opposite a south pole, they will attract, as depicted in Figure 5.
3
Figure 4
Figure 5
So, how does this apply to electricity and electrical theory? Everything in nature migrates toward
a balance. Water flows from high points to low points. When placed in contact with one another,
two items — one hot and one cold — will eventually approach the same temperature (thermal
equilibrium). Atoms are the same, and the balance they seek is a neutral electrical charge.
Early Experiments
In 500 B.C., the Greeks discovered that when a piece of amber was rubbed with a piece of wool, the
objects attracted one another. When two identical pieces of wool were used to rub the amber, the
wool pieces repelled one another. Figure 6 is a depiction of the process.
This phenomenon was the subject of a number of experiments in the late 18th century. The same
effect was noted when a silk cloth was rubbed on a glass rod. The silk and glass would attract. When
the experiment was conducted with two identical pieces of glass and silk, the pieces of silk would
repel one another as would the glass rods (see Figure 7). These items had not been physically altered
in any way.
Figure 6
4
Figure 7
When paraffin wax was rubbed with wool, the effect — attraction and repulsion — was identical
to the previous experiments. The experimenters surmised that each type of material contained an
invisible fluid and that when the two materials were rubbed together, they exchanged fluids. This
exchange created the attraction and repulsion. The fluids that caused this action later became known
as charges.
Benjamin Franklin theorized that the static charges were the result of an electrical fluid. According
to his theory, rubbing the wax with the coarse wool actually removed a portion of this fluid from the
wax, thus causing a deficiency of fluid on the wax and an excess on the wool cloth. He described this
excess and deficiency as positive and negative, the terms used today to denote electrical potential.
Franklin and other scientists of his day were only partially right. What scientists have now realized
is that electricity is not a fluid; rather, it is the movement of charged particles between items. The
items are actually exchanging electrons.
Static Electricity
The force that binds or holds together the nucleus of an atom is known as the strong nuclear force.
As the name implies, this force is difficult to overcome. Thus, the integrity of the nucleus is rarely
disrupted unless the influence is powerful. Conversely, the force that keeps the electron in orbit
around the nucleus is known as the weak nuclear force. As its name implies, this force is easily
overcome. The weak nuclear force is the basis for electrical activity.
Unlike protons and neutrons, electrons are free to move in and out of atoms. Free electrons are
constantly present all around us. What the ancient Greeks and other experimenters had discovered
was the ease with which electrons could become dislodged from an atom’s orbit. Contrary to
conclusions drawn by Benjamin Franklin and others that the wool collected some of the fluid from
the wax, the wool actually deposited electrons onto the wax.
Because like charges repel and opposite charges attract, protons and electrons attract one another
over distances. What the early experiments demonstrated was the transfer of electrons from one
material to another by friction. This is a common occurrence; anyone who has walked across a
carpeted floor, touched a doorknob or another person, and experienced a shock has felt the effects
of a static charge. The charge is static because the displaced electrons remain stationary after being
moved from one object to another and will remain so until they come in contact with something that
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holds a more positive charge. This transference of electrons to a more positive material is the shock
of the static charge.
Many atoms can easily accept and lose the electrons orbiting their nucleus. The outer electrons of
some atoms are so loosely bound that heat and even visible light can cause them to be displaced from
their orbits. (See Figure 8) These atoms are known as conductors.
Figure 8
On the other hand, some atoms have tightly bound electrons that will remain in orbit around their
atoms’ nuclei unless acted upon by a powerful force. Atoms of this type are known as insulators.
This mobility of electrons within a substance is known as conductivity. The amount of conductivity a
material has is determined by the number of protons and electrons — or the atom’s chemical identity
— and how the atoms are linked in a material. Copper, silver, gold, and aluminum are examples of
conductors. Plastics, glass, rubber, and oils are examples of non-conductors or insulators.
When an atom possesses the same number of protons as electrons, it has a neutral electrical charge.
When electrons are removed from its orbit, the atom has more protons than electrons and holds a
positive charge. The atom is then a positive ion. Conversely, when electrons are added to its orbit,
the atom becomes negatively charged and is a negative ion. An ion is an atom or group of atoms
that carries a positive or negative charge as the result of losing or gaining one or more electrons.
This system of adding electrons to and removing them from the atom’s orbit is the basis for electrical
current flow.
Electrical Current
Electrical current flow is the progression of electrons traveling from one point to another through a
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conducting medium. This process is simply atoms in a conductor (i.e. copper, silver, or aluminum)
exchanging electrons. When electrons are removed from their orbit, they create holes or gaps, which
are then filled by electrons from the outer orbits of other atoms, as shown in Figure 9.
Hole
Figure 9
As early as the 16th century, scientists experimented with the behavior of static electricity and
believed that friction created the electricity. Benjamin Franklin believed that the action of rubbing
moved the fluid from one object to the other, electrifying both. He thought the fluid was positive,
the lack of fluid was negative, and the direction of the flow was from positive to negative.
Today, scientists posit that the opposite is true. Either option is correct as long as you are consistent.
Where appropriate in this guide, electron flow and conventional current will be illustrated on
diagrams as shown in Figure 10.
Figure 10
Another way to analyze the process of atoms exchanging electrons in a conductor is to observe the
flow of marbles (represented by the green “E” for electron) through a tube, as depicted in Figure 11
7
below.
Figure 11
If a tube is filled to capacity with marbles and another marble is inserted into one end of the tube,
one marble will fall from the opposite end. Although the marble has not traveled the entire length
of the tube, the effect at the other end is almost simultaneous. Regardless of the length of the tube,
the effect is the same. The same is true with electricity. The effective speed of electricity through a
conductor is the speed of light, almost 186,000 miles per second.
Electrons must have a continuous path to flow. To sustain this movement of electrons, the
conducting material can have no breaks. In most electrical drawings and diagrams, a path for current
flow or conductor is represented by a solid line, as shown in Figure 12.
Figure 12
If the line or conducting medium is continuous, current will flow through it. However, if the line
or conducting medium is broken at any point, the electrons no longer have a pathway on which to
move, and current flow will cease. Both scenarios are shown in Figure 13.
Current
No Current
Figure 13
As Figure 14 indicates, if another path is added around the break, the current will flow once again.
Current
Figure 14
The movement of electrons in a conductor is random, and this random movement is not practical for
EOD use. A force is needed for the electrons to flow in sufficient quantities through a conductor in
a single direction to perform a certain function.
Voltage and Electromotive Force (EMF)

The force or potential that causes electrons to move is known as voltage. More accurately described,
voltage is a difference in potential. Known as electromotive force (EMF), this difference in potential
8
between two objects can exist only if the objects have unlike charges. If these objects are connected
by a conductor, the electrical current will flow between them.
Named after Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, a French physicist who first theorized about electrical
potentials, the term coulomb is used to denote units of electrical charge. One coulomb is equivalent
to the charge held by approximately 1.6 x 1019 electrons (or 16 with 18 zeros). One coulomb is one
unit of electrical potential. The charge held by a single electron is so minuscule that it is impractical
to use when measuring electrical potential.
The basic electricity theory can best be illustrated by using two tanks of water, shown in Figure 15.
Figure 15
The two tanks are connected by a pipe. Both contain water, but the tank on the left contains more.
If the pipe has no obstructions, the water will flow from the left tank to the right tank until it is
equally distributed in both tanks. At this point, the difference in potential is zero.
With electrical current, when two objects have a difference in electrical potential and are connected
by conducting material, the electrons will flow from the more negative object toward the object
having the positive potential. The negative object has an excess number of electrons, and the object
with the positive potential has a deficiency of electrons.
This difference in potential must be sustained to maintain adequate current flow. The current flow,
in turn, maintains a practical voltage or power source. A practical power source continuously strips
electrons from one terminal — keeping it positive — and adds them to another — keeping it
negative. This process maintains a constant flow of electrons.
The six known ways to produce a voltage or EMF are:
1. Heat (thermo-electricity) is voltage produced by heating the junction of two dissimilar

metals.
2. Pressure (piezo-electricity) is voltage produced when certain types of crystals are stressed or
bent.
3. Light (photo-electricity) is voltage produced by exposing light-sensitive material to a light

source.
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4. Chemical activity produces voltage by a chemical reaction.
5. Friction is voltage produced by rubbing together two objects.
6. Magnetism is voltage induced into a conductor when it passes through a magnetic field.
Voltage Production
This section further explains the six most common ways in which voltage or the electromotive force
is generated.
Heat
When heated, the electrons in most metals move from the heated end toward the cooler end. However,
in some metals, such as iron, the opposite occurs. When a piece of iron is heated, electrons move toward
the heated end. Electrical current flows if these two dissimilar metals are placed together, their ends
are attached by a conducting material, and the junction is heated. (See Figure 16) This, however, is an
inefficient means of generating a practical source of electricity. Therefore, this method is typically used in
thermocouples, which are devices designed to sense heat or changes in temperature.
Figure 16
Pressure
One method of generating voltage involves using a property of crystalline materials, such as quartz and
tourmaline. A difference in potential is generated on the crystal’s opposing sides when pressure or stress
is applied. If these opposite sides are connected by a conductor, current will flow between them. When
the stress or pressure on the crystal is removed and the crystal returns to its normal state, current flow will
reverse. This is known as the piezoelectric effect. (See Figure 17)
Figure 17
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Light
When substances are exposed to light, the energy from the light dislodges electrons from the surface atoms,
causing the material to develop a positive potential. This process is known as the photoelectric effect. Some
materials are more sensitive to light than others, so the number of electrons removed from their orbits is
much greater. Devices designed to produce voltage in this manner are known as photoelectric cells. These
devices are normally constructed with oxides of silver and copper because of their sensitivity to light. One
type of photoelectric cell is made by sandwiching a layer of copper oxide between a layer of pure copper and
a thin semi-transparent layer of metal.
Figure 18
The semi-transparent layer allows light to pass through to the copper oxide and collect the dislodged
electrons. If a conductive wire is placed between this layer and the copper layer, current will flow. (See
Figure 18)
Chemical Reaction
Producing voltage by chemical reaction is one of the most common methods used today. When two
electrodes of dissimilar metals are placed into certain chemical solutions, they begin to break down at
different rates. Positive ions are created around one of the electrodes, and negative ions are created around
the other. (See Figure 19) If the electrodes are connected by a conductor, current will flow. This type of
reaction is used in dry- and wet-cell batteries.
Figure 19
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Friction
The earliest known way to produce a voltage potential is to rub certain materials against others to create
friction. Loosely-bound electrons will transfer from one material to the other, producing a positive static
electrical charge on the material that loses the electrons and a negative static electrical charge on the
material that acquires the electrons. Metals cannot hold static electrical charges because they are good
conductors, so the charge would dissipate.
Magnetism
The most efficient and widely-used method to produce large amounts of electrical power is magnetism.
Power plants use large electric generators to produce the alternating current, depicted in Figure 20.
Figure 20
Three criteria must be met to produce voltage using electromagnetic induction:
1. A conductor in which the voltage will be produced
2. A magnetic field in the conductor’s vicinity
3. Relative motion between the field and conductor. The conductor must be moved to cut across
the magnetic lines of force, or the field must be moved so that the lines of force are cut by the
conductor
Power produced in this way is not practical for sensitive electronic equipment. Therefore, a power supply
is used to convert the AC voltage into a steady, usable direct current or DC voltage. Direct current or DC
voltage is power that is constant. This is the type of voltage produced by batteries.
Electrical Circuits
Electrical circuits are arrangements that provide the necessary conditions for a continuous flow of
electrical current.
In discussing electromotive force, we used two tanks of water to explain voltage and differences in
potential. Returning to this analogy, assume a bucket filled with water is placed on top of a ladder or
other tall structure, as depicted in Figure 21.
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Figure 21
As long as it stays in the bucket, the water is not flowing. However, the potential exists for the water
to flow from the bucket, i.e., there is potential energy release.
When the bucket is tilted, water flows (release of energy), as in Figure 22. The bucket symbolizes a
static charge. After the bucket is empty, the static charge has been depleted.
Figure 22
If the bucket is raised higher (symbolizing greater potential energy) as shown in Figure 23, a greater
amount of energy will be released when the water falls to the reservoir. Consequently, more energy
will be at point 2 than at point 1. Therefore, we can surmise that if the potential energy is increased,
the amount of energy that can be released is also increased.
Figure 23
However, since the water in the bucket (potential energy) must be replenished to maintain
consistent, practical energy release, this is not an effective energy source. A pump installed near the
reservoir would provide the means to put the water back into the bucket and, therefore, constantly
maintain the potential, as shown in Figure 24.
Figure 24
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Likewise, a simple electrical circuit must have a difference in potential to provide the electromotive
force (the force that causes electrons to flow through a conductor), a release of energy (current flow),
and a means to sustain this potential and maintain the flow of electrons.
An electrical circuit is a loop or series of loops of conductive material and components that provide a
continuous path for electrical current. When a break occurs, current will cease to flow, just as it does
with the solid line of conducting material. (Figure 25 shows the circuit with no breaks, and Figure 26
shows a break in the circuit.) Regardless of where the break occurs, no current will be in the circuit if
no alternative path exists for it to flow.
Figure 25
Figure 26
Figure 27 further examines electrical circuits. The vertical line symbolizes a conductor, and the
series of parallel lines symbolize the battery. The shorter line represents the negative terminal of the
battery; the longer line represents the positive terminal.
Figure 27
Figure 28 is a simple circuit where a battery and a series of conductors complete the path for current
to flow. Electron current flow is shown with green arrows and conventional current flow with red.
Current flow is the same at any point in the circuit.
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Figure 28
If the circuit is broken at some point, as shown in Figure 29, current will no longer flow. The full
potential of the battery will manifest across the break in the wire between points 2 and 3. This is
known as a voltage drop.
1 2
4 3
Figure 29
Measuring between points 1 and 2 or points 3 and 4 will not produce a voltage reading because the
measurements are along a conductor. No difference in potential can develop along a conductor.
This simple circuit is dangerous and impractical. Since no resistance (explained below) is in the
circuit, the potential exists for a large amount of current to develop along the conducting medium.
For example, if a wire is connected directly between the two terminals of a battery, considerable
energy would develop along the wire. This energy — called a short circuit — would typically manifest
itself in the form of heat. Electrical circuits, designed to take advantage of a gradual release of
energy, are engineered to be as safe as possible.
Resistance
Opposition to current flow is known as resistance, which can be thought of as electrical friction.
Electrical resistance generates heat just as mechanical friction does. Insulators have more electrical
resistance than do conductors. However, no conductor is perfect. Regardless of the efficiency of
a conducting medium, some degree of resistance always exists. Many materials are manufactured
so that electrical current can flow through them, but they are designed to offer some degree of
resistance. The unit of measurement to describe the amount of opposition or resistance to current is
the ohm, represented by Ω, the Greek symbol for the letter omega.
15
One of the earliest practical uses of electricity is electrical lighting. Inside a light bulb is a small
component called a filament. Filaments are designed to offer some degree of resistance when current
flows through them. This resistance causes heat to build up. The filament begins to glow, producing
visible light.
A light bulb is placed in the diagram in Figure 30 resulting in a practical, yet simple, electrical circuit.
Current flows from the negative terminal of the battery, through the filament of the light bulb, to
the positive terminal of the battery. The resistance, or electrical friction of the filament, opposes the
current flow, thereby producing heat and light.
Figure 30
Current flow is constant at all points in the circuit. The amount of current flowing on one side of the
light bulb is the same as the amount flowing on the other side. Opening the circuit anywhere along
the conductor will cause current flow to cease and the light bulb to extinguish, as depicted in Figure
31.
Figure 31
Basic Electrical Theory: Types of Circuits

Series Circuits
The circuit described in Figure 32 below is a simple series circuit. The term series is used to identify a circuit
that has only one path for current to flow, regard of how the components are arranged.
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Figure 32
Parallel Circuits
Circuits containing multiple paths for current to flow are known as parallel circuits, which are multiple series
circuits combined to make a more complex circuit. Figure 33 is an example of a parallel circuit using a
battery, light bulbs, and conductors.
1 2 3
6 5 4
Figure 33
As in the previous circuits, the current flows from negative to positive. The current leaves the negative
terminal of the battery; at point 2, it divides and flows to each of the two light bulbs. Between points 1
and 2 and points 5 and 6, the maximum circuit current will flow. Between points 2 and 5 and points 3 and
4, however, the total current will be divided. The sum of the current flow on those two legs will equal the
maximum current flow of the circuit.
A parallel circuit can be complex with many paths for current to flow. However, even the most complex
electronic device is simply a combination of many series and parallel circuits to support a specific function as
shown in Figure 34.
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Figure 34
If the circuit breaks or opens in a simple series circuit, the effect will be the same at all points in the circuit:
the current will no longer flow. In a parallel circuit, the effect will be different, depending on where the
opening occurs.
If the break occurs between points 1 and 2, as shown in Figure 35, or between points 11 and 12, the current
flow will cease throughout the entire circuit because the total current flows between those two points. If,
however, the break occurs at some other point, the effects will be different.
1 2 3 4 5 6
12 11 10 9 8 7
Figure 35
For instance, if the break occurs between points 3 and 4, the current will flow from the battery points 1, 2, 3,
10, 11, and 12, and two light bulbs will remain illuminated. See Figure 36.
1 2 3 4 5 6
12 11 10 9 8 7
Figure 36
If the opening appears at any leg of the circuit, only that particular leg will be affected, as shown in Figure
37.
18
1 2 3 4 5 6
12 11 10 9 8 7
Figure 37
Series/Parallel Circuits
With the series/parallel circuit, properties of the two previous circuits are combined. In portions of the
circuit where current flow is divided between two or more legs, components in those legs do not receive the
total current flow of the circuit. In series/parallel circuits, components are placed in the circuit so those
portions do receive total circuit current flow.
In the circuit in Figure 38, the total circuit current flows through light 1 but splits at point A. A portion
flows through lights 2 and 3. The total circuit current is present at point B where the two parallel legs join.
Total circuit current will flow through light 4.
Light 1 A
Light 2 Light 3
Light 4 B
Figure 38
Two critical points to remember are:
1. Know where to take measurements, and
2. Know how to place the instruments at various points in a circuit.
If you took a voltage measurement across the battery between points 1 and 12 in the circuit shown
in Figure 39, you will measure the entire potential of the battery. A measurement between points 6
and 7 would be the same as measurements between points 5 and 8, 4 and 9, 3 and 10, and 2 and 11.
This is because a wire is a conductor with no practical resistance, so no difference in potential can
develop across it. Regardless of the length, one end of a wire is electrically identical at a point on
the opposite end. In the schematic above, points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 are electrically identical as are
points 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12.
19
1 2 3 4 5 6
12 11 10 9 8 7
Figure 39
Ohm’s Law
Regardless of their efficiency, all materials contain some degree of resistance. The unit of
measurement for electrical resistance is called the ohm in honor of George Simon Ohm, a German
scientist pioneer in the field of electrical science, who proved the relationship among voltage,
current, and resistance. He showed that the amount of current in a circuit is directly proportional
to the amount of voltage or electromotive force applied and inversely proportional to the amount
of resistance a circuit contains. If the voltage applied to a circuit is increased without changing any
other aspect of the circuit, the current flowing throughout will increase. Conversely, if the resistance
is increased without changing any other aspect of the circuit, the current will decrease.
A resistor is a component designed to offer a certain amount of resistance to current flow. In

electronic schematics, a resistor is represented by the letter “R” and a number designating its place in
the circuit: R1, R2, R3, etc. The two symbols commonly used for a resistor are shown in Figure 40.
Figure 40
In a simple series circuit with only one resistor, the total circuit resistance is the value of the single
resistor. In Figure 41, the total circuit resistance is the value of R1, which is 10 ohms.
R1
10
Figure 41
20
Figure 42 shows a simple series circuit that contains more than one resistor.
R1
10
R2
10
Figure 42
The total circuit resistance is calculated by adding together the values of the resistors. In this circuit,
total resistance is the value of R1 added to the value of R2: 10 ohms plus 10 ohms, which equals 20
ohms:
R1 + R2 = Rt (resistance total) or 10 + 10 = 20
If another resistor were added, the total resistance would be the sum of the value of all resistors.
Calculating total resistance in a parallel circuit is complex. Logically, as parallel legs are added to a
circuit and resistors are added to those legs, the circuit current would decrease, however, this is not
the case.
The circuit in Figure 43 has two parallel legs, each containing a 10Ω resistor. The total resistance
of this circuit is 5Ω and not 20Ω or 10Ω, as one might expect. If parallel legs are added, each
containing a 10Ω resistor, the total circuit resistance will continue to decrease. The water analogy
used earlier will explain why this occurrence is logical.
R1 R2
10 10
Figure 43
Figure 44 is a water tank with a valve attached. When the valve is opened halfway, water runs
through it at a rate of one gallon per minute.
21
Figure 44
If another identical valve is added to the tank and opened halfway, as shown in Figure 45, it, too, will
discharge water at a rate of one gallon per minute. But the total amount of water being discharged
from the tank has doubled because of the second outlet for the water.
Figure 45
The formula used to calculate total resistance in a parallel circuit is:
1
1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + ...
The first step is to calculate the reciprocal values of each of the parallel leg’s resistors. A reciprocal of
a number is computed by dividing one by the number. For example, using the circuit in Figure 46:
R1 R2
10 10
Figure 46
Each of the two parallel legs contains a 10Ω resistor.
Insert into the formula: 1/10 + 1/10
22
After calculating the reciprocals, add them together: .1 + .1 = .2
Take the reciprocal value of the sum: 1/.2 = 5
5Ω is the total value of the circuit.
The circuit shown in Figure 47 has an additional parallel leg with a 10Ω resistor.
R1 R2 R3
10 10 10
Figure 47
Using the formula:
1/10 + 1/10 + 1/10
.1 + .1 + .1 = .3
1/.3 = 3.33 or 3.3Ω
If a parallel leg contains more than one resistor, calculate first the total resistance of the leg. Even
though the leg may be parallel within the larger circuit, the components of the leg are in series with
one another.
Before beginning calculations, look at the circuit in Figure 48. R1 and R2 are in series with one
another, so they can be added together to find the total resistance in that leg: 10 + 10 = 20Ω.
R1 R4
10 10
R3
40
R2 R5
10 20
Figure 48
23
R4 and R5 are in series as well, so the total resistance for that leg is 30Ω. The center leg contains
only one resistor.
The total resistance for each leg of the circuit has been calculated as shown in Figure 49:
R1 + R2 = 20 R3
R4 + R5 = 30
40
Figure 49
For series/parallel circuits, first calculate the resistance of the parallel legs, and add resistance from
components in series, as in Figure 50.
R1
20
R2 R3 R4
20 40 30
Figure 50
1/20 + 1/40 + 1/30
.05 + .025 + .033 = .108
1/.108 = 9.259
9.25 + 20 = 29.25Ω total resistance
Ohm’s Law is the mathematical relationship between electric current, resistance, and voltage. After
calculating total resistance in a circuit, refer to the pie chart in Figure 51 to better understand these
interactions.
Figure 51
24
The letter “E” stands for voltage (V is also used), “I” for current, and “R” for resistance. Three
formulas can be derived from this chart:
E = I x R Voltage equals current multiplied by resistance.
I = E/R Current equals voltage divided by resistance.
R = E/I Resistance equals voltage divided by current
Ohm’s Law in Series Circuits

Figure 52 is a 9-volt battery in series with a 10Ω resistor that represents total circuit resistance.
R1
9V 10
Figure 52
Total current in the circuit can be calculated using Ohm’s Law and the formula: current equals
voltage divided by resistance. Therefore:
I = E ÷ R so:
I = 9V ÷ 10Ω
I = .9 or .9 amps total circuit current
Figure 53 is also a series circuit with a 9-volt battery. However, in this case, total circuit resistance
must be known before total current can be calculated.
R1
10
9V
R2
10
Figure 53
25
10 + 10 = 20Ω total resistance.
Using the formula:
I = E ÷ R so:
I = 9V ÷ 20Ω
I = .45 or .45 amps
With the total circuit current, calculate the voltage dropped by each component using the formula: E
(voltage) equals I (current) multiplied by R (resistance) or E = I x R. For the circuit above:
.45A x 10Ω = 4.5 volts dropped by R1
.45A x 10Ω = 4.5 volts dropped by R2
The total voltage applied to the circuit is the sum of the two voltages or nine volts. An important
aspect of series circuits is that the voltage in a series is always added together. When totaled, the
voltage dropped by all components in a series circuit will equal the voltage applied to the circuit.
Ohm’s Law in Parallel Circuits

Two steps are needed to calculate current in a parallel circuit. First, calculate current in each leg of
the circuit. In a parallel circuit, voltage is common for each component. For example: in the circuit
in Figure 54, the voltage across R1 is the same as the voltage across R2. Therefore, current through
each leg can be calculated. The following calculations are made assuming a 9-volt supply.
R1 R2
9V 20 30
Figure 54
E ÷ R = I so:
9V ÷ 20Ω = .45 or .45 amps flowing through R1
9V ÷ 30Ω = .3 or .3 amps flowing through R2
.3A + .45A = .75 amps total circuit current
26
The calculation for Figure 55 assumes a 6-volt battery for the power supply. Calculate current values
for each leg, remembering that voltage in parallel is common.
R1 R2 R3
6V 120 300 47
Figure 55
6V ÷ 120Ω = .05A
6V ÷ 300Ω = .02A
6V ÷ 47Ω = .1276A
.05A + .02A + .1276A = .1976A total circuit current
In Figure 56, assume a 1.5-volt battery as the power source:
R1 R2 R3
1.5 V 2k 470 300
Figure 56
1.5V ÷ 2000Ω = .00075A (2k is metric notation for 2000)
1.5V ÷ 470Ω = .0032A
1.5V ÷ 300Ω = .005A
.00075A + .0032A + .005A = .00895A or 89.5 milliamps
27
Ohm’s Law in Series/Parallel Circuits

Current calculations in series/parallel circuits are more complicated but still based on the simple
formula according to Ohm’s Law.
Assume a 9-volt battery as the power source in the circuit in Figure 57:
R1
25
R2 R3
9V
100 470
Figure 57
The first step in calculating current is to simplify it by computing the resistance value of the parallel
leg comprising R2 and R3:
1/100 + 1/470 or
.01 + .00212 = .01212
1/.00212 = 82.5Ω
Resistance in the parallel leg of this circuit is 82.5Ω. Adding the value of the series resistor R1 will
show the total resistance of the circuit.
82.5Ω + 25Ω = 107.5Ω
Calculate total circuit current:
9V ÷ 107.5Ω = .0837 amps or 83.7 milliamps total circuit current
Calculate the voltage dropped by R1:
.0837A x 25Ω = 2.09V dropped across R1
Calculate the voltage dropped across the parallel leg of the circuit:
9V – 2.09V = 6.91V
Since 6.91 volts are dropped across the parallel leg, calculate each leg’s current flow:
28
6.91V ÷ 100Ω = .069A or 69.1 milliamps
6.91V ÷ 470Ω = .0147A or 14.7 milliamps
When added together, these two figures give the total current in the circuit:
.069 + .0147 = .0837 or 83.7 milliamps
In Figure 58, calculate current and voltage drops for the following circuit assuming a 6-volt battery
as the power supply:
R1
30
R2 R3
6V 600 500
R4
75
Figure 58
Calculate total circuit current:
Step 1: Compute total circuit resistance.
5R5 Resistance in parallel leg
1/600 + 1/500
.00166 + .002 = .00366
1/.00366 = 272Ω
5R5 Add series resistors
272Ω + 30Ω + 75Ω = 377Ω
Step 2: Compute total circuit current.
6V ÷ 377Ω = .0159A or 16 milliamps
In the next series of calculations, substitute a resistor symbol for the parallel leg, as shown in Figure
59:
29
R1
30
272
6V
R4
75
Figure 59
Step 3: Compute voltage drops across R1, R4, and the parallel leg of the circuit.
R5555Voltage drop across R1
.0159A x 30Ω = .477V
R5555Voltage drop across R4
.0159A x 75Ω = 1.19V
5R5555Voltage drop across parallel leg
.0159A x 272Ω = 4.329V
When added, these values will result in total applied voltage:
4.329V + 1.19V + .477V = 5.996V or 6V
Step 4: Current flow can now be calculated through each leg (Figure 60) since the amount
of the voltage dropped across the parallel portion of the circuit is known.
R1
30
0.48 V R2 R3
4.33 V
6V 600 500
1.19 V
R4
75
Figure 60
R5555Leg containing R2
4.329V ÷ 600Ω = .0072A or 7.2 milliamps
30
R5555Leg containing R3
4.3V ÷ 500Ω = .00866A or 8.66 milliamps
.0072A + .00866A = .0158A or
16 milliamps: total circuit current
Figure 61 is complex; however, the same rules still apply. Assume a 12-volt battery as the power
supply.
R1 R2
30 50
R3 R4
75 47
R5
12 V 1k
R6 R7
375 300
R8
10
Figure 61
Calculate total current for the circuit using the following formula:
12 V
( )+( ) + R8
1 1
R1 + R2
1/R3 + 1/R4 1/R6 + 1/R7
Step 1: Compute total circuit resistance.
5R5555Resistance of parallel section containing R3 and R4:
1/75 + 1/47
.0133 + .02127 = .0346
31
1/.0346 = 28.89Ω
R5555Resistance of parallel section containing R6 and R7:
1/375 + 1/300
.00266 + .00333 = .006
1/.006 = 166.66Ω
R5555Add values of parallel legs to series resistor values
R1 + R2 + (R3 &R4) + R5 + (R6 & R7) + R8
30Ω + 50Ω + 28.89Ω + 1000Ω + 166.66Ω + 10Ω = 1285.55Ω
Step 2: Compute total circuit current.
12V ÷ 1285.55Ω = .00933A or 9.33 milliamps
Step 3: Compute voltage drops across series resistors and parallel legs of circuit.
Voltage drop across R1: .00933 x 30Ω = .28V
Voltage drop across R2: .0093 x 50Ω = .4667V
Voltage drop across first parallel section (R3 & R4): .0093 x 28.89Ω = .2696V
Voltage drop across R5: .0093 x 1000Ω = 9.3V
Voltage drop across second parallel section (R6 & R7): .0093 x 166.66Ω = 1.555V
Voltage drop across R8: .0093 x 10 = .093V
Check your work by totaling the voltage values. The sum should equal source voltage:
.28V + .4667V + .2696V + 9.3V + 1.555V + .093V = 11.9643 or 12 volts
Step 4: Compute current flow through legs of each parallel section.
First parallel section:
Current through R3: .2696V ÷ 75Ω = .00359A or 3.59 milliamps
Current through R4: .2696V ÷ 47Ω = .00573A or 5.73 milliamps
The sum of the two values should equal total circuit current flow:
.00359A + .00573A = .00932A or 9.3 milliamps
32
Second parallel section:
Current through R6: 1.555V ÷ 375Ω = .00414A or 4.14 milliamps
Current through R7: 1.555V ÷ 300Ω = .00518A or 5.18 milliamps
The sum of those two values should equal total circuit current flow:
.00414A + .00518A = .00932A or 9.3 milliamps
33
34
Chapter 2 - Electrical and Electronic Components
Chapter 1 covered basic electrical theory, including the composition of an atom and the
characteristics of sub-atomic particles, electrical current, static electricity, voltage or electromotive
force, conductors and insulators, types of circuits, resistance, and Ohm’s Law. This chapter will
examine components used in electrical and electronic circuits.
Learning Objectives
R5 Explain the difference between single throw and double throw switches.
R5 Cite three examples of mechanical switch configurations; explain their differences and
similarities.
R5 Explain the terms “normally open” and “normally closed” and how these terms pertain to
switches.
R5 Provide two examples of how a switch can be used in the construction of an IED.
R5 Recall the origin of the term “battery.”
R5 Explain the term “amp hour.”
R5 Describe the effects on circuit current as a battery discharges over time.
R5 Describe the system used to code resistor values.
R5 Describe the effects of light incident upon a photo resistor.
R5 Diagram the function of a relay.
R5 Explain the function of a relay’s coil.
R5 Define the term “capacitance.”
R5 Explain the physical characteristics of a capacitor.
R5 Discuss the charging process of a capacitor.
R5 Identify two ways of determining a capacitor’s polarity.
Switches
The simplest and most common electrical component is the switch. A switch is a type of mechanical
device that prevents, allows, interrupts, or redirects the flow of electrical current. It comes in myriad
35
shapes and sizes and may be simple or complex. Some of the more common switches will be
discussed in this section. Although all switches are made for specific applications, such as to turn
on or off an alarm clock or lights and to start the car, they are similar in many ways. Since they are
mechanical devices and the internal components or contacts are metallic conductors, switches can be
in only one of two states: on or off. Some switches are designed to redirect current flow and allow it
to go to multiple destinations. When the contacts are engaged, the switch is on. When the contacts
are disengaged, the switch is off. The switch cannot be partially on or partially off.
Single Pole, Single Throw

The single pole, single throw, or SPST, is the simplest type of switch and one of the most common. An SPST
switch has two positions — on or off — and one path for current to flow. An example of an SPST is the
knife switch, illustrated in Figure 63, which uses a lever that, when closed, connects two sets of contacts.
Figure 63
An SPST switch is represented schematically in Figure 64.
Figure 64
When the switch appears in the configuration on the left in Figure 64, it is normally open (NO). Current is
not flowing through the switch’s contacts. When it appears in the configuration on the right, it is normally
closed (NC). In this position, current flows between the switch’s contacts.
Double Pole, Single Throw

Another simple type of switch is the double pole, single throw, or DPST, which is similar to the SPST, except
it allows two paths for current to flow (see Figure 65). Like the SPST, the DPST can be in only one of
two positions, on or off. A DPST switch is really two SPST switches connected or ganged together and
controlled by a single action. The two paths of current flow are isolated from one another.
Figure 65
The DPST switch is represented schematically in Figure 66:
Figure 66
36
As with the SPST, the configuration on the left in Figure 66 is normally open, with no current flowing
through the switch’s contacts. The configuration on the right is normally closed with current flowing
between the switch’s contacts.
Single Pole, Double Throw

The single pole, double throw switch, or SPDT, is similar to the SPST in that current flows over a single
path. However, the SPDT is used to direct or redirect current flow from one location to another. Figure 67
uses the knife switch to demonstrate the SPDT. Some SPDT switches have a neutral position, as shown,
that allows the switch to be open, disengaging both sets of contacts. On switches with double throw
configurations, one switch contact will be designated as common. This contact will always be utilized when
the switch is placed in a circuit. As with DPST switches, several SPDT switches can be ganged together,
creating multiple paths for current to flow.
Figure 67
An SPDT switch is represented schematically in Figure 68, which follows the same configurations as
Figures 64 and 66.
Figure 68
Double Pole, Double Throw

The double pole, double throw, or DPDT, switch is two separated SPDT switches controlled by a single action.
It is represented schematically in Figure 69, which follows the same configurations as Figures 64, 66, and 68.
Figure 69
The switches discussed up to this point can be combined to create more than two paths for current to flow.
Many switches are manufactured to provide three, four, five, and even more paths as shown in Figure 70.
37
Figure 70
Mechanical Switch Configurations

The mechanical configurations of switches differ significantly in the design, construction, and
physical mechanism by which they are activated. Several varieties of switches are covered in this
section.
Toggle Switches
Toggle switches, shown in Figure 71, can be configured as the other types of switches discussed: SPST,
DPST, and SPDT. The mechanism that activates the toggle switch is a small toggle, or paddle, that requires
movement in one or more directions to open or close the switch’s internal contacts.
Figure 71
Rocker Switches
Rocker switches can be configured in the same manner as toggle switches. The only major difference is the
mechanical action. In a rocker switch, a rocking mechanism closes or opens the switch’s contacts, as shown
in Figure 72.
Figure 72
38
Slide Switches
Slide switches have internal configurations similar to the toggle and rocker switches. The major difference is
the sliding mechanism used to activate the switch, as shown in Figure 73.
Figure 73
Snap Switches
More commonly referred to as micro switches or snap switches, shown in Figure 74, can be configured as
SPST, DPST, SPDT, and DPDT. However, most snap switches are designed to return to a certain state
when the physical method of their activation is removed.
Figure 74
Snap switches are typically designed to have a set of contacts that is normally open and a set that is normally
closed. When the switch is in a static state or when no action is being performed on it, one set of contacts
is open, and one set is closed. When the switch is activated, the normally open contacts close, and the
normally closed contacts open.
Rotary Switches
Rotary switches, shown in Figure 75, are activated by turning or rotating an apparatus. They, too, can be
configured as SPST, DPST, SPDT, and DPDT switches. An example of a rotary switch is the starting
mechanism in an automobile: a key is inserted, and the switch is turned, aligning contacts supplying power
to start the engine.
Figure 75
39
Push Button Switches

Push button switches, shown in Figure 76, are activated by depressing a button. They can be designed as the
switches mentioned previously and also as momentary contact switches. The contacts are engaged when
the switch is depressed but disengaged when the switch is released. An automobile horn is an example of
a normally open, momentary contact push button switch. Push button switches can also be designed to be
normally closed; the contacts are engaged until the switch is depressed. A refrigerator light switch is an
example of a normally closed push button switch.
Figure 76
Special Purpose Switches

Many switches are designed to perform a specific function, such as a window switch in a home alarm
system or a vibratory switch in an automobile alarm system. These special-purpose switches are
typically designed to be normally open or normally closed.
Reed switches
Reed switches, shown in Figure 77, are magnetically influenced. They are physically constructed as two
or more closely-placed metal contacts inside a glass or plastic tube. One contact is stationary, and one is
hinged or moveable by some method.
Figure 77
When a magnetic field is introduced in the vicinity of the switch, the contacts are pulled together. This
movement completes a path for current to flow. See Figure 78.
Figure 78
40
Reed switches are manufactured as normally closed so that the magnet or magnetic field opens the switch
contacts. They can be similar to snap switches with a set of normally closed contacts and a set of normally
open contacts. When a magnet or magnetic field is introduced in the vicinity of the reed switch, the
normally open contacts will close, and the normally closed contacts will open.
Many reed switches such as those used in home alarm systems on windows and doors, are encased in plastic
and provide some means of attachment to window sills, sashes, door and jambs. See Figure 79.
Figure 79
Movement or Tilt Switches

Movement or tilt switches are manufactured in a variety of ways, most commonly as a tube of non-
conductive material — such as glass or plastic — that contains either a metal ball or a drop of mercury, as
shown in Figures 80 and 81. Two conducting wires are inserted in one end to act as switch contacts. When
the switch is tilted or disturbed, the ball or mercury rolls down the tube and engages the contacts, closing
the switch.
Figure 80
Figure 81
Tilt switches are common in automobile alarm systems and in areas prone to earthquakes to turn off
household appliances to prevent fires during an earthquake. Mercury switches were once used to turn on
under-the-hood and trunk lights in automobiles. They are currently used in home thermostats but are
slowly being phased out because of health hazards associated with heavy metals.
IED Applications
Mechanical switches can be used in numerous ways to construct IEDs. Toggle, slide, rotary, and push-
button switches are commonly used to arm IEDs.
A toggle switch is visible in the upper-left corner of the circuit enclosure in Figure 82. This switch
obviously was used to provide some type of arming function.
41
Figure 82
Figure 83 shows a slide switch used to arm an IED recovered in Colombia.
Figure 83
Figure 84 shows an IED with a rotary switch activated with a key. The bomb maker even labeled the
positions of the switch.
Figure 84
Other types of switches can be used to perform additional functions in IEDs. Suicide devices are commonly
detonated with normally open push button switches. These devices usually consist of only a simple circuit of
a battery, detonator, and switch.
Micro switches can be used as an anti-disturbance feature in an IED. They can be in either a normally open
or normally closed configuration, depending on the type of circuitry used in the IED, and can be used in
either pressure or pressure-release applications. The same applies to tilt switches.
Figure 85 shows a time power unit (TPU) recovered in Northern Ireland. A micro switch serves as the
arming function. When the small wooden dowel is removed, the circuit is armed.
Figure 85
In the TPU shown in 86, also recovered in Northern Ireland, a mercury switch is used as an anti-disturbance
feature.
42
Figure 86
Batteries
One of the most recognized electrical components is the battery. Many of today’s conveniences,
including cell phones, personal digital assistants, laptop computers, portable music equipment, and
flashlights, rely on stable, reliable power delivered by a battery.
The word battery was coined by Benjamin Franklin describing the effects of touching an array of
negatively charged glass plates. The jolt of electricity felt like a hard punch or a beating. The original
meaning of battery is an assault in which the assailant makes physical contact — or a beating.
The earliest known battery, shown in Figure 87, was discovered in Baghdad and dates from around 0
AD. Some scientists think the ancient Mesopotamians used the battery for electroplating gold onto
silver. However, others do not believe that electricity was used at that time.
Figure 87
Alessandro Volta designed the first true battery in 1800 when he developed the voltaic pile, the
predecessor to the wet-cell battery. His experiments in galvanic reactions led him to discover the
chemical reactions that produce steady voltages from assemblies of metal plates separated by a
saltwater-soaked cardboard.
Georges LeClanché designed the first wet-cell battery in 1860, using carbon and zinc electrodes
in a liquid ammonium chloride electrolyte solution. Later improvements to his design featured a
paste rather than liquid electrolyte contained in a sealed cell. Thus, the dry cell battery was created.
Modern dry cell batteries retain much of this design.
The most common type of battery in use today is the alkaline dry cell, shown in Figure 88. Alkaline
batteries are produced with a high surface area zinc anode, high density manganese dioxide cathode,
and potassium hydroxide electrolyte. The battery produces a nominal voltage of 1.57 volts; 9-volt
batteries and 6-volt lantern batteries are multiple cells connected in a series to produce higher
voltage.
43
Figure 88
The lead-acid battery is commonly used in high current-demand applications, such as automobile
starters.
The voltage or electromotive force produced by a battery is a function of the type of electrodes and
electrolyte used. The size of the battery, amount of electrolyte, or size of the electrodes does not
impact the voltage produced. For instance, a AAA battery is much smaller than a D cell, but it
produces the same voltage. Their ratings differ. A D cell can sustain current much longer than a
AAA when hooked to the same load.
Because a battery continuously provides a supply of electrons as a result of an ionic chemical reaction,
it can be rated by the total amount of electrons it can supply. However, the number would be too
large for this method to be practical. For this reason, batteries are rated by a unit called the amp
hour,which denotes how much current a battery can supply for a given amount of time. For example,
if a battery has a rating of 1 amp hour, it should supply 2 amps of current for one-half hour, 1 amp
of current for one hour, 500 milliamps of current for two hours, etc. Typical ratings for common
batteries are listed in Table 1, below:
Table 1 - Batteries and Amp Hour Ratings

Common Batteries Amp Hour Ratings
6-volt battery 11000 milliamp hours
9-volt alkaline battery 400 milliamp hours
12-volt lead-acid automobile battery 70 amp hours
1.5-volt AA battery 2000 milliamp hours
1.5-volt AAA battery 1000 milliamp hours
1.5-volt C battery 6000 milliamp hours
1.5-volt D cell battery 12000 milliamp hours
Batteries have negligible internal resistance that typically is not calculated into the overall resistance
measurement of a circuit. As a battery discharges, its internal resistance will increase, which affects
the amount of power it can supply to a load.
The internal resistance of a battery depends on the technology. Standard alkaline batteries have a
typical internal resistance of 0.25 to 0.5 ohms per cell, limiting the current that can be drawn to 3-6
amps. A lead-acid battery (such as a car battery) has a typical internal resistance of 0.02 ohms or less
per cell, allowing approximately 100 amps to flow. This is important to know when calculating the
number of detonators that can be fired from a battery and when cutting detonators from circuits.
In Figure 89, the current flow through the circuit is calculated by using Ohm’s Law and considering
the battery’s internal resistance. The voltage across the resistor is 8.33 volts even though the voltage
44
supply is 10 volts. As batteries drain, the internal resistance increases, which is why batteries
typically are used in applications that are not adversely affected by this resistance.
10V
1
200m
Figure 89
Resistors
Resistors are components designed to offer a certain amount of resistance to current flow. The
most common type is the carbon resistor, shown in Figure 90. The conductive material used to
manufacture these components is carbon, as the name implies. Other compounds — including talc,
Bakelite, rubber, and clay — are used to obtain specific values of resistance. Carbon resistors are
inexpensive and easy to manufacture and have tolerances suitable for most applications.
Figure 90
Common carbon resistors have a color-coding method that identifies in ohms the amount of
resistance. See Figure 91. This method also identifies the resistor’s tolerance or how much the
resistive value can vary.
45
Figure 91
The most common color-coding system is the four-band color code, as shown in Figure 92.
Figure 92
The top band is the first number in the resistor’s value, the second band is the second number in the
resistor’s value, and the third band is the multiplier (the number by which to multiply the first two
numbers). The final band is the resistor’s tolerance.
Other types of resistors are wire-wound (shown in Figure 93) and ceramic (shown in Figure 94).
Wire-wound resistors are manufactured to precise tolerances where exact values are required.
Ceramic resistors are designed to be used in high current demand circuits where excess heat may be
generated.
46
Figure 93
Figure 94
Variable resistors are designed to adjust over a range of resistive values. The two types of variable
resistors are the potentiometer and the rheostat. An example of a potentiometer is the volume control
on a radio. An example of the rheostat is the dimmer control for the dash lights in an automobile.
The difference is slight between the two. Rheostats usually have two connections, one fixed and the
other moveable. Any variable resistor can be called a rheostat. The potentiometer always has three
connections, two fixed and one moveable. Generally, the rheostat has a limited range of values and a
high current-handling capability. The potentiometer has a wide range of values but usually a limited
current-handling capability.
Another type of variable resistor is the photoresistor, as shown in Figures 95 and 96. The surface of a
photoresistor is embedded with a ribbon of cadmium sulfide, a substance sensitive to light. As light
intensity increases, the resistance of the cadmium sulfide decreases. Conversely, when light intensity
decreases, resistance increases. Photoresistors are common in devices that require a certain action
based on the presence or absence of light, such as the “electric eye” that turns on street lights at dusk.
Figure 95
Figure 96
IED Applications
47
Resistors are a necessary component in most electronic circuits. They are used to adjust voltage levels,
control amplification and electronic switching, adjust sensitivities, and perform numerous other functions.
The IED circuits shown in Figures 97 - 99 were recovered from Iraq and Afghanistan.
Figure 97
Figure 98
Figure 99
Relays
A relay is an electromechanical device that responds to a small current or voltage change by activating
switches or other devices in an electric circuit. See Figure 100. Relays are used in a wide variety of
applications, including telephone exchanges, digital computers, and automation systems, because of
their simplicity, longevity, and proven reliability. Highly sophisticated relays protect electric power
systems from power blackouts, and they regulate and control the generation and distribution of
power. In the home, relays are used in refrigerators, washing machines, dishwashers, and heating and
air-conditioning controls.
Figure 100
48
All relays contain a sensing unit, the electric coil, which is powered by AC or DC current. When the
applied current or voltage exceeds a threshold value, the coil activates the armature. The armature,
in turn, operates either to close the open contacts or to open the closed contacts. When a power is
supplied to it, the coil generates a magnetic force that actuates the switch mechanism. The magnetic
force, in effect, relays the action from one circuit to another. The first circuit is called the control or
coil circuit; the second is the load circuit.
Figure 101
Figure 101 shows two separate circuits. The one on the left is the control circuit, and the one on the
right is the load circuit. The control or coil circuit controls the relay’s internal switch. As long as no
power is applied to the coil, the relay’s switch will remain open. If the switch in the control circuit
closes, the relay will energize, closing the relay’s internal switch and allowing current to flow to the
light bulb in the load circuit, as shown in Figure 102.
Figure 102
Because of their numerous applications, relays come in many shapes and sizes, as shown in Figure
103.
49
Figure 103
They are designed to operate at a specific voltage and current level; the coils of some are sensitive and
operate at extremely low voltages, while others are designed to energize at very high levels for high
power applications. Therefore, they must be carefully selected for specific uses. The internal switches
of a relay can be as simple as an SPST (single pole single throw) or an on/off switch. They can also
be as complicated as any of the mechanical switches discussed earlier. The DPDT (double pole
double throw) relay has two switches contained inside the relay housing, each with a set of normally
closed, normally open, and common contacts. Figure 104 shows typical contact placement on a
DPDT relay.
Figure 104
Figure 105 shows relay schematics.
Figure 105
IED Applications
By nature of their intended function, relays make ideal components for IED circuitry. Applications include:
switching high current firing signals, providing a means of arming by switching a power source into a
circuit, and acting as a crude timer. From an EOD standpoint, one of the most significant applications is for
collapsing circuits. See Figure 106.
50
Figure 106
Capacitors
A capacitor (historically known as a condenser) is a device that stores energy in an electric field by
accumulating an internal imbalance of electric charge. An ideal capacitor can store electronic energy
when disconnected from its charging circuit, so it can be used like a small battery. Using the water
flow model of electricity as an analogy, think of the capacitor as a narrow column that can be filled
from the bottom. The water (or electricity) is stored while the column is full and can be released to
power circuitry. The energy stored and subsequently discharged by a capacitor is similar to a static
charge, so the energy release is much faster than that of a chemical battery.
The first capacitor-type energy storage device is the Leyden jar, shown in Figure 107, developed by
experimenters at Leiden University in the Netherlands. It is a simple glass jar coated inside and
outside with a conducting material. This device could store electrical energy by connecting the inner
and outer surfaces of the jar to a power source.
Figure 107
As shown in Figure 108, a simple capacitor consists of two metal plates or electrodes, each storing an
opposite charge. These two conductive plates are separated by an insulator or dielectric. The charge is
stored at the surface of the plates with the dielectric at the boundary.
51
Figure 108
Capacitors take advantage of the phenomenon of the electric field. Although capacitors and
magnetic fields are different, they share similar properties. One such property is the aspect of like
charges repelling and unlike charges attracting. By applying opposite charges from a power source
— such as a battery — to the opposite plates of a capacitor, electrons can be squeezed onto one plate
and stripped from the other, causing a difference in potential between the two plates (see Figure
109).
Figure 109
If the capacitor is removed from the power source, it will remain charged. However, because of
imperfections in the manufacturing process and materials used, leakage will occur between the plates.
The capacitor will eventually drop to zero. If the capacitor’s plates are connected by a conductor, the
electrons that have built up on the negative plate will travel to the positive plate and equalize the
difference in potential.
The capacitor’s capacitance or storage capacity (C) is a measure of the potential difference or voltage
(V) that appears across the plates for a given amount of charge stored on each plate. A capacitor
has a capacitance of one farad when one coulomb of charge causes a potential difference of one
volt across the plates. Since the farad is a large unit, values of capacitors are usually expressed in
microfarads (µF), nanofarads (nF), or picofarads (pF).
Polarity is a term used to describe the intrinsic polar separation of a magnet, north and south. In
electronics, it is used to denote a specific physical alignment of electronic components. Switches and
resistors are non-polarized, meaning that electric current can flow through them either way.
Many components are polarized, in that they have to be correctly placed in a circuit to function.
Some capacitors have negative and positive leads, similar to a battery, and must be inserted in a
circuit with their polarity taken into consideration. Several methods are used to identify the positive
and negative leads of a polarized capacitor. A stripe may be marked on the side of the negative lead.
The leads may be different sizes, with the shorter of the two identifying the negative lead. A minus
sign may also be placed on the capacitor’s case, marking the negative lead. (See Figures 110 and
111.)
52
Figure 110
Figure 111
Capacitors are constructed in myriad styles, each suited for particular ratings and purposes. For very
small capacitors, two circular plates may surround an insulating material. For larger capacitor values,
the plates may be strips of metal foil, wrapped around a flexible insulating medium, and rolled up
for compactness. The highest capacitance values are obtained by using a microscopic-thickness layer
of insulating oxide separating two conductive surfaces. However, in every style of construction, an
insulator will separate the two conductors.
IED Applications
Like resistors, capacitors are used extensively in almost any electronic circuit. They provide a means of
filtering out unwanted voltage fluctuations, coupling AC signals from one part of a circuit to another, and
applying biasing voltages for various components. They are used in timing and tuning circuits and numerous
other functions. Capacitors can be used along with other components to design fast-reacting circuits.
In the IED circuits in Figure 112, a number of capacitors are used, most likely to compensate for unwanted
voltage fluctuations or, along with resistors, to provide some type of timing function.
Figure 112
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54
Chapter 3 - Solid State Components and Semiconductors
Chapter 2 covered conductors, substances that possess a vast number of free electrons and that
have properties that allow them to readily accept and release those particles. Insulators were also
discussed. This chapter introduces components using materials that possess electrical properties
acting as insulators under certain conditions and as conductors under other conditions. These
components are called semiconductors.
Learning Objectives
R5 Define the term crystalline lattice and how it applies to materials used in semiconductor
manufacturing.
R5 Describe the process of impurity doping.
R5 Describe the differences between P-type and N-type materials.
R5 Explain the basic functionality of the PN junction.
R5 Illustrate the process of forward and reverse biasing the PN junction.
R5 Illustrate current flow through a silicone PN junction diode.
R5 Identify the two methods used to identify the negative lead of an LED.
R5 Explain the basic functioning of a transistor.
R5 Differentiate between an NPN and a PNP bi-polar transistor.
R5 Trace current through a bi-polar NPN transistor.
R5 Describe the effects of a negative potential on the gate of an N-Channel MOSFET.
R5 Explain the two common modes of the 555 IC.
R5 Describe how an op-amp can be used in an IED circuit.
History
In the first half of the 20th century, electronics was still a relatively new field of science. Electronic
equipment was fraught with problems: it was excessively large, generated a great deal of heat,
required a tremendous amount of power to operate, and was prone to numerous breakdowns. The
problem was that only one device was capable of amplifying or providing a means of electronic
switching: the vacuum tube.
55
To the casual observer, vacuum tubes (Figure 113) were similar to light bulbs. They do share a
number of traits. Vacuum tubes incorporate electrodes placed in a glass tube in which the air has
been evacuated. A filament is heated, as it is in a light bulb. Through a process called thermionic
emission, the filament releases electrons, causing current to flow among the various components in
the tube. By using devices called grids, this current flow can be controlled in much the same way
a valve controls the flow of water from a faucet. However, instead of a mechanical apparatus, an
electrical potential is used. The tubes work well, but they are large, delicate, and prone to damage
under rugged conditions because of the complexity of their construction. They also require a separate
power source for the filament’s heater.
Figure 113
Electronic equipment — including vacuum tubes — played a vital role in World War II; radio
communications equipment and the radar were instrumental to the Allied victory, but they suffered
many of the same complications that other electronic equipment did at the time. As the necessities
of war continued to push higher the frequencies of communications and radar, vacuum tubes no
longer were adequate.
The study of semiconductors has been an important part of the electronics field since the beginning
of the 1900s, but it was greatly accelerated during the war. However, one of the most significant
discoveries of the 20th century occurred shortly thereafter.
On December 16, 1947, William Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain, of Bell Laboratories,
invented the first transistor. Although the transistor was fragile and not practical for most uses, this
breakthrough was the catalyst that led to a deluge of discoveries. Among the discoveries were the
integrated circuit and microprocessors that are the basis of modern electronics.
Semiconductors: The Basics

By nature of their chemical properties, a number of substances possess the characteristics that
make them suitable for use as semiconductors. Silicon and germanium are two such substances. If
molecules of these substances were observed under a powerful microscope, a symmetrical pattern to
their structure could be seen. The atoms in these molecules are bonded together in an arrangement
known as a crystalline lattice. (See Figure 114.) This precise, symmetrical structure makes these
substances suitable to undergo the processes that turn them into semiconductor material.
56
Figure 114
Both silicon and germanium are electrically neutral in their intrinsic form in that they do not possess
properties of either true conductors or insulators. Through a process known as impurity doping,
certain chemicals are added to silicon and germanium. The atoms of these chemicals take place
in the lattice structure, imparting attributes that make them true semiconductors. The two types
of doping chemicals are donor impurities and acceptor impurities. Donor impurities are substances
that, when added to silicon or germanium, cause an excess number of loosely bound electrons in the
crystalline structure of the molecule. On the other hand, when acceptor impurities are added, they
create a deficiency of electrons, or holes. Semiconductor materials doped with donor impurities are
known as N-type materials. Materials doped with acceptor impurities are known as P-type materials.
By themselves, these materials do not exhibit any spectacular properties. Both will conduct electrical
current to a degree. However, when a single piece of silicon is doped so that some areas contain
P-type material and others contain N-type material, the PN Junction is created.
Semiconductors: The PN Junction

The properties developed as a result of the semiconductor material being doped with both donor and
acceptor impurities are the bases for countless semiconductor components used today. An electro-
chemical force develops at the junction where the N-type and P-type materials meet. The force is
present because of the different potentials of the two types of materials: N-type material with the
excess number of electrons and a negative potential and P-type material with the electron deficiency
and a positive potential. At the instant the junction is formed, electrons from the N-type material
will be attracted to the positive potential held by the P-type material and flow into the region where
the two materials meet. This will cause the N-type material near the junction to become positive
with respect to the remaining N-type material farther from the junction. The opposite is true for
the P-type material in that the initial migration of electrons will cause the P-type material near the
junction to become more negative than the remaining P-type material. When the initial flow of
electrons occurs, the charges in the area are equalized. The area in the vicinity of the junction, known
as the barrier region or the depletion region, prevents further current flow through the material.
The depletion region is only a minute distance from the junction of the two materials. The example
in Figure 115 is exaggerated for illustration purposes.
57
Figure 115
Semiconductors: Biasing the PN Junction

The device depicted in Figure 115, above, is the PN junction diode, one of the simplest
semiconductor components. A diode is a component that allows current to flow in only one direction,
similar to a check valve that allows water or air to flow in only one direction.
For a diode to conduct electrical current, it must be biased correctly in that the correct voltage
potentials must be applied to the correct parts of the component. One side of the PN junction
diode is positive P-type material, and the other side is negative N-type material. For the diode to
conduct electrical current, it must be forward biased. This means that a positive voltage potential
must connect to the P-type material and a negative voltage potential connect to the N-type material.
If the opposite occurs, the diode is reversed biased, and current will not flow. The reason for this is the
depletion region or the area in the vicinity of the PN junction where charges are equal and balanced
so current does not flow. Depending on the biasing, this region will be large or small. As the
depletion region becomes smaller, current will begin to flow.
The device described by the diagram above is one of the simplest semiconductor components; the
PN junction diode. A diode is a component that allows current to flow in only one direction, similar
to a check valve that allows water or air to flow in only one direction.
When a diode is reverse biased, as shown in Figure 116, or when opposing charges are placed on
the P and N parts of the diode, these opposite charges act on their corresponding materials in much
the same way as opposing polarities on magnets act upon one another — they attract. As the
positive potential of the battery is felt on the N-type material of the diode, it begins to attract the
excess electrons in the N-type material. As the electrons in the N-type material begin to flow to the
positive potential of the battery, they leave holes in the atoms from which they have been stripped.
In an attempt to balance the charges in the material, electrons near the depletion region flow to fill
those holes, causing much more of the N-type material in the vicinity of the junction to become
positive with respect to the rest. The opposite occurs on the other side of the device: the negative
potential of the battery is felt by the P-type material, and electrons begin to flow and fill in the
holes in the P-type material. A similar attempt to balance the internal charges occurs on this side.
Electrons fill in the holes of the P-type material, and the material near the junction becomes negative
with respect to the remaining P-type material. This process causes the depletion to expand and not
allow current to flow.
58
Figure 116
When the diode is forward biased, the reverse occurs. As shown in Figure 117, the negative potential
is connected to the N-type material, and the positive potential is connected to the P-type material.
The negative potential of the battery forces the electrons in the N-type material into the depletion
region, and the positive potential of the battery draws electrons away from the depletion region.
This causes the depletion region to effectively decrease to zero, allowing current to flow through the
semiconductor.
Figure 117
This section has offered a simplified description of the PN junction and explained the operation of
semiconductors. Most semiconductor components manufactured today utilize a combination of PN
junctions.
The following section will begin the study of some of the more common solid state components and
their operational characteristics.
Semiconductor Components
Semiconductors are the heart of modern electronics. They sometimes conduct and sometimes do
not conduct. Most importantly, semiconductors are controllable because they are non-linear; they do
not follow Ohm’s Law. This section will cover three basic types of semiconductor devices: the diode
(shown in Figures 118A and B), the metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor or MOSFET,
and the bipolar transistor.
Figure 118
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Conventional current flow is opposite electron flow. This is not important for linear components,
such as resistors and capacitors. Semiconductor designers, however, used conventional current
flow as a guide when drawing schematic symbols. This means that the arrows on the component
schematics denote conventional current flow (positive to negative) rather than electron flow (negative
to positive). This textbook will follow this convention; if you prefer to think of electron flow, simply
reverse the arrows.
Diodes
Using the water model of electricity example, think of a resistor as a constriction in a pipe, a capacitor as a
thin column, and a diode as the one-way check valve. (See Figure 119.)
Figure 119
The diode allows current flow in one direction only. Just as a one-way check valve, the diode needs a small
amount of pressure to open. A small voltage (generally around 0.7V) is required to bias the diode into
conduction. In a perfect diode, this bias voltage is dropped across the diode regardless of current flow.
In a real diode, some internal resistance causes the dropped voltage to vary from approximately 0.6V to
approximately 0.8V.
IED Applications
Diodes can be used in IEDs as:
R5 Simple logic gates to help a circuit decide when to function
R5 Rectifiers to turn AC signals into DC signals
R5 Current blockers in circuits
An example of current blockers in circuits is the battery removal collapsing circuit shown in Figure 120
(note that conventional current is indicated).
Figure 120
When the switch is closed (left image in Figure 120), current can flow to energize the relay and open the
switch to the detonator. Current also flows through the 100-ohm resistor and the diode to charge the
capacitor. If the switch is opened or the battery removed or destroyed (right image), the relay is no longer
energized. The relay contacts make a circuit from the capacitor through the detonator. The capacitor then
discharges through the detonator, causing it to function. The capacitor is blocked from energizing the relay
by the diode’s valve action. If the resistor is changed to 10k, the circuit has a built-in safe/arm timer.
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Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors (MOSFETs)

One of the many types of field-effect transistors, the enhancement mode MOSFET will be explained in this
section. The MOSFET has three connections or pins: gate (g), drain (d), and source (s). The two versions of
the enhancement mode MOSFET, N-channel and P-channel, are shown in Figure 121, below.
Figure 121
The MOSFET is a solid state equivalent of a relay controlled by voltage. When voltage above a threshold
(set at manufacturer) is applied to the gate, a connection is established between the drain and source.
Because no electrical connection is between the gate and the drain-source channel, virtually no current flows
in the gate after the MOSFET is turned on. The closeness of the gate to the drain-source channel generates
a small capacitance, which must be charged for the MOSFET to be turned on and discharged for it to be
turned off.
There are many types of Field Effect Transistor, we will be looking at just one, the Enhancement Mode
MOSFET. The MOSFET has three connections or pins; the gate (g), the drain (d) and the source (s).
There are two versions of the enhancement mode MOSFET, n-channel and p-channel.
IED Applications
To turn on an N-channel MOSFET, the gate voltage must be above the source voltage by more than the
threshold amount, as shown in Figure 122A. (Source is at 0V.)
To turn on a P-channel MOSFET, the gate voltage must be below the source voltage by more than the
threshold amount, as shown in Figure 122B. (Source is at 9V.)
Figure 122
MOSFETs may be used instead of relays in IEDs. Because virtually no current flows in the control circuit,
MOSFETs are ideal for devices left powered for long periods. The battery removal collapsing circuit can be
redesigned using a single P-channel MOSFET in place of the relay.
While the switch is closed, both the gate and the source are held at 9V, which keeps the MOSFET turned
off. If the battery is removed or destroyed, the gate voltage will fall to 0V as it discharges through the 10M
resistor. The source will continue to be held at 9V by the charge stored on the capacitor. The gate voltage
61
will be below the source voltage. The MOSFET will turn on, allowing current to flow from source to drain
and functioning the detonator. (See Figure 123.)
Figure 123
This circuit performs the same function as the relay circuit, discussed in the previous section. However, it
draws only the current that flows through the 10M resistor: 9/10M = 0.9uA.
Note: Terrorist electronics designers often are recent college graduates, and MOSFETs get little
emphasis in universities. However, most commercial and military solid state firing systems use
MOSFETs, so terrorists will begin using them in only a matter of time.
Bipolar Junction Transistors

Bipolar junction transistors (BJT), sometimes called bipolars or transistors, are current amplifiers. The BJT
has three pins, as shown in Figure 124A: base (b), collector (c), and emitter (e). Current flowing in the base
controls the maximum current flowing between the collector and emitter. BJTs come in two types: npn and
pnp, as shown in Figure 124B:
Figure 124
With the npn BJT, the current flowing in the base controls the maximum current allowed to flow in the
collector — the emitter is connected to ground. Each transistor has a gain factor (also called Hfe), which
is how much more current flows in the collector than in the base. For example, if a transistor with a gain of
100 has 0.01A (or 10mA) flowing in the base, 0.01 x 100 A flows in the collector, as shown in Figure 125.
Figure 125
Taking the npn BJT first, the current flowing in the base controls the maximum current allowed to flow
in the collector — the emitter is connected to ground. Each transistor has a gain factor (also called Hfe)
which is how much more current flows in the collector than the base. For example, if a transistor with a
gain of 100 has 0.01A (or 10mA) flowing in the base, then 0.01 x 100 A flows in the collector.
62
The pnp transistor operates in the same way, but the emitter is connected to the positive supply. As shown
in Figure 126, the current flowing from the collector is controlled by the current flowing from the base.
Figure 126
The collector current is also limited by the circuit being driven. If a 1k resistor is connected between the
collector and the 9-V battery, nothing greater than 9/1000 = 9mA can flow regardless of the base current.
The transistor does not generate current. In this case, the transistor is saturated and acts like a switch.
IED Applications
Transistors are widely used in IEDs around the world to amplify the signal from devices such as
wristwatches, photocells and DTMF decoders. The circuits in Figure 127 were lifted from Jihadi
publications, the first uses transistors to amplify the output from a watch, the second uses transistors to
amplify the output of a timer chip.
Figure 127
In Figure 128, the circuit with a pnp transistor was used by the Euskai Ta Askatsuma (ETA - “Basque
Homeland and Freedom”) terrorists in the late 1990s. The trap loop was made to look like a detonator or
a timer. If the bomb technician cuts the loop, current can flow into the emitter and out the base, allowing
amplified current to flow from the collector and function the detonator.
63
Figure 128
Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs)

Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs), also called thyristors are latching switches. The SCR has three
terminals or pins (Figure 129): anode (A), cathode (K), and gate (G). An SCR can be synthesized
using two transistors, as shown in Figure 130.
Figure 129
Figure 130
When the current flowing in the gate exceeds a threshold level (set at the manufacturer), the
SCR switches on and allows current to flow from the anode to the cathode. The SCR will remain
switched on while the anode current is flowing, regardless of what happens to the gate. Thus, a
momentary signal on the gate latches on the SCR, as shown in Figures 131A, B and C.
Figure 131
64
IED Applications
SCRs (shown in Figure 132) have been used in IEDs as a means of transforming a momentary or pulsed
output into a steady firing current. Ramzi Yousef used an SCR to convert the output from a Casio watch
to a firing pulse for a detonator as shown in Figure 133. The drawing in Figure 133A taken from a Jihadi
publication and redrawn in Figure 133B, is a circuit that uses a C106 SCR.
Figure 132
Figure 133
Figure 133 A and B
Integrated Circuits
One of the most significant developments in history is that of the integrated circuit. The ability
to incorporate thousands — if not millions — of components into a single miniature chip has
revolutionized every aspect of our lives. Practically every piece of equipment from microwaves
to automobiles to magnetic resonance imagers (MRIs) uses integrated circuits somewhere in its
circuitry. Integrated circuits, or ICs, are designed to perform myriad functions, including micro-
processing, memory storage, amplification, timing, and logic operations. ICs, such as Intel’s Pentium
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III™ microprocessor in Figure 134, incorporate over 50 million transistors onto the surface of a chip
of silicone smaller than a fingernail.
Figure 134
The development of semiconductor technology progressed rapidly since the invention of the
transistor in 1947. Commercial enterprises, such as the aerospace industry, had a need for small,
lightweight, reliable circuits to incorporate into navigation systems, communications equipment, and
computers. The data processors of the time were large and heavy because they were manufactured
using individual components, such as transistors, resistors, diodes, and capacitors. The number of
components that could be crammed into a small space was limited. Although the components were
designed in increasingly smaller packages, they still had to be connected with wires and conductors.
Consequently, they became more difficult to handle and manage.
The invention of the IC is actually credited to two men, most notably Jack Kilby, an engineer for
Texas Instruments. In 1957, Mr. Kilby determined that an integrated circuit could be designed if
all components were built onto a single wafer of crystal. Later that same year, he built a working
prototype (see Figure 135). In February 1958, Texas Instruments applied for a patent. Robert Noyce
of Fairchild Semiconductors developed a similar circuit and was awarded a patent in 1961.
Figure 135
Because of the millions of integrated circuits currently manufactured and the numerous functions
they perform, describing all possible configurations of circuitry that could be used in constructing
IEDs is impractical. This chapter will concentrate on some of the ICs most commonly used in IED
construction and some that potentially can be used in IED circuitry.
IC Basics
Since the integrated circuit is only a miniature chip of silicone, sometimes no more than a few
millimeters square, soldering lead wires and conductors onto it would be difficult, if not impossible.
Integrated circuit chips are fragile and extremely vulnerable to damage. Therefore, a way must be
developed not only to connect wires to the IC but also to safely handle the IC without potential
damage. This process of containerizing an IC is known as packaging. An IC’s container is known as
a package. The package not only protects the IC but also provides a means of connecting wires and
conductors.
66
One common configuration for integrated circuits is the dual in-line package or DIP. A DIP is a
small rectangular apparatus with metal legs that allow it to be soldered to printed circuit boards, as
shown in Figure 136. The manufacturers identify a DIP by the number of legs it has: a DIP-8 IC
has 8 legs; a DIP 16 IC has 16 legs.
Figure 136
To properly use an IC when building a circuit, ensure the correct pin connection. Each pin on an IC
serves a specific function. So, if the pins are connected incorrectly, the IC will not function and may
be damaged. Although ICs differ in size, appearance, and construction, identifying the pin numbers
is easy.
The face of the IC has identifying markings, as shown in Figure 137. One end of the IC has a half-
moon shaped indention. If the IC is placed so that this indention is on the left, pin number 1 will be
the bottom left pin (refer to the figure on following page). Working counterclockwise, the pins will
be labeled 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc. When the end of the IC is reached, proceed directly across and continue
counting counter-clockwise. Some ICs may have a small dot on the surface to identify pin 1.
Figure 137
Although the DIP IC configuration is the most practical for the hobbyist, it is slowly being replaced
by smaller, more efficient designs. A DIP IC probably will not be found in a modern computer.
The most common configuration used today is the surface mount package. This design allows for a
small, low profile package suitable for micro-miniature equipment, such as cellular telephones and
personal data assistants. Packages of this type are known as small outline packages or SOP. See
Figure 138.
Figure 138
While these packages differ in design from the DIP, the pin numbering system is the same. A dot or
indention identifies pin number 1, and the pin count continues counter-clockwise.
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The 555 IC Timer

One of the most widely used and versatile digital timing devices is the 555 integrated circuit.
Developed over 30 years ago by the Signetics Corporation to provide hobbyists and circuit designers
an easy-to-use, stable integrated circuit for timing operations, today the 555 integrated circuit is the
basis of thousands of circuit designs.
The 555 IC is simple in terms of integrated circuit technology. It is made up of 23 transistors, 2

diodes, and 16 resistors. (See Figure 139.) You do not need to understand the operation of every
component to construct circuits containing this device.
Figure 139
The two primary modes of operation for the 555 IC are the astable and the monostable. In the
astable mode, the 555 serves as an oscillating circuit that can be used for flashing lights, tone, and
pulse generation. In the monostable mode, the 555 can serve as a precise timer; it also can be used to
build a wide variety of switching circuits, such as touch and light-sensitive.
The most common configuration for the 555 IC is the 8-pin dual in-line package or DIP-8, as
shown in Figure 140. The 556 IC incorporates two 555 timers into a single device, which is in a
DIP-14 configuration.
Figure 140
The 555 IC has 8 pins, each serving a specific function, described below. This clarification will be
helpful later as we construct circuits using the 555 IC.
R5 Pin 1: Ground or common — connects to the most negative potential in the circuit or
ground, typically the negative terminal of the power supply.
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R5 Pin 2: Trigger — determines the state of the output (Pin 3). When using the 555 IC in the
monostable (one-shot) mode, a negative pulse to the input will cause the output to be high.
When using the 555 in the astable mode (oscillator or timer), the input will use an R/C
(resistor/capacitor) circuit to determine timing or the frequency of oscillation.
R5 Pin 3: Output — connects to an output device, such as a relay or light emitting diode (LED).
The output of a 555 timer can typically power devices requiring up to 200mA.
R5 Pin 4: Reset — returns the output to a low state or resets the latch.
R5 Pin 5: Control Voltage — allows flexibility when using the 555 IC in certain timing
functions. This pin is optional and is not used in many 555 circuits. If the pin is not being
used, it should be tied to ground with a .01µf capacitor.
R5 Pin 6: Threshold — is an input to the 555’s comparator circuit and used to reset the output.
It is typically connected to supply voltage through a resistor or series of resistors.
R5 Pin 7: Discharge — allows a current path for circuit discharge current.
R5 Pin 8: VCC — is tied to supply voltage. The 555 IC is designed to use 5 to 15 volts DC
supply.
The 555 IC can be used in many circuits, several of which will be built and discussed later in this
document.
The Operational Amplifier

Another widely utilized and versatile electronic device is the operational amplifier (op-am).
Originally designed for computing operations in an analog data processor, the operational amplifier
is primarily used today as a linear DC amplifier. It would most likely be used as an amplifier for a
sensor, such as a photodiode or as a comparator in an IED.
A comparator is a circuit in which a reference voltage is applied to one part of the circuit and a
triggering voltage applied to another. As long as these voltages are the same, the device will have no
output. However, when the triggering voltage falls above or below the reference voltage, the result
will be an output from the device. The current output of an op-amp is typically low and insufficient
to power a large load. Therefore, a transistor or SCR must be used to power a relay or other type of
high current device.
The CA3140E op-amp, like the 555 IC, is typically found in the 8-pin DIP configuration, as shown
in Figure 141. ICs that incorporate more than one op-amp circuit will have more pins. Specific
functions of the pins are described below.
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Figure 141
R5 Pin 1: Offset Null — controls the offset voltage. In some applications, the CA3140E op-
amp utilizes opposing polarity voltages; in critical operations, these voltages must be adjusted
so that variations in the input values have no effect on the output. Pin 1 is used with pin 5 to
perform this function. The offset null function is not used in most applications.
R5 Pins 2 and 3: Inverting and Non-Inverting Inputs, respectively. The amplifier will assume a
connection from the output to the inverting input and will adjust the output to try to keep
pins 2 and 3 at the same voltage. If pin 2 is at a lower voltage than pin 3, the output will rise
in an attempt to make the voltages the same. If pin 2 is at a higher voltage than pin 3, the
output will fall: the output is the inverse of the inverting input.
R5 Pin 4: Negative Voltage In — connects an opposing polarity voltage when the op-amp is
used for certain applications. This pin will be connected to ground or common in many
applications.
R5 Pin 5: Offset Null — is used with pin 1.
R5 Pin 6: Output — is the pin from where the output is taken. A transistor or other type of
amplification component may be connected to this pin to control a relay or other device.
R5 Pin 7: + Voltage In — connects to supply voltage.
R5 Pin 8: Not Connected — is not used.
The most common use of an op-amp in IED circuitry is as a comparator. Any component capable of
varying resistance could be used as the triggering sensor.
Light-, dark-, heat-, sound-, and strain-sensitive circuits use the op-amp.
Optocouplers
Optocouplers, or solid state relays (SSR), are similar to a standard electromagnetic relay in that a
small amount of voltage or current is used to control or switch a much larger amount of voltage.
Optocouplers, however, have no moving parts, which makes them fast-acting and much more
sensitive than the standard relay.
As shown in Figure 142, inside the typical optocoupler are two components: an extremely sensitive
light-emitting diode (LED) and a phototransistor, a component that functions similarly to a regular
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transistor. However, its base is made of a light-sensitive material that causes the transistor to conduct
or turn on when exposed to light.
Figure 142
The LED serves a function similar to the coil of a standard electromagnetic relay. The LED emits
light when current travels through it. Whether the light is visible or infrared (IR) depends on
the type of optocoupler. The phototransistor reacts to the light and begins to conduct, thereby
functioning as the switch.
An optocoupler can serve the same functions as a standard relay. See Figure 143. Care should be
taken when placing them in a circuit because they are static sensitive and operate on a specific set of
parameters. Overloading the component could result in damage.
Figure 143
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Chapter 4 - DTMF and RCIED
Any type of equipment with the ability to transmit an electromagnetic signal and with an associated
receiver can provide terrorists a means to remotely detonate an improvised explosive device (IED).
The receiving device has only to indicate via audible tone, visual sign (such as a light-emitting diode),
relay or other electromechanical device, or vibrating mechanism that the transmitted signal has been
received. This can easily be accomplished by using a simple combination of electronic components
and, if needed, an alternate power source and by firing an electric detonator. Terrorists are well
versed in this technique. Their abilities to manufacture remote-controlled IEDs (RCIEDs) have
progressed significantly since the onset of hostilities in Iraq. A plethora of devices is being used, each
with its own capabilities and limitations.
Understanding the basic theory and concepts of electromagnetic equipment is crucial to analyzing
the devices and methods of RCIED construction and employment.
Learning Objectives
R5 Describe the electromagnetic spectrum.
R5 Explain modulation.
R5 Describe the types of modulation.
R5 Describe digital modulations techniques.
R5 Describe the components of remote controlled (RC) firing systems.
R5 List the types of devices used for constructing remote controlled IEDs (RCIED).
R5 Describe dual-tome multi-frequency (DTMF) signalling and firing systems.
R5 Define electronic countermeasures (ECM).
R5 Describe factors affecting ECM.
R5 Describe the three types of ECM equipment: 1) Barrage jammers; 2) Spot jammers; and, 3)
Sweep jammers.
R5 Explain the considerations for sing ECM.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum or frequency spectrum is the naturally occurring range of energies
transmitted by electronic equipment and produced by decaying atoms or as a result of stellar and
cosmic phenomenon. This invisible energy is a series of cycles or alternating polarity signals that,
if visible, would look similar to a wave. Each oscillation of the wave is one cycle, and the distance
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from one cycle to the next is known as wavelength. The number of cycles per second is measured in
frequency and denoted by the term hertz — the power coming from the outlets in your home is 60
hertz or 60 cycles per second.
The frequency spectrum is large, with each wavelength of energy having specific properties. Lower
frequency energy propagates or moves from one point to another. Engineers design equipment to
operate within a specific set of parameters based upon these properties. Figure 144 represents the
frequency spectrum.
Figure 144
Radio Waves
The term “radio waves” was coined in the early days of radio communications because of the limitations
of equipment at the time. Although modern equipment can operate above and below this range, most
electronic equipment still operates within it, including communications systems, cellular systems, radars,
AM and FM radio stations, satellite systems, and remote controls. This frequency range is discussed in
detail later in this lesson.
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Infrared
Infrared (IR) energy is most commonly known as heat. Infrared energy was discovered in the 1800s. A
prism, used to separate sunlight into the various colors of the visible spectrum, was projected onto a table.
Hot spots were noted on the table below the red (lower frequency) range of the visible spectrum. This
energy, which was not visible to the human eye, was obviously present because of its effect on matter. All
objects — especially living creatures — radiate IR energy. See Figure 145. Many types of remote control
systems used in household electronics use IR as the transmission medium. These devices are typically short
range.
Figure 145
Visible Light
Electromagnetic energy in this frequency range is visible to the human eye. It begins at the upper end of
the IR spectrum and continues to the lower ultra violet spectrum. Red, yellow, orange, green, indigo, blue,
and violet are used typically to identify the frequencies in this range. All visible light is a combination of
the primary colors, which are red, yellow, and blue. White light is a combination of all colors in the visible
spectrum.
Ultraviolet
Ultraviolet or (UV) light is higher in frequency than visible light. Many animals have the ability to see in
this frequency range. Certain plants and fruits stand out more prominently in UV light, allowing animals
to easily find their next meal. Bodily fluids also reflect UV light, which is why crime scene investigators use
UV equipment to locate blood and other fluids. UV light is typically divided into three ranges: UVA, UVB,
and UVC, lower frequency to higher frequency. UVB energy and UVC energy are damaging to biological
tissues. See Figure 146.
Figure 146
X-Rays
X-ray energy is produced by electrons changing energy levels in atoms. Devices that produce X-rays
artificially are widely used in medical and industrial applications. Soft X-rays are at the lower end of the
spectrum, and hard X-rays at the upper end and overlap with lower frequency gamma rays (discussed
below).
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Gamma Rays
Gamma radiation is energy that originates from the nucleus of decaying atoms. Gamma rays are especially
harmful to biological tissues. The only physical difference between X-rays and Gamma rays is their origin
within the atom.
Cosmic Rays
Cosmic rays are at the far limit of the measurable frequency spectrum. They originate from outside the
earth and are a result of cosmic and stellar phenomena.
Electronic equipment typically operates within a narrow set of frequencies: generally between 3 KHz
and 300 GHz. These frequencies are broken down into specific bands as indicated in Table 2, below:
Table 2 - Frequency Bands

Band Name Frequency
Very Low Frequency (VLF) 3 - 30 kHz
Low Frequency (LF) 30 - 300 kHz
Medium Frequency (MF) 0.3 - 3 MHz
High Frequency (HF) 3 - 30 MHz
Very High Frequency (VHF) 30 - 200 MHz
Ultra High Frequency (UHF 0.3 - 3 GHz
Super High Frequency (SHF) 3 - 30 GHz
Extremely High Frequency (EHF) 30 - 300 GHz
The U.S. government allocates certain frequencies for specific types of equipment and purposes. For
example, frequencies between 535-1605 KHz are the AM broadcasting band, 54-72 MHz is for
television channels 2-4, and 88-108 MHz is the FM broadcasting band.
EOD Significant Frequencies

Of primary concern to EOD and bomb technicians is a very narrow band of frequencies that falls
between 1-2000 MHz. Most devices used to remotely detonate IEDs transmit within this narrow
range of frequencies. Figure 147 is an example of the types of equipment used to remotely detonate
IEDs and the frequencies they transmit.
Figure 147
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Of particular note is the bandwidth of frequencies between 283 MHz and 433 MHz, which is where
the vast majority of remote control devices operate. Most likely, the car alarm remote you carry in
your pocket transmits within this range of frequencies.
Modulation
A piece of equipment designed to communicate with another transmits a signal known as a carrier
at a specific frequency. Some type of data or code must be incorporated into this signal for it to be
received and translated by another device. The code embedded into the carrier signal is known as
modulation.
Each of a wide variety of modulation techniques is typically used for certain types of equipment and
applications.
Types of Modulation
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
AM varies the amplitude of the carrier signal in direct proportion to the modulation signal strength. See
Figure 148. This type of modulation is typically used for radio signals. AM was the first type of modulation
used for broadcast radio.
Figure 148
Frequency Modulation (FM)

FM varies the frequency of the carrier signal proportional to the modulating signal’s frequency. See Figure
149. FM is commonly used for communications equipment and high fidelity broadcast voice or music.
Figure 149
Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

PPM is a type of modulation in which the time interval between a series of pulses in a stream is varied.
Many hobby radios use this type of modulation to control servos in an radio-controlled toy. With PPM, the
position of pulses determines a certain angular position of the servo.
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

Designed by the telecommunications industry, PCM is a modulation scheme typically used to digitally
represent an analog signal, such as that used in digital telephones. It is also used in high-end hobby radios
where a more versatile system is needed to control servos. With PCM, 1,024 servo positions are possible.
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Digital Modulation Techniques

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
ASK (Figure 150) is a method of representing binary data by varying the amplitude of a carrier. One of the
simplest forms is On/Off Keying (OOK) in which a binary 1 is represented by the presence of a signal and
a binary 0 is represented by the absence of a signal.
Figure 150
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

FSK (Figure 151) is a type of modulation in which the frequency of a carrier signal is shifted between
two discrete frequencies known as the Mark frequency and the Space frequency. This is another type of
modulation used to transmit binary data.
Figure 151
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

PSK (Figure 152) is another type of binary modulation technique in which the phase of the carrier is
shifted to represent binary data.
Figure 152
Many other types of modulation techniques combine the modulation types above. Wireless engineers are
constantly developing new techniques that allow more data to be embedded into a carrier signal and that
purvey that data more effectively and efficiently.
The two main categories of modulation are analog and digital. AM, FM, and PPM are examples of analog
modulation.
FM and AM radio, broadcast television, and some hobby radios use analog modulation. Analog modulation
superimposes a desired signal on a carrier. Analog transmitters and receivers are typically low cost and
technologically unsophisticated.
On the other hand, digital systems transmit binary data from the transmitter to the receiver by encoding
the digital data to a carrier signal using one of the methods listed previously. Digital systems have many
advantages over analog systems; they are generally not affected by interference and low signal-to-noise ratio.
The reason is because the signal is easier to reconstruct on the receiving end since the information is binary
and can be only a one or a zero. However, digital systems are more expensive and more technologically
sophisticated.
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Most digital remote control systems transmit a data stream to the receiving unit — that is, when you push
the button on the car alarm remote, a stream of 1s and 0s is transmitted to the receiver in your car. The
information contained in this data stream tells the car alarm to perform a certain function. An example of
this is, you push the button on your remote, and the following data stream is sent to the receiver:
1011 0001 1101 0101
The first set of digits, 1011, identifies a manufacturer — e.g., ACME. The second set of digits, 0001,
identifies a type of equipment — in this case, the car alarm. The third set of digits, 1101, identifies a specific
model number — AA-032b. The final set of digits, 0101, tells the alarm to perform a specific function, such
as disarm.
The above analogy is a simplification of this concept. Many digital devices transmit countless bits of data.
For example, some car alarms even change codes with each use but, for the most part, the concept is very
similar. Interfering with or corrupting the digital data contained in the stream will not allow the receiver to
receive the intended signal. If you have a car alarm remote that transmits on the exact frequency as a friend
and you pushed your remotes at the same time, most likely neither alarm would work. Most car alarm
receivers would not be able to differentiate between the signals.
Remote Control (RC) Firing System Components

Bomb builders construct devices in many ways. However, there are commonalities to each device.
Devices have been recovered with the components, such as internal circuit boards and antennas,
removed and unrecognizable as a specific type of RC device. However, many components are left in
the original containers and are easily identified as a doorbell, car alarm, or other common device.
Transmitter
Obviously each device must have a transmitter to allow the bomber to transmit the detonation signal. The
operational characteristics of the transmitter will determine the performance of the device. Frequency,
power output, and type of antenna will play a role.
Receiver
The firing signal has to be received by its intended receiver. The transmitter and receiver have to be matched.
A transmitter from one car alarm obviously cannot work with a receiver from another. They are coded to
work as one system.
Arming Device
Most RCIEDs employ some type of arming device to prevent premature detonation from a stray RF signal.
A wide variety of devices have been used to provide this function. Mechanical timers, a common type of
S&A device, include travel alarm clocks with microswitches and washing machine timers. Digital timing
devices have been used; most are based on the 555 timing IC. Devices in Iraq have been recovered with
a “safe to recover” timer that disarms the device for retrieval in the event an appropriate target does not
present itself to the terrorist.
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Firing System/Circuitry
Most devices used to initiate RCIEDs require additional circuitry to fire a detonator. Devices such as
cordless phones, pagers, auto alarm pagers, and wireless doorbells typically send an output signal to a small
piezoelectric speaker that does not have sufficient energy to fire an electric detonator. Transistors, relays, and
SCRs must be used with secondary power sources to provide enough energy to initiate the device. There
are, however, several types of devices, such as car alarms and garage door openers, that do produce an output
signal with enough energy to function an electric blasting cap.
Antennas
Any type of device that transmits or receives a signal must have an antenna. An antenna is a device that
produces electromagnetic energy when an alternating polarity signal is applied to its components and
develops an alternating current signal when placed into an electromagnetic field. Antennas may or may
not be visible. Many types of miniature transmitters use coiled antennas contained in the housing of the
transmitter or receiver. Notice the transmitter for your car’s alarm or keyless entry system. Although it is
not visible, an antenna has to be there; otherwise, the device would not function.
Types of Devices Used for RCIED Construction

Virtually any device that has a transmitter and an associated receiver can be used to remotely initiate
IEDs. Some of the common devices are listed below:
Car Alarms
Car alarms have all the makings for use in an IED. See Figure 153. Most incorporate several types of anti-
disturbance features as part of the alarm system. Since they are designed to run off of a car’s 12-volt battery,
they require no modification to fire a detonator.
Figure 153
Typical frequency range of car alarm systems is 283-433 MHz.
In its simplest form, a car alarm is one or more sensors connected to some type of siren. The most basic
alarm would have a switch on the driver’s door and would be wired so that if anyone opened the door, the
siren would wail.
R5 Most modern car alarm systems are much more sophisticated. They consist of:
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R5 An array of sensors that can include switches, pressure sensors, and motion detectors
R5 A siren, often able to create a variety of sounds so that it can be customized for your car
R5 A radio receiver to allow wireless control from a key fob
R5 An auxiliary battery so that the alarm can operate even if the main battery gets disconnected
R5 A computer control unit that monitors everything and sounds the alarm — the “brain” of the
system
Most car alarm systems come with a portable key chain transmitter. With this device, you can send
instructions to the brain to control the alarm system remotely. This works in basically the same way as
radio-controlled toys by using radio-wave pulse modulation to send specific messages.
Since the transmitter controls your alarm system, the pattern of pulse modulation must act like a key. A
particular line of transmitter devices may have millions of pulse codes. This makes the communication
language for your alarm system unique, so no person can use another transmitter to access your car.
Although this system is effective, it is not foolproof. If someone really wants to break into your car, he or
she can use a code grabber to make a copy of your “key.” A code grabber is a radio receiver that is sensitive
to your transmitter’s signal. It receives the code and records it. If the thief intercepts your disarm code, he
or she can program another transmitter to mimic your unique signal. With this copied key, the thief can
completely bypass the alarm system the next time you leave your car unattended.
To address this problem, advanced alarm systems establish a new series of codes every time you activate
the alarm. Using rolling code algorithms, the receiver encrypts the new disarm code and sends it to your
transmitter. Since the transmitter uses that disarm code only once, any information intercepted by a code
snatcher is worthless.
Garage Door Openers

Garage door openers generally have a low range. However, newer models are coded specifically for the
transmitter/receiver pair, so the range can be increased without causing inadvertent door openings. One key
factor from an EOD standpoint is that typically these devices operate using a 12 VDC power supply, and
components on the door opener’s circuit board can be used to fire a detonator with little modification.
Typical frequency range is 300-390 MHz, and normal ranges can be from 50 to 250 feet.
The fob that you carry on your key chain or use to open the garage door is actually a small radio transmitter.
When you push a button on the fob, you turn on the transmitter , which sends a code to the receiver (either
in the car or in the garage). Inside the car or garage is a radio receiver tuned to the frequency that the
transmitter is using (300 or 400 MHz is typical for modern systems).
Pagers
The secret to the pager is that inside its case is a simple, yet sophisticated, receiver. With the exception
of two-way-pagers, pagers do not have a transmitter. Since the transmitter consumes most of the battery
power in portable communications devices, pagers have an advantage by saving on battery power. No
transmitter also means that the pager can be made smaller than other communications devices.
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Commercial paging may operate in the 35-36, 43-44, 152-159, and 454-460 MHz bands (referred to as the
lower band) and the 929 and 931 MHz bands (referred to as the upper band).
R5 Small and easily concealed
R5 Little modification necessary
R5 Frequency ranges: 27MHz and 450-470MHz
R5 Range limited only by service area
Cordless Phones
Cordless phones are one of the most popular devices currently in use in Iraq to initiate RCIEDs. See
Figure 154. Since most undeveloped countries do not have a cellular infrastructure established, the public
uses long-range cordless phones. One significant aspect from an EOD standpoint is that cordless phone
systems can have several handsets that can be paged individually from one base station. This gives the
bomber the ability to initiate several devices from one location. A number of manufactures advertise ranges
of up to 50 kilometers using a high power base station.
Figure 154
Most cordless phones require some type of modification to fire a detonator. Most bombers disconnect the
phone’s speaker and use transistors, relays, and SCRs along with a secondary power source.
Cordless phones also have a wide range of operating frequencies, which makes them difficult to counter.
Typical operating frequencies:
R5 50-138MHz
R5 254-268MHz
R5 380-394MHz
R5 900MHz
R5 2.4GHz
R5 5.8GHz
Hobby Radios
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Most RC toys operate at either 27 MHz or 49 MHz. This pair of frequencies has been allocated by the
FCC for basic consumer items, such as garage door openers, walkie-talkies, and RC toys. See Figure 155.
Advanced RC models, such as the more sophisticated RC airplanes, use 72-MHz or 75-MHz frequencies.
Figure 155
R5 Transmitter controls servo motors
R5 Microswitches can be activated by servos, or detonators can be hooked directly to receiver output
R5 Typical operating frequencies are 27MHz, 49MHz, 72MHz and 75MHz
R5 Can control up to 9 servos
R5 Intermediate range
Wireless Doorbells
Wireless doorbells are similar in design to garage door openers. They have a small transmitter (doorbell)
and a receiver unit:
R5 Small transmitter
R5 May require modifications to fire detonator
R5 Typical operating frequencies: 283-315MHz
R5 Short range
Handheld Radios
Handheld radios have been used extensively to initiate RCIED. See Figure 156. They can be long-range
depending on the type of system. Several handheld units can be used with a high power base station, which
gives the bomber the ability to initiate secondary and tertiary devices from one location.
Figure 156
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R5 Handheld radios operate typically in the UHF and VHF frequency ranges
R5 FRS (Family Radio Service): 450-470 MHz, approximately 2 mile range
R5 FCC unlicensed up to 500 milliwatts
R5 GMRS (General Mobile Radio Service): same frequency as FRS but greater range (5 - 25 miles)
R5 Can transmit up to 50 watts (.5-5 watts are typical)
Cell Phones
Incorporating cellular phones into IEDs is very simple and can allow for a variety of applications. See
Figure 157. Very little modification is required. With the global capability of the newer phones, the
terrorist can be halfway around the world from the target.
Figure 157
Dual-Tone Multi-Frequency (DTMF) Signalling

Rotary dial phones worked by sending a series of voltage pulses over a phone line. These voltages
pulses were read and decoded by an analog switching system, and a corresponding number was
dialed.
DTMF was developed at Bell Labs to allow dialing signals to dial long-distance numbers, potentially
over non-wire links such as microwave or satellites. Encoders/decoders were added at the end offices
that would convert the standard pulse dialing clicks into DTMF tones and play them down the line
to the remote end office. At the remote site, another encoder/decoder would decode the tones and
turn out a series of clicks. Using the existing network for signaling as well as the message is known
as in-band signaling.
It was clear even in the late 1950s when DTMF was being developed that the future of switching
lay in electronic switches rather than the mechanical crossbar systems currently in use. In this case,
pulse dialing made no sense at any point in the circuit, and plans were made to roll DTMF out to
end users as soon as possible. Various tests of the system occurred throughout the 1960s. DTMF
became known as touch tone.
The touch tone system also introduced a standardized keyboard layout. After testing 18 layouts,
operators eventually chose the one familiar to us today, with 1 in the upper-left corner and 0 at the
bottom. The adding-machine layout, with 1 in the lower-left was also tried. At that time, few people
used adding machines. Having the 1 at the “start” (in European language reading order) led to fewer
typing errors. In retrospect, many people consider this a mistake. With the widespread introduction
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of computers and bank machines, the phone keyboard has become somewhat obsolete, causing
people to make mistakes.
The engineers had also envisioned phones being used to access computers and surveyed a number of
companies to see what they would need for this role. This led to the addition of the pound (#) and
star (*) keys as well as a group of keys for menu selection: A, B, C, and D. In the end, the lettered
keys were dropped from most phones. Slowly, the # and * keys became widely used, primarily for
certain vertical service codes such as *67 to suppress caller ID. Many non-telephone applications,
such as amateur radio repeater signaling and control, still use the alphabet keys.
The U.S. military also used the letters, relabeled, in their AUTOVON phone system. Here, the
letters were used before dialing the phone to give some calls priority, cutting in over existing calls, if
necessary. The idea was to allow important traffic to get through every time. Pressing C, immediate,
before dialing would make the switch first look for any free lines. If all lines were in use, the switch
would hang up non-priority calls and then priority calls. Although the AUToVON phone system no
longer exists, its original names were Flash Override (A), Flash (B), Immediate (C), and Priority (D).
Pressing one of these keys gave your call priority, overriding other conversations on the network.
Flash Override is the highest priority.
Present-day uses of the A, B, C, and D keys on telephone networks are few and exclusive to network
control. For example, the A key is used on some networks to cycle through different carriers at will
(thereby listening in on calls). Their use is probably prohibited by most carriers.
The DTMF Tone Matrix

The DTMF keypad is laid out in a 4 x 4 matrix with each row representing a low frequency and each
column representing a high frequency. See the Table 3, below. Pressing a single key such as “1” sends a
sinusoidal tone of the two frequencies 697 and 1209 hertz (Hz). The term “multi-frequency” is because of
these two tones, which are then decoded by the switching center to determine which key was pressed.
Table 3 - DTMF Keypad Frequencies

1 2 3 A 697Hz
4 5 6 B 770Hz
7 8 9 C 852Hz
* 0 # D 941Hz
1209Hz 1336Hz 1477Hz 1633Hz
The frequencies were initially designed with a ratio of 21/19, slightly less than a whole tone, to avoid
harmonics or naturally occurring frequencies that could take place when the two tones are sent. The
frequencies may not vary more that +/- 1.5% from their nominal frequency, or the switching center will
ignore the signal. The high frequencies may be the same volume or louder as the low frequencies when sent
across the line. The loudness difference between the high and low frequencies can be as large as 3 decibels
(dB) and is referred to as twist.
DTMF Firing Systems

For the bomb builder, DTMF firing systems make a much more versatile and safer firing system for
85
RCIED. The devices used in the train bombings in Madrid, Spain, used cellular telephones as the initiators.
The detonators were connected to the phones’ vibrating mechanisms, and alarms were set on the phones.
When the alarms activated, a voltage signal was sent to the vibrating mechanism that had been disconnected
and routed to an electric detonator. This obviously was an effective technique. However, if the bomber had
received a call while he was in the process of placing his device, the device would have activated.
Because of their versatility and relative safety, DTMF devices are being used more frequently to detonate
RCIEDs. In addition to the other components, a DTMF firing system must have a DTMF decoder, which
receives an incoming DTMF tone, decodes the tone, and performs a certain function based on the number
selected. This decoder would be placed on the receiving end of the system. An encoding device, used to
generate the signal, would be placed on the transmitting end.
DTMF decoders can be very simple, decoding a single tone, to complex, decoding 16 tones and providing
an output signal to control 16 devices. They can even be password protected whereby a correct sequence of
tones must be entered to access the output device. Most DTMF decoders have a relay as the output device.
The relay can be used to control any type of high current demand device.
Any set of devices capable of transmitting and receiving an audible signal can be used to construct a DTMF
firing system. See Figure 158. Personal family radios, cell phones, and mobile communications systems can
be easily modified. With the exception of cell phones and some tactical radios, however, a separate DTMF
encoder would have to be used to generate the tone to be transmitted.
Figure 158
Electronic Countermeasures
The RCIED threat facing our troops in Iraq has bought about a deluge of developments in electronic
countermeasures (ECM) equipment. Many systems have been deployed in support of the effort
to thwart RCIED attacks on convoys, troops, and first responders. The term “ECM” makes many
people uneasy because this is a sensitive subject with many classifications issues. Therefore, we will
not be discussing specific systems or capabilities and limitations of systems. This section will be an
overview of ECM, how it works, and the factors involved employment.
ECM equipment or jammers are systems or devices that interfere with a receiver’s ability to receive a
signal. For instance, if you are having a conversation with a friend and five other people stand around
and begin to shout, they are effectively interfering with your ability to communicate with your friend.
This simple analogy is the basic premise by which ECM operates.
A high power transmitter transmits a “noisy” signal on the same frequency as the receiving device.
This noisy signal interferes with the receiver’s ability to receive the signal it is intended to receive and
prevents the device from functioning.
86
Factors Affecting ECM

Transmitter Power
In the conversation with a friend, assume that you are whispering instead of speaking at a normal
level. Since the audible signal from you to your friend is at a much lower strength, interfering with the
conversation would be much easier. This is an example of one factor affecting the capabilities of ECM
equipment. If the RCIED transmitter’s power is very low, ECM will be more effective.
ECM Power Output

On the other hand, if the antagonists lowered their voices to a whisper instead of shouting, the conversation
with your friend will be easier. This is another factor involved in ECM: if the ECM transmitter has a higher
power, it will be more effective and typically have a greater range.
Distance from Transmitter to Receiver

If you are having a conversation with a friend who is across the room, the conversation will be more
susceptible to interference. If the transmitter for a given device is a long distance from the intended receiver,
the receiver will be easier to jam.
Distance from ECM to Receiver

If you are attempting to have a conversation with a friend across a large room and the antagonists are
standing close to the friend and shouting, they can effectively prevent the friend from hearing you. If the
friend moves away from the shouters, he will find it easier to communicate with you. The closer an ECM
device is to the intended receiver, the more effective it will be.
Types of ECM
The three major categories of ECM equipment are:
1. Barrage jammers
2. Spot jammers
3. Sweep jammers
Each has its specific operational parameters, capabilities, and limitations.
Barrage Jammers
Many jammers used today are barrage jammers, which transmit their jamming signal over a wide range of
frequencies. This type of system has pros and cons.
A transmitter is limited to how much power it can effectively transmit. Barrage jammers have to spread
that power output over a wide range of frequencies. For this reason, the effective power output of the
equipment is much less than if the same transmitter had only a narrow band on which to transmit.
87
Barrage jammers are limited by antenna design. For an antenna to be efficient, it has to be a certain size
according to the frequency being transmitted. Lower frequencies have longer wavelengths and require
a larger antenna. Higher frequencies antennas will be smaller. Power is sacrificed when a signal is
transmitted through the incorrect antenna. Therefore, barrage jammers’ power output is diminished by the
wide bandwidth and also by using a single antenna. One solution is to have an antenna array, which leads
to other issues.
Simple barrage jammers are indiscriminate in that they are not selective in which signals they jam.
Friendly wireless equipment is susceptible to barrage jamming: communications, robotics, etc. Barrage
jammers can be designed with programmable features that allow certain frequencies to remain unaffected.
Benefits to the barrage jammer is that it has the ability to engage multiple targets at once, and it is
effective against equipment that is frequency agile — that is, equipment that changes frequencies at
random intervals to prevent jamming.
Spot Jammers Spot

Spot jammers are designed to engage a narrow range of frequencies. Since the transmitters’ power can
be focused at a narrow bandwidth, they can be fairly high power and have a greater range. They can be
designed to be always jamming or to receive and subsequently engage a threat signal. Obviously, the
latter design requires a supporting receiver and circuitry to detect a threat, so this type of jammer tends
to be more technologically advanced. There is also latency between receipt and engagement. When the
transmitter from a device sends out a signal, there is a short time lapse from the point the receiver receives
the first bit of data until it receives the last. A jammer must have the ability to identify the threat signal
and engage it within that time to effectively counter an RCIED.
Sweep Jammers
Sweep jammers are designed to sweep a narrow bandwidth jamming signal over a wide range of
frequencies. Sweep jammers can be used effectively against RCIEDs if the sweep time is fast enough.
They can be more efficient than barrage jammers over a limited range by concentrating the output power
on a specific frequency and moving on to the next frequency, returning the sweep to the original frequency
fast enough to prevent the RCIED receiver from receiving.
Considerations
Enemy TTP
If a countermeasure is developed against an enemy tactic, the enemy will, in turn, develop a counter-
countermeasure. Terrorists are adaptive as has been proven in Iraq. One enemy tactic is to use a long length
of wire or cable between the receiver and the actual IED. This allows the bomber to place the receiver
outside the protective umbrella provided by the ECM. The best way to protect yourself is to keep abreast of
current terrorist trends and ensure all personnel are informed when new tactics are being utilized.
ECM Capabilities
Know the capabilities and limitations of your ECM. Know the frequency spectrum it covers. Know
the effective range. Know the types of devices the ECM system will effectively counter and those it will
not. Ensure all personnel know how to operate the ECM system and perform operability check prior to
88
deploying ECM.
Equipment Interoperability Issues

Friendly force equipment issues may be involved when deploying ECM. This is tied to knowing the
operational parameters of the ECM as well as the operating parameters of your wireless equipment. If
ECM affects your communications, ensure backup comms are available. If the robot or X-ray operates on a
specific frequency that is covered by the ECM, consider how you could effectively deploy the ECM and still
allow control of your equipment; if available, consider using hard wire cables/fiber optics.
Threat Assessment
Proper threat assessment should always be accomplished on any IED response. This is especially true when
responding to a potential RCIED. This decision making process will guide development of a plan of action
and disablement logic. This document is by no means designed to dictate RSPs or POAs. However, based
on the current threat and lessons learned from EOD units in Iraq, there are basically three sound tactics to
follow when responding to an RCIED:
1. Remote
2. Remote
3. Remote
And if all else fails, use your ROBOT!!!
Remote-controlled improvised explosive devices continue to plague our deployed troops, with no foreseeable
end to this threat. Terrorists have become adept at RCIED design, construction, and employment. An
accurate threat assessment is critical to safely and effectively respond to a potential RCIED as this process
will logically drive decision making throughout the response. A thorough understanding of current terrorist
tactics, techniques, and procedures will assist in threat assessment; it is imperative that deployed personnel as
well as domestic responders stay abreast of current enemy TTP. Knowing the capabilities and limitations of
fielded ECM systems is crucial as well. Above all, remote procedures are the safest and most effective way to
prosecute these types of threats. USE YOUR ROBOT!
89
90
Chapter 5 - Digital Multimeter Use
This chapter covers the digital multimeter (DMM) and its various uses, the most common of which
is voltage measurement. In addition to measuring voltage, current, and resistance, some digital
multimeters also measure capacitance. A digital multimeter displays the exact measurement on a
numeric LCD or LED readout, leaving little chance for error. These abilities are the reasons the
digital multimeter is such an important tool for the EOD technician. It will assist the technician in
situations in which hands-on procedures are necessary to avoid imminent loss of life.
Although the DMM is an important and versatile tool for analyzing electronic circuits and finding
where errors exist, it will always change the circuit being measured. If used correctly, this change
will be negligible. However, if used incorrectly, it will blow a fuse or give an inaccurate reading —
at best. At worst, it could initiate the circuit under test. For these reasons, having at least a basic
understanding of how a DMM functions is vital to your safety and that of others. Because they have
become so common today, DMMs can be purchased for as little as $10 to $20. These inexpensive
multimeters have stated accuracies and ranges that often mirror those of meters costing over $400.
However, the less expensive models use inferior components and manufacturing methods that make
them extremely unreliable. Although they would be fine for a workshop or car repair, they should
not be trusted on an IED Defeat (IEDD) operation.
This student handout demonstrates a means of safely and effectively measuring voltage, current, and
resistance; it delineates other standard multimeter functionalities under innocuous circumstances.
No procedure is 100% effective and safe for deactivating an unknown explosive device. The safest
way to attack a hazardous device is remotely. The procedures described herein are known to be
effective in most cases.
Lesson Objectives
R5 State the basic functions of the digital multimeter.
R5 Name the most common application for a multimeter.
R5 Describe the steps necessary to make a resistance reading.
R5 Define the term continuity.
R5 Demonstrate the correct met set up to measure voltage, current, and resistance.
The Basics
A multimeter is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several functions in one unit. In
the United States the most basic instruments include an ammeter, a voltmeter, and an ohmmeter.
Other features available in some units include:
91
R5 A continuity tester that beeps when a circuit conducts
R5 Digital output (as a number, rather than a scale reading) of the quantity under test
R5 An amplifier to sense small voltages, currents, and high resistances
R5 Measurements of inductance and capacitance (used frequently by technicians to test the

components when building or repairing equipment)
R5 Tests of diodes and transistors (popular with technicians who repair broken equipment)
R5 Scales and sockets for temperature measurement with standard thermocouples
R5 An intermediate-frequency oscillator, a detector, and an audio amplifier with a speaker to

diagnose and tune radio circuits (a standard substitute for an oscilloscope on some Russian
models)
R5 A slow oscilloscope (appearing in some high-end computer-controlled multimeters)
R5 A telephone test set
R5 Automotive circuit tester
R5 Record high and low voltage snapshots
Some type of testing lead is typically plugged into various sockets in the front of the meter, as shown
in Figure 159. These sockets are labeled according to the function of the test being performed. The
black lead should be placed in the socket marked COM.
Figure 159
The table on the following page identifies and defines some of the more common symbols used
on the controls of digital multimeters. A complete listing of a meter’s symbology is found in the
manufacturer’s technical manual supplied with the meter.
Although multimeters will differ in appearance, basic controls and functions are relatively standard.
Refer to the meter’s technical manual for specifics in controls, meter lead sockets, and functionality.
92
Voltage Measurements
The most common application for a multimeter is the voltage measurement. Although performing a
voltage measurement is a simple operation, keep the following in mind:
Voltage is a difference in potential between two points, such as the positive and negative terminals of a
battery. Placing the meter leads on one terminal alone will not produce an accurate reading because
no difference in potential can exist on the same point. This mistake is common when performing a
voltage measurement.
Ensure meter leads are in the correct sockets; the black lead is always placed in the common socket,
and the red lead is placed in the socket labeled with a “V.” Ensure the meter’s function dial is placed
on the correct setting: AC if you are measuring alternating current and DC if you are measuring
direct current.
Figure 160 shows correct meter set-up and lead placement to measure the DC voltage drop across a
resistor on a printed circuit (PC) board.
Figure 160
93
Voltage measurements may be used to determine the state of a switch. If voltage is measured across
a switch and the switch is closed, the voltage will be near zero (because voltage = current x resistance,
and a closed switch has close to zero resistance). The switch could be shunted and then removed
without affecting the circuit. If the switch is open, it is by far the highest resistance in the circuit; it
is effectively infinite resistance. The voltage measurement will, therefore, show the supply voltage. In
this case, the switch can be cut out without affecting the circuit.
Measuring Continuity
Continuity is a term used to describe a closed circuit or an unimpeded path for current to flow
between two points, such as the contacts of a relay or switch. This measurement is especially useful in
determining whether a switch is normally closed or normally open or in finding the normally closed
contacts of a relay. Most multimeters are designed with a feature that produces an audible indication
of continuity.
The red meter lead must be placed in the appropriate socket. Typical lead placement for a continuity
measurement will be the same for a resistance measurement, indicated by the symbol for resistance:
Ω. Selector dial setting is dependent upon the meter. In some cases, the continuity setting will be
collocated with resistance; in other cases, it will have its own setting indicated by a series of arcs. On
some meters, a button may need to be pressed to activate the audible tone feature.
To test proper setup, touch together the ends of the meter leads. An audible tone should be
produced by the meter.
To test continuity on a switch or other component, place the leads in the desired locations. If a tone
is heard, continuity exists between those two points. If no tone is heard, the switch is open. When
continuity does not exist between the two points being measured, the meter will display “OL,” which
means out of limits.
If you are testing for continuity in a switch, and you have not received a tone indicating a closed
circuit, change the state of the switch or move the meter leads to the switch’s other contacts until a
tone is heard. The tone indicates closed contacts.
With the one exception of checking for good connections, a continuity check should NEVER be
made on an IED.
Resistance Measurement
The DMM passes a known current through the component being measured and works out the actual
resistance. Although the size of this current is not enough to fire a detonator, it can change the state
of certain electronic components. Therefore, limit resistance checks in IED operations to testing
DMM lead connections prior to conducting a current check. Even then, use a traveling connector
to ensure that you are never connected across a component, especially a switch. The reason is if the
switch under test is open, you will create a short across it with your meter set on ohms.
Testing for resistance is similar to testing for continuity. However, when measuring resistance, the
94
actual value of resistance will be indicated on the meter’s display. Typically, meters will display this
information using metric notation: 1K for 1000 ohms, 1M for 1 million ohms, etc.
Ensure the red meter lead is placed in the correct socket for resistance measurement and that the
meter’s function selector is on the correct setting, typically indicated by the Ω. Place meter leads on
the component you are testing, and note the reading on the scale.
When taking a resistance measurement, isolate the component being tested from the circuit. See
Figure 161. If you do not, the meter will measure resistance through all points between the meter
leads.
Figure 161
For example, in Figure 162, if you try to measure the 1 mega ohm resistor without removing it
from the circuit, the actual reading will be the total resistance of the circuit. This reading will be the
reciprocal of the sum of the resistive value’s reciprocals. In this case, the resistance measured would
be 4.999 ohms, rather than the one million ohms it should be.
Figure 162
Current Measurement
When measuring current, the meter must actually become part of the circuit so that current flows
through the meter’s testing circuitry. The meter must be connected in series with the wire or current
path under test. The circuit under test must be broken. The meter must be inserted in the break,
providing an alternate path for current to flow. Typically, the circuit under test will be de-energized
and then re-energized once the meter is in place.
Typical resistances of a good quality DMM are:
R5 Amp range – 0.2Ω
95
R5 Milli amp range - 2Ω
R5 Micro amp range - 100Ω
Measuring across a component, especially a switch, would effectively short it out, which, in this case,
would be the same as closing the switch. That is why current checks should always be completed in
line with the circuit.
First ensure the red meter lead is in the correct socket. Most meters have a separate socket for
measurement of high current values above 10 amps. If you anticipate high current readings, place the
leads in the appropriate location. Typical readings will be under 1 amp — most likely in the milliamp
range.
Always begin on the higher scale. If no current is indicated, switch to the lower scale. A multimeter’s
internal circuitry is protected by a fuse. If an overload condition results, the fuse will blow causing an
open circuit, possibly damaging the meter, and disrupting the circuit under test.
De-energize the circuit under test, and break a current path by separating one leg of a component
from the circuit board or by stripping the insulation from a wire and cutting. Attach the test leads
to the appropriate locations, and re-energize the circuit. See Figure 163. Current flow should be
indicated. If you are required to change scales, de-energize the circuit before changing. This will
prevent the meter’s internal circuitry from interfering with the operation of the circuit under test.
Figure 163
De-energizing, breaking, and re-energizing a circuit to test for current is a suitable method if the
circuit under test is simple and predictable. However, depending on the circuit being tested, this
action may cause a catastrophic failure or an undesirable condition.
The following procedures describe a method to measure current without disturbing the integrity of
the circuit under test.
Assume you are attempting to ascertain the state of a switch connected to unknown circuitry. The
switch has two wires attached to it, but you are unsure if it is a closed switch with current passing
through it maintaining some type of circuit integrity or an open one with no current.
This technique should NOT be used if the switch is attached to an IED.
96
First, turn on the meter, and ensure proper operation by conducting a continuity check between the
meter leads. This will tell you the battery status (a low battery indication will appear if the battery is
low) and that the meter leads are good. At this point, leave the meter leads in the sockets used for
measuring continuity.
Begin by stripping a portion of the insulation from one of the wires. Two inches should suffice.
When this is complete, you will need to attach the meter’s test leads side-by-side on the wire, leaving
approximately one-half inch between the two leads (see Figure 164). When performing this type
of procedure, have a method to securely fasten the leads to the wire under test. Many meters have
supplemental kits available that contain leads with some type of device to tightly connect them to a
wire. This is important when performing this type of check.
Figure 164
Once the leads are securely attached to the wire, you should receive an audible tone notifying you of
good continuity between the test leads and the wire under test, as depicted in Figure 165. At this
point, switch the meter’s test leads to the appropriate sockets to measure for current. Depending
upon the meter, these sockets may be the same as those used to test for continuity. MAKE SURE
YOU ARE FAMILIAR WITH THE METER YOU ARE USING! Place the meter’s function
selector on the appropriate setting to check for current. Use the higher scale.
Figure 165
When these steps are complete, you must cut the wire BETWEEN THE METER’S LEADS, as
depicted in Figures 166 and 167, allowing the meter to become part of the circuit. A multimeter’s
internal circuitry is such that when testing for current, it provides a minimal amount of resistance
so an accurate measurement of true circuit current may be obtained. Cutting the wire allows an
alternate path for current to flow through the meter, thus maintaining the integrity of the circuit
under test.
97
Figure 166
Figure 167
If you do not receive an indication of current on the higher scale, you need to switch to the lower.
Current of only several micro-amperes can maintain the integrity of some circuits. Prior to
switching scales on the meter, you must insert an extension wire to ensure that the circuit remains
undisturbed while changing meter settings. When the extension wire is in place, change scales and
remove the extension wire. Observe the meter’s display. If no current is indicated, the wire has no
current. It is now safe to remove the meter leads.
If current is present, the extension wire must be replaced prior to removing the meter from the
circuit.
Voltage measurement requires no cutting of wires and is the best method for determining the state of
a switch.
Using a different color extension wire may be helpful to avoid confusion with the meter’s test leads.
One way of overcoming some of the hazards of conducting a current check is by using a current
clamp, shown in Figure 168. The clamp can sense a magnetic field, which is created by any current
that may pass through a wire. The strength of this field, then, can be converted into a current
reading.
98
Figure 168
The technology the clamp uses has improved recently, and some clamps are now able to measure
currents much lower than previously possible. However, they still have practical limits that are much
higher than an in-line reading with a DMM. Readings around 1 – 2 mA are generally inaccurate,
and currents lower than that cannot be reliably detected. The only practical advantage of a current
clamp is that it helps select the correct current range for the DMM without having to start high and
make and break the circuit to use lower ranges.
99
100
Glossary
Acceptor impurities: Doping impurities used in semiconductor manufacturing causing weakly

bound electrons to be stripped from the crystalline lattice structure. Acceptor impurities are used to
produce P-type semiconductor material.
Amp hour: A battery’s rating given supplied amperage and a time period. A battery with a rating of
one amp-hour will deliver one amp of current for one hour.
Barrier region: The junction in semiconductors where P-type and N-type materials converge.
Depending on the biasing, the barrier region will allow or disallow current flow, also known as the
depletion region.
Base current: Current that flows through the base of a bi-polar transistor.
Battery: A device that provides stable, predictable power for electronic and electrical devices.
Bias: The process of applying potentials to the various parts of semiconductors.
Breakdown: The point at which a reverse biased semiconductor will begin to conduct opposite its
intended direction. Although some semiconductors are designed to operate in this way, this will
typically result in the destruction of the component.
Capacitance: The capability of a body, system, circuit, or device for storing electric charge.
Capacitance is expressed as the ratio of stored charge in coulombs to the impressed potential
difference in volts. The resulting unit of capacitance is the farad.
Capacitor: An electronic component used for storing an electrical charge.
Charge carriers: In electronics, the constituent carriers for positive and negative electrical charges.
Electrons are the negative carriers, and holes, or the absence of electrons in the orbit of an atom, are
the positive charge carriers.
Charges: The fundamental property of subatomic particles that determines their electromagnetic
interactions. Matter that possesses a charge is influenced by and produces electromagnetic fields.
The interaction between charge and an electromagnetic field is the source of one of the four
fundamental forces, the electromagnetic force.
Collector current: The bulk of current flow through a bi-polar transistor, from emitter to collector
in the case of an NPN and from collector to emitter in the case of a PNP.
Common: In electricity and electronics the most negative point in a circuit, often referred to as
ground or negative.
Conductors: Substances that possess chemical properties that make them suitable to allow
unrestricted current flow.
101
Glossary
Crystalline lattice: A unique arrangement of atoms in a crystal. A crystal structure comprises a unit
cell and a set of atoms arranged in a particular way and periodically repeated in three dimensions
on a lattice. The spacing among unit cells in various directions is called its lattice parameters.
The symmetry properties of the crystal are embodied in its space group. A crystal’s structure and
symmetry play a role in determining many of its properties, such as cleavage, electronic band
structure, and optical properties.
Depletion region: The junction in semiconductors where P-type and N-type materials converge.
Depending on the biasing, the depletion region will allow or disallow current flow. Also known as
the barrier region.
Dielectric: A substance that is highly resistant to flow of electric current. Layers of such substances
are commonly inserted into capacitors to improve their performance.
Donor impurities: Doping impurities used in semiconductor manufacturing causing an excess

number of loosely bound electrons in the crystalline lattice structure of the molecule. Donor
impurities are used to produce N-type semiconductor material.
Electromagnetism: The physics of the electromagnetic field, including its effect on electrically
charged particles. Almost all of the phenomena one encounters in daily life (with the exception of
gravity) result from electromagnetism. The forces between atoms, including the attractive forces
between atoms in a solid that cause the rigidity of solids, are predominantly electromagnetic, from
the positive electric charge of the protons in atomic nuclei and the negative electric charge of the
electrons surrounding the nuclei. The forces acting on the electrons in atoms that cause the varied
phenomena observed in chemical reactions are also predominantly electromagnetic. Light can be
described as a set of traveling disturbances in the electromagnetic field (i.e., electromagnetic waves),
so all optical phenomena are actually electromagnetic in nature.
Electromotive force: The force, measured in volts, that is produced by interaction between a current
and a magnetic field, at least one of which is changing.
Forward Biased: The application of voltage potentials to the constituent parts of a semiconductor
that produce conditions that allow current to flow.
Ganged: Connected together and operated by a single mechanical device, as in a switch.
Holes: In electricity, the absence of an orbital electron in the atom of a conductor — the positive
charge carrier.
Impurity doping: The process of adding certain chemicals to intrinsic semiconductor material
imparting either an absence or excess number of electrons.
Insulators: Substances that have very tightly bound orbital electrons and do not possess properties
that allow electrical current to flow.
Negative ion: An atom with more orbital electrons that nuclear protons.
102
Glossary
Non-polarized: In electronics, a component in which current will flow in either direction regardless
of polarity.
Normally closed: A switch or set of switch contacts that allows current to flow.
Normally open: A switch or set of switch contacts that, when in a static state, allows no current to
flow.
N-type materials: Semiconductor materials that have been “doped” with donor impurities, causing
an excess number of electrons.
Ohm: A unit of electrical resistance, defined as the resistance in a circuit in which a potential
difference of one volt creates a current of one ampere.
Photo electric cells: Devices whose electrical characteristics (e.g., current, voltage, or resistance)
vary when light is upon it. The most common type consists of two electrodes separated by a light-
sensitive semiconductor material.
Photoelectric effect: Emission of electrons by substances, especially metals, when light falls on their
surfaces.
Photo-resistor: A resistor whose resistance is indirectly proportional to the amount of light upon it.
PN junction: In semiconductors, the minute region surrounding the area where P-type and N-type
materials intersect. The PN junction is the basis for all solid state components.
Polarity: The intrinsic separation, alignment, or orientation of two bodies with respect to the
electromagnetic charges.
Positive ion: An atom with less orbital electrons than nuclear protons.
Potential: In electricity, the work required to move a unit of positive charge to a designated point in
a static electric field.
Potentiometer: A variable resistor.
P-type material: Semiconductor materials that have been “doped” with acceptor impurities, causing
holes, or absence of electrons.
Resistance: The opposition of a body or substance to current passing through it, resulting in a
change of electrical energy into heat or another form of energy.
Reversed biased: The application of voltage potentials to the constituent parts of a semiconductor
that produce conditions that disallow current flow.
Rheostat: A continuously variable electrical resistor used to regulate current.
Series: A circuit with only a single path for current to flow.
103
Glossary
Series/parallel: A circuit that contains both properties of series and parallel circuits.
Short circuit: A circuit containing no resistance, typically dangerous and results in very high values
of current.
Strong nuclear force: That force that binds the nuclear particles of an atom together.
Voltage: A potential or difference in potential that induces current flow in conductors.
Voltage drop: A decrease in voltage in a circuit caused by resistance.
Weak nuclear force: That force that binds electrons to orbit around the nucleus of atoms.
104
Glossary
105

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Short Biography of John Connell

Short Biography of Rick Haworth

Chapter 2 - Electrical and Electronic Components ���������������������������������������������� 35

Chapter 3 - Solid State Components and Semiconductors ���������������������������������� 55

This textbook covers the following:

R5 Chapter 5 is a guide on the use of digital multi-meters

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R5 Describe the composition of an atom.

R5 Describe the characteristics of each sub-atomic particle.

R5 Explain the theory of electromagnetism.

R5 Describe how electromagnetism applies to electrical neutrality.

R5 Explain Benjamin Franklin’s early experiment.

R5 Compare Benjamin Franklin’s assumptions with today’s understanding of electricity.

R5 Describe strong nuclear force.

R5 Describe weak nuclear force.

R5 Explain static electricity.

R5 Describe electrical current flow.

R5 Explain positive and negative ions.

R5 Delineate the flow of conventional current and electrons along a conductor.

R5 Define the term electromotive force.

R5 Explain the theory of electromagnetism and how it applies to electrical neutrality.

R5 Explain the differences between series, parallel, and series/parallel circuits.

Nucleus - Protons and Neutrons

Voltage and Electromotive Force (EMF)

The six known ways to produce a voltage or EMF are:

1. Heat (thermo-electricity) is voltage produced by heating the junction of two dissimilar

3. Light (photo-electricity) is voltage produced by exposing light-sensitive material to a light

4. Chemical activity produces voltage by a chemical reaction.

5. Friction is voltage produced by rubbing together two objects.

Three criteria must be met to produce voltage using electromagnetic induction:

1. A conductor in which the voltage will be produced

2. A magnetic field in the conductor’s vicinity

Basic Electrical Theory: Types of Circuits

Two critical points to remember are:

1. Know where to take measurements, and

2. Know how to place the instruments at various points in a circuit.

A resistor is a component designed to offer a certain amount of resistance to current flow. In

The formula used to calculate total resistance in a parallel circuit is:

Each of the two parallel legs contains a 10Ω resistor.

Insert into the formula: 1/10 + 1/10

After calculating the reciprocals, add them together: .1 + .1 = .2

Take the reciprocal value of the sum: 1/.2 = 5

5Ω is the total value of the circuit.

Using the formula:

1/10 + 1/10 + 1/10

1/.3 = 3.33 or 3.3Ω

1/20 + 1/40 + 1/30

.05 + .025 + .033 = .108

9.25 + 20 = 29.25Ω total resistance

E = I x R Voltage equals current multiplied by resistance.

I = E/R Current equals voltage divided by resistance.

R = E/I Resistance equals voltage divided by current

Ohm’s Law in Series Circuits

I = .9 or .9 amps total circuit current

10 + 10 = 20Ω total resistance.

Using the formula:

I = .45 or .45 amps

.45A x 10Ω = 4.5 volts dropped by R1

.45A x 10Ω = 4.5 volts dropped by R2

Chapter 2 - Electrical and Electronic Components �� 35

Chapter 3 - Solid State Components and Semiconductors �� 55