Review of Related Literature and Studies

Avocado (Persea Americana)

Avocados are a subtropical climacteric fruit that is generally oblong in shape and

green skinned, although ‘Hass’, the dominant commercial cultivar, ripens to purple-

black. They are one of the few fruits that contain significant amounts of oils (fatty acids).

The high concentrations of monounsaturated fatty acids and other phytochemicals

make avocado a very healthy and nutritious fruit. Avocados do not ripen unless

removed from the tree, meaning fruit can be mature but ‘tree stored’ for as long as 12

months. Increased commercial maturity is associated with increased fruit size, oil and

dry matter content, and decreased ripening times. Avocados have a relatively short

storage life, limited primarily by the expression of internal chilling injury (CI) symptoms,

but rots are a limitation for fruit grown in many countries. Optimum storage temperature

is generally around 6°C, and temperatures below 3 to 4°C (depending on cultivar and

time in the season) lead to external CI (skin blackening). Controlled atmosphere storage

and 1-MCP (Smart Fresh SM) are effective commercial tools for improving storage life.

Since avocado cannot be consumed unripe, an increasingly important commercial tool

is the use of ethylene to hasten and synchronize ripening. New processing options,

such as cold-pressed oil extraction and high-pressure processing, are receiving

increasing attention (Wiley and Sons, 2010, pg. 731- 740).

 Avocado fruits are regarded as among the most nutrient-dense fruits available.

The fruit contains large quantities of the desirable unsaturated and monounsaturated

fatty acids and is rich in fiber, protein, vitamins, antioxidants, and minerals. This article

summarizes avocado production, emphasizing the 'subtropical' ecotype, and

processing. Data on nutrient, oil, lipid, vitamin, antioxidant, mineral, and sugar content

and composition are provided. The nutritional benefit of a diet containing avocado is

discussed. Reference is made to the major allergen in avocado that is relevant in the

'latex-fruit syndrome' that affects latex-allergic individuals (Cowan AWolstenholme B

Elsevier Inc., 2015, pg. 294-300).

The pulp of avocado (Persea americana, Lauraceae) has been reported to have

beneficial cardiovascular health effects. Avocado oil is used for dermatological

applications and its unsaponifiable portion is reported to have beneficial effects against

osteoarthritis. Although the seed represents a considerable percentage of the total fruit,

scientific research on the phytochemistry and biological effects of avocado seeds is in

the nascent stages,. Currently, the seed represents an under-utilized resource and a

waste issue for avocado processors. There is ethno-pharmacological information on the

use of seeds for the treatment of health-related conditions, especially in South American

countries where avocados are endemic and currently grown on a large scale. Current

research has shown that avocado seeds may improve hypercholesterolemia, and be

useful in the treatment of hypertension, inflammatory conditions and diabetes. Seeds

have also been found to possess insecticidal, fungicidal, and anti-microbial activities.

The avocado seeds and rich in phenolic compounds, and these may play a role in the

putative health effects. Historically, extracts of avocado seeds were also used as ink for
writing and research in our laboratory has explored the potential colorant properties of a

polyphenol oxidase-produced coloured avocado seed extract. Here, we review the

currently-available data on the bioactivity and other functional properties of avocado

seeds. We discuss the strength of the available data, the putative active compounds,

and potential directions for future studies (Current Pharmaceutical Design, 2013).

The avocado is an evergreen tree, despite the fact that the leaves present a

surprisingly short longevity, which is no longer than 12 months. It is characterized by a

rapid growth in height and spread, reaching heights up to 20 m, its roots are shallow

and have poor water uptake and hydraulic conductance. Although the trees produce

high amounts of flowers, usually less than 0.1% of these flowers set fruit. The flowering

and fruit set can be influenced by three different climacteric factors: (1) the occurrence

of frost during the winter; (2) the existence of low mean temperatures; and (3) the

occurrence of extreme high temperatures during fruit set (Carr, 2013). The avocado tree

belongs to the Lauraceae family-typical from the tropical or subtropical climates-and the

Persea genus, which is divided in three different subgenera that enclose more than 150

species: Persea (only 2 species, P. americana and P. schiedeana), Eriodaphne (about

70 species, such as P. caerulea, P. indica and P. lingue, among others), and Machilus

(including around 80 species, such as P. japonica, P. kobu). The most relevant and

widely studied member of the Persea genus is P. Americana, whose fruit is the

commercial avocado. Avocado is the most common English name, but it is also known

as alligator pear and butter pear. The name avocado is derived from the Aztec Nahuatl

language word, ahuacatl, meaning "testicle." This name refers to the shape of the fruit
which was considered by the Aztecs as the fertility fruit (Hurtado, EFernandez,

Gutierrez ACarrasco, Pancorbo A Elsevier, 2018, pg. 37-48).

Automobile

Modern automobiles are no longer mere mechanical devices; they are

pervasively monitored and controlled by dozens of digital computers coordinated via

internal vehicular networks. While this transformation has driven major advancements in

efficiency and safety, it has also introduced a range of new potential risks. In this paper

we experimentally evaluate these issues on a modern automobile and demonstrate the

fragility of the underlying system structure. We demonstrate that an attacker who is able

to infiltrate virtually any Electronic Control Unit (ECU) can leverage this ability to

completely circumvent a broad array of safety-critical systems. Over a range of

experiments, both in the lab and in road tests, we demonstrate the ability to

adversarially control a wide range of automotive functions and completely ignore driver

inputdash including disabling the brakes, selectively braking individual wheels on

demand, stopping the engine, and so on. We find that it is possible to bypass

rudimentary network security protections within the car, such as maliciously bridging

between our car's two internal subnets. We also present composite attacks that

leverage individual weaknesses, including an attack that embeds malicious code in a

car's telematics unit and that will completely erase any evidence of its presence after a

crash. Looking forward, we discuss the complex challenges in addressing these

vulnerabilities while considering the existing automotive ecosystem (Koscher et al.,

2010).
 Predicting the binding mode of flexible polypeptides to proteins is an important

task that falls outside the domain of applicability of most small molecule and

protein−protein docking tools. Here, we test the small molecule flexible ligand docking

program Glide on a set of 19 non-α-helical peptides and systematically improve pose

prediction accuracy by enhancing Glide sampling for flexible polypeptides. In addition,

scoring of the poses was improved by post-processing with physics-based implicit

solvent MM- GBSA calculations. Using the best RMSD among the top 10 scoring poses

as a metric, the success rate (RMSD ≤ 2.0 Å for the interface backbone atoms)

increased from 21% with default Glide SP settings to 58% with the enhanced peptide

sampling and scoring protocol in the case of redocking to the native protein structure.

This approaches the accuracy of the recently developed Rosetta FlexPepDock method

(63% success for these 19 peptides) while being over 100 times faster. Cross-docking

was performed for a subset of cases where an unbound receptor structure was

available, and in that case, 40% of peptides were docked successfully. We analyze the

results and find that the optimized polypeptide protocol is most accurate for extended

peptides of limited size and number of formal charges, defining a domain of applicability

for this approach. Electrification of the automobile provides a means of sustaining

personal mobility in the face of petroleum resource limitations and environmental

imperatives. Lithium ion (Li ion) batteries and hydrogen fuel cells provide pure-

electrification solutions for different mass and usage segments of automotive

application. Battery electric vehicles based on current and targeted Li ion battery

technology will be limited to small-vehicle low-mileage-per-day applications; this is due

to relatively low specific energy (kWh/kg) and long recharge time constraints. We briefly
discuss new generations of Li ion positive and negative electrode intercalation

compounds that are needed and under development to achieve energy storage density,

durability, and cost targets. Lithium−air batteries give promise of extending the range,

but scientists and engineers must surmount a plethora of challenges if growing research

investments in this area are to prove effective. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles have

demonstrated the required ∼3... ( Leohold JGottwald L Springer Berlin Heidelberg,

2009, pg. 288- 293).

Biodiesel

Biodiesel is a clean burning alternative fuel produced from domestic, renewable

resources. The fuel is a mixture of fatty acid alkyl esters made from vegetable oils,

animal fats or recycled greases. Where available, biodiesel can be used in

compression-ignition (diesel) engines in its pure form with little or no modifications.

Biodiesel is simple to use, biodegradable, nontoxic, and essentially free of sulphur and

aromatics. It is usually used as a petroleum diesel additive to reduce levels of

particulates, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and toxics from diesel-powered vehicles.

When used as an additive, the resulting diesel fuel may be called B5, B10 or B20,

representing the percentage of the biodiesel that is blended with petroleum diesel

(Zafar, 2017). The search for alternatives to petroleum-based fuels has led to the

development of fuels from various sources, including renewable feedstocks such as fats

and oils. Several types of fuels can be derived from these triacylglycerol-containing

feedstocks. One of them is biodiesel, which is defined as the mono-alkyl esters of

vegetable oils or animal fats. Biodiesel is produced by transesterifying the oil or fat with

an alcohol such as methanol under mild conditions in the presence of a base catalyst.
Another kind of product that can be obtained from lipid feedstocks is a fuel whose

composition simulates that of petroleum-derived diesel fuel. This kind of fuel, probably

best termed “renewable diesel”, is produced from the fat or oil by a hydrodeoxygenation

reaction at elevated temperature and pressure in the presence of a catalyst. This article

discusses in a general and comparative fashion aspects such as fuel production and

energy balance, fuel properties, environmental effects including exhaust emissions and

co-products. Among the questions that are addressed are if these fuels compete with or

complement each other and what the effect of production scale may be (PICS, 2010,

pg. 364-373).

Oil from grain can be easily converted into biodiesel, a green and sustainable

fuel, via direct use and blending, microemulsions, thermal cracking, and

transesterification, among which the latter is currently the preferable pathway as it

overcomes the shortcomings existing in the former three. There are many parameters

affecting the yield of biodiesel when prepared from grain oils. In view of sustainable

development and environmental conservation, huge volumes of biodiesel from grain oils

will be needed in the future of mankind. It is established that the combustion of biodiesel

emits little pollution. Moreover, it is renewable (Moser B, 2018, pg. 121-143).

Whether it is created as neat diesel fuel or in blends with petroleum-based diesel

fuels, biodiesel represents a positive alternative to fossil fuels. Drawing on the expertise

of researchers from around the world, The Biodiesel Handbook summarizes the

legislative, chemical, and engineering issues that surround biodiesel and presents new

data and technical information. The most up-to-date resource on biodiesel available,

this book covers legislative and regulatory efforts around the world, the history of
vegetable oil-based diesel fuels, the basic concept of the diesel engine, and glycerol, a

valuable by product of biodiesel production (AOCS Publishing, 2010).

Diesel

Diesel fuel is a complex mixture produced by the fractional distillation of crude oil.

It consists of a mixture of aliphatic hydrocarbons (C9-C20), aromatic hydrocarbons

(including benzene and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons), and olefinic hydrocarbons.

Exposure routes include inhalation, dermal, and oral. The principal toxicities observed in

animals exposed acutely or subacutely to diesel fuel include body weight loss,

increased water consumption, dermal and ocular irritation, and renal toxicity (acute

renal failure; necrosis of the proximal and distal tubular epithelium, tubular dilation), liver

toxicity (vacuolation of periportal hepatocytes), and central nervous system depression.

Lung damage can occur after inhalation and oral exposure to diesel fuel (caused by

aspiration of the diesel fuel with subsequent signs of chemical pneumonitis). Diesel

fuels have not been associated with reproductive or developmental effects in rodents.

They are possibly genotoxic and caused an increased incidence of skin and liver tumors

in animals (Elsevier, 2014, pg. 115-118).

 Conceptual Framework

Input Process Outcome Output

 Gathering all  A biodiesel  Biodies

 Avocado
the materials from el fuel
(Persea  Extraction of avocado made
the seed seed oil, from
Americana)  Combination of that is less avocado
avocado seed expensive, seed.
seed and that can
oil, lye and
methanol help reduce
 lye
 Transesterificat gasses and
 Methanol ion process carbon
 Testing for the emission.
 authomobiles activity of
biodiesel fuel.


Fig.1 The Input-Process-Outcome-Output (IPOO) Model of Avocado seeds (Persea

Americana) oil as an Alternative for Biodiesel

Figure 1 shows that input consist of four variables that are avocado (Persea Americana)

seed oil, lye, methanol and automobiles which are going to be manipulated in the

experiment in comparing the effectiveness of the said variables. In order to produce

biodiesel from avocado seeds, the researcher gathered the materials needed, then

extracted the oil from the avocado seeds, and combined it with lye and methanol. The

biodiesel fuel out of avocado seeds were formed through transesterification. Next, the

biodiesel fuel was tested for its activity. As an outcome the biodiesel fuel will be less

expensive and will also help reduce the greenhouse gasses and carbon emission.