Chapter 1-Diode Circuits: Objective

Analog Electronics (Diode Circuits)
Chapter 1- Diode Circuits
Objective
Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to:
 Understand the basics of Semiconductor Devices
 Understand the operation of PN Junction Diode in Forward and Reverse Bias
 Perform DC and Small Signal Analysis of PN Diode.
 Determine the output of various diode circuits like Clipper, Clamper and Voltage
Regulator.
Introduction
Diode is dispositive made of a semiconductor material, which has two terminals or electrodes
(di-ode) that’s act likes on-off switch. When the switch is on it acts as short circuit and passes
all current. When it is off it behaves like an open circuit and passes no current.
Diode is simply PN junction. PN junction is a homo-junction between a p-type and n-type
semiconductor. It acts as a diode, which can serve in electronics as a rectifier. Logic gate,
voltage regulator (Zener diode), switching or tuner (varactor diode) and in optoelectronics as
a light-emitting diode (LED), laser diode, photo detector or solar cell.
Depending up on conductivity the materials are classified into 3 parts

(1) Conductor   very high, ρ=Very low
(2) Insulator’s   Very low ρ =Very high
(3) Semi converters insulator  sem  conductor conductor  sem  insulator
1
Conductivity    The ability of material to oppose the flow of charged particles

S ,   m
m
L=length of the conductor

A=Cross sectional area
N=No of charged particles present to conductor
Q=charge of the charged particle
τ=Transient time [To travel full length of the conductor]
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Vd  Drift (or) Average velocity of charged particle

I
Current density J 
A
Q NQ l
I   Transient time  
T T Vd
NqVd
I
l
I NqVd NqVd
J  
A lA V
N N
J  nqVd n=concentration n  
lA V
And Vd  E
Vd  E where   mobility
J  nqE and J  E
   nq
For conductor
l
R
A
 As temperature increases mobility decreases ρ increases i.e. R increases.
 Conductor’s are called +ve temp coefficient element
For semiconductor
 As temperature increases mobility increases ρ decreases i.e. R decreases.
 Semi conductor are called –Ve temp coefficient element
Semiconductors
IV group element, 4 valencies
Ex- C,Si, Ge, Sn, Pb & Fm
 Si & Ge selected as semiconductor because

(1) These two are most available material on.
(2) These two provides moderated values of voltage & current
 Si is preferable used because

(1) Thermal stability of Silicon is more than that of Ge
(2) The cut voltage of Si is more than Ge

 Pure form of semiconductor is called intrinsic semiconductor

Ex- Si, Ge- intrinsic semiconductors
 In conductors the conduction band is almost full & valence band is almost empty. Valence
band & conduction band over lapped in conductor.
Eg  0 For conductors
 Insulators conduction band is almost empty & valence band is almost filled
 For semiconductors conduction band is partially filled & valence band is partially empty

 The four valence e of Si form four covalent bond’s with the nearest four silicon atom’s.
There is no free e in its crystal structure.
 At low temperature 00K semiconductors acts as insulator when applied energy increases,
temperature in the semiconductor increases, breakage of covalent band’s increase, e hole
pair generation increases, conductivity increases, Eg decreases.
 At room temperature, semiconductor acts as conductors.
Eg  eV 0K 300K
Ge 0.785 0.72
Si 1.21 1.12
1.21  3.6  10 4 k  eV  Si
Eg  
0.785  2.23  10 k  eV  Ge
4
 As Voltage increases, temperature increases, breakage of covalent bonds decrease, e

hole pair generation increases, conductivity decreases and it will damage the device at
some particular voltage, temperature generated in the semiconductor become large &
semiconductor damage permanently.
 In intrinsic semiconductor
Number of free e  Number of holes
Number of free e /volume = Number of holes/volume
n  p For intrinsic semiconductor
Rate of combination=Rate of regeneration
Mass action law

For both intrinsic and extrinsic materials, at equilibrium:
ni2  np => ni  n  p for intrinsic semiconductor
ni  Intrinsic semiconductor concentration
Ex. In intrinsic semiconductor as intrinsic concentration ni  1.5  106 / cm3 and its hole
concentration is p  2.25  106 / cm3 ,
So, e concentration is
ni2  n  p
ni2 2.25  1012

n   106 / cm3
p 2.25  10 6

 By doping the impurities to the intrinsic semi-conductor it become extrinsic semi-

conductor.
Extrinsic=Intrinsic + Impurities
N  type
Extrinsic 
P  type
Impurities
V group III group
Pentavalent Trivalent
Phosphorous Boron
Arsenic Aluminum
Antimony Gallium
Bismuth Indium
N-type semiconductor
 N type=Intrinsic +V group Impurities

 4 valance e of phosphorous forms 4 covalent bonds with the 4 present silicon atoms.
There is no place for the 5th e & it is considered to be free e .
 Each atom of phosphorous provides 1 free e . If we add small amount of impurity to the
intrinsic semiconductor, then it will provide large no of free e .
 Majority carriers are e and minority carriers are holes
 Conductivity is n type semiconductor N  e  hole  nqe  pqp
For N type n>>p and qe  qp
N  nqe

 The conductivity in N-type is mainly due to e .

 In N type semiconductor n  ND  Donor atom concentration i.e. N  ND qe
P type semiconductor
 P type- Intrinsic + III group

 The 3 valence e of Al forms 3 covalent bonds with the nearest 3 ‘Si’ atoms. There is no
e in the 4th covalent bond and the missing e in 4th covalent bond is considered as hole.
 Each atom of 3rd group provided one hole. If we add a small amount of III group into the
intrinsic semiconductor then we get large no of holes.
 Majority carriers are hole and minority carriers are e .
 Conductivity is p type semiconductor P  e  hole  nqe  pqp
For p type semiconductor p>>n and and qe  qp
P  pqp
 The conductivity in P type is mainly due to holes.
 In P type semiconductor P  NA  Acceptor atom concentration i.e. p  NA qp
Note:
(1) The conductivity in intrinsic semiconductor
i  e  hole
i  nqe  pqp For intrinsic semi n=p= ni
i  nq
i 
n  p 
(2) The  in N type semiconductor N  ND qe
The  in P type semiconductor p  NA qp

(3) Accordingly to mass action law ni2  np

(a) Intrinsic n=p= ni
ni2
(b) N type PN 
N0
ni2
(c)P type nP 
NA
Solved Examples
Problem: For intrinsic silicon semiconductor at room temperature the charge concentration
1.5  1016 / cm3 , the mobility of electron & holes are 0.13m2 / V  sec & 0.05m2 / V  sec
respectively its conductivity will be
Solution: i  nq
i  
n  p  1.5  1016  1.6  1019 .18   4.31  104 S / m
e
Problem: A heavily doped N type semiconductor has the following data  2.5 , doping
p
concentration 4.2  108 / m3 , intrinsic concentration 1.5  104 / m3 . Calculate the ratio
conductivity of N type/ conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor.
Solution: 

i niq e  p n
 i 1 

p  1.5  10 4 
 1 
10  1.5  10 4  2
1 
    8 
N nqe n e  4.2  10 
8
25  4.2  10  5
i 4.2  5

N 1.5  7
 
10 4  2  10 4
Problem: Silicon sample ‘X’ is doped with 108 atoms/m3 of indium another silicon sample of
identical dimensions doped with 1020 atoms per/m3 of Antimony the ratio of hole/e mobility
=0.25. Then the ratio of conducting of sample X/Y
 X  p p q 1018 p
Solution:   .25  102
 Y  p e q 10 20
 e
Problem: In N type silicon bar of 2cm long & has gross sectional area 2mm x 2mm, when
1V battery is connected across it. A current of 8mA flows in it first the doping concentration
in that semiconductor. Assume e  0.13m2 / V  s and n  0.05m2 / V  s

V 1 l
Solution: R  
I A
l  8m
  ND  eq
A
2  8  103
ND 
100  4  106  1.6  1019  0.13
ND  .192  1022
ND  1.92  1021 / m3
Fermi level
The Fermi level is the level at which the probability of finding the free e- is 50%.
For Intrinsic semiconductor

ni  n  p


 E E
c F

 
 KT 
n  Nce  
 F
 E E
V

 
 KT 
p  Nv e  
For intrinsic n=p & Nc  Nv


 E E
c F

   F
 E E
V  

 KT   KT 
Nce  
 Nv e  
Ec  EF  EF  EV
Ec  E v
EF 
2
For N type semiconductor


EC EF 
n  Nce KT
n  ND

 N  EC  EF 
ln  c  
 ND  KT
N 
EF  EC  KTln  c 
 ND 
For P type semiconductor


EF EV 
P  NV e KT
p  NA
 N  EF  EV 
ln  V  
 NA  KT
N 
EF  EV  KTln  V 
 NA 
PN Junction Diode
Semiconductor pn junction is a two-terminal device. It is the most fundamental device
element that forms the basis of many electronic devices such as pn diodes, optoelectronic
devices like light-emitting diode and photodetector, field effect transistors and bipolar
transistor.
PN junction conducts high current in one direction and conduct very small amount of current
in the reversed direction. Thus, pn junction has the property of rectification.
PN junction is formed in a single crystal of semiconductor by making one end of the crystal
p-type by doping it with acceptor atom and making the other end n-type by doping with
donor atoms. The region where p-type and n-type meet is the junction.
 Doping ratio=1(impurity atom) : 108(intrinsic atom)

 By combining P type & N type a small force acting on the junction, this force cause
reaction in the charged particles. These charged particle always moves from higher
concentration to lower concentration, due to this recombination takes place in both the
regions and depletion region formed. As P type & N type are equally doped the
recombination rate is same in both the region. The region in which there is no availability
of charge particles or the region in what there is no further penetration of charged
particles is called depletion region or space charge region or Barrier.
 To make the conduction of current in the PN junction diode must be properly bias
Forward bias
A pn junction can be forward biased to lower the voltage across the junction. If a positive
forward voltage V is applied to the p-side of the pn junction relative to the n-side, the
effective voltage across the junction is (VB–V) not VB. Thus, the energy required by the
majority carrier to overcome the potential barrier is less than earlier zero voltage bias case.
As the result more majority carrier will be able to diffuse across the junction.
 All the minority carriers moves away from the junction they can’t from closed loop
Iminority  0
 All the majority carriers move towards the junction.
 As forward bias voltage V increases, the repelling forces to the majority carriers increases
and depletion region width (W) decreases. Junction resistance decreases.
 At some particular voltage the depletion region width reduced to zero, the charge
particles starts conducting the junction.
 The voltage at which the charged particles starts crossing the junction is called cut in
voltage or Threshold voltage or barrier voltage or depletion region voltage or space
ohmic region voltage.
0.3 Ge
V  
0.7 Si

Case-1:
When V  V
There exists barrier; ID  0
Case-2:
When V  V
This is the minimum voltage to reduce the barrier width to zero. After that charged particle
starts crossing the junction.
ID  0 , The current through the diode at this voltage is called significant current (At least 1%
of maximum diode current)
Case-3:
When V  Vy
The number of charged particles crossing the junction increase, the current through the
diode increases non-linearly or exponentially & is given by the equation
 VD 
ID  I0 e VT  1
 
 
Where I 0 =Reverse saturation current
VD  Voltage across diode
  Intrinsic factor when values depend on type of material
  1 Ge & 2 Si
 KT 
VT  Temperature dependent voltage=  
 q 
At room temperature T=300K VT  26mV
ID  Ie  Ip Flows from P to N type

 ID Flows in the direction of overhead & it is called forward current.

 The applied voltage across the diode in such a way that it makes the conduction of
current in the direction of overhead is called forward bias of diode.
Reverse bias
Barrier potential increases under reverse bias voltage V. The bias voltage is effectively
subtracted from the potential barrier. Consequently, the voltage across the junction is(VB+ V)
As the result, lesser chance for majority carrier to diffuse across the junction and more easily
for the minority carrier to drift across the junction would be happened.
 All the majority carriers moved away from the junction, they can’t form loop
IMajority  0
 The minority carriers move towards the junction as reverse bias voltage increases. The
majority carriers more rapidly moves away from the junction
 The depletion region with (w) increases as V increases and so the junction temperature
increases due to this breakage of covalent bonds are also increase and e- here pair
generation is also increases.
 The number of mobility carriers crossing the junction increase i.e. currents due to these

minority carriers increase. Inv , Ipo  

I0  Ino  Ipo 
 I0 also increases
 I 0 Flows from N to P type. It flows reverse to arrow head direction. It is called reverse
current
 T2  T1 
 
 10
Note: Effect of Increase in temperature: I02  I01 2 

Breakdown voltage
In reverse biased mode, the current flowed in the diode is extremely small. However, upon
further applying the reverse biased voltage until the point VBD where breakdown occurs. The
current would increase rapidly. Normally diode breakdowns at about negative 25.0V and
avalanche breakdown occurs beyond this voltage point.
 ID  I0
Non – Linear Analysis of Diode

The two-terminal element behaves in a most asymmetric manner: its resistance is very low
for currents of more than a few milliamps flowing in one direction through the device, but it
has an enormously high resistance to current flow in the opposite direction. This element is
very useful for constructing absolute value, peak detection, overvoltage protection, and more
general nonlinear resistance circuits. The diode’s current-voltage relationship is actually
exponential, so it is also useful for building exponential and logarithmic response amplifiers.
Its characteristics are strongly temperature-dependent, so a diode also makes an excellent,
accurate temperature sensor. Of course, some types of diodes also can emit and detects light
(LEDs, laser diodes, and photodiodes), so the variety of applications of the seemingly simple
semiconductor diode is nearly endless.

Small signal Analysis of diode
Forward Bias:
 When V & Rf are given
 When V is given or type of diode is given
 When both are not given or ideal diode
Reverse Bias
Diode resistance
Static or DC resistance
V 
RDC   D 
 ID 
Dynamic or AC resistance
VD dVD
R AC  or
ID dID

 V0 
In forward biased condition current through diode is ID  I0  e VT  1 
 
 
I0  Reverse saturation current
VD
VT
I0  ID  I0e
ID  I0
VD
VT
ID  I0e
Differentiate w.r.t to VD
VD
dID 1
 I0 e VT 
dv D VT
VT
R AC 
ID
O.C. & S.C. tests for diode circuits
Open Circuit test

All the diode are replaced by open circuit
Calculate VA  VC for each diode
 
If VA  VC  V  D is ON
VA
 VC   V  D is OFF
 When number of diodes having V A
 VC   VY the diodes which has more VA  VC
becomes ON first, again calculate VA  VC for remaining diodes to check whether ON or
OFF state. If all the diode have same VA  VC , diode which have less cut in voltage will ON
first again check VA  VC for remaining diodes
Short Circuit test
For ideal diodes
All the diodes are replaced by short circuit

 Assume that current through the diodes from P to N type

 Calculate the current through the each diode
If ID  0  D-ON
ID  0  D-OFF
Solved Examples
Problem: For the circuit calculate static & dynamic resistance for Si diode
2.7  0.7
Solution: ID   1mA
2
VD 0.7
RDC   3  700
ID 10
VT 2  26mV
R AC    52
ID 1mA
Problem: For the Si diode circuit shown calculate the ID1 & ID2
Solution: VA  VC  VY  For D1 & D2

10  0.7
I  28.18mA
.33k
28.18
ID1  ID2   14.09mA
2

Problem: calculate V0 , I for the given circuit
Solution: VA  VC for Si diode = 4V & for Ge diode- 4V

So, VY of Ge is less than that of Si, then Ge becomes ON first
4  0.3
 I  1.85mA
2K
V0  103 I  1.86V
Problem: calculate I1 , I2 (Assume Si diode)
Solution: VA  VC  0V D1 is OFF and VA  VC  10V D2 is ON

10  0.7
I1  0, I2   9.3mA
1K
V0  10  9.3  0.7
Problem: The reverse current of A PN junction diode is 10µA at 200C. Calculate change in
temperature required so that the current may raise to 35µA.

 T2 T1 
Solution: 35  10  2 10
log2 3.5 
T2
 T1 
10
T2  T1  10log2 3.5
T  18.070 C
Problem: At room temperature voltage across silicon diode is 0.7V when 2mA of current
flows through it. If the voltage across the diode is reverse 0.75V then the current through the
diode? (assume VT  25mV )
 VD 
Solution: ID  I0  e VT  1 
 
 
2mA
I0   1.66nA
 0.7K

e 225
 1
 
 0.75 3 
ID  1.66  109 e 22510  1  5.43mA
 
Problem: Find values I1 & I2 , Assume VD  0.7V
Solution: For D1 , VA  VC  3 & For D2 , VA  VC  10

Since voltage across D2 is higher than D1 , D2 becomes ON first
10  0.7
I2   18.6mA
0.5K
V0  5  0.5  18.6  2  6.3V
D1 is OFF
I1  0
I2  18.6mA

Problem: Find the voltage across 6kΩ resistor (Assume Si diode)
Solution:
For D1 , VA  VC  15
For D2 , VA  VC  10
For D3 , VA  VC  5
So D1 will ON first
Draw the circuit where only D1 is ON
10  5  0.7 15  0.7 14.3
I1     1.43mA
10K 10K 10
VA  10.  0.7  2  1.43  9.3  2.86  6.44V
VB  6.44  6  1.43  6.44  8.48  2.14
Now For D2 , VA  VC  1.44V
For D3 , VA  VC  2.14V
So , D2 is remain OFF i.e. I2=0
and D3 is ON
Again redraw the circuit
10  0.7  0.7
I1   1.25mA
8K
0.7  5
I3  I1   1.25  2.15  0.9mA
2K
Voltage across 6kΩ resistor = 6  1.25  7.5V

Problem: Find the required value of Vi such that the ideal diode to be forward diode
Solution: Diode is forward biased i.e. V1 > 7
V1  3 
V  3  0.6K
i
500  0.6K 

 V  3  0.6K  3  7
i
500  .6K 
 V  3  600  4
i
1100
Vi  10.33V
Problem: For circuit device characteristic is given in the figure. Calculate the value of I in the
circuit
0.7  0.5
Solution: R   200
1mA
Apply KVL in the circuit
5  0.5
I  3.75mA
1200

Problem: For the circuit shown, calculate V1 & V2 assume   1 (assume ideal diode)
 VD 
Solution: ID1  I0 e nVT  1
 
ID2  ID1  I0
VD
nVT
2e
V1  VT  0.693
V1  18.02mV
V2  4.981  100I0
Diode Applications
Clipping Circuits
Clipper is a circuit which transmits a part of the input signal. Transmitted signal either above
of the reference signal or below of the reference signal or between the two reference signals.
It is also called Limiting circuit.
 Clippers circuit consist of Diode or Diodes, Reference voltage or voltages and resistor or
resistors.
 It doesn’t consist of energy storage element i.e. L & C.

Steps to analyze the clipper circuit

1. Analyze the working condition of diodes
2. Write the transfer characteristic equation (V0 Vs Vi).
3. Plot the transfer characteristic curve (V0 Vs Vi).
4. Draw the o/p wave form for a given i/p wave.
Clippers are classified into two types:

Clippers
Single level clipper Two level clipper
Series clipper Shunt clipper
+ve clipper -ve clipper +ve clipper -ve clipper
Series Clipper
Negative Clipper
Type 1:

When VR<Vin Diode is OFF (O.C.)

V0=VR
When VR>Vin Diode is ON (S.C.)
V0=Vin
V Vin  VR

V0   R
Vin Vin  VR

Transfer characteristics
Type 2:

When -VR<Vin Diode is ON (S.C.)

V0=Vin
When -VR>Vin Diode is OFF (O.C.)
V0=-VR
 V Vin  VR

V0   R
Vin Vin  VR

Positive Clipper

V0=VR

V0= Vin

V V  VR

V0   in in
VR Vin  VR

Shunt Clipper
Negative Clipper
Type 1:

V0=Vin

V0= VR
V Vin  VR

V0   R
Vin Vin  VR


Type 2:
When -VR<Vin Diode is OFF (O.C.)

V0=Vin
When -VR>Vin Diode is ON (S.C.)

V0= -VR
V Vin  VR

V0   R
Vin Vin  VR


Positive Clipper
When VR<Vin Diode is ON (S.C.)

V0=VR
When VR>Vin Diode is OFF (O.C.)

V0= Vin
V V  VR

V0   in in
VR Vin  VR

Note: To draw the o/p wave form of single level clipper

1. Draw the i/p wave form in doted form.
2. Draw the reference voltage level in dotted form.
3. If P type of diode connected to o/p voltage, then there should be no positive peak in the
o/p wave form. Draw the o/p wave form below the reference voltage, as per the given
signal shape.

4. If N type of diode connected to o/p voltage, then should be no negative peak in the o/p
wave form. Draw the o/p wave form above the reference voltage, as per the given signal
shape.
Two level clipper

V1  V2
When Vi  V2
D1 is OFF & D2 is ON
V0  V2
When Vi  V2 & Vi  V1
D2 is OFF & D1 is OFF
V0  Vi
When Vi  V1
D2 is OFF & D1 is ON
V0  V1
Solved Examples
Problem: Find the minimum voltage V for the diode to be forward biased.
in

Solution:
Method 1:
V 7
 in   I  73  0
 500  600
 
V 7 4
I  in 
500 600
If diode has to be FB.
I  0
sub I  0
0  4200  600V   2000 
in
6200 31
V    10.34V
in 600 3
Method 2:
V 3
I  in
1100
And V  I  600   3
x
 V  3  600 
V  in 3
x 1100
If V  7V  diode F.B 
x
V  10.33V
in
Problem: The input voltage V varies linearly from 0 to 150V sketch the transfer
in
characteristics.
Solution: Case-1: V  100V D  RB

in 1
D  RB
2

V  25V
0
Case-2: 100V  V  150V D FB

in 1
D RB
2
V  25V
0
in
characteristics

Solution:
Case-1: V  Vx D  R.B
in 1
D  F.B
2
100  25
I
300k
V  100  I 200k  = 50 V
o
Here Vx  50V
Case-2: 100V  V  150V D  FB

in 1
D  RB
2
V  100V
o
Case 3: 25V  V  100V D  FB

in 1
D  FB
2
V V
o in

in
characteristics.
Solution:
Case-1: V  V D  R.B
in x 1
D  R.B
2
V  25V
o
For both the diodes in RB V  25V
in
Case-2: 25V  V  Vx D  R.B

in 1
D  F.B
2
 V  25  2 1
V   in   200k   25  Vin  25
o  300K  3 3
Max value of Vin for D2 will be in RB
2 1
V  Vx  25  100V =>Vx  137.5V
o 3 3
Case-3 137.5  V  150 D  F.B

in 1
D  F.B
2
Then V  100
0

Problem: Design a slicer circuit or a double biased clipper for the required waveform.
Solution:
Case 1: V  3V  V  3V
in o
Here we use ideal resistor to protect the diode from burning
Case 2: V  1V  V  1V
in o
Case 3: 1  V  3V  V  V
in o in
Both diodes R.B.

Problem: Draw the output wave form for the ideal diode. Input is sinusoidal with max value
8V.
Solution:
Problem: For the ideal diode circuit, draw the output waveform. Calculate minimum and
maximum value of output is?

Solution:

During +ve cycle input Vi  0 
D2 is OFF
And when Vi  4V D1 is OFF (O.C)
V0  Vi
When Vi  4V D1 is ON (S.C)
Vi  4
 i and V0  4  2ki
4k
Vi
V0   2 When Vi  10 : V0max  7V
2

During –Ve cycle input Vi  0 
D1 is OFF
 
And when Vi  3 D2 is ON (S.C)
V0  3V (minimum)
When Vi  3 D2 is OFF
V0  Vi
Clampers
These circuit are used to shift the signal either upwards or downwards. If the signal shifted
upwards positive D.C. inserted into the applied signal. If the signal shifted downwards –Ve
D.C inserted into the applied signal.
Type of clamper circuit

(i) Negative clamping circuit or Positive peak clamp circuit
(ii) Positive clamping circuit or Negative peak clamp circuit
Negative clamping
 In clampers  VP P    VP P 
i/p o/p
 There is no change in the shape of the signal

 Clampers consists of energy storage element like ‘C’
 Input always given to ‘C’ only. The analysis of clamper circuit always start with the
conduction of the diode

Let the ‘C’ is initially is uncharged Vi  0

When Vi  0 , D is ON (S.C)
V0  0
VC  Vi
Vc  Vi =The “C” charges in accordance with the input
T
At t  , V  Vm
4 i
VC  Vm Max voltage across the capacitor

T
At t    , Vi  Vm , Vc  Vm
4
V0  Vi  Vc
V0  0
 This V0  0 voltage makes the diode OFF (O.C)
 As there is no discharge path in the capacitor, it holds its previous value i.e. VC  Vm
V0  Vi  Vm
When
T
t Vi  Vm V0  0
4
T
t Vi  0 V0  Vm
2
3T
t Vi  Vm V0  2Vm
4
tT Vi  0 V0   Vm
5T
t Vi  Vm V0  0
4

Note: For Vi   Vm to  Vm
1. The signal shifted downwards
+ve peak shifted to 0V
-ve peak shifted to  2Vm
Output voltage waveform between 0 to 2Vm

+peak shifted to VR
-Peak shifted to 2Vm  VR
The output waveform between VR to 2Vm  VR


+Peak shifted to VR
-Peak shifted to 2Vm  VR
The output waveform between VR to 2Vm  VR
Positive clamping
Note: Vi   Vm to  Vm
1. The signal shifted upwards
-Ve peak shifted to 0
+Ve peak shifted to 2Vm
The output waveform between 2Vm to 0

-Ve peak shifted to VR
+ve peak shifted to 2Vm  VR
The output waveform between 2Vm  VR to VR

-Ve peak shifted to VR
+Ve peak shifted to 2Vm  VR
The output waveform between 2Vm  VR to VR

Solved Examples
Problem: Draw output waveform
Solution:
Problem: Draw output waveform
Solution:

Rectifiers
It converts AC signal into pulsating D.C.
Types of rectifier
Half wave rectifier
V  t   Vm sin t  ,Vm  Max voltage

Vy  0  Neglected
R f  Taking into consideration & R f  RL
During +ve cycle of V(t)

Diode is F.B & replaced by R f
V t
i t 
R f
 RL 
 Vm 
i  t     sin  t 
 R f  RL 
i  t   Im sin  t 
 VR 
V0   m L  sin  t 
 R f  RL 
R f  RL

V0  Vm sin  t 
VD  i  t Rf  ImRf sin  t 
During negative cycle of V(t)

D is R.B & replaced by O.C
i  t   0, V0  i  t  RL  0
V0  V  t   Vm sin  t 
 The maximum voltage across diode is  Vm .
 Peak inverse voltage= Vm  PIV

 Average (or) DC value:
2 
1 1 1
IDC   Im sin  t  d  t    Im sin  t  d  t   2I
2 0 2 0 2 m
Im V
IDC  & Vdc  m
 
 RMS (or) effective value:

2
1 1 1
Irms   i  t  dt     0   0 
2
2 0
4 2
im V
Irms  & Vrms  m
2 2
D.C O / P Power
   100
A .C I/ P Power
Pdc  Vdc  Idc  Idc

2
RL  Vdc2 RL
Im2
Pdc  RL
2
Pac  Vrms  t Rf  RL   Im2 Rf  RL 
Im2 RL
2 4  RL  0.4052
     100   100
I2
2  R f  RL  Rf 
m
R  R L 
4 f


1  
RL 
max  40.52% When RL  R f

2
RMS value of component in O / P I 
FF 
2
 Ripple factor=   1   rms   1
DC component present in O / P  I dc 
Irms
2
 Idc
2
 Irms/ac
2
2
 Irms 
Ripple factor=    1  Irms/ac  1.21
 Idc 
Note:
1. R.F.>1, AC component present in output is more than DC component present in output.
2. Half wave rectifier is in efficient to convert AC signal in to pulsating D.C.
RMS Value 
 Form factor F.F.   
Avg Value 2
Peak Value
 Peak factor P .F.  
RMS Value
Advantage
(1) Circuit is very simple
Disadvantage
(1)  is low
(2) R.F >1
To overcome the disadvantage of half wave rectifier we use full wave rectifier.
Full wave rectifier
(i) Centre tapped full wave rectifier

(ii) Bridge full wave rectifier
Centre tapped full wave rectifier

During +ve cycle of AC supply

A=+Ve D1  F.B
B=-Ve D2  R.B
V  t   Vm sin  t 
When D F.B replaced by R f

When D R.B replaced by O.C
V t Vm sin  t 
i t  
R f  RL R f
 RL 
i  t   Im sin  t 
V0  i  t  RL
VmRL
V0  sin  t  RL  R f
R f  RL
V0  Vm sin  t 
Vm
VD1  V  t  Rf  R sin  t 
R f  RL f
VD1  ImRf sin  t 

VD2   V  t   V0   2Vm sin t  
VD2 Max  2Vm
PIVD2  2Vm
During –Ve cycle of AC supply

V t Vm sin  t 
i t    Im sin  t 
R f  RL R f  RL
V0  i  t  RL  Vm sin  t 
VD2  i  t  Rf  ImRf sin  t 
 Average value (or) DC value:

2Im 2Vm
Idc  & Vdc 
 

 RMS value (or) effective value

Im Vm
Irms  & Vrms 
2 2
 Efficiency
Im2
4 R
Pdc 2 L 8  RL 
 100  2  2    100
Pac Im   RL  R f
 R L  R f  
2
 
 0.812 
   100  81.2%
 1  Rf 
 RL 

2
  
 Ripple Factor     1  0.483
2 2 

 Form Factor 
2 2
Im
 Peak factor  2 2
Im
 PIV  2Vm
Advantage
(1)  is twice that of half wave rectifier
(2) R.F<1
Disadvantage
(1) PIV= 2Vm
(2) Centre tapping is difficult
To overcome disadvantage of center tap full wave rectifier we use full wave bridge rectifier
Full wave Bridge rectifier

During +ve cycle of V(t)

A   ve D1  F.B D 4  R.B
B   ve D3  F.B D2  R.B
V t Vm
i t   sin  t   Im sin  t 
RL  2R f RL  2R f
VmRL
V0  RLi  t   sin  t   Vm sin  t  R L
 R f 
RL  2R f
VD1  VD3  i  t Rf  ImRf sin  t 

 VR VmR f 
 
VD2   i  t  R f  V0    m L   sin  t 
 RL  2R f RL  2R f 
 Vm 
VD2     RL  R f  sin  t  R L
 R f 
 RL  2R f 
VD2  Vm sin  t 
VD 4  Vm sin  t 
During –Ve cycle of V(t)

A –Ve D 4 is ON D1 is OFF
B +Ve D2 is ON D2 is OFF
V t
i t   Im sin  t 
R f  RL
V0  iRL  Vm sin t  R
L
 Rf 
VD1  VD2  i  t  Rf  ImRf sin  t 
 R  RL 
VD3  VD1  Vm  f  sin  t   Vm sin  t 
 2R f  RL 
R L
 Rf 
2Im 2V
 IDC  , VDC  m
 
Im Vm
 Irms  , Vdc 
2 2
8  RL 
     100
2 
2  RL  R f 

max  81.2%
 R .F  0.483

 F.F 
2 2
 Peak Factor  2
Advantages
(1)  is twice that of half wave rectifier
(2) R.F  1
(3) PIV  Vm
(4) No necessary of center tapped
Disadvantages
(1) More no of diode required
The bridge rectifier is more efficient to convert the AC signal into pulsating DC
Solved Examples
Problem: Sketch V for sinusoidal I/P.

o
Solution:
During positive cycle: D  FB & D  RB .
1 2
Current path: k  x  y  z  k
V
V  in
0 2

During negative cycle:

Current path: z  x  y  k  z
V
V  in
0 2
Zener diode
Purpose
(1) To conduct significant current in reverse bias region
(2) To with stand for large generation of temperature
 Once breakdown occur (large generation of temperature) uniform electric field
developed across it terminals, so that the voltage across its terminals become constant. It
acts as voltage regulator.
 A heavily doped silicon diode which has sharp (low) breakdown voltage is called zener
diode. Zener diode is heavily doped as compare to PN junction diode
 Doping ratio in zener 1 : 106  100 : 108
 When it is heavily doped the depletion with become very sharp and breakdown occurs
earlier compare to P-N diode.
 Zener- Si type only
 When zener is forward biased, it acts as a normal PN junction diode

VZ
Zener resistance R Z   (Very small)
I Z
For an ideal zener diode= VZ  0,R Z  0
When I Z minimum value is not given, by default consider IZ min

0
Voltage across diode V  VZ  Zener O.C.
IZ rms  0 V  VZ  Zener acts as voltage regulator
Zener equivalent circuits

Zener diode as voltage regulator
Regulator is circuit which maintained constant output voltage even input voltage varies (or)
load resistance varies.
Zener must operate in the break down region i.e. Vi  VZ
Then V0  VZ
IZ  IL  I
Case-1: Vi & RL are fixed

 V  Vz 
I i   No change (Fixed)
 R 
V0
IL   (Fixed)
RL
IZ  I  IL  (Fixed)
Case-2: Vi variable & RL fixed

 V  VZ  V 
I i  But IL   0  Fixed
R 
 R   L
 V  VZ 
Imin   min 
 R 

 V  VZ 
Imax   max 
 R 
I Zmax  Imax  IL
I Zmin  Imin  IL
Case-3: Vi fixed & RL variable

 V  Vz 
I i  Fixed
 R 
I Zmin  I  ILmax
I Zmax  I  ILmin
V0
ILmax 
Rmin
V0
ILmin 
Rmax
Solved Examples
Problem: Zener is ideal, find the minimum value of RL for which the output voltage remain
constant
 24  15 
Solution: I   A
 27 
For output voltage remain constant,
 24  15 
15     RLmin & ILmax  I  I zmin  I
 27 
15  27
RLmin   45
9

Problem: Pmax in Zener diode is 0.03W. Calculate required range of input voltage for
satisfactory operation of Zener diode.
Solution: For I Zmax
6  IZmax  0.03
1 6
I Zmax   5mA & IL   6mA
200 1K
I
 V  6
i
0.5K
 V  6 2m  5mA  6mA
i
2Vi  12  11
Vi  23  17.5
2
For I zmin  0
 V  6 2m  6mA
i
Vi  9V
Range 9V < Vi < 17.5V
Problem: Zener voltage is 4.5V. Zener resistance=75Ω. Calculate the value of RL
 12  5 
Solution: I     7mA
 1K 

 5  4.5  5 1000 20
IZ      mA
 75  750 150 3
20 5
7m  m
3 RL
1m 5

3 RL
RL  15K
Problem: Zener voltage is 7V, Zener resistance R z  50 . Calculate the required range of
input voltage to obtain output voltage range 7.3V to 7.6V
Solution:
For V0=7.3
 V  7.3   Vi  7.3 
Vi   i  250  7  50   0
 250   250 
5 7.3  7  Vi  7.3
Vi  1.5  7.3
Vi  8.8
For V0=7.6
 V  7.6   Vi  7.6 
Vi   i  250  7  50   0
 250   250 
Vi  3  7.6  10.6
Problem: Calculate the output voltage

of the circuit shown in the figure?
(assume ideal diode )

Solution: Check zener is ON or not
Voltage across diode =10V which is < 12V

The Zener is O.C
V0  10V
Problem: If Vz  2.2 . The cut in voltage of diode 0.3V. Calculate V0  ?
Solution: Diode is ON
 3.7  0.3 
I 
 2K 
 3.7  0.3  3.7  0.3
Vp  3.7     1K   2V
 2K  2K
Vp  VZ
Zener is OFF (O.C)
zener has low cut in voltage as compare to diode therefore diode on first
 2  0.3 
V0  0.3    1K  2V
 1K 
Problem: For the circuit shown VZ  4.3V . Cut in voltage
of the diodes VY  0.7V . When diode is forward bias
plot transfer curve & calculate V0max & V0min values.
 
Assume input voltage is 10sin t .

Solution: During +ve cycle

When 0  Vi  2, D1 OFF, D2 OFF : V0  Vi
2  Vi  5 , D1 OFF, D2 OFF, Z OFF, V0  Vi

5  Vi D1 OFF, D2 ON, Z is in Break Down region: V0  5V
During negative cycle ( D2 OFF)
Vi  2.7 D1 ON, D2 OFF, Z OFF : V0  2.7

2.7  Vi D1 OFF, D2 OFF, Z OFF : V0  Vi
Problem: For the ideal zener circuit shown calculate the output voltage & value of current I
Solution: Zener Z1 F.B and Z2 is in R.B.

 16  5.3  10.7
I   10.7mA
 1K  1K
V0  5.3 V
Neglecting forward voltage drop of Zener diode.

Voltage Doublers
For a sinusoidal input V  6sin t

in
Positive cycle:
6  V  0
C1
V  6V
C1
After t  900
V  V  V  0
in C1 D1
V  V 6
D1 in
Negative Cycle:
6  6  V  0
C2
V  12V
C2
KVL : V  V  V  V  0
in C1 D2 C2
D in in
V  V  6   V  6 

Chapter 1-Diode Circuits: Objective

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Analog Electronics (Diode Circuits)

Chapter 1- Diode Circuits

Depending up on conductivity the materials are classified into 3 parts

L=length of the conductor

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Vd  Drift (or) Average velocity of charged particle

 Si & Ge selected as semiconductor because

 Si is preferable used because

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 Pure form of semiconductor is called intrinsic semiconductor

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 As Voltage increases, temperature increases, breakage of covalent bonds decrease, e

Mass action law

ni2 2.25  1012

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 By doping the impurities to the intrinsic semi-conductor it become extrinsic semi-

 N type=Intrinsic +V group Impurities

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 The conductivity in N-type is mainly due to e .

 P type- Intrinsic + III group

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(3) Accordingly to mass action law ni2  np

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For Intrinsic semiconductor

For intrinsic n=p & Nc  Nv

For N type semiconductor

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For P type semiconductor

 Doping ratio=1(impurity atom) : 108(intrinsic atom)

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ID  Ie  Ip Flows from P to N type

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Non – Linear Analysis of Diode

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Small signal Analysis of diode

 When V is given or type of diode is given

 When both are not given or ideal diode

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O.C. & S.C. tests for diode circuits

Open Circuit test

Calculate VA  VC for each diode

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 Assume that current through the diodes from P to N type

Solution: VA  VC  VY  For D1 & D2

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Problem: calculate V0 , I for the given circuit

Solution: VA  VC for Si diode = 4V & for Ge diode- 4V

Problem: calculate I1 , I2 (Assume Si diode)

Solution: VA  VC  0V D1 is OFF and VA  VC  10V D2 is ON

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Problem: Find values I1 & I2 , Assume VD  0.7V

Solution: For D1 , VA  VC  3 & For D2 , VA  VC  10

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Problem: Find the voltage across 6kΩ resistor (Assume Si diode)

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Solution: Diode is forward biased i.e. V1 > 7

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Steps to analyze the clipper circuit

Clippers are classified into two types:

Single level clipper Two level clipper