Flour mill contamination

News reports on foodborne illness and the long awaited publishing of the rules to
implement the United State Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Food Safety
Modernization Act (FSMA) have increased public awareness and concerns about
food safety.

Microbial and bacterial contamination of wheat flour has seldom been a concern due
to the fact that it has low water activity level. Water activity (Aw) refers to the
availability of water in a food or beverage and represents the amount of water that is
available to microorganisms. Pure water has an Aw of 1.00. A water activity level of
greater than 0.95 is required to support the growth of bacteria.

Wheat flour generally has an Aw level of 0.87 or lower depending on flour moisture
and temperature. The concern with wheat flour is that bacteria can be carried or
stored and emerge from dormancy when the flour is further processed into a food
product. In the milling process, prevention and reduction of microbial or bacterial
contamination are good alternatives with elimination options growing in acceptance,
but adding significant cost to production.

Prevention

While most of the food safety stories in the media are linked to E. coli or Salmonella
bacteria, Deoxynivalenol (DON), generally referred to as vomitoxin, is a mycotoxin
that may be produced in wheat kernels. These kernels are usually infected by
Fusarium head blight (FHB) or scab prior to harvest while in the field. The best
method to manage DON contamination is to prevent it from entering the milling
process.

To avoid DON contamination, the best practice is to implement quality checks of the
incoming wheat and reject supply sources that exceed the safe level. The FDA
restriction for DON in flour is a level less than 1 ppm. The common practice in the
wheat industry is to set the maximum acceptable level of DON in wheat at 2 ppm.

Quick tests, such as ELISA test kits for DON, are available from several laboratory
supply companies, which allow milling companies to quickly and effectively screen
incoming wheat deliveries. In some situations it is necessary, due to supply or
origination constraints, to receive and process wheat in excess of 2 ppm of DON. In
these scenarios, it is possible to remove DON-contaminated wheat kernels during the
wheat cleaning process using gravity tables and optical sorters. This is not an ideal
solution as it concentrates the DON in the wheat screenings, preventing it from use in
animal feed rations and creates an additional economic loss for the mill.
Reduction

Whereas DON-infected wheat kernels can be identified and removed in the wheat
cleaning process, other forms of microbial contamination cannot be seen. Several
treatments of wheat during the cleaning process are being investigated and
researched to determine their effectiveness in lowering the microbial load of flour.

One processing method that has proven effective is aggressive scouring or abrasion
of the wheat to remove the outer layers of bran prior to milling. Referred to as
debranning or peeling, this processing step can be added during the wheat
conditioning process.

Drawbacks of using abrasion to remove the bran include the high amount of energy
required to abrade the wheat and controlling the rate of bran removal. This method
cannot completely remove the bran from the crease of the kernel which may be the
part of the wheat berry most susceptible to microbial contamination. Debranning also
has the drawback of concentrating the microbial contamination in the bran portion
removed, creating the challenge of how to dispose or treat the byproduct.

Another method to control bacterial growth being extensively researched is the

treatment of tempering water with ozone or chlorine. Ozone is an unstable and
poisonous allotrope of oxygen. It is an effective oxidant widely used as an industrial
air deodorizer, water purifier and in food processing as a disinfectant.

It has been used in grain storage as a fumigant to control insect infestation. A primary
benefit of using ozone is that it is a natural solution. It degrades into oxygen, leaving
no chemical residue in the grain, flour or processing equipment.
A more common practice in the milling industry is the treatment of tempering water
with chlorine. Chlorination is a lower-cost solution and more effective method as
compared to ozone. However, it may leave behind hazardous residues and poses
greater risk to the working environment and employees.

Elimination

Once the wheat has been milled into flour, the options to eliminate microbial
contamination become more expensive. However, of greater concern to the end-user
is the potential to impact the functional properties of the flour while treating it to
eliminate or reduce the bacteria present.

Irradiation of flour using gamma rays has been proven effective and is an approved
method of reducing microbial counts in some food products. The challenge with
gamma ray radiation is that studies have shown a negative impact on dough quality
characteristics such as gluten strength and development time. Other forms of
irradiation that have been tested or are currently being studied include radio
frequency and ultraviolet. Neither method has been proven effective.

Heat treatment of the flour after milling is a proven strategy to reduce bacterial and
microbial contamination. Heating can have significant impact on flour functionality
and, in fact, is used as a treatment to change flour functionality. Water absorption,
gluten strength and dough stability are all quality characteristics that can be impacted
using heat treatments. For these reasons, the use of heat to reduce microbial
contamination poses significant risks and potential at the same time.

Excessive heat will cause the browning of the flour, denaturing of the functional
proteins and, of course, significant moisture loss. The heating of higher moisture flour
or the use of dry steam has proven more effective in reducing microbial count with
minimal impact on flour performance. The most critical aspect of a heat treatment
process is to assure even and thorough distribution of heat into the flour to maintain
uniformity of the finished product.

Implementation

Regardless of the process or stage in flour production where the prevention,

reduction or elimination of bacteria is implemented, maintaining a clean environment
including proper food safety protocols is critical in the effectiveness of any treatment
procedure. A comprehensive HACCP program or similar food safety standard is
necessary to assure the treated flour is not re-contaminated further down the
process.

Proactive prerequisite programs including sanitation schedules, effective cleaning

practices, chemical and pest control as well as the sanitary design of equipment,
storage bins and work areas is a critical part of any treatment to reduce bacterial
contamination and food safety policy.

Proper filtration and maintenance of compressed air and air make up (or air
stabilization) systems are central to maintaining a clean environment. Pneumatic
conveying is the primary method of moving finished flour and carries the risk of
creating an environment that supports mold growth by triggering condensation in
dead spaces and equipment. A comprehension food safety program includes the
packaging lines, storage and transportation of the product.

The flour milling industry has a long history of proactively pursing methods of
delivering a safe and reliable product to consumers. Current good manufacturing
practices, wheat cleaning methods, magnets and the numerous steps of grinding and
sifting may effectively eliminate physical hazards in the finished flour, but the risk of
microbial contamination still exists.

The low water activity and the inability for bacteria to grow may not be sufficient for
our current and future customers and consumers. The belief that further processing,
baking or cooking will kill any bacteria present in the flour may no longer be enough
to protect the industry and assure a safe product. The new FSMA rules and the
increased consumer awareness of food safety may be causing a fundamental shift in
the standards required by the milling industry to deliver a safe, quality and essential
ingredient.
 Ozone use in flour milling

Chlorine gas has been used for some time in the United States in treating soft wheat flours for
various baking applications. High ratio cake flour, which is used in cakes containing a higher
level of sugar than flour, is most often associated with chlorine gas treatment. In this
application, chlorine gas has two major effects: whitening and functional improvement with
respect to cake production.

The application of chlorine gas is typically two ounces per hundredweight of flour. The level
is monitored and controlled by measuring the flour pH. Recently, chlorine gas has been
extended to include chlorination of the wheat tempering water, thereby reducing microbial
counts on the surface of the tempered grain and in the milling process itself.

Independent of the intended purpose, storage and use of chlorine gas is quite dangerous, but
the demand for lower microbial loads in wheat- and grain-based flour products is more
intense than ever. As a result, an increasing number of millers are using ozone to treat flour.

MICROBIOLOGY IN FLOUR MILLING

Food-borne disease outbreaks in the United States are caused by the following (with percent
of frequency): bacteria (66%), chemicals (25%), viruses (5%) and parasites (4%). Very few
food-borne illnesses are the result of contaminated flour.

Bacteria are everywhere in our environment including soil, water, air, dust, edible plants and
plant products, animals and animal products, the intestinal tracts of man and animals,
employees’ hands and contaminated food utensils and equipment. In most cases where
dangerous contamination exists in grain or grain-based products, it is usually the result of
human engagement in the storage, handling or processing of the product.

Bacteria have specific nutritional and environmental needs in order to survive and reproduce.
They are: food, moisture, proper atmosphere, pH, temperature and inhibitory substances.
Grain and flour, of course, are a tremendous food source for material, yeast and molds. There
must be adequate moisture for bacteria to grow. The amount of moisture needed is defined by
the term “water activity.”

Locations in the mill with a high level of humidity or water activity (0.90 plus) will support
rapid bacterial growth. However, lower relative humidity areas that remain dry and have a
lower water activity (less than 0.85) will not. In older mills or in locations where cool air can
move across a spout containing warm stock, condensation is known to occur and shortly
thereafter the population of yeast and mold increases, forming a dark smelly mass which
continues to inoculate passing stocks.

Bacillus species have been implicated in food spoilage and poisoning problems. As
endospores, these mesophilic species resist a wide temperature range. Therefore, in baked
products the spores germinate and damage the bread product. B. subtilis and B. lichenifomis
are associated with a food spoilage known as ropey bread. Most bacteria of public health
concern grow best at pH values 4.6 to 7.5. The ph of freshly milled flour is often in this range
with an average of 6.1 to 6.3.

Those spoilage bacteria of public health concern grow best between 60 degrees and 120
degrees F. The growth of bacteria, yeast and mold is nothing short of phenomenal. Figure 1
(page 76) shows the growth of 216 initial cells with a doubling rate of 20 minutes.

FLOUR MICROBIOLOGICAL INDICATORS

The most common microbiological indicators in flour and baked products are total aerobic
count (often referred to as total plate count), coliform/enteric bacteria count, and yeasts and
mold counts.

Total aerobic count refers to a total count of microbe colonies growing on the media plate
from the sample. Coliform or enteric bacteria count is a subset of the total aerobic microbe
colony count and is often used as an indicator of direct or indirect fecal contamination. Yeasts
and mold counts are not included in total aerobic counts, although they are also often subject
to maximum tolerances. Their main relation to food safety is the potential to produce
mycotoxins, which are toxic compounds produced by fungi that contaminate plants.

It has been reported that microbial counts found in a flour mill will vary widely, depending on
a number of factors such as initial counts in the grain from crop conditions, milling practices,
post-milling handling, moisture content of flour and storage conditions.

Typical microbiological counts in 4

flour are 1 .5 × 10 for total aerobic count; 200 for coliforms; 120 for yeasts and 800 for
molds. Significant correlations have been observed between all microbial indicators and some
quality criteria (e.g. test weight) and grading factors (e.g. wheat grade number, vitreous kernel
content). A weak but significant correlation has also been reported between the total plate
count and the moisture content of grain.
MILLING ENVIRONMENT AND MICROBIOLOGY

Warm temperatures are required for the successful separation of bran germ and endosperm to
prevent bran shattering and improve ease of endosperm reduction. Moreover, the energy input
dissipates in the form of heat, driving moisture off the milled product within the process.

While temperature and relative humidity of the milling room are important, it is the
temperature and humidity inside the milling processing environment where bacteria, yeast and
mold may cause problems. The optimal relative humidity and temperature for milling is
approximately 75 degrees F (plus or minus 10 degrees F) and 65% relative humidity (plus or
minus 10%), respectively.

Figure 2 (page 78)   presents the relative humidity inside various break sifters and on the sifter
floor during a mill run in the Kansas State University Pilot Flour Mill. Notice that the room
relative humidity is less than the relative humidity measured inside the sifter, which is besides
the roller mill and purifier in which the wheat processing environment exists. In some
locations, constantly elevated humidity and/or rapid increases in humidity cause sifting,
handling and general flow problems for the miller. Temperature and relative humidity
conditions outside the optimal range have significant and negative economic and technical
consequences. Rapid cooling and condensation create conditions for microbial growth.

Some management practices can be employed to reduce microbial loads in the mill
environment. Reducing microbial load on the wheat surface through addition of chlorine in
tempering water has been reported to effectively reduce microbial load in the milling process
and ultimately the flour.

In automated mills, there is a considerable temptation to simply shut down the unit when the
load is taken off the milling unit. However, many automated mill programmers have extended
set shutdown time periods, allowing mill shake down while pulling aspiration or suction to
reduce humidity in the system where condensation onto product and processing surfaces
could occur. Such practice assists in reducing surface condensation and caking, which lead to
microbial development and start-up challenges. While the building and unit are warm,
condensation may not be an issue. But it is best to let it cool down and dry out before shutting
it down.

Another tool often used in older mills is dragging or cleaning the spouts to prevent active
mold colony build-up.

OZONE PRODUCTION AND CONTROL

The following steps have been identified for the use of ozone in a primarily aqueous system
and apply to milling when used in tempering water.

• Oxygen/feed gas preparation. Produce clean, dry 95% pure oxygen from the air to improve
efficiency and protect the ozone generator. It requires 50% to 75% less energy to produce
ozone with purified air.

• Ozone generation: Control input oxygen concentration, increase voltage and lower feed gas
flow rate to optimize ozone output.

• Mass Transfer: This was generally applied to the use of ozone in the aqueous phase, which
would not be applicable to use of gas on flour. Ozone transfer in PVC piping is not
recommended since a portion of the ozone is lost when it reacts with the PVC pipe.
Stainless steel, such as 304 or 316, has been suggested for use in ozone transfer systems.

• Monitoring and Control: Control of oxygen concentrations, flow rates, voltage, etc., should
be adequate for monitoring and control. However, any or all of these could be adjusted based
on production rate, product moisture and temperature to optimize addition and provide
control.

Exposure to ozone is hazardous to humans. Like chlorine gas, it attacks the respiratory tract.
Standards set by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration in the United States
allow a permissible exposure level of less than 0.1 milligrams per liter (mg/L) on a time-
weighted average for an eight-hour work period and a maximum single exposure of 0.3 mg/L
for less than a 10-minute duration. Ambient air should be tested for safety using monitors
which operate on the basis of UV light absorption being a function of ozone concentration.

OZONE-CHLORINE REPLACEMENT

Ozone, zanthan gum, L–cysteine, malto-dextrins, heat, combinations of heat and ozone,
chlorine and ozone blends are being studied as chlorine replacements with varying degrees of
success. Ozontation was studied as an alternative to chlorination for cake flour. Flour was
treated with ozone at the rate of 0.06 liters per minute for 10 and 36 minutes using 5 pounds
of flour. Ozonation of cake flour decreased pH and increased the lightness (L value) of flour.
Baking studies using a high-ratio white layer cake formulation showed that the volume of
cakes significantly increased (p < 0.05) as ozonation time increased, and cakes were softer
than those made with chlorinated or control flours. The cell brightness and number of cells
measured by image analysis (C-Cell) of cakes from ozone-treated flour for 36 minutes
exhibited similar values to those from chlorinated flour.
The optimum ozonation time was about 8 to 11 minutes with the temperature range between
36 and 46 degrees C. Increase in Mixograph peak time, peak viscosity, and water retention
capacity were observed as ozonation time increased. Ozonated flour was reported to have a
strong odor that affected the odor and flavor in the cakes. Volatile gases dissipated when
ozonated flour was stored under a fume hood, suggesting that additional research needs to be
focused on how to decrease the strong odor in flours by using processing techniques or other
methods.

OZONE AND UV-MICROBIAL LOAD REDUCTION

A study to investigate the feasibility of using ozone and UV light as a substitute for
chlorinated tempering water for bacteria and mold control in a wheat flour mill was
conducted. In the study, microbiological test data of flour samples after milling show that the
use of ozone results in a reduction in bacteria of approximately 75% to 80% compared with
grain treated with chlorinated water.

Visual inspection of equipment and lines indicates a similar reduction in mold growth. Data
gathered during the project indicate a potential 75% to 80% reduction in total plate count
bacteria in comparison to conventional treatment with chlorinated water. The average
anaerobic plate count (APC) of one group of flour samples from grain treated with chlorinated
water averaged 181,675 colony forming units per gram (cfu/g). In comparison, the average
APC for flour from ozone-treated grain is 42,627 cfu/g, a reduction of 77%.

The last data collected on 195 samples of flour processed showed 75 lots (38%) with APC of
less than 10,000 cfu per gram. Although the project did not include mold counts to quantify
the effectiveness of ozone over chlorine in mold abatement, visual inspection of equipment
and lines by plant staff indicates a similar reduction of mold growth in the equipment.

International use of ozone to reduce or control microbial contamination threats appears to be

growing rapidly in all food sectors. Grain-based products, because of their low moisture and
water activity and the non-deleterious nature of their general microbial contaminants, make
this product group one of the last to be treated with ozone for microbial control. Use of ozone
to replace chlorine gas driven by both safety and residue concerns continues to be
aggressively pursued.

Dr. Jeff Gwirtz is a tenured associate professor in the Department of Grain Science and
Industry at Kansas State University. Gwirtz is also chief executive officer of JAG Services
Inc., a consulting company serving the grain and milling industries. He can be reached by e-
mail at jgwirtz@ksu.edu