SEDIMENTARY FACIES AND DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT

IN FELDA ARING 4 & 5, KELANTAN

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL BACKGROUND

This research entitled Sedimentary Facies and Depositional Environment in Felda Aring

4 & 5, Aring, Kelantan is proposed in order to fulfil the requirements of Bsc (Hons)

Geoscience of Universiti Malaysia Kelantan. Aring is a plantation area in a part of Gua

Musang District located in Southern Kelantan. Aring is one of the well-known fossil

sites in Malaysia, which is known to have the most abundant fossil records from

Triassic within the Central Belt of Peninsular Malaysia. The study area is covered

mostly by oil palm plantation, logging activities in some areas, and some parts are still

covered by thick forest. The highest elevation is 580 m while the elevation is found out

to be 100 m from sea level.

The rocks distribution in Aring area is mainly composed of sedimentary rocks.

According to the map of Sungai Aring, Kelantan which is produced by Aw (1990), the

study area mainly consists of Telong Formation. This research will be conducted to

determine the sedimentary facies present in the area. Geological mapping will be carried

out along with field analysis of geomorphology, lithology, and structure of the area in

research.

1.2. PROBLEM STATEMENTS

Aring is a rural area in the district of Gua Musang, known with its abundance with

fossils within the Central Belt of Peninsular Malaysia. Due to its distance far from town

and its limited accessibility, only a few researchers have done their studies in Aring

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area, mostly those involving paleontological analysis (e.g. Dony Adriansyah

Nazaruddin, 2014; Ahmad Rosli Othman & Mohd Shafeea Leman, 2008-2010). There

are still insufficient geological information regarding some parts of Aring, especially

regarding the lithology and sedimentary rocks. Therefore, this research was supposed to

provide the latest updated geological map of the study area.

Felda Aring is a palm oil plantation area, in which most of its area is covered by

vegetation. Thus, the study area has poorly exposed outcrops due to vegetation and

weathering processes. Therefore, there is a limited access to its geological information

such as types of rocks, and lithological information. This research is carried out to

determine the sedimentary facies of the study area, from which the depositional

environment of the study area can be determined by conducting facies analysis.

According to previous studies, Khoo (1983) estimated the age of Telong

Formation to be from Middle to Upper Triassic, while Aw (1990) stated that Telong

Formation is from Permian to Upper Triassic. Based on Mesozoic stratigraphy produced

by Tjia (1996), he argues that Telong Formation initiated in Ladinian and ended in

Carnian of the Triassic. Therefore, there is still an argument regarding the uncertain age

of the Telong Formation.

1.3. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The research is conducted in order to achieve the following objectives:

a) To produce a geological map of the study area.

b) To characterize sedimentary facies in the study area.

c) To determine the depositional environment of sedimentary rocks in the area.

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1.4. SIGNIFICANCE

The significance of the research study is to produce an updated version of geological

map of the study area. A precise and accurate geological map is one of the essential

requirements for geologists and researchers to carry out their research in the specific

study area. Thus, the geological map produced will be useful for future researches in the

study area.

Another significance of the study is, to identify sedimentary facies in the study

area. A particular rock facies implies its environment of deposition. Hence, based on the

sedimentary facies recognized, facies analysis can be carried out in order to relate the

depositional environment of sedimentary rocks with sedimentary facies in the study

area. This research is important as to provide information on the lithology and the types

of facies found in the area. The outcome of this research may provide information for an

example, in mineral exploration.

1.5. STUDY AREA

The study area is in Aring, which is a part of Gua Musang District, located at the

southern Kelantan (Fgure 1.1). The chosen study area is in Felda Aring 4and 5, which is

located in Aring (Figure 1.2). The study area is within the Central Belt of Peninsular

Malaysia. Because of their similarity in lithology and age, it is believed that rock units

in Aring area are considerably part of Gua Musang Group. Aw (1990) has mapped four

rock units in Aring area, namely Aring Formation, Telong Formation, Nilam Marble

Formation and Koh Formation. The study area is located at coordinate N 4°52ʹ49ʺ E

102°177̍ʹ46ʺ. The main road to access to this area is the Jalan Felda Aring which connects

Gua Musang town to Kuala Berang, Terengganu. The highest elevation in the area is

580 m while the lowest elevation is found to be 100 m from sea level.

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 MAP OF KELANTAN

Study Area

Figure 1.1: Map showing the location of study area in Kelantan.

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Figure 1.2: Map of study area

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2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. REGIONAL GEOLOGY AND TECTONIC SETTING

2.1.1 STRATIGRAPHY

Lower Paleozoic Rocks of Bentong Group are distributed in the western part of

Southern Kelantan. In central part of Kelantan, there are a distribution of sedimentary

rocks from Permian and Triassic, while Jurassic-Cretaceous rocks were found in the east

(Kamal Roslan, 2006) (Figure 2.1). The western part of the Central Belt comprises

Upper Paleozoic rocks of Gua Musang and Aring Formations in south Kelantan and

Taku Schist in east Kelantan, and further south are the Raub Group in Pahang and Kepis

Beds in Negeri Sembilan. These Upper Paleozoic rocks are mainly composed of

argillaceous strata and volcanic rocks, with subordinate arenaceous and calcareous

sediments, with intermittent submarine volcanism, from the Upper Carboniferous until

Permian to Triassic. Lower Triassic lava unconformably overlies Permian phyllite in

south Pahang and Johor, marking a change from submarine to subaerial volcanism in

the south (Hutchinson & Tan, 2009).

The southern part of Kelantan has been divided Kamal Roslan (2006) into four

areas according to its stratigraphy: Kuala Betis, Gua Musang, Aring and Gunung Gagau.

Due to the similarity of age and lithology of the rock units, Aring is considered as a part

of Gua Musang Group (Dony Adriansyah Nazaruddin, 2014). Aring is further divided

into four formations, namely Aring Formation, Telong Formation, Nilam Marble

Formation and Koh Formation, as mapped by Aw (1990).

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Figure 2.1: Geological map of Kelantan showing the distribution of rocks in the state (after Department

of Minerals and Geoscience Malaysia, 2003).

The Aring Formation was named after Sungai Aring, and it is assumed to date

from Upper Carboniferous to Lower Triassic (Lee, 2004). Lee (2004) stated that the

lower boundary is unexposed and it has upper contact with overlying Permian-Karnian

Telong Formation (Aw, 1990). In the west, Gunong Rabong Formation unconformably

overlies Gua Musang Formation. The thick sequence of limestone of the top of Gua

Musang Formation was dated Late Scythian. Therefore, evidence from Gua Musang and

Aring indicates a period of non-deposition took place during the Anisian.

In southern Kelantan, the Triassic lies conformably on Permian (Aw, 1990).

Aring Formation probably forms unconformable contact with Koh Formation to the

south. Aring Formation is stratigraphically correlated with Gua Musang Formation and

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metasediments in southeast Pahang (Lee, 2004), “The Pahang Volcanic Rocks” and the

Raub Group though the stratigraphic ranges are uncertain (Aw, 1990). In East Johor, the

stratigraphic equivalents of Aring Formation are the Sawak metasediments and the

Dohol Formation (Aw, 1990).

The Koh sandstone forms strike ridges trending ESE-WNW in the area of

Sungai Aring, which cuts above the regional NNW-SSE strike of the Aring formation.

Aw (1990) has concluded Koh Formation formed an unconformation with the Telong

formation. The Nilam Marble was reported to underlie the Koh formation in the upper

reaches of Sungai Mangkuk and, although the contact was not visible, their relationship

is assumed to be uncomformable (Aw, 1990).

The regional map by Ahmad Rosli Othman and Mohd Shafeea Leman (2012)

shows that the central Kelantan generally consists of a part of Eastern Triassic Rocks

Zone (Figure 2.2). Aw (1990) has reported that a number of fossils has been discovered

in Aring Formation, mostly index fossils which indicate the age of marine Triassic rocks

in Peninsular Malaysia. The ammonoid assemblages found possess a high value,

particularly in their role as good age indicators for Triassic (Ahmad Rosli Othman &

Mohd Shafeea Leman, 2010). Based on these index fossils, Aring area is known to have

the most abundant Triassic fossils within the Central Belt in Peninsular Malaysia (Dony

Adriansyah Nazaruddin, 2014). Based on correlation, the results support the idea that

the Aring area which can be correlated to the Triassic Lampang-Phrae Basin on the

Sukhorthai Terrain of Shan-Thai Block, belongs to the Cathaysian domain (Ahmad

Rosli Othman & Mohd Shafeea Leman, 2010).

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Figure 2.2: Regional map showing the study area located in Eastern Triassic Rocks Zone (Ahmad Rosli

Othman & Mohd. Shafeea Leman, 2012).

2.1.2 TECTONIC SETTING

Metcalfe (2000) has divided Peninsular Malaysia into three zones trending north–south

namely the Western, Central and Eastern Belts based on the differences in stratigraphy,

mineralization, structures, geology and the distribution of rocks (Kamal Roslan et. al.,

undated). Most areas of Kelantan state are included within the Central Belt of

Peninsular Malaysia. The eastern Peninsular Malaysia, located to the east of Bentong-

Raub Suture was assumed as part of “East Malaya Block”, now considered as

southwards extension of Indochina terrane, and has a different tectonostratigraphy and

evolution to the Sibumasu terrane (Metcalfe, 2000).

Bentong-Raub Suture Zone is interpreted as a subduction plate-margin on the

evidence of serpentinite and other metabasic bodies within the zone (Tjia, 1996). It is

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believed that the Bentong-Raub Suture Zone results from the Late Palaeozoic

northwards subduction of Palaeo-Tethys Ocean beneath Indochina and the Triassic

collision of the Sibumasu terrane with Indochina (Metcalfe, 2000). Considering the

uncertainties of the time of subduction, nature of the lithosphere beneath the Central

Belt, and subduction-associated volcanism, it is still unclear whether the subduction was

in westward or in the opposite direction (Tjia, 1996). Sibumasu was derived from

Gondwana while East Malaya was attached to the Indochina plate, and they were

separated by Palaeo-Tethys Ocean from Devonian to Permian. Palaeo-Tethys was

completely closed during Triassic, leaving only a small part preserved in blocks of

oceanic sedimentary rocks such as cherts, which are visible in a few localities along the

Bentong-Raub and Gua Musang-Cameron Highland roads (Jasin, 2013). These

researches indicated that, the melange exposure is one of the significant characteristics

in identifying the formation of Bentong-Raub Suture Zone, which shows the properties

of breccia with recognized fragments including sandstone, mudstone and schist ("Blog

Rasmi Jabatan Mineral dan Geosains Malaysia," 2013).

Central Belt stretches from Kelantan to Johor, the eastern foothills of the Main

Range bounded on its west and Lebir Fault formed its eastern boundary in the north,

down to the west of the Dohol Formation in the south (Hutchinson & Tan, 2009). The

Central belt was interpreted to represent an aborted rift based on the evidence that the

granitoid bodies of the Eastern Belt were a part of the Titiwangsa granitoid complex that

were separated more than a hundred kilometres by the rifting (Tjia, 1996).

“Central East Malaya” refers to the part of Malaya that stretches from South

Kelantan to central eastern Johor through central Pahang and eastern Negeri Sembilan.

Aring Formation is represented by submarine sedimentation which was continuous from

Late Carboniferous throughout the whole Permian until the Early Triassic (Aw, 1990).

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2.1.3 SEDIMENTOLOGY

The Paleozoic rocks of the Central Belt consist of Permian clastics with Carboniferous

limestone outcrops that occur as linear belts flanking Mesozoic sediments on both

edges. The western part of the Central Belt comprises Upper Paleozoic rocks of Gua

Musang and Aring Formations in south Kelantan and Taku Schist in east Kelantan, and

further south are the Raub Group in Pahang and Kepis Beds in Negeri Sembilan. These

Upper Paleozoic rocks are predominantly argillaceous strata and volcanic rocks, with

subordinate arenaceous and calcareous sediments deposited in a shallow-marine

environment, with intermittent submarine volcanism, starting from the Upper

Carboniferous and peaking in the Permian to Triassic. Lower Triassic lava

unconformably overlies Permian phyllite in south Pahang and Johor, marking a change

from submarine to subaerial volcanism in the south (Hutchinson & Tan, 2009).

In general, the marine Triassic sediments in Central Belt are more tuffaceous

compared to the rocks of the same age in Western Belt (Mohd Shafeea Leman, 2004).

Aw (1990) has mapped the Aring area and divided the area into four formations, namely

Aring Formation, Telong Formation, Nilam Marble Formation and Koh Formation. The

Permo-Triassic Aring, Gua Musang and Gunung Rabong Formations in Kelantan and

northern Pahang comprise dominantly of shallow marine clastics and carbonates with

volcanic interbeds, while deeper marine turbiditic sediments are more dominant in the

Telong Formation towards the south (Mohd Shafeea Leman, 2004).

Aring Formation is named after Sungai Aring, a tributary of Sungai Lebir and

the type locality is along Sungai Relai and Sungai Nuar, tributaries of Sungai Lebir.

This formation consists of predominantly pyroclastic sequences (tuff) with thin layers of

argillite and marble interbeds (Dony Adriansyah Nazaruddin, 2014), low-grade

metamorphosed rocks of mainly slate and phyllite, with minor hornfels (The Malaysian

11
and Thai Working Groups, 2006), interbedded with slate/tuffaceous

limestone/limestone,is designated as the Paloh member (Khoo, 1983).

Telong Formation, which overlies Gua Musang Formation is believed to age

from Upper Permian – Upper Triassic. The rock sequence of this formation consists

predominantlyof argillite and marble with thin tuff and andesite. According to Zakaria

Hussain et.al. (2008), the ammonoid assemblage indicates Middle – Late Triassic age

(240 – 220 million years ago) and belonged to the Tethyan Province (Dony Adriansyah

Nazaruddin, 2014).

Nilam Marble Formation consists of dominantly massive limestones/marbles

with argillite and thin tuff interbeds. Shell fossils are found within the

limestones/marbles. Two types of Nilam marbles are distinguished based on the age

range: Permian marble and Upper Triassic marble (Aw, 1990). These lens-shaped

limestones/marbles are distributed separately within Telong Formation and Aring

Formation (Dony Adriansyah Nazaruddin, 2014).

Koh Formation is named after Sungai Koh, a tributary of Sungai Lebir in

Kelantan. Koh Formation consists of sandstones (arenite and rudite), argillite and

mudstone interbeds (Dony Adriansyah Nazaruddin, 2014). According to Mohd Shafeea

Leman (2004), the lithology that is found in this formation is rudaceous-arenaceous

sequence interbedded with mudstone; argillaceous limestone at the base. Koh formation

is made up of Jurassic/Cretaceous terrestrial sedimentary rocks, which is the youngest

formation in Aring (Dony Adriansyah Nazaruddin, 2014). The depositional environment

of Koh Formation is continental deposit (Mohd Shafeea Leman, 2004).

Aring is well known with its abundance in marine fossils from Triassic. Most of

the fossils discovered are the index fossils which indicate the age of marine Triassic

rock formations in Peninsular Malaysia. Based on these index fossils, Aring area is

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known to have the most abundant Triassic fossils within the Central Belt in Peninsular

Malaysia. The study area consists of Triassic rocks and Cretaceous-Jurassic rocks. The

Triassic rocks consist of shale, siltstone, sandstone and limestone. Whereas the

Cretaceous-Jurassic rocks are made up of sandstone, shale, and minor conglomerate.

(Dony Adriansyah et al., 2014).

Middle Triassic ammonoid fossils were found from two sedimentary rocks

outcrops of Telong Formation. The outcrops are located in Felda Aring 5, along the road

connecting Gua Musang Town and Kuala Berang. These two localities contained two

ammonoid assemblages that are correlatable with the Standard Ammonoid Zone of the

Tethyan region (Ahmad Rosli & Mohd Shafeea, 2010).

A large assemblage of ammonoid fossils were found within thin layers of dark

grey tuffaceous mudstone of Telong Formation, which was formed from mud deposited

in a deep-water marine environment. The ammonoid assemblage is an indicator of

Middle-Late Triassic age (240-220 million years ago) and belonged to the Tethyan

Province. Other fossil fauna found together with these cephalopods include some

bivalves and crinoids (Mohd Shafeea Leman et. al., 2008). Fossils of Mollusc

(ammonoids, bivalves and gastropods) and brachipods are some fossil records

discovered from this area. All these molluscan fossils represent the age of Middle

Anisian of Middle Triassic (Ahmad Rosli & Mohd Shafeea, 2010).

Palaeo-Tethyan oceanic ribbon-bedded cherts preserved in the suture zone range

in age from Middle Devonian to Middle Permian, and me´lange includes chert and

limestone clasts that range in age from Lower Carboniferous to Lower Permian.

According to previous discoveries, Triassic limestones are widely spread in the Central

Belt of Peninsular Malaysia (H. Fontaine, 1995).

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2.2. TELONG FORMATION

2.2.1 GENERAL BACKGROUND OF TELONG FORMATION

Telong Formation was introduced by Aw (1990), named after Sungai Telong when he

mapped the Sungai Aring area further south of Kelantan. Telong Formation type locality

is along Sungai Telong, a tributary and the upper reaches of Sungai Aring, after which

the unit is named (Khoo, 1983). It is believed that Telong Formation initiated in

unknown Permian to Carnian of the Upper Triassic (Aw, 1990). The thickness of Telong

Formation is known to be more than 1000 m, and is made up of sequence of

predominantly argillite associated with some tuff (Mohd ShafeeaLeman, 2004).

2.2.2 STRATIGRAPHY

In Stratigraphic Lexicon of Malaysia, Mohd Shafeea Leman (2004) has stated

from Aw (1990) that based on fossil records on pelecypods, ammonoids, gastropods and

brachiopods (Dony Adriansyah Nazaruddin, 2014), the Telong Formation initiated in

Late Permian until Late Triassic. The Telong Formation unconformably overlies the

Taku Schist which consists of low to high grade metamorphism rocks of probably

Carboniferous age (The Malaysian and Thai Working Groups, 2006). This Formation is

composed dominantly of argillite and marble with thin tuff and andesite (Dony

Adriansyah, 2014), low-grade metamorphosed rocks of mainly slate and phyllite, with

minor hornfels (The Malaysian and Thai Working Groups, 2006). This formation is

correlatable with the Sokor Formation because both successions obviously exhibit

instability of the basin during the time of deposition due to igneous activities (The

Malaysian and Thai Working Groups. 2006). Deeper marine turbiditic sediments are

more dominant in the Telong Formation (Mohd Shafeea Leman, 2004).

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 In the west, Gunong Rabong Formation unconformably overlies Gua Musang

Formation. The thick sequence of limestone of the top of Gua Musang Formation was

dated Late Scythian (Aw, 1990). Therefore, evidence from Gua Musang and Aring

indicates a period of non-deposition took place during the Anisian. According to Khoo

(1983), Telong Formation started in Ladinian and ended in Carnian of the Triassic

(Figure 2.3).

Zakaria Hussain et.al.(2008) has stated that, the ammonoid assemblage indicates

that the rocks are from Middle– Late Triassic (240 – 220 million years ago) and

belonged to the Tethyan Province (Dony Adriansyah Nazaruddin, 2014). Telong

Formation unconformably overlies the Gua Musang Formation, forming the lower

boundary and the upper boundary unconformably overlain by the Koh Formation,

forming the upper boundary (Khoo, 1983). The Telong Formation is laterally equivalent

to Semantan and Gunung Rabung Formation. (Mohd Shafeea Leman, 2004).

Chronostratigraphically, the Permo-Triassic Telong formation can be correlated with the

Permo-Triassic Ai Ba Lo formation in Thailand (The Malaysian and Thai Working

Groups, 2006). The thickness of Telong Formation is more than 1000 m, and it consists

of sequence of predominantly argillite associated with some tuff (Mohd Shafeea Leman,

2004).

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 Figure 2.3: Mesozoic stratigraphy of Peninsular Malaysia (Tjia, 1996).

2.2.3 SEDIMENTOLOGY

It is believed that Telong Formation is aged Permian to Upper Triassic (Karnian) (Mohd

Shafeea Leman, 2004). The Permian-Triassic succession of the Telong formation is

bounded to the central-south and central part of the Transect area (Malaysia), in

Kampung Legeh and extends eastwards to the Tanah Merah area (The Malaysian and

Thai Working Group, 2006). This rock sequence is composed dominantly of argillite

with thin tuff and andesite (Dony Adriansyah Nazaruddin, 2014), thin pyroclastic and

marble interbeds (Aw, 1990). Telong Formation is said to be deposited in stable shallow

marine environment with occasional supply of fine pyroclastic material (Mohd Shafeea

Leman, 2004).

The Telong formation consists mainly of argillite, low-grade metasedimentary

and metavolcanic rocks and can be divided into four facies: argillaceous, arenaceous,

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calcareous and volcanic facies (Aw, 1990). The argillaceous facies consists of greenish

to reddish grey to black slate, phyllite, schist and hornfels. Pyrite is abundant in the

carbonaceous rocks. The arenaceous facies consists of fine-grained sandstone and

metasandstone. The calcareous facies is composed of grey marble that crops out at Gua

Setir, located at the southwest of the Transect area (The Malaysian and Thai Working

Group, 2006).

2.2.4 FACIES

The sedimentary facies can be identified on the basis of colour, bedding, composition,

texture, lithology, fossils and sedimentary structures. In general, the marine Triassic

sediments in the Central Belt are more tuffaceous compared with the rocks of the same

age in the Western Belt. The Permo-Triassic of the Gua Musang, Aring and Gunung

Rabong Formations in Kelantan and northern Pahang is dominated by shallow marine

clastics and carbonates with volcanic interbeds. Towards the south, deeper marine

turbiditic sediments are more dominant in the Telong, Semantan (Kerdau Formation of

Burton, 1973a), and Gemas Formation (including Tenang Bed). These turbidites are also

commonly tuffaceous in nature and in places volcanic interbeds occurred. The shallow

marine Kaling Formation (Lipis Group of Procter, 1973 or Jelai Formation of Burton,

1973a) forms an elongated belt from northern Pahang to Negeri Sembilan on the

western side of these flysch type sediments. On the eastern side of the Central Belt, the

Late Triassic - Jurassic Koh Formation and Tembeling can be found (Mohd Shafeea

Leman, 2004).

2.3 GENERAL BACKGROUND OF SEDIMENTARY FACIES

In the studies of sedimentary sequences, it is often found that facies associations are

17
formed from a gathered groups of facies. These facies associations were also defined

and interpreted with respect to other well-described facies associations. In the sections

showing internal organization of different lithofacies, the more detailed Mutti & Ricci-

Lucchi (1975) turbidite-facies classification is also used in order to allow easier

comparison with other well-described turbidite sequences. The facies analysis is based

upon field observations.

A facies was defined by a particular set of sediment attributes: a characteristic

lithology, texture, suite of sedimentary structures, fossil content, geometry, and

boundary relations. (Hasan S. Zbülür, 2002). Facies were referred to objectively in

purely descriptive terms, using a few pertinent adjectives as suggested by Tucker

(1982). Based on the facies associations, the sedimentary processes can be determined,

which indicates the correlation of facies associations and depositional environment

(Nichols, 2009).

According to Walther’s law of correlation, facies occur in conformable vertical

successions of strata also occur in laterally nearby environments, which indicate that

when a depositional environment drifts laterally, the sediments will overlie another.

Vertical stratigraphic succession related to marine transgression and regression can be

explained by this law.

Every depositional environment has a unique combination of processes, and the

products of these processes, the sedimentary rocks, will be a similarly unique

assemblage. For easier description and interpretation, depositional environments are

classified as, for example, a delta, an estuary or a shoreline, and subcategories of each

are environment, such as wave dominated, tide-dominated and river-dominated deltas.

(Nichols, 2009).

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3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, the materials and methods used throughout the research is discussed.

This includes flow of the work done including preliminary study, fieldwork including

mapping, sampling, laboratory investigation and data analysis.

3.2 MATERIALS

3.2.1 Topographic Base Map

A base map is a basic material needed for geologists to study the area before going to

the field. When in the field, it acts as a guide to locate the current position, find access

to a particular point on the map with coordinates as the reference.

3.2.2 Brunton Compass

A compass always points to the North and can be used to indicate directions in degrees.

It is also used to measure the strike and dip of a structure and the orientation of a rock.

3.2.3 Geological Hammer

Geological Hammer is the basic requirement for geologist when working in the field.

The hammer is used for collecting samples. The hammer used in this study is chisel

head hammer which suits the best for sedimentary rocks since the study area consists of

mostly sedimentary rocks outcrops.

3.2.4 Hand lenses

Hand lenses are used in field analysis of rock samples before further analysis is carried

out in laboratories.

3.2.5 Global Positioning System (GPS) – Garmin GPSmap 62s

GPS is a satellite based navigation system consisting of three basic parts; the satellite in

space, monitoring station on the earth and the GPS receivers. GPS are used to locate the

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current position, find access to a certain place, measure elevation, track structures, and

mark point coordinates which makes it very useful in the geological field mapping.

3.2.6 Measuring tapes

The measurements of actual scale lithology and structures must be taken precisely to

obtain accurate field data. Measuring tapes are used to measure the layering of each

strata, therefore, is very essential in lithological mapping.

3.2.7 Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)

Hydrochloric acid will produce effervescence and fizzy bubbles when it reacts with

calcite minerals in rocks. HCl can be used to distinguish limestone from other rocks.

3.2.8 Sample bags

Sample bags are used to collect samples in the field. The sample bags protect the rock

samples from any unwanted physical or chemical change during the transportation from

the field until the laboratory, where the analysis of the rock samples will be carried out.

3.2.9 Field notebook

Any observation and information obtained in the field need to be written down in field

notebook. This is to avoid any loss of data and to ensure all the data acquired is taken

for further study.

3.2.10 Digital Camera

Digital camera is used to capture photos of outcrops, geological structures and any other

observable geologic features.

3.3 PRELIMINARY STUDY

Preliminary study, also known as desktop study, is an early research that was done prior

to a research. The objective of a preliminary study is to acquire better understanding

regarding the research area and the scope of study. Preliminary study was done by

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referring to previous studies regarding the topic or the study area. This study is

necessary before visiting the site to do field work so that we could predict . The required

information was gathered from sources of references such as library search of Universiti

Malaysia Kelantan, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, and Mineral and Geoscience

Department of Kelantan. Some of the literature reviews are referred to dependable

sources such as books, bulletins, journal article, maps and images.

3.4 FIELD STUDIES

3.4.1 Traversing

At the start of field investigation, it is a good idea to do preliminary traverse through the

area to obtain general impression on the geology. It may be the only approach efficient

where rock exposures are restricted to stream sections or roads, or where access is

limited to streams, roads, ridge, etc. In traversing method, we need to travel across

throughout the area to find rock exposures, while gathering information along the way.

A careful study of aerial photographs and topographical maps can help avoid areas that

are impractical to be traversed or impossible to climb due to steepness. When mapping

rock types, it is important to have a careful plan so that traverses the entire area will be

completely covered without leaving out some areas.

3.4.2 Geological Mapping

To achieve the main objective of this study, geological mapping is the most essential

method. Geological mapping will be carried out by using traverse method.

Topographical base map is considered as the basic material which should be studied

first before going to the field. By conducting geological mapping, various information

regarding geomorphology, structural geology and lithology can be obtained directly

21
from field observation. In field analysis of outcrop, the most important is close

observation on its lithology, which should include colour, texture, grain size, structure

and any other visible features. The lithologic description must be taken from fresh

sample to avoid error in data caused by impurities or changes due to weathering.

a) Structural Geology

Structural geology is about folds, faults and other deformation structures in the rocks,

and how they formed. For planar features such as bedding, cleavage, fault, and fold

axial surface, we have to measure the strike, dip and dip direction, while for linear

features, the plunge and plunge direction are measured. These information can be linked

to important events in the past that causes the rock deformation (e.g., mountain

building, rifting) due to plate tectonics.

b) Geomorphology

Geomorphology represents the landforms and landscape of the surface of the Earth. The

geomorphology of the area can be predicted through map study before doing field

investigation. During mapping, we have to identify the landforms such as mountains,

hills, rivers, lakes, and others in the area in order to the geological map.

3.4.3 SEDIMENTOLOGY AND FACIES ANALYSIS

a) Lithology

In the studies of sedimentary rocks, lithology refers to study and description of the

physical character of rocks. The study of lithology is conducted by observing and

identifying the rock type, colour, mineral composition, and grain size during mapping.

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The lithology of a particular stratigraphic unit may be referred to as sandstone, shale,

limestone, and etc.

b) Facies association

Facies refers to the sum of the characteristics of a sedimentary unit including

dimensions/geometry, sedimentary structures, lithology, e.g. grain sizes and types,

colour and biogenic content (fossils). In the studies of sedimentary sequences, it is often

found that facies associations are formed from a gathered groups of facies. These facies

associations were also defined and interpreted with respect to other well-described

facies associations. The facies analysis is based upon field observations.

c) Lithologic correlation

Correlation is the method of using similarities between geologic units to extend

geological information about geologic sequences over large geographic area. In

lithologic correlation, a unit is recognised by its lithology (rock type) or a sequence of

lithologies.

3.5 SAMPLING

In a geological study, field sampling is considered important where further analysis

need to be done after the fieldwork. Samples will be obtained from different outcrops

and localities. The materials that will be used for sampling are hammer and sample

bags. Collecting fresh samples need to be performed carefully, ensuring that the sample

is not altered. The sample size depends on its intended use, for example, for

petrographic analysis. However, a sample should not be too big as it become a problem

to carry while in the field.

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3.6 LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS

3.6.1 Thin section preparation

In preparation of thin section, rock samples will firstly be cut using a specific rock

cutting machine. For sedimentary rocks, rock samples are cut using a diamond saw. This

is because, unlike igneous and metamorphic rocks, sedimentary rocks break easily. By

using the diamond saw, a rock slice of uniform thickness can be cut rapidly therefore

faster compared to the method of breaking small chips from the hand specimen with a

square sharp-edged trimming hammer.

Next, the samples that have been cut are thinned by grinding method to prepare

slides of thin section with minimum thickness of less than 0.003 mm. The slide will

then be polished to get a smooth surface. If the thickness of thin section does not satisfy

the required thickness, manual thinning will be done on glass surface until the thickness

is approximately 0.003 mm. After the rock slice has been ground, it is cemented to the

glass slide with Canada balsam. Then, the thin section should be washed and dried

before covered with a thin glass cover slip and then cemented. The thin section is ready

to be observed under the microscope. These processes should be handled with care to

prevent loss of the sample due to over thinning and over pressure.

a) Petrography Analysis

For petrography analysis, the data interpretation will be based on petrographic

microscope observation of rocks thin section. This includes the identification of

minerals, texture, clast and matrix, fossil contents and rocks classification. For each thin

section, a few points in the sample will be observed, and point counting will be done to

get the percentage of mineral composition.

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 i) Texture

The study on texture takes into account the types of mineral grains, grain size,

shape, roundness, sorting, matrix content, maturity and others.

ii) Grains

The grain analysis deals with the characteristics of framework grains, including

quartz, feldspar and lithic fragments content in the rocks.

iii) Cement/matrix

The analysis is carried out to determine the types of cement or matrix or both,

which bound between the framework grains.

3.7 DATA ANALYSIS

a) Geological Data

The GPS data and field data obtained from fieldwork should be transferred into ArcGIS

to map the area. Strike and dip data is converted into Rose Diagram for further

interpretation. Sedimentary and lithology data obtained during fieldwork are used for

facies analysis and interpretation of depositional environment. The specific

characteristics of facies such as lithology, structure, texture, fossils and others should be

observed carefully to distinguish the different types of facies.

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 4.0 RESEARCH FLOWCHART
Preliminary study from journal
articles and books
1. To produce a geological map of
the study area
Geological mapping
Traverse method
Carry out field observation to
collect data
Outcrop sketching
Lithological mapping
-Coordinates
Texture stored in GPS
Grain size
- Geomorphology
- Sedimentary structure
Field Sampling
LITERATURE REVIEW
Area study from geological map
and regional map
OBJECTIVES
2. To characterize sedimentary 3. To determine the depositional
facies in study area environment of sedimentary rocks
METHODS
2. Sedimentological Analysis Laboratory investigation
Facies description Thin section preparation
Texture
Grain size Petrographical analysis
Sedimentary structure
- Facies association
- Lithologic correlation
DATA ANALYSIS
Paleocurrent
- Geological Data
- Petrography data
a) Lamination
b) Strike & dip
c) Bedding
RESULTS
REPORT WRITING
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