COMMUNICATION SKILLS

The Fundamentals of English Grammar by Isagani, Cruz, & Quiazon ○ Include articles, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions & primary verbs.
CHAPTER I - STRUCTURING OF WORDS ○ Ideal Proportion: 2 glue words for every four working words.
A. In General Other Classification of words:
● Words - tools of communication (1)Abstract words - do not suggest any tangible image or impression
○ Consists of a letter or several letters, & are the smallest elements of a sentence. ■ Duty, honor, truth
○ An ensemble of words are found in every legal writing.
(2)Ambiguous words - Permit a context more than one meaning.
○ Words are similar but not identical in meaning, therefore, it is risky to use their
■ “By January 1, 2000” - “before January 1, 2000” or “on or before January 1,
synonyms & substitute words you want to discard.
2000”?
● Writing - an exercise in choosing the right words to express the writer’s ideas
(3)Antonyms - Opposite of other words
● Diction - Process of selecting the appropriate word to use in a sentence to express ■ Hot - Cold
one’s thoughts, which applies to both writing & speaking.
(4)Archaic words - old-fashioned words that have passed from everyday use.
● English words: combination of Roman alphabet ■ Erst, mayhap, methinks, thee, thou, thy, thine, anent, withal
○ Greeks added vowels to the Semite Alphabet
(5)Back formations - words formed from what are mistakenly assumed to be deriva-
○ Semites were accredited with alphabet’s invention, among them were Phoeni-
tives.
cians, from whom the Greeks learned their alphabet.
■ “Beg” from beggar; “Peddle” from peddler, “donate” from donation
○ Greeks - Etruscans - Romans learned their alphabet.
(6)Back Slang - Slang in which words are spelled & pronounced in reverse order
B. Words as Symbols ■ “Evig em a ynnep” - Give me a penny
● A symbol, which may stand for one of a innumerable number of objects. (7)Barbarisms (illiteracies)- Irregularly formed & alien words to established custom.
○ Only as customs, usage, & agreement attach a particular meaning to a particular ■ “Irregardless” - regardless
word that it has any significance in relation to a tangible or an intangible object.
(8)Buzz words - Come into fashion for a time & finds their way into everyone’s writings.
○ Many words have no fixed definition applicable in all cases.
■ On line, input, paradigm, interactive, bottom line, interface, & street smart
● By their nature worda are ambiguous, susceptible as they are of several meanings
○ Vagueness - general term of open textural meaning with unclear scope (9)Clichés - expression of ideas that have become, trite, hackneyed, over-used, or weak
○ Ambiguity - imprecise use of terms in referring to situations through constant repetition.
■ After all is said & done, all in all, along these lines, the moment of truth, stand up
■ Where a general term maybe at once clearly true of certain objects
& be counted, last but not the least, in this day & age, at this moment in time,
● Words don’t have content & don’t identify without regard or referents in the physical slowly but surely, conspicuous by his absence, explore every avenue, in depth,
world low profile, low key.
○ Word directs the reader to a referent which often is not sufficiently accurate to
(10)Colloquial words - body of language between standard English & slang; more
make it determinable to the reader
appropriate in informal writing, & more common in speech than in writing.
○ Interpretation: functions to make referent determinant or as determinant as
■ “Angel” - Backer, “Brass” - impudent, “freeze” - stand motionless.
possible.
(11)Concrete words - Express something tangible, usually perceived by the senses.
● Particular words should be considered not in isolation but in the light of the whole
■ Building, automobile
contract & the manifest intention of the parties
(12)Confusables (homophones or homonyms)- have similar sound with but have slightly
C. Classification of Words different meanings from some other words.
(1) Naming words - the nouns & pronouns ■ Lose & Loose, Resign & Re-sign, Affect & Effect
(2) Asserting words - the verbs (13)Coupled synonyms - synonymous words joined to act a single term.
(3) Modifying words - the adjectives & adverbs ■ “free & clear”
(4) Joining words - the conjunctions & prepositions (14)Euphemisms - mild or polite expressions used to replace words that might be con-
sidered blunt, indelicate or offensive.
(5) Exclamatory words - the interjections
■ “unmentionable” - underwear, “indolent” - lazy, “remains” - corpse.
● Same word may be used as different parts of speech (15)Foreign words - May be anglicised & become part of everyday use in English, oth-
○ Perform as an adjective in one sentence & as a noun in another erwise, they remain foreign & are italicised.
● Working words - carry the meaning of the sentence ■ “anonymous” - from the Greek word ‘anōnumos’.
● Glue words - hold working words together to form a proper grammatical sentence (16)Gobbledygooks - high-sounding words & phrases that becloud meaning of writing.

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 ■ Wrong: “Extinguish the nocturnal illumination” - Correct: turn off the light. (34)Ricochet words - Echoic or reduplicative words coined for humorous effect
■ Wrong: “Please penetrate the interior” - Correct: Please come in. ■ “chitchat," flim-flam," “fiddle-fuddle”
(17)Homonyms - Have a identical pronunciations but with different meanings & (35)Shoptalk - Words used by people in the same work or field of activity.
spellings (36)Slang words - Consists of current words having a forced meaning
■ “Steal” - “steel” ■ “and how”
(18)Hypallage - words used as figures of speech in which the proper subject is dis- ○ Do not conform to the current standards of acceptability.
placed by what rightfully would be the object. (37) Solecisms - Words or expressions deviating from good idiomatic usage
■ “This was the most unkindest cut of all” - It was not the cut that was unkind but ■ “Between you & I” - Between you & me
the assailant. (38)Sub-standard expressions - Word usage considered unnacceptable in speech or
(19)Illiteracies - variations of words writing by writers & speakers is evaluated a substandard.
■ “irregardless” - regardless , “under the circumstances” - in the circum- ■ At that point in time - then Inasmuch as - since
stances , “impractical," “impracticable," “inequitous” -, “” - , “” - , ■ At this point in time - now In connection with - with, about
(20)Improprieties - words used in an incorrect sense ■ As a matter of fact - in fact In favor of - for
■ “Ironic” - Wrong meaning: Something unfortunate. ■ By means of - by In order to - to
■ By virtue - by, under In regard to - about, concern-
■ Right meaning: Something that is the exact opposite of what you would expect.
ing
(21)Janos-Faced Words - look backward & forward simultaneously at 2 different ob- ■ For the purpose of - to In relation to - if
jects. ■ For that reason that - because In the event that - like
■ Verb or adjective incorrectly associated with 2 nouns. ■ In accordance with - by, under Prior to - before
(22)Jargon - Refer to specialized terms of profession that the general reader wouldn’t (39)Syllepsis - One word is used to refer to two terms incongruously. It is grammatically
understand. correct
■ “Left wing” - Political jargon for liberal, progressive viewpoint ■ The court “sentenced” the accused to 1 year in prison & to right a wrong.
(23)Metaphors - Legal idiom abounds in metaphors (40) Synonyms - Words having the same or nearly the same meaning as others
■ Corporations are covered with “the veil of corporate fiction” ■ House & a Home
■ Agents are “clothed with the mantle of apparent authority”
(41)Tautological (redundant) words - Needless repetition of the same thought in
■ Plaintiffs “go to court with unclean hands”
different words.
(24)Malapropisms - Words used incorrectly & which produce a humorous effect. ■ Actual facts - all facts are actual
■ “Portable” for potable, “delusion” for illusion, “prostrate” for prostate ■ Advance planning - plan means to foresee or device ahead
(25)Neologistic words - Improvised compounds by running words together ■ End Result - result is the end itself of previous acts/events
■ “Long pickle nosed” - person who has a long nose which is shaped like a pickle ■ Discuss about - discuss means talk about
○ Improvisation should be left to the experts ■ Old adage - adage means old saying
(26)Obsolete words - Words completely out of use. ■ More specially - nothing is more special than specially
■ “infortune” - misfortune, “eftsoon” - soon afterward ■ More better - nothing is more better than better
■ New innovation - innovation means something new
(27)Obsolescent words - Words that are in the process of being obsolete
(42)Technical words - Introducing, concluding, restating, exemplifying, emphasizing,
(28)Onomatopoeic words - Words that imitate the sound of the things they describe.
contrasting, adding, amplifying, comparing & sequencing words.
■ “tintinnabulation," “buss," “hiss”
(43)Understood words -where reader is expected to mentally supply the missing
(29)Oxymorons - Contradictions in terms
words.
■ “advancing backward," “ordered liberty”
■ “More important” - What is more important
(30)Palindromes - Same spelling whether read from left to right or right to left
(44)Vogue words - Faddish, trendy, ubiquitous words with something new about them.
■ “Nocon”
■ Interactive, interface, short-fall, user-friendly
(31)Pleonasmic words - Repeated to perform the same grammatical functions.
(45)Weasel words - used as intensives but which weaken or render toothless the
■ “burning fire," “black darkness.”
statements in which they appear.
(32)Poetic words - used only in poetry & not in prose ■ Significantly, substantially, meaningful, reasonably, clearly, obviously, manifestly.
■ “leadeth," “doth," “wouldst”
(46)Wordy expressions - contain unnecessary words; adds adjectives for uncompara-
(33)Portmanteau words - Improvised words formed by combining the first part of one ble words.
word with the last part of another. ■ a lapse “of time” - lapse already means an interval of time.
■ “Brunch” - “br”eakfast & l“unch”

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 (47) Zeugma - single word is used to refer to two or more words in a sentence. (2) Can be placed between a verb & its indirect object.
■ Jose Cruz, the newly elected member, “took” the oath & his seat. ○ Juan (Subject) read (verb) carefully (adverb) to Ben (indirect object) the instruc-
tions (direct objects).
D. Formal & Informal Usage
(3) Adverbs of frequency go between the subject & the verb.
● Some words are accepted as standard only in informal usage & cannot be used in
○ I (Subject) always (adverb) go (verb) to the cinema.
formal usage
Formal Informal (4) Adverbs of frequency are always placed after the verb “to be."
coddle to baby ○ He (Subject) is (verb) always (adverb) hungry.
parasite free loader (5) Adverb of frequency goes between the main verb & its auxiliary verb or between
2 auxiliaries.
E. Redundancy ○ I (Subject) have (main verb) never (adverb) been (auxiliary verb) to Singapore.
● Use of more words than are strictly needed. (6) The most precise adverb comes first.
active agent Combine together Past history ○ We arrived at Mabalacat (town) in Pamanga (Province).
Adequate enough Connect together Pizza pie
(7) Adverbs cannot follow “be," “become," & verbs of perception
Assemble together Consensus of opinion Principal protagonist
Blend together Mingle together Protrude out 3. Adjectives
Chief protagonist Mix together Recur again (1) Word order of adjectives is as follows: Opinion, shape, age, color, origin & material.
Close proximity Mount Fujiyama Refer back ○ It was a lovely (opinion) brown (color) table.
Collate together Named nominees Cooperate together ○ It was a Chinese (origin) wooden (material) chest.
Collect together Necessary requisite End Result (2) Adjectives of the same type should be separated by “and."
Final upshot Integral part Sahara desert ○ He wore a blue & white shirt.
Future forecast Renew again Sierra Madre Mountains (3) When there are more than 2 adjectives of the same type, put “and” before the last
General consensus To plead a plea Join together adjective & a comma after the 1st & 2nd adjectives.
Merge together ○ The flag is red, white, & blue.
● Form of redundancy is the addition of adjectives to uncomparable nouns. (4) Adjectives can follow “be," “become," & verbs of perception, like “appears,"
○ “Appear on the score” - arrive “as a matter of fact” - in fact “look," “seems," “sounds," & “tastes."
○ “Arrive on the scene” - arrive “because of the fact” - because ○ Pedro looks happy.
○ “For the period of” - for “Despite the fact that” - although
● c
○ “Until such time as” - until “More better” - better
G. Word Formation
F. Word Order ● Traditional method: combine words with different meaning to form new words.
○ “Uncouth” - unknown
1. In General - Word orders in sentences:
■ Used Prefix “un” - not, & “couth” - to know.
(1) Subject, verb, indirect object, & the direct object.
○ I (Subject) gave (verb) Juan (indirect object) a magazine (direct object). Adjectives may be formed:
(2) Subject, verb, direct object, & the indirect object. (a) From other adjectives
○ I (Subject) gave (verb) a magazine (direct object) to Juan (indirect object). ○ “Reddish” from red; “Sickly” from sick
● Direct object can be placed before the indirect object but the proposition “to” has to (b)From common nouns with the use of suffixes
be added before the indirect object. An indirect object has no preposition when ○ “brainless” = brains + less; “Joyous” = Joy + ous; “Wooden” = wood + en
placed before a direct object. (c) From proper nouns
(3) Subject, verb, manner, place, & time. ○ “Asian” from Asia; “Polish” from Poland.
○ She(subject) sang(verb) beautifully(manner) at the concert(place) last (d)From nouns used as adjectives
night(time). ○ “Police Station” = police + station.
(4) Subject, verb, place, manner, & time with respect to travel verbs. Syllables that can turn clauses into adjectives - “y," “ful," “less”
○ She(Subject) went(verb) to Baguio City(place) by car (manner) yesterday (time). ● (10 words) Let’s go over to the shady side of the street. Instead of (14 words) Let’s
(5) Subject, verb, adverb, & adjective. go over to the side of the street that is in the shade.
○ She (Subject) was (verb) very (adverb) beautiful (adjective). ● (7 words) We were greeted with a joyful smile. (11 words) We were greeted with a
2. Adverbs smile that was filled with joy
(1) Never placed between a verb & its direct object ○ Other word-saving syllables: astonish“ment." creat“ion," falsi“fy”
○ The lawyer (Subject) read (verb) the order (direct object) carefully (adverb). PHRASES

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 A. In General
● Phrase - group of related words, without either a subject or a predicate.
○ Cannot stand alone & be used as a sentence, but is included in a sentence to
add variety to it or make the meaning thereof fuller.
■ Pedro received “a very big parcel”(has a subject but no predicate).
● Noun Phrases: Nouns together with any word that modifies them.
B. Classification of Phrases
1. As to Function
(1)As a noun (noun phrase)
○ I know where he lives.
(2)As an adjective (adjectival phrase)
○ She is a pretty girl.
(3)As a verb (phrasal phrase)
○ The ordinance was struck down as ultra vires.
(4)As an adverb (adverbial phrase)
○ The man at the bar is the manager.
2. As to Form
(1)Verb Phrase - Consists of a verb & the words that “help” the verb along.
○ Most Common “helping” words are parts of verbs, like “to be” (is, are, was,
were, am, be, being, been) , “do," “can," “may," “shall," & “will.”
(2)Verbal Phrase - Consists of verbals plus other modifying words.
○ Verbals - words that look like verbs but serve other purpose in the sentence.
■ 3 kinds of verbals: participial, infinitive, & gerundial.
(3)Prepositional Phrase - Begins with a preposition, shows the relationship of a
noun or pronoun to the rest of a sentence.
○ Consists of a preposition (in, into, after, above), an object (the noun or pronoun)
& its modifiers, which can function as an adjective, adverb, or noun.
■ May be used as subject, object/adjective complement, attribute/apposition.
○ Prepositional phrase following the subject doesn’t influence the subject-matter
agreement. To decide whether to use a singular/plural verb form, simply block
out the prepositional phrase & look only at the subject & the verb.
○ Example: None of the facts have been proven true.
(4)Participial Phrase - Introduced by a participle or an adverbial modifier combined
with a participle.
○ “Participle” is a verb ending in “ing” or “ed” that serves as an adjective.
■ Example: Studying hard, he soon finished the course.
(5)Infinitive Phrase - Formed by an infinitive (the word “to” followed by a verb) &
its related words, which may serve as an adjective, adverb, or noun.
(6)Gerundial Phrase - Formed by a verb with an “ing” ending (gerund) & its related
words; it functions as a noun & takes its name from the gerund it contains.
○ Participial & Gerundial Difference: former emphasizes the doer, while the
latter emphasizes the activity.
(7)Absolute Phrase - Nothing grammatically to do with the rest of the sentence; is
not connected to & doesn’t modify any particular word therein; stands apart &
conveys only its own meaning; & works like an “aside” comment.
○ Example: He entered the judge’s chamber, hat in hand, to beg for clemency.
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(8)Elliptical Phrase - words that are missing but understood from the sentence, &
frequently follow the words “as” or “than.”
○ A comma is sometimes used to show the words missing
(9)Parenthetical Phrase - May be set aside in a parenthesis, is used to explain or
qualify a statement, & interrupts the main thought without adding essential infor-
mation.
○ Example: Pedro, I understand, died at twenty-one.
(10)Introductory Phrase. - Used to introduce the sentence, & may be a preposi-
tional, infinitive, or participial phrase.
3. As to Essentiality
(1)Non-Restrictive - Non-essential phrase in explaining or modifying the words to
which it refers, or doesn’t restrict or limit the meaning of the sentence.
○ It can be omitted without changing the sentence’s meaning.
○ Should be set off by commas from the remainder of the sentence
■ Example: Baguio, “which is the summer capital” of the Philippines, has
an elevation of 5,500 feet above sea level.
(2)Restrictive - Identify a person or a thing, cannot be omitted without changing the
sentence’s meaning, & are neither parentheticals nor enclosed between commas.
■ Example: People “who live in glass houses” should not throw stones.
C. Uses of Phrases
(1)A noun Phrase - used as subject or object
○ Example: I learned what he had done in school.
(2)Adjectival Phrase - modifies a noun or pronoun, & functions exactly as an adjective
○ Example: Her tastefully furnished house is insured.
(3)Adverbial Phrase - modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, & may function
as a single adverb.
○ Example: He waited for a long time.
D. Position of Phrases
● Always Place a modifying phrase as close as possible to what it describes.
○ The connection cannot just be implied.
Wrong: The guard admitted the visitor with misgivings. (whose?)
Correct: With misgivings, the guard admitted the visitor.
 CLAUSES ○ Example: The man (subject) “whom you saw” just now is my law partner.
A. In General ■ The suit (subject) “which he bought” cost too much.
● Clause - group of words having a subject & predicate, & may constitute a simple 3. Adverb Clause (Adverbial Clause) - functions as an adverb modifying the subject.
sentence r only a part of a compound or complex sentence. ○ Example: I shall pay the bill “when you send it”.
○ Verb in the predicate is a finite verb, which contains a subject (1)Time - placed either before or after the main clauses.
○ Example: Tell me “where Pedro (subject) has gone (predicate).” ○ Example: He shouted for help “when he saw the fire.”
B. Kinds of Clauses Adverb clauses of time are placed either or before the main clauses
Test to determine: omit the remainder of the sentence. ○ End: Make hay “while the sun shines”.
(1)Independent Clause - Makes a complete grammatical statement & can stand alone, ○ Start: “As long as he is presiding,” the defense cannot delay the proceed-
may appear as part of a sentence or as a complete sentence itself, & conveys the ings.
main predicate in a sentence & is sometimes called the main or principal clause. (2)Duration - introduced by the conjunctions “while," “till," “since," & “as long as.”
Ways of joining 2 independent clauses: (3)Place - introduced by conjunctions “where," & “wherever.”
a. Joined in a sentence using a comma & coordinating conjunction ( and, but, or) ○ Example: They can go “wherever they like”.
b. Form a single sentence by using a semicolon. (no conjunction or comma needed) (4)Manner - introduced by conjunctions “as," “as if,” & “though”
○ Comma Splicing: Comma error in joining independent clauses, where the 2 ○ Example: He speaks “as his father does.”
clauses are joined with the use only of the comma without a conjunction
(5)Purpose - introduced by conjunctions “so that," “in order that,” & “lest.”
○ Rule: Both comma & the conjunction are needed to join independent clauses.
○ Example: Leave early “lest you be late.”
○ Example: Although I should have been working last night, “I watched TV.”
(6)Reason - express a cause & are introduced by the conjunctions “because,” “as,”
(2)Dependent Clause (Subordinating or Relative Clause)- while having both a subject
“since,” “now,” and “that.”
& a predicate, can’t stand alone & is dependent on its meaning upon the remainder of
○ Example: You cannot take the examination today “because you are late.”
the sentence in which it appears.
○ Has a verb & subject, but doesn’t express a complete thought, & frequently (7)Result - introduced by conjunctions “so…that," & “such…that.”
begins with a subordinating word (who, which, when, that, became, since). ○ Example: We were so busy that “we forgot to take our lunch”.
○ Example: “Since he could not think of anything to say”, Pedro sat down. (8)Comparison - introduced by conjunctions “as," “so," & “than.”
Conjunctives that introduce dependent clauses: ○ Example: He is not “as bright as he looks”.
how inasmuch as whenever since Even if whereas because (9)Concession - introduced by conjunctions “though," “although," “even," “as,"
for in case that otherwise After unless until although “however," “whatever,” & “in spite of.”
as in order that supposing provided till whether though (10)Condition - Denote possible, impossible, & imaginary conditions.
C. Uses of Dependent Clauses ■ Possible: introduced by conjunctions “if," “unless," “incase," & “provided.”
1. Noun Clause - Verb’s subject, functions as a noun, & used like a noun. 4. Misuse of Dependent Clause - Don’t substitute an adverbial for a noun clause.
○ Example: What you paid was too much. Wrong: Because he had no new suit was the reason Pedro did not attend the party.
○ Distinguished from a noun phrase: It has a subject and a predicate. Correct: Pedro did not attend the party because he did not have a new suit.
(a) The object o a transitive verb
○ Example: Tell me how much it costs. D. Restrictive & Non-restrictive Clauses - Kinds of Dependent Clauses
(b)The subject of a verb (1)Restrictive - identifies the word to which it is attached.
○ Example: What you say is correct. ○ Not set off from the remainder of the sentence by commas.
(c) The object of a preposition ○ Example: All the people in the auditorium “who had enough of classical
○ Example: Listen to what your professors say. music” started to leave.
(d)In opposition to a noun or pronoun ■ If enclosed with commas, the meaning (all the people in the auditorium
○ Example: The belief that all snakes are dangerous is a superstition. have started to leave) changes & it becomes non-restrictive.
(e) The complement of a verb (2)Non-restrictive - in the nature of a parenthetical mark, which can be removed from
○ Example: My fear is that he may fail. the sentence without changing the meaning thereof.
(f) The subject of a missing preposition. E. Noun Determiners
○ Example: I am certain that he is coming today.
● Used to indicate the presence of a noun, & include the articles “a," “an," & “the” and
2. Adjective Clause (adjectival, relative clause)- functions as an adjective, answers the the possessive personal pronouns “my” and “yours.”
questions “which” or “what persons or things," introduced by relative pronouns (who,
which, what) or relative adverbs (where, when, why). F. Clauses & Punctuation Marks
● A restrictive, dependent clause follows a comma

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 SENTENCE ○ While it has a subject (bar examinee) nothing is said, asked, ordered, or ex-
A. In General claimed about the participle receiving.
● Sentence - word or group of words expressing a complete thought, conveys a sense ● Unsatisfactory way of communicating ideas, & are commonly used in correspondence.
of complete meaning, can stand alone, & is the basic unit of all written expressions. ○ Hoping this meets with your approval (no subject & predicate)
○ Examples: Run! The sea is calm. Go home. ○ Will send your order at once (no subject)
○ Conversational: How Absurd. Anyone hurt?
B. Kinds of Sentences
1. According to Grammatical Structure D. Confusing Sentence
(a) Simple Sentence - only 1 subject & 1 predicate, but may have many modifying ● Due to a mistake in choice or arrangement of words that conveys no/vague meaning.
phrases; 1 main clause & no subordinate clause; expresses 1 idea; with 1 verb.
E. Word Order in Sentence
○ Examples: Pedro is happy Tag(Yes or no answers): Yes, he has.
1. Normal: Subject (precedes the predicate) + Predicate.
(b)Compound Sentence - 2 or more main/independent clauses, all expressing a com- ○ Example: The soldiers marched down the avenue.
plete thought, which are closely related parts of one main idea. ○ If there is an object: the word order is subject + Predicate + object.
○ Joined by a connecting word: semicolon or coordinate conjunction(and, but, nor) ■ Normal position of subject - immediately before the predicate (“Birds Sing.”)
(1)A simple sentence plus a coordinating sentence. ○ Without order a collection of words will have no meaning (Clean room the is)
○ Example: He is a brilliant actor, and he has three Oscars to prove it.
2. Inverted order: Predicate + Subject. For dramatic effect in interrogatory sentences.
(2)2 simple sentences separated by a semicolon. ○ Used in literature & speech to avoid monotony
○ Example: I thought; I won. ○ Examples: Down the avenue marched the soldiers. Fish, I like
(3)2 simple sentences separated by a conjunction ○ Use with caution: to avoid queer sentences:
○ Example: The boat leaks; however, it did not sink. ■ “While going to the office this morning an accident I saw.”
(4)A simple sentence with a conjunctive adverb separating the subject & verb plus
F. Subject and Predicate
another simple sentence.
○ Example: The boat, however, did not sink; it simply leaked. ● Both makes up a sentence, but individually does not make a sentence/say anything.
(a) Expressed: Normally
(c) Complex Sentence - 1 independent (main) clause & 1 or more dependent clauses.
(b) Implied: When asked “Are you attending?” “Yes” = “Yes, I am attending.”
○ Example: The boat did not sink, even though it leaked.
1. Subject - Topic of the sentence, which names the person, concept or thing.
(d)Compound-complex Sentence (combo)- 2 or more independent clauses, which
○ At least 1 in every sentence, & may be omitted in a conversation.
makes it compound, & 1 or more dependent clauses, which makes it complex.
○ About which something is stated, asked, ordered, or exclaimed via finite verb.
○ Example: Since it was raining outside, I worked on my electric train & my sister
(1)Noun - The ship arrived.
practiced tap dancing.
(2)Pronoun - He came.
(e) Inverted Sentence - Predicate + Subject for dramatic impact; used with caution. (3)Adjective used as a noun - The good die young.
○ Example: Black is my true love’s hair. (4)Infinitive used as noun - To work is to progress.
2. According to Use (5)Participate used as a noun - Jumping is a good exercise.
(a) Declatory - makes a statement, states a fact, & it may be positive or negative. (6)Prepositional Phrase - in the beginning
○ Example: The Constitution has a Bill of Rights. (7)Clause - that you have wronged me
(b)Interrogative - asks a question. 2. Predicate - What is said of the subject; action, state, or condition which is stated,
○ Example: Has that law been amended? asked, ordered, or exclaimed by the use of a finite verb (Core of the predicate).
(c) Imperative - gives a command, makes a request, where the subject you is implied. ○ Infinitives & participles can’t be used as predicates because they have no per-
○ Examples: Sit down. Please take a seat. son, number, mood, & tense unlike finite verbs.
(d)Exclamatory - expresses surprise & strong feelings (anger, regret, joy, etc.) ○ Example: “The bar examinee (subject) received (finite verb) good marks.”
○ Example: Isn’t that a shame! (1)Transitive verb & direct object. - We enjoyed ice cream.
(2)Transitive verb & indirect & direct objects. - She told her sister the story.
C. Sentence Fragments (Fragmentary Sentence) (3)Only a transitive verb. - Birds fly.
● Word or group of words not expressing a complete meaning, opposite of a complete (4)A linking verb & its complement. - The sky was blue.
sentence, lacks 1 or both of the essential elements of a sentence. ● Many verbs, to make sense, require a complement, which answers the question what.
○ May not have a subject or a predicate, or both subject & predicate. ○ Example: Pedro made a blanket (complement). Jose is a lawyer (complement).
Complete Sentence: The bar examinee received good marks (finite verb) (1)Subject Complements - tell more about the subject
Incomplete Sentence: The bar examinee receiving good marks (a) Predicate noun - renames The equipment is the state of the art.
(b)Predicate adjective - describes The restrictions have become intolerable.

Page 6 Communication Skills 1A Reviewer by Pretzel Tsang To God be the Glory.

 (3)Object Complements - tells more about the direct object.
○ Example: He was a driver who took great care. “He was a careful driver”
■ This strikes me as a comment that makes no sense.
■ This strikes me as a senseless comment.
G.Kinds of Subject and Predicate
1. Simple Subject (grammatical/essential/nominative subject)- only 1 noun, pronoun,
noun phrase, or noun clause, with out any modifier.
○ Example: The “girl” in the pink dress is a college graduate.
2. Complete Subject (logical subject) - simple subject & all its modifiers.
○ Example: “The new car” runs with ease.
3. Compound Subject - 2 or more subjects connected by “and” or “or.”
4. Simple Predicate - single word without any modifier.
○ Example: The new car “runs.”
5. Complete Predicate (logical predicate) - simple predicate & all its modifiers.
○ Example:The new car “runs with ease.”
6. Compound Predicate - more than one predicate connected by “and” or “or.”
○ Example: He pushed & pulled to get his promotion.
H. Agreement of Subject and Predicate
(1)Number - The plurality & singularity of the subject is followed by the predicate.
○ Difficulty in identifying the subject & determining if its singular or plural.
○ Test: substitute the possessive form with an “of” phrase.
The team’s colors were on display. The colors of the team were on display.
○ Example: The criterion is vague The criteria are vague.
Wrong: There lives the Reyeses. Correct: There lives the Reyeses.
Wrong: The arrival of the marines bolster Correct: The arrival of the marines
the moral of the community. bolsters the moral of the community.
○ Determine verb number: drop the “there” out of the sentence & put the sen-
tence before the verb.
There are several clients waiting for you. Several Clients are waiting for you.
(2)Subject - not with its complement or predicate nominative.
○ While a singular subject may be followed by a plural subject complement & vice
versa, the agreement must always be between the subject & predicate, ignoring
the nouns placed between them.
○ Prudence(subject) is the “heart and soul”(noun complement) of his nature.
○ The patient’s heart & liver(subject) are the focus(noun complement)of the study.
○ Number of subject in an independent clause determines number of verb in it.
■ Number of subject in a relative clause determines the number of verb in it.
■ Judge Lopez was 1 of our professors who had postgraduate studies.
(3)Words intervening between subject & predicate don’t affect the number of the verb.
Wrong: The reason for all the desks, books, & supplies were increased enrolment.
Correct: The reason for all the desks, books, & supplies was increased enrolment.
I. Subject with Plural Predicate
(1)Subject with 2 or more nouns or pronouns connected by “and,” unless the nouns refer
to the same person or express a single idea
Page 7 Communication Skills 1A Reviewer by Pretzel Tsang To God be the Glory.
○ Example: (2 persons) My friend & my adviser suggest I take a business course.
■ (1 person) My friend & adviser suggests 1 take a business course.
(2)A subject consisting of phrases like “a lot of,” “a great deal of,” “most of,” and “plenty
of” when it refers to number, not to quantity or amount.
(3)“You” whether expressed or implied & whether it refers to 1 or to several persons.
(4)“A number” which means several people; modifiers appearing between a & number
do not affect this rule; while “the number” takes a singular predicate
○ Example: A number of people have called to complain about the scarcity of rice
(5)Collective noun, referring to a group of persons or things which acts separately.
(6)A subject, with two parts joined by “either… or,” “neither… nor,” “or” or “nor” & 1 part
is plural (placed 2nd or nearer the verb) & the other is singular (placed 1st).
○ Grammarians: plural part may be placed 1st & singular part may be placed
2nd, in which case the verb should agree with the singular subject nearer to it.
○ Example: Neither she nor her sisters are going to the party.
(7)A plural subject that doesn’t end in “s.” (bacteria, criteria, phenomena)
J. Subject with Singular Predicate
(1)Subject consisting of two or more nouns connected by “and” when the nouns refer to
the same person or express the same (single) idea.
○ The sum & substance of matter is that our firm remains in prosperous condition.
(2)Compound subject joined by “and” when modified by “each,” “every,” “many a” or
“many.”
○ Every clerk, typist, & messenger is expected to report for work on Rizal Day.
(3)Collective noun, referring to a group of persons or things, which acts as a whole.
(4)When subject parts are joined by “either or,” “neither nor,” “or”, “nor” are both singular
○ Example: Neither Pedro nor Juan is worried about the outcome of the case.
(5)“The number of” - means a specified total. Modifiers between don’t affect the rule
○ Example: The number of absentees is insignificant.
(6) Subject Consisting of phrases like “a lot of,” “a great deal of,” “most of” and “plenty
of” when it refers to quantity or amount.
○ Example: A great deal of sourgraping was heard.
(7) Titles of literary work even if plural.
○ Example: “Arabian Nights” contains interesting stories.
(8)Word used as a word.
○ Example: Politics is dirty.
(9)Plural noun denoting distance, weight, height, or amount of money spoken of as a
single unit.
○ Example: Two thousand pesos is a lot of money.
(10)Singular noun, even if other nouns are connected with it by expressions like “with,”
“together with,” “as well as.”
○ Phrases or clauses introduced by these expressions are not part of the subject.
○ Example: The president, with his entourage, has left.
(11)Nouns preceded by “a pair of” and thought of as one unit.
(12)When a negative subject is joined to a positive subject, the number of the verb fol-
lows the positive subject.
○ Example: It is Eva, not her brothers, who is expected.
■ It is the brothers, not Eva, who are expected.
 (13)The subject, with the indefinite pronouns “each,” “every,” “everybody,” “someone,”
“somebody,” “anyone,” “anybody,” “nobody,” and “no one.”
○ Example: Nobody was ready for the disaster.
■ Each man & woman is welcome to join the club.
(14)When used as an auxiliary verb in a declarative sentence, “need” should agree with
the subject.
○ Example: He needs to attend. Children need to play.
In negative statements & questions, “need” as an auxiliary verb remains in its
base form & is not inflected in the third person, singular, present tense.
■ Example: He need not attend.
K. Subject with Either Plural or Singular Predicate
(1)When 2 subjects are joined by “as well as,” the predicate agrees with the first subject.
○ Example: The robbers, as well as their leader, were arrested.
(2)Subjects “all,” “more,” “most” & “some” take either a singular or plural verb, depend-
ing upon the sense of the sentence.
○ Examples: Some of us are satisfied. Some of the money is missing.
(3)When the verb precedes the subject, the predicate should agree with its subject.
○ Example: In this catalogue are the requirements for admission to the university
(4)When the sentence has both a positive & negative subject, the predicate should agree
with the positive subject.
○ Example: It is Elsa, not her brothers, who is expected.
■ It is the brothers, not Elsa, who are expected.
(5)If simple subject is a word indicating a part, portion, or amount of something, number
of the predicate can’t be determined until part/portion/amount of what is answered
○ Number of the predicate is determined by the meaning of the complete subject.
○ Examples: All the money is gone. All the coins are gone.
(6)When a sentence or clause begins with the world “there” or “this,” the predicate
agrees with the real subject which is found after the verb.
○ Examples: There is a boy outside. There are boys outside.
(7)Pronouns preceding the verb “be” take either a singular or plural form depending on
the person of the subject.
○ Examples: I am You are He is
(8)Subjects preceded by phrases like “a lot of,” “a great deal of,” “some of,” “most of” and
“plenty of” when it refers to quantity or amount, & plural when they refer to number.
(9)Collective nouns, take either singular or plural verb, depending on whether one is
thinking of the group as a whole or as individual persons.
○ Example: Police Crowd Family Team Army Majority
(10)Relative pronoun (“who” or “which”) agrees with its antecedent or word it refers to
○ In turn, the predicate agrees with the relative pronoun.
(11)Corporate names with plural endings, take either a singular or plural verb depending
on corporate usage.
○ Some grammarians regard said corporations as collective nouns which should
take a plural verb.
(12)Subjects consisting of words plural in form take either a singular or plural verb.
○ Singular:News, Physics, Civics, Ethics Plural: Scissors, wages, pants
(13)With fractions, the verb agrees with the noun in the prepositional phrase.
○ Example: One third of the tax goes to the municipality.
Page 8 Communication Skills 1A Reviewer by Pretzel Tsang To God be the Glory.
■ One third of the taxes go to the municipality.
(14)Some nouns joined by “and” & which convey a single thought use a singular verb.
○ Same nouns use the plural verb when they convey separate meanings.
○ Example: Ham & egg is a favorite breakfast fare.
■ The ham and the eggs are on the plate.
(15)When subjects are joined by “as well as,” the verb should agree with the first subject.
(16) When a compound subject is joined by “or” or “nor,” match the verb with that part of
the subject nearer or nearest the verb.
○ Test correct number: Read sentence with subject’s 2nd/last part to the end.
(17)“None” as a subject uses a singular number when it means “no one” or “not one.”
○ It’ll use a plural number when it’s used to suggest more than 1 thing or person.
(18)Some nouns may have a plural/singular verb depending on the sentence’s sense.
○ Example: Many errata were not corrected in the second edition.
■ The errata is found at the end of the book.
L. Fused Sentences
● 2 or more independent clauses that have been run together without any conjunction
or punctuation are called fused or run-on sentences. 4 ways to remedy:
(1)Join the independent clauses with the appropriate coordinating conjunction.
(2)Divide the independent clauses with a semicolon.
(3)Separate the independent clauses into sentences.
(4)Subordinate one of the independent clauses.
M. Sentences and Punctuation Marks
1. A sentence begins with a capital letter & ends with a full stop (“.”, “?”, “!”).
2. In a list, each sentence is introduced with a parenthetical number if each item is a
complete sentence & there are more than 2 items.
○ Use First, Second, & so on if the points discussed in each sentence are lengthy.
● Effective sentence: Produces desired results, impresses readers with adequate
content & suitable form.
● Sentence with Unity: Expresses a single, complete thought & contains only those
details necessary to convey & enrich that thought.
● Disorganized sentence: has more than 1 complete thought not closely related.
○ Sentence made up of 2 main clauses connecting by a coordinating connective if
the thoughts are of equal significance; or principal thought is placed in the main
clauses & the minor thought in the subordinate clause.
2 kinds of style in legal writing:
1. Objective - Intended to inform; used in legal opinions, pleadings, motions
2. Persuader - Intended to persuade; used in briefs, and
○ Certiorari, prohibition & mandamus petitions should be objective & persuasive.
● Straggling sentence: inclusion of many unrelated thoughts & details.
○ Can be improved by:
(i) Cutting the sentence into shorter, more concise sentences.
(ii) Coordinating only the clauses which are of equal rank.
(iii)Subordinating the lesser idea.
● Qualities of most effective sentence: conciseness, parallelism, consistency, struc-
ture variety, & position & arrangement of words.
● Balanced Structures: may be used to emphasize similar or opposite elements
 (a) “synthesis” - balances elements toward a similar idea.
(b)“antithesis”- balances elements of opposite meaning against each other
○ Each element should match the others in weight, length, tone, & etc.
■ Avoid short (jerky & choppy writing) & long (monotonous) sentences.
PARAGRAPH
A. In General
● Collection of related sentences in developing 1 thought, topic, part of a thought/topic.
○ Sentences, which are a paragraph’s structural unit, are focused on 1 idea.
■ Fundamental unit of communication & unit of thought.
○ Meaning: Outside mark, which is intended to introduce a new subject
○ Purpose: help in communicating thought by setting off the single topic which it
develops or by providing a clear distinction between the separate parts of a
longer piece of writing.
■ Should explain/expand one idea, or if it is a part of a longer composition,
should develop a segment of the general idea.
Major Characteristics of an Effective Paragraph
(i) A central idea
(ii) An adequate development
(iii)Absence of any unrelated materials, and
(iv)Proper proportion & length.
Principle of paragraph-writing - each paragraph should develop only its own idea and
no other - transfer an unrelated material to another paragraph where it properly belongs.
● Topic Sentence: Central idea of a paragraph, which tells & prepares the reader
what the following sentences & paragraphs are about.
(a) Expressed - First sentence of the paragraph
(b)Implied - Developed inductively at the end of the paragraph
1. Develop its central idea by other sentences in the paragraph
2. Take out the bare bones, define the terms & add the details.
3. Make the sentences cohere & follow each other to immediately clarify the rela-
tionship between them.
Paragraph development:
(1)By analyzing certain details regarding the idea;
(2)By comparing or contrasting the idea with another to make it clear;
(3)By defining certain terms connected with the topic;
(4)By giving specific examples in which the idea is seen to work;
(5)By first showing with evidence what is not true about the topic & then by showing
what is true about it;
(6)By presenting the cause of a subject & its effect on other matters;
(7)By starting out with what’s a familiar topic & working from there to what is unfamiliar
(8)By comparison, contrast,, or analogy, most often by a combination of methods
B. Uses of Paragraph
1. For logical divisions
○ Separation of issues & parties’ arguments
2. Rhetorical Purposes
3. Visual Effect
Page 9 Communication Skills 1A Reviewer by Pretzel Tsang To God be the Glory.
C. Basic Principles in Structuring Paragraph
1. Paragraph blocking - grouping of 2 or more paragraphs presenting a major topic.
○ Begins with a introduction paragraph followed by topic development paragraphs.
2. Use the 1st sentence as the position of emphasis, but the last sentence may also be
used if the topic is implied or developed inductively.
3. Transition words - may be useful in linking a paragraph to with the succeeding one.
a) Concluding - consequently, finally, in brief, in review, in short, in sum, therefore,
thus, to review, to summarize.
b) Restating - in other words, in particular, in short, in simpler terms, to clarify, to
repeat.
c) Exemplifying - for example, for instance, namely, in particular.
d) Emphasizing - certainly, in fact, & rightly so.
e) Contrasting - contrary to, however, in contrast to, on the contrary, conversely.
f) Comparing - by analogy, likewise, in like manner.
g) Sequencing - initially, next, soon, then.
h) Cause & effect - consequently, hence, there-upon.
i) Time - formerly, simultaneously, subsequently.
j) Place - above, adjacent to, below, beyond.
4. Don’t crowd too many thoughts in 1 paragraph - maximum 100 words only.
5. Avoid excessive paragraphing - A sentence into a separate paragraph.
6. A short paragraph is justified as:
a) Introduction c) Bridge between 2 long paragraphs
b) Conclusion d) Emphatic device
7. New paragraph - next sentence starts a different group of ideas.
8. New group of ideas has some connection with the group of ideas dealt with the para-
graph before.
9. Paragraphs have to be tied together just like sentences.
10.Transitional sentence - used at the end of a paragraph to introduce the next one.
○ Last paragraph in a series should end with a summary.
11.Variants of paragraph structure - allowed to avoid stultifying consistency.
12. Paragraphs shouldn’t be divided arbitrarily by length.
○ Proper consideration: number of sentences needed to explain an idea fully in
relation to the previous ideas
■ If too long: divide it into shorter paragraphs, each dealing with a separate
& more specific aspect of the original long paragraph.
13. Paragraphs should develop from the general to a particular account of the idea.
14.1 & 2 sentence paragraphs justifiable only for: emphasis, transition, or dialogue.
D. Paragraph and Other Mechanics
● First line of a paragraph is indented in legal writing
○ Indentation - typographical device commonly used to mark off paragraphs
■ Business reports & memos ay not be indented depending on their style.
● New Paragraph simply means that the next sentence deals with a different ground.