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End Notes

1. See (2003). The big book of business quotations. New University Press. The major developments in this
York: Basic Books, p. 209. framework are summarized in Bain, J. S. (1968). Industrial
2. See Weintraub, A. (2004). “Repairing the engines of life.” organization. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; and
BusinessWeek, May 24, 2004, pp. 99 for a discussion of Scherer, F. M. (1980). Industrial market structure and
recent developments in biotechnology research and the economic performance. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. The
business challenges they have created. links between this framework and work in strategic
3. See Grow, B. (2004). “Hispanic nation.” BusinessWeek, management are discussed by Porter, M. E. (1981a). “The
March 15, 2004, pp. 59 . contribution of industrial or- ganization to strategic
4. Ibid. management.” Academy of Management Review, 6, pp.
5. Barnes, B. (2004). “The WB grows up.” The Wall Street 609–620; and Barney, J. B. (1986c). “Types of competition
Journal, July 19, 2004, pp. B1 ; and the theory of strategy: Toward an integrative
money.cnn.com/2006/01/24/news/companies/ framework.” Academy of Management Review, 1, pp.
cbs_warner. Accessed February 2007. 791–800.
6. These and other cultural differences are described in 8. See, for example, Porter, M. E. (1979). “How
Rugman, A., and competitive forces shape strategy.” Harvard Business
R. Hodgetts. (1995). International business. New York: Review, March–April, pp. 137–156; and Porter, M. E.
McGraw-Hill. A discussion of the dimensions along which (1980). Competitive strategy. New York: Free Press.
country cultures can vary is presented in a later chapter.
9. Sharma, A., and M. Fatterman. (2013). “Fox, latest
7. Early contributors to the structure-conduct-performance
underdog, takes on ESPN.” The Wall Street Journal, Friday,
model include Mason, E. S. (1939). “Price and production
policies of large scale enterprises.” American Economic July 26, pp. B1 .
Review, 29, pp. 61–74; and Bain, 10. These barriers were originally proposed by Bain, J. S.
J. S. (1956). Barriers to new competition. Cambridge, MA: (1968). Industrial organization. New York: John Wiley &
Harvard Sons, Inc. It is actually possible to estimate the “height”
of barriers to entry in an industry by comparing the
cost of entry into an industry with
82 Part 1: The Tools of Strategic Analysis

http://money. cnn.com, December 11.


barriers and the cost of entry into that industry if barriers
24. See Ghemawat, P., and A. McGahan. (1995). “The U.S. airline
did not exist. The difference between these costs is the
industry in 1995.” Harvard Business School Case No. 9-795-113.
“height” of the barri- ers to entry. 25. Labich, K. (1992). “Airbus takes off.” Fortune, June 1, pp. 102–108.
11. Another alternative would be for a firm to own and operate 26. See Pollock, E. J. (1993). “Mediation firms alter the legal
more than one plant. If there are economies of scope in landscape.” The Wall Street Journal, March 22, p. B1; Cox, M.
this industry, a firm might be able to enter and earn above- (1993). “Electronic campus: Technology threatens to shatter the
normal profits. An economy of scope exists when the value world of college text- books.” The Wall Street Journal, June 1, p.
of operating in two businesses simultaneously is greater A1; Reilly, P. M. (1993). “At a crossroads: The instant-new age
than the value of operating in these two businesses leaves Time magazine searching for a mission.” The Wall Street
separately. The concept of economy of scope is explored in Journal, May 12, p. A1; Rohwedder, C. (1993). “Europe’s smaller
more detail in Part 3 of this book. food shops face finis.” The Wall Street Journal, May 12, p. B1;
12. See Ghemawat, P., and H. J. Stander III. (1992). “Nucor Fatsis, S. (1995). “Major leagues keep minors at a distance.” The
at a cross- roads.” Harvard Business School Case No. 9- Wall Street Journal, November 8, pp. B1 ; Norton, E., and G. Stem.
793-039. (1995). “Steel and aluminum vie over every ounce in a car’s
13. See Montgomery, C. A., and B. Wernerfelt. (1991). “Sources construc- tion.” The Wall Street Journal, May 9, pp. A1 ; Paré, T. P.
of superior performance: Market share versus industry (1995). “Why the banks lined up against Gates.” Fortune, May 29,
effects in the U.S. brewing industry.” Management Science, p. 18; “Hitting the mail on the head.” The Economist, April 30,
37, pp. 954–959.
1994, pp. 69–70; Pacelle,
14. Sorkin, A. R., and M. Merced. (2008). “Brewer bids $46
billion for Anheuser-Busch.” New York Times, June 12.
http://www.nytimes.
com/2008/06/12/business/worldbusiness/12beer.html?
_r=0
15. Stecklow, S. (1999). “Gallo woos French, but don’t expect
Bordeaux by the jug.” The Wall Street Journal, March 26,
pp. A1 .
16. Wingfield, N. (2013). “Intertrust sues Apple over patent
violations.” Bcts.blogs. NYTimes.com, March 20; Swisler,
K. (2012). “Yahoo sues Facebook for patent infringement.”
Allthings.com, March 12; Fingas,
J. (2013). “Google countersues BT.” www.engadget.com,
February 13; “Boston University sues Apple for patent
infringement.” (2013). www.macworld.com, July 3;
“Nokia taking HTC to court over pat- ent violations.”
(2013). www.mobilemg.com, May 25;Dobie, A. (2013).
“Apple looks to add Sony Galaxy 54 to patent
infringement suit.”www.androidcentral.com, May 14;
“Bad Apple.” (2013). www. catholic.org, June 5.
17. www.patstats.org. Accessed July 3, 2013.
18. See Kogut, B., and U. Zander. (1992). “Knowledge of the
firm, com- binative capabilities, and the replication of
technology.” Organization Science, 3, pp. 383–397; and
Dierickx, I., and K. Cool. (1989). “Asset stock accumulation
and sustainability of competitive advantage.” Management
Science, 35, pp. 1504–1511. Both emphasize the
importance of know-how as a barrier to entry into an
industry. More generally, intangible resources are seen as
particularly important sources of sus- tained competitive
advantage. This will be discussed in more detail in Chapter
5.
19. See Polanyi, M. (1962). Personal knowledge: Towards a
post-critical philosophy. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul;
and Itami, H. (1987). Mobilizing invisible assets.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
20. See Henderson, R., and I. Cockburn. (1994). “Measuring
compe- tence: Exploring firm effects in pharmaceutical
research.” Strategic Management Journal, 15, pp. 361–
374.
21. See Scherer, F. M. (1980). Industrial market structure and
economic perfor- mance. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
22. See Saporito, B. (1992). “Why the price wars never
end.” Fortune, March 23, pp. 68–78; and Allen, M., and
M. Siconolfi. (1993). “Dell Computer drops planned
share offering.” The Wall Street Journal, February 25, p.
A3.
23. Chartier, John. (2002). “Burger battles.” CNN/Money,
BusinessWeek, March 6, pp. 691–719; Bond, R. S., and D. F.
M. (1996). “‘Big Boxes’ by discounters are booming.”
Lean. (1977). Sales, promotion, and product differentiation
The Wall Street Journal, January 17, p. A2; and Pope,
in two prescription drug markets. Washington, D.C.:
K., and L. Cauley. (1998). “In battle for TV ads, cable U.S. Federal Trade Commission; Montgomery, D. B. (1975).
is now the enemy.” The Wall Street Journal, May 6, “New product distribution: An analysis of supermarket
pp. B1 . buyer decision.” Journal of Marketing Research, 12, pp.
27. Tully, S. (1992). “How to cut those #$%* legal 255–264; Ries, A., and J. Trout. (1986). Marketing warfare.
costs.” Fortune, September 21, pp. 119–124. New York: McGraw-Hill; and Davidson, J.
28. See DeWitt, W. (1997). “Crown Cork & H. (1976). “Why most new consumer brands fail.”
Seal/Carnaud Metalbox.” Harvard Business Harvard Business Review, 54, March–April, pp. 117–122,
School Case No. 9-296-019. for a discussion of switching costs in these industries.
29. Perry, N. J. (1993). “What’s next for the defense 43. Porter, M. E. (1980). Competitive strategy. New York: Free Press.
industry.” Fortune, February 22, pp. 94–100. 44. Gibson, R. (1991). “McDonald’s insiders increase their
30. See “Crown Cork and Seal in 1989.” Harvard sales of com- pany’s stock.” The Wall Street Journal, June
Business School Case No. 5-395-224. 14, p. A1; and Chartier,
31. See Brandenburger, A., and B. Nalebuff. (1996). Co- J. (2002). “Burger battles.” CNN/Money,
opetition. New York: Doubleday. http://money.cnn.com, December 11. McDonald’s lost
32. This approach to studying opportunities was also money for only one quarter. It has since repositioned itself
first suggested in Porter, M. E. (1980). Competitive with nice upscale fast foods and has re- turned to
strategy. New York: Free Press. profitability.
33. Jacob, R. (1992). “Service Corp. International: 45. Descriptions of these product refinements can be found
Acquisitions done the right way.” Fortune, in Demetrakakes, P. (1994). “Household-chemical
November 16, p. 96. makers concentrate on downsizing.” Packaging, 39(1),
34. Porter, M. E. (1980). Competitive strategy. New York: Free p. 41; Reda, S. (1995). “Motor oil: Hands-on approach.”
Press.
35. For the definitive discussion of first-mover Stores, 77(5), pp. 48–49; and Quinn, J. (1995).
advantages, see Lieberman, M., and C. Montgomery. “KitchenAid.” Incentive, 169(5), pp. 46–47.
(1988). “First-mover advantages.” Strategic
Management Journal, 9, pp. 41–58.
36. See Ghemawat, P. (1991). Commitment. New York: Free
Press.
37. See Gilbert, R. J., and D. M. Newbery. (1982).
“Preemptive patenting and the persistence of
monopoly.” American Economic Review, 72(3), pp.
514–526.
38. See Bresnahan, T. F. (1985). “Post-entry competition
in the plain paper copier market.” American
Economic Review, 85, pp. 15–19, for a discus- sion of
Xerox’s patents; and Bright, A. A. (1949). The electric
lamp indus- try. New York: Macmillan, for a discussion
of General Electric’s patents.
39. See Mansfield, E., M. Schwartz, and S. Wagner.
(1981). “Imitation costs and patents: An empirical
study.” Economic Journal, 91,
pp. 907–918.
40. See Main, O. W. (1955). The Canadian nickel
industry. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, for a
discussion of asset preemption in the oil and gas
industry; Ghemawat, P. (1986). “Wal-Mart store’s
discount operations.” Harvard Business School Case
No. 9-387- 018, for Wal-Mart’s preemption
strategy; Schmalansee, R. (1978). “Entry deterrence
in the ready-to-eat breakfast cereal industry.” Bell
Journal of Economics, 9(2), pp. 305–327; and
Robinson, W. T., and C. Fornell. (1985). “Sources of
market pioneer advantages in consumer goods
industries.” Journal of Marketing Research, 22(3),
pp. 305–307, for a discussion of preemption in the
breakfast cereal industry. In this latter case, the
preempted valuable asset is shelf space in grocery
stores.
41. Klemperer, P. (1986). “Markets with consumer
switching costs.” Doctoral thesis, Graduate School
of Business, Stanford University; and Wernerfelt, B.
(1986). “A special case of dynamic pricing policy.”
Management Science, 32, pp. 1562–1566.
42. See Gross, N. (1995). “The technology paradox.”
Chapter 2: Evaluating a Firm’s External Environment 83

46. Chartier, J. (2002). “Burger battles.” CNN/Money, 51. See Harrigan, K. R. (1980). Strategies for declining
http://money.cnn. com, December 11. businesses. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
47. See Hayes, R. H., and S. G. Wheelwright. (1979). “The 52. See Klebnikov, P. (1991). “The powerhouse.” Forbes,
dynamics of process-product life cycles.” Harvard September 2, pp. 46–52; and Rosenbloom, R. S., and C.
Business Review, March–April, p. 127. Christensen. (1990). “Continuous casting investments at
48. See www.jdpowers.com. USX corporation.” Harvard Business School Case No. 9-391-
49. See Porter, M. E. (1980). Competitive strategy. New York: 121.
Free Press; and Harrigan, K. R. (1980). Strategies for 53. Finn, E. A. (1987). “General Eclectic.” Forbes, March 23, pp.
declining businesses. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books. 74–80.
50. See Aguilar, F. J., J. L. Bower, and B. Gomes-Casseres. 54. See Smith, L. (1993). “Can defense pain be turned to gain?”
(1985). “Restructuring European petrochemicals: Fortune, February 8, pp. 84–96; Perry, N. J. (1993). “What’s
Imperial Chemical Industries, P.L.C.” Harvard Business next for the defense industry?” Fortune, February 22, pp.
School Case No. 9-385-203. 94–100; and Dial, J., and K. J. Murphy. (1995). “Incentive,
downsizing, and value creation at General Dynamics.”
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