Nostalgia: A closer look on Vectors

What are vectors: An Overview and Introduction

Suppose that I move 5 in. to the north-east direction. Is there a way to represent this
movement or motion? Is there a way to quantify it in an accurate manner?

Vectors represent or describe movement or motion with direction. It is used to quantify them
on an accurate but simple manner in a plane (like a cartesian plane) bounded by a numerical
system (like a coordinate system). A vector of my movement as I previously mentioned is
shown below.

Vectors are represented by arrows. The initial position

point A (where I started), is called its Tail. The final
position point B (where I landed or stopped), which is
the tip of the arrow, is called Head. But base on the
cartesian plane and coordinate system, how can I
accurately determine that what I travelled is really 5
in.?

Component Vectors: Introduction to Vector Addition

The vector given above actually has 2 components (called Component Vectors), the x-
component and the y-component. The x-component of a vector tells you my movement along
the x-axis, while the y-component tells you my movement along the y-axis. Together, they form
the vector of my actual movement.

Placing the tail of

component vector w
to the head of the
component vector v

Now, vectors represent movements. My intention is to go to point B, where my initial position

is point A. If first I walked 3 in. to the north (reaching point C), then later-on I walked 4 in. to the
east (to finally reach point B), it is the same with moving 5 in. north-east (directly from point A
to B). This is the main concept of vector addition. If we have 2 component vectors, to add them
up, the tail of the 2nd vector must be placed to the head of the 1st vector, because they represent
motion or movement. How did I come up with 5 in.? We use the Pythagorean theorem.

Unit Vectors: Introduction to Scalar Multiplication

Unit Vectors or Basis Vectors are vectors with a magnitude of

1. They are like the building blocks of vectors.

 Unit Vector 𝑖̂ goes along the x-axis

 Unit Vector 𝑗̂ goes along the y-axis

The component vectors mentioned above are actually unit

vectors, but only scaled up. The component vector w is a unit
vector 𝑖̂ scaled up by a factor of 4. Thus, vector w can also be
𝑗̂ scaled by 3x 4𝑖̂. The component vector v is a unit vector 𝑗̂ scaled up by a
factor of 3. Thus, vector v can also be called 3𝑗̂. This is called
Scalar Multiplication.

𝑖̂ scaled by 4x

Vectors as Matrices: The Numerical Notations for Vectors

For the vector u (the sum of vector v and w or the vector of my movement), its identity can be
represented by: 𝒖 = 𝟒𝒊̂ + 𝟑𝒋̂ since it is the sum of these 2 scaled unit vectors. This is at least
the notation used by physics peeps. But for a computer programming peep, his notation is
different. It is called Matrix.

𝒊̂ component x-component, the value along x-axis

or
𝒋̂ component y-component, the value along y-axis

𝒊̂ 𝒋̂
Vector Addition: An introduction to Linear Combination

We’ve previously seen the unit component vector addition. But how about the non-unit

(or non-basis) vectors? How can 2, 3 or more vectors be added?

Two non-basis vectors, H To add them together, place From the tail of vector H to the
and O, are drawn starting the tail of vector O to the head head of vector O gives birth to
from the origin. of vector H baby vector G, which is their
sum.

Dividing these 2 parent vectors into

its components: Vector H has 2
units in the x-direction (𝟐𝒊̂) and 3
units in the y-direction (𝟑𝒋̂), as
represented by red-striped arrows.
Vector O has 4 units in the x-
direction (𝟒𝒊̂) and 1 unit in the y-
direction (𝟏𝒋̂) as represented by
violet-striped arrows. The addition
of 2 or more vectors is called
Linear Combination.

If we add the two 𝒊̂ vectors to become vector P

and the two 𝒋̂ vectors to become vector U, we will
also get the same baby vector G when we add
them up. Thus, to add two non-basis vectors, we
need first to add its 𝒊̂ vector components and 𝒋̂
vector components together.

6
That is, Vector H= 6𝒊̂ + 4𝒋̂ = [ ]
4
2 4 6 2𝑖̂+3𝑗̂
The computations: [ ]+[ ]= [ ] or
3 1 4 4𝑖̂+1𝑗̂
Scalar Multiplication: The difference between Scalars and Vectors

The number or value beside 𝒊̂ and 𝒋̂ are called scalars. As previously mentioned, the component
vectors are scaled up unit vectors by a factor. This factor is a scalar quantity. Scalar because
their purpose is to scale things up. The process of scaling vectors is called Scalar Multiplication.

Suppose I have a vector G= 3𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ and I

scaled it up by a factor of 2 (I doubled it).
What really happens here is that its vector
component 𝒊̂ and vector component 𝒋̂ are
Scaled x2

scaled up by a factor of 2.

3 6
2𝐺 = 2 [ ] = [ ] = 6𝑖 + 4𝑗
Scaled x2 2 4

But there is a more distinct difference between a Scalar Quantity and a Vector Quantity

for a physics peep. This difference is summarized below.

Scalar
Basic Definitions It is the vector’s magnitude
It has magnitude
Examples speed, distance, mass, time,
volume, work
Vector
It has a magnitude and a
direction
Velocity, displacement,
weight, momentum, force

All about the Span: Linear Combination and Dependency

Vector F + Vector U = Vector U moves. Vector F stays Vector F moves. Vector U stays
Vector R in place in place
Non-unit (or Non-basis) vectors, as composed by unit (or basis) vectors, can be found freely in
the whole 2-D space. For instance, the baby vector R will vary when at least one of its parent
vectors change. The set of all possible locations a vector can occupy in space is called Span.
There are three possible outcomes for a baby vector in terms of its span:

a.) Linear Independence

The baby vector R can reach all points in the space. It can
go everywhere in the dimension. It is then a Linear
Independent Vector.

b.) Linear Dependence

The two parent vectors, F and U align with each other. When
this happens, one of the vectors do not add to the span of the
other. It can be said that this vector can be neglected. For the
diagram beside, baby R is considered as its own parent vector
F. When this happens, the vector is Linear Dependent.

c.) A point
This is a very rare case. When the 2 parent vectors collide with
one another at both their starting point. The resulting baby is
a point.

This section is of my own intuition. A vector’s span in 2-dimension space could be thought of in
4 ways:

1) The whole cartesian plane itself

-as previously mentioned, if it were so, our vector would be everywhere in the whole plane.
2) The positive and negative planes
-We can divide this cartesian plane in terms of x and y separately. For the x-axis, we have
the –x and +x region. For the y-axis, we have the -y and +y region.
3) The 4 Quadrants
-Joining these x and y regions, we have our four quadrants.
4) The line the vector occupies
-In a very different sense, the span could be seen as the line the vector draws up when it is
extended.
Linear Transformations: An Introduction to Dot Products

Linear transformations are actually Linear Functions. An input vector, when processed in a
function, produces an output vector. Transformation is used to describe movement. When a
vector is transformed, the whole space it occupies must first be transformed (its span changes).
This is actually the function or the process it undergoes. So basically, this input vector stays on
the plane, and as the plane stretches up or squishes in in space, it will become different, it will
be your output vector. There are infinitely possibilities to change the space a vector occupies.
But with the word Linear beside it, there are exceptions and rules:

a) When the space is linearly transformed, the position of origin must remain the same
b) All lines (includes the gridlines) must remain a line; it will not get curved

The conclusion: Points Lines. and Gridlines remain parallel and evenly spaced

But how does this space stretching or squishing occur? We must focus on the unit/basis vectors

Here is another reason why 𝒊̂ and 𝒋̂; they represent all the x and y gridlines. In here, the 𝒊̂ unit
1 3
vector (and all x gridlines) are moved from [ ] to [ ] and that the 𝒋̂ unit vector (and all y
0 −2
0 2 0.94
gridlines) are moved from [ ] to [ ]. If we place an input vector, say [ ] what will be its
1 1 0.33
output vector?

Going back to what was previously discussed, component vectors are just unit vectors that are
0.94
scaled up. It may look like this in the sense of matrices for [ ]:
0.33
0.94 1 0 0.94
[ ]∗[ ] + [ ][ ]=[ ] is the same with 0.94* 𝒊̂ + 0.33*𝒋̂= 0.94 𝒊̂ + 0.33𝒋̂
0 0.33 1 0.33

Note that the blanks were intentionally left only for the sake of clarity. In this sense, a vector
becomes a vector because of the unit vectors, and they are very much dependent on it.

 The upper value of a vector matrix is used to scale the unit vector 𝒊̂
 The lower value of a vector matrix is used to scale the unit vector 𝒋̂
 Thus, to find the output value, we do the same procedure, but using the new matrices of our unit
vectors:

(0.94 ∗ 3) + (0.33 ∗ 2) 2.82 + 0.66

[𝑂. 94] ∗ [ 3 ] + [0.33] [2] = [ ]=[ ]=[
𝟑. 𝟒𝟖
]
−2 1 (0.94 ∗ −2) + (0.33 ∗ 1) −1.88 + 0.33 −𝟏. 𝟓𝟓

This linear transformation is seen as:

There is actually a general formula for such:

𝒂 𝒃 𝒙 𝒂 𝒃 𝒙𝒂 + 𝒚𝒃
| | [ 𝒚] = 𝒙 [ ] + 𝒚 [ ] = [ ]
𝒄 𝒅 𝒄 𝒅 𝒙𝒄 + 𝒚𝒅

The Transformation (what happens

The output vector (the resulting
to the unit vectors)
vector after linear transformation)

The input vector (any vectors in the

its original span or plane)

Dot Products: Vector to Scalar Transformation, Projection, and Boosting

Now suppose that we linearly transform our plane into a number line. What will happen to our
vector v?

Notice that the y-axis joined in with the x-axis. The unit vector 𝒋̂ is projected to the unit vector 𝒊̂,
losing its span. What happens to vector V can be computed as follows:

1 −2
4 [ ] + 3 [ ] = 4 + (−6) = −𝟐
0 0

Why is the answer not in matrix form? One may argue that the resulting output vector is
−2
normally written as [ ]. However, the output is no longer a vector; it is a scalar quantity. One
0
way to think of it is that the number line is a plane for scalars, not for vectors. Basically, this
process transformed our vector into a scalar. This process is called Taking the Dot Product of
two vectors. But what really is a Dot Product? One answer lies on Projection.

Suppose we have vectors R and O. Now, we want to project

vector R to the span of vector O. But going back to component
vectors, vector R has an x-component. Thus, when we project it
to O, we are taking the product of vector O’s magnitude and
vector R’s x-component’s magnitude.

𝑹 ∙ 𝑶 = (𝑶)(𝑹𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽) is the same with 𝑹 ∙ 𝑶 = (𝑶)(𝑹𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽)

But how about in a reverse manner? Suppose we want to project

vector O to vector R? The process is surprisingly the same. If we
multiply the magnitude of vector O with cosine of the angle 𝜽, we
𝜽 get to align it with vector R. Basically, for the a dot product, order
does not matter.

Another definition of a dot product is as pre-discussed before the projection stuff. The matrices of unit
vectors 𝒊̂ and 𝒋̂ can be combined into a one 1x2 matrix, called the Transformation Matrix. To
transform therefore a vector into a scalar, we multiply this matrix to the vector, having a
Matrix-vector Product. This is generalized by the equation below:
𝒙 𝒂 𝒙
[𝒂 𝒃] ∗ [𝒚] = 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃𝒚 is the same with [ ] ∙ [𝒚] = 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃𝒚
𝒃

Transformation Matrix A Scalar Quantity Vector O Their Dot Product

Input Vector Vector R

To dig deeper, there are 3 results of a dot product, depending on the Orientation:

Vector R has no x-component

Cos(90)=0

When the two vectors are When the two vectors are facing When the two vectors are
facing in the same direction, in opposite directions, their dot perpendicular, their dot
their dot product is + product is - product is 0
In a much more “real” sense, we can think of dot product as a way of boosting up. We use a
vector to boost up another vector. This boost value is their product (how much boost turned
out), which is once again, a scalar quantity.

To summarize things up, here is an intuition about dot products:

 When we project a vector to the span of another vector, we are making them linearly
dependent. This means that the span of the vector projected is disintegrated because it
occupies now the span of the 2nd vector. This makes this projected vector a scalar, used to
scale up this 2nd vector. Now, this 2nd vector in the first place could be considered as a scalar
value already. Taking their product gives us a scalar quantity, instead of a vector.

The 3rd Dimension: Exploring Vectors in Reality’s Dimension

“The Basis of a Vector Space is a set of linearly independent vectors that span the full space”

The 2-D plane, having the x-axis

and the y-axis, are of a paper’s
z-axis
world. Our reality includes another
dimension, which is the z-axis. In
̂ y-axis terms of vectors, this is expressed
𝒌
𝒋̂ ̂.
as the unit vector 𝒌
𝒊̂
x-axis

Vector addition, Scalar Multiplication and linear transformation work the same in 3-D Vectors.
In terms of span, it is visualized by 4 scenarios depicted in the images below. It is a story of
addition of vectors u and v. The 1st scenario is when its 𝒊̂, 𝒋̂, and 𝒌 ̂ of both vectors are all
positive. Vector u does not add to the span of vector v, because they both lie in the most
positive region. In the 2nd scenario, the 𝒋̂ of vector u is (-). This means that the -y region has
been unlocked, and it is vector u’s contribution to vector v’s span. In the 3rd scenario, the 𝒋̂ and
̂ of vector u are both negative. This unlocks the -z region. Lastly, the 4th scenario depicts that
𝒌
all unit vectors of vector u are (-). This unlocks all possible regions. Thus, the baby vector can
reach everywhere in the entire 3-D plane (Note that the third number in the matrix is the
magnitude of the unit vector 𝒌 ̂.
Some technicalities about the span of a 3-D Vector. A 3-D Vector would only be linearly
independent if:

𝒖 ≠ 𝑎𝒗 + 𝑏𝒘 or 𝑎𝒗 + 𝑏𝒘 + 𝑐𝒖 = 0 only if a = b = c = 0

Determinants: An Introduction to Cross Products

Suppose we double both the unit vectors 𝒊̂ and 𝒋̂. This

will enclose it and give us a 1x1 square with, of course,
an area. We actually are taking the product of these unit
vectors. Going back on the linear transformations, let us
focus on how much things get stretched out or squished
in when the plane undergo transformation.
Whatever happens to this square created from the two unit vectors represent what happens to
all other objects found in that plane once transformation occur. So once again, we only look at
these two unit vectors. Once transformation occur, the area of this “Unit Square” changes by
some factor. Being redundant here, whatever this change in area in this unit square is also the
change in area of all other objects in the plane by that same factor. That factor is called
Determinant. The computation are as follows:

−1 1 3 2
𝑑𝑒𝑡 | | = (−1 ∗ −1) − (1 ∗ −1) = 𝟐 𝑑𝑒𝑡 | | = (3 ∗ 2) − (2 ∗ 0) = 𝟔
−1 −1 0 2

Even if the objects are not in a regular edgy

shape, this area scaling still holds true because
irregular shapes can be approximated by many
many unit squares.

A Determinant could have a negative value. When this happens, we say that there is an Space-
Flipping or Orientation-Inversion.

 A positive determinant is when the unit vector 𝒋̂ is on the left of 𝒊̂

 A 0 determinant is when the unit vector 𝒋̂ intersects 𝒊̂. They are now linearly dependent.
 A negative determinant is when the unit vector 𝒋̂ is on the right of 𝒊̂

If for a 2-D Space, the determinant scales the area, for a 3-D Space, it scales the volume. Instead
of a unit square, we look on a “Unit Cube.”
Cross Products: Creating another vector in 3-D Space

On its introduction, we’ve seen what a

determinant is and how it works. What we just did
over there is the process of finding the Cross
Product of two vectors. However, the value of a
cross product between vectors is actually another
vector perpendicular to that of the starting
vectors. This is in contrast with the dot product,
which gives us a scalar. The determinant value, or
the area scaling factor, is the magnitude of this
new vector. How to compute it?

𝑣𝑥 𝑤𝑥 𝑖
𝑝 = 𝑣 × 𝑤 = |𝑣𝑦 𝑤𝑦 ̂
𝑗 | = [(𝑣𝑦 ∗ 𝑤𝑧 ) − (𝑤𝑦 · 𝑣𝑧 )]𝒊̂ + [ (𝑣𝑧 ∗ 𝑤𝑥 ) − (𝑤𝑧 ∗ 𝑣𝑥 )]𝒋̂ + [ (𝑣𝑥 ∗ 𝑤𝑦 ) − (𝑤𝑥 ∗ 𝑣𝑦 )]𝒌
𝑣𝑧 𝑤𝑧 𝑘

The equation above shows the cross product between two vectors in 3-D Space. But how about
in 2-D Space? There is actually no cross products in 2-D space. All you get when you do it is a
scalar value, which is the determinant. If we can get the identity of the cross product vector
base on the formula above, how can we get its magnitude?
𝑥 𝑣𝑥 𝑤𝑥 𝑥 𝑞𝑥 𝑥 𝑣𝑥 𝑤𝑥 𝑥
𝑣
𝑓 (|𝑦|) = 𝑑𝑒𝑡 | 𝑦 𝑤𝑦 𝑦| where 𝑞 𝑣
| 𝑦 | · |𝑦| = 𝑑𝑒𝑡 | 𝑦 𝑤𝑦 𝑦|
𝑧 𝑣𝑧 𝑤𝑧 𝑧 𝑞𝑧 𝑧 𝑣𝑧 𝑤𝑧 𝑧

The above relationship is not actually how we can get the magnitude of the cross product
vector. This however will give us a little overview about the real equation that is used, which
𝑥
will be presented in a short while. Suppose we have a 3rd vector |𝑦|. The volume of the resulting
𝑧
parallelepiped is their determinant, which apparently is equal to the dot product of that 3rd
𝑞𝑥
vector with a dual vector |𝑞𝑦 |. It is named dual because it exhibits a phenomenon called
𝑞𝑧
“Duality,” which will not be further discussed here. Geometrically, it could be seen as:

For the volume of the parallelepiped, (Area of Base*Height).

𝑥
q Thus, we need the perpendicular component of vector |𝑦|. In
𝑧
another sense, this is very much the same as with taking the
𝑥 w dot product of q (which happens to be perpendicular to that
|𝑦 |
𝑧 of w and v and this vector, because we need to project this
v
vector to it.
 The general formula for the magnitude of the cross
product vector is:

𝒂 × 𝒃 = 𝒂𝒃(𝒔𝒊𝒏∅) or 𝒂 × 𝒃 = 𝒄(𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷)

Image source: https://mathinsight.org/scalar_triple_product

The dual vector q mentioned above is actually the cross product vector! Its magnitude is equal
to the area of the parallelogram, and it is perpendicular to the base of vectors v and w (or a and
b in 2nd one).

Some properties of vector: Better late than never to discuss!

6
 It has an Identity Vector H= 6𝒊̂ + 4𝒋̂ = [ ]
4

 It has a Magnitude 𝑯 = √(62 )𝑖̂ + (42 )𝑗̂ = √36 + 16 = 2√13~7.21

 It has a Direction

 It is independent of the path taken

Image source:

https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-East-of-
North-and-North-of-East
References:

Young, H. D., & Freedman, R. (2016). Sear and Zemansky’s Uniersity Physics with Modern Physics (14th, Phil ed., Vol.
PEARSON EDUCATION SOUTH ASIA PTE. LTD.

Young, H. D., & Freedman, R. (2008). Sear and Zemansky’s Uniersity Physics with Modern Physics (13th ed.). San
Francisco: Pearson Education Inc.

https://www.freepik.com/home

Sanderson, G. (2019). Animated Math. Retrieved from https://www.3blue1brown.com/

Geogebra.com