Psychology: the science of behavior and mental processes
Subfields:
Neurobiological: explores the link between neurological structures and the mind
Developmental: studies changing abilities across the lifespan
Cognitive: how we perceive, think, and solve problems
Personality: investigates our persistent traits
Social: explores how we view and affect one another
Industrial/Organizational: studies and advises on behavior in the workplace
Counseling: helps people cope with academic, vocational, and marital challenges
Clinical: studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
Educational: research and implication of processes and behaviors involved in
learning and the classroom
Theoretical Areas:
Tabula Rasa: the idea that people are born with a blank slate that experiences
write on.
Structuralism: used self-reflective introspection-immediate reactions and how
they related-to reveal the structure of the human mind, Wundt and Titchener
introduced, unreliable because it required smart, verbal people, and results varied
a lot between people and experiences, “the science of mental life”
Functionalism: explored how mental and behavioral processes function-how they
enable an organism to adapt, survive, and flourish, thinking was adaptive-it
contributed to our ancestor’s survival, promoted by James and influenced by
Darwin, functionalism turned into behaviorism.
Behaviorism: view that psychology should be an objective science that studies
behavior without reference to mental processes, based on external observation,
“the scientific study of observable behavior”
Freuds Ideas: our unconscious thought processes and our emotional responses to
childhood experiences affect our behavior
Humanist: not often translated into ‘counseling,’ Rogers and Maslow influenced,
ways current environmental influences can nurture or limit our growth potential,
and the importance of having needs for love and acceptance satisfied
Cognitive/Neuroscience: led back into importance of how our mind processes and
retains info, the way we perceive, process and remember information, studies the
brain activity underlying mental activity, brain activity linked with cognition
Evolutionary: the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles
of natural selection, natural selection-nature selects traits that best enable and
organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment
Behavioral Genetics: the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and
environmental influences on behavior.
Main Ideas:
Nature vs. Nurture: the longstanding controversary over the relative contributions
that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and
behaviors. Today we believe they come from an interaction of nature and nurture.
Biopsychological Approach: an integrated approach that incorporates biological,
psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis
Basic Vs Applies Research: Basic: pure science that aims to increase the scientific
general knowledge base. Applied: scientific study that aims to solve specific and
practical problems.
Need for Psychological Science:
Hindsight Bias: the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would
have foreseen it, “I knew it all along”
Critical Thinking: thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions,
but examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates
evidence, and assesses conclusions – how to get rid of bias
Overconfidence: like it sounds
*Hindsight bias and overconfidence often lead us to overestimate our intuition.
Intuition doesn’t work.
Avoiding Bias: follow scientific method, consider alternatives, control what can be,
embrace parsimony, let the data speak, be a critical consumer
Scientific Method:
Scientific Theories: an explanation using an integrated set of principles that
organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
Hypothesis: a testable prediction, implied by a theory.
Research Methods:
Case Study: a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in
depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
Observation: naturalistic: a descriptive technique of observing and recording
behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control
the situation.
Surveys: a descriptive technique for obtaining self-reported attitudes or behaviors
of a particular group, usually by questioning representative, or random sample of
the group.
Experiments: a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or
more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process, by
random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other
relevant factors.
Experiments:
Dependent Variable: in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the
variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated
Confounding Variable: in an experiment, a factor other than the independent
variable that might produce and effect
Independent Variable: in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the
variable whose effect is being studied
Random Assignment: assigning participants to experimental and control groups by
chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.
Statistical Reasoning:
Correlation Coefficient: a statistical index of the relationship between two things,
-1.00 to +1.00
Scatterplot: a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two
variables, the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship
between the variables, the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the
correlation, little scatter=high correlation
Sampling:
Mode: the most frequently occurring score in a distribution
Mean: the arithmetic average of a distribution
Median: the middle score in a distribution, half of scores above it, half below it
Neurons: interconnected cells that build the body’s information system
Dendrites: a neurons bushy, branching extensions that receives messages and
conduct impulses toward the cell body (receives)
Axons: the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other
neurons or to muscles or glands (sends)
Neural Impulse: electrical signals in axons
Myelin Sheath: a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some
neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from
one node to the next
Synapse: the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the
dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron
Neurotransmitters: chemicals released from a sending neuron, travels across
synapse, bind receptor sites, and influences it to generate action potential
Reuptake: a neurotransmitters reabsorption by the sending neuron
Agonist: a molecule that increases a neurotransmitters action
Antagonist: a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitters action
Serotonin: affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal
Dopamine: influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion
Nervous System:
Central Nervous System (CNS): the brain and spine, the body’s decision maker,
networked neurons, reflexes
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): the sensory and motor neurons that connect
the CNS to the rest of the body
Sympathetic Nervous System: the division of the automatic nervous system that
arouses the body, mobilizing its energy (fight or flight)
Parasympathetic Nervous System: the division of the automatic nervous system
that calms the body, conserving its energy (rest or digest)
Endocrine System: communication system interconnect with nervous system
Hormones: chemical messengers that are manufactures by the endocrine glands,
travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues
Adrenal Glands: a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and
secrete hormones that help arouse the body in times of stress
Pituitary Glands: the endocrine systems most influential gland, under the
influence of the hypothalamus, it regulates growth and controls other glands.
Researching the Brain, Methods:
Brain Lesion: tissue destruction, naturally or experimentally destruction of brain
tissue
EEG Electroencephalogram: an amplified recording of the electrical activity waves
sweeping across the brain
MRI Magnetic Resonance Imaging: a technique that uses magnetic fields and
radio waves to produces images of soft tissue, what’s using more oxygen
fMRI Functional MRI: a technique for revealing blood flow, therefore brain activity
by comparing successive MRI scans, show brain function and structure
PET Scan: visual display detects radioactive forms of glucose while doing a task
Inside the Brain:
Brain Stem: Oldest part and central core of brain, beginning where spinal cord
wells and enters into skull, responsible for automatic survival functions
Hippocampus: a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit
memories for storage
Amygdala: two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to
emotion
Hypothalamus: a neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs maintenance
activities(eating, drinking, body temp, emotions, helps govern endocrine system
via pituitary gland) linked to emotion/reward
Medulla: base of brainstem, controls heartbeat and breathing
Reticular Formation: nerve network in brainstem, plays a role in arousal
Thalamus: top of brainstem, sensory switchboard, directs messages and replies Addiction: Compulsive craving of drugs or certain behaviors despite known
Cerebellum: the ‘little brain’ at rear of brainstem, processes sensory input, adverse consequences
coordinates movement output and balance, and enables nonverbal learning and Withdrawal: The discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive
memory drug or behavior
Limbic System: neural structures at border of brainstem, emotions and drives Depressants: drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
Corpus Collosum: large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain Alcohol: results: slowed neural processing, memory disruption (impairs growth of
hemispheres and carrying messages between them synaptic connections), reduced self-awareness and self-control, expectancy effects
Plasticity: the brains ability to change and reorganize itself after damage or illness Barbiturates: “tranquilizers” drugs that depress central nervous system activity,
or by building new pathways based on experience reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement
Cerebral Cortex: the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the Opiates: depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety, pupils
cerebral hemispheres; the body’s control and information-processing center constrict, breathing slows, lethargy sets in and replaces pain and anxiety
Frontal Lobe: portion behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle Stimulants: drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions
movements and in making plans and judgements Amphetamines: drugs stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body
Occipital Lobe: portion at the back of head; includes areas that receive functions and associated energy and mood changes
information from visual fields Meth: stimulates CNS, meth is a stronger amphetamine and triggers the release of
Temporal Lobe: portion above the ears; includes auditory areas, each receiving dopamine, which stimulates brain cells and enhance energy and mood, overtime
information primarily from the opposite ear may reduce baseline dopamine levels Effects: irritability, insomnia, hypertension,
Parietal Lobe: portion at top of head, near rear; receives sensory input for touch seizures, social isolation, depression, occasional violent outbursts
and body position Nicotine: a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco usually
Right/ Left Hemispheres: Left: speaking or calculations reading, writing, speaking, Effects: tolerance, withdrawal, craving, insomnia, anxiety, irritability, distractibility
arithmetic reasons, and understanding, quick, literal interpretations of language Cocaine: a powerful and addictive stimulant derived from the coca plant; produces
Right: perceptual tasks, making inferences, modulate our speech, orchestrate our temporarily increased alertness and euphoria, depletes brains supply of dopamine,
self-awareness serotonin, and norepinephrine Effects: emotional disturbances, suspiciousness,
Motor Cortex: controls voluntary movements, an area at the rear of the frontal convulsions, cardiac arrest, respiratory failure
lobes MDMA/Ecstasy: a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen that produces
Sensory Cortex: received information from the skin, area at the front of the euphoria and social intimacy, short term health risks and longer-term harm to
parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition Effects: dehydrating,
Association Areas: pulls information to make patterns and create information increased blood pressure, death, depressed mood, suppresses disease fighting
Aphasia: language impairment immune system, impairs memory, slows thought, and disrupts sleep
Brocas: speaking impairment Hallucinogens: psychedelic drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory
Wernicke’s: understanding impairment images in the absence of sensory input
Consciousness: our awareness of ourselves and our environment LSD: a powerful hallucinogenic drug “acid” it can color emotional experience,
Dual Processing: the principle that information is often simultaneously processed euphoria to detachment to panic
on separate conscious and unconscious tracks THC: triggers variety of effects, including mild hallucinations, amplifies sensitivity
Attention: to colors, sounds, tastes and smells, and relaxes, disinhibits, and may be euphoric.
Selective Attention: the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus Impairs motor coordination, perceptual skills, and reaction time. Effects: agitation
Inattentional Blindness: failing to see visible objects when our attention is and hallucinations
directed elsewhere
Change Blindness: failing to notice changes in the environment
Sleep: periodic natural loss of consciousness
REM Sleep: rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid
dreams commonly occur, 8/10 negative, commonly about yesterday events
Circadian Rhythm: our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-
hour cycle, 90 min sleep cycle, influenced by body temp, altered by age
Alpha Waves: the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
Beta Waves: smallest, alert and awake state
Delta Waves: the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
Theta Waves: motionless but alert? Dream waves?
Melatonin: hormone that regulates day-night cycle, blue light inhibits release
Sleep Problems:
Deprivation: can cause fatigue, irritability, impairs concentration, productivity, and
memory consolidation, more likely to get sick, depression, obesity, joint pain, etc.
Apnea: a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during
sleep and repeated momentary awakenings, related to obesity
Night Terrors: a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of
being terrified, occur during REM sleep
Insomnia: recurring problems in falling or staying asleep, causes tiredness and
increase risk of depression, 1 in 4 complain
Narcolepsy: a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable and sudden sleep
attacks, often times going right into REM sleep, at inopportune times
Sleep Paralysis: REM shuts down, awake, but motor brakes still in place
Reasons:
Repair of Neurons: strengthens neural connections, promotes creative problem
solving, secretes growth hormones
Learning: to develop and preserve neural pathways, and reflect cognitive
development
Wish fulfilment: manifest content: remembered story line of a dream latent
content: underlying meaning of a dream
Brain Static: brains attempt to synthesize random neural activity
Drugs:
Psychoactive Drugs: A chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods
Physical/Psychological:
Tolerance: neuroadaptation, the diminishing effect with regular use of the same
dose of drug, requires user to take larger and larger doses to feel effects, leads to
addiction
Exam 1: Modules 1-10 Becky Price