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MICROCOPY RESOLUTIOi1 TEST CHART MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART
NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS-1963-A NATIDN,AL BUREAU OF STANDARDS-1963-A
 t'

Technical Bulletin No. 1065, Se1)te?nbel' 1952

'.
Drainage Investigation ~Iethods for
Irrigated Areas inWestern United States

By WILLIAM ""V. DONNAN, dmilLage eng'illeel', and

GEORGE B. BRADSHAW, irrigation eJ1gineer,
Soil C011.'H'?Tation Senice2

CONTENTS
Png(,'" ~ Pngc
Introduction .. , ........ ,....... 1 Existing (lata ................ 26

• Basic drainage information ...... 2

Preliminary investigations ...... 3
G d f . t' t'
roun eSur ace 1l1ves 19a IOns ..• _
Observation wells ...•..••....
Piczometcrs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
4 'Y ntcl'-Soul'ca sUl'vay ............
Sources of watr.r .............
Soil investigations ........•..... b. Salinity of water .............
Reyic,," of cxisting data ....... 7' Types of drainagc systcms and

26
27
38

39

42

Field mcasuremcnts and structures ................. 42

observations .•............. 7 Open drains ................. 43

Soil-pcrmeability Covered drains ............... 44

determinations ............. 17 Wells and sumps ............. 44

Water-table investigations 26 Literature cited •............... 45

INTRODUCTION

Drainage problems in the irrigated areas of the West differ

widely because of the varied nature of the physical land and hydro­
logic conditions.. There are, therefore, no fixed short-cut methods
of investigation that are uniformly applicable to the analysis and
solution of all drainage problems under all conditions in all areas.
Some problems are fairly simple and their solution is quickly
apparent. Others require only limited investigation. Generally,
ho'wever, the soils, waters, and cropping and irrigation practices
vary so greatly, both individually and in their total effect, that a
complete and thorough evaluation is needed to determine the spe­
cific causes of undesirable drainage conditions and their correc­
1 Submitted for \lubliclltian Mu~' ~9, 1052 •

•
• This study was carried out by the Research Division o( Irrigulian Engineering and
Water Conservation, Soil Conservation Service, in cnoJ)crnlion with the Imperinl Irrigation
District. State of Califarnill.
2 TECHNICAL llULLETIN NO. 1065, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

tion. Holes must be bored, observation wells installed, soils

examined, and hydrologic measurements taken. Every source of •
information relating to the problem must be explored and the
information analyzGd.
Practical land drai.nage rests upon some fairly simple principles,
a complete understanding of which is required for the practical
solution of the many complex drainage problems encountered. The
actual solution of these problems presents technical difficulties of
a high order. This bulletin outlines methods for conducting drain­
age investigations in irrigated areas of western United States. It
presents a description of equipment and techniques that have been
found useful in the study of ground-water problems, together with
a discussion of their application. It sets forth procedures for
analyzing and evaluating the essential information and organizing
it for effective use in the solution of drainage problems.

BASIC DRAINAGE INFORMATION

The basic infol'mation important in any drainage investigation
deals primarily with the follo-wing four elements: Topography,
soils, water tables, and water source, including the quality and
quantity of water. These are not mentioned in nn\er of impor­
tance, nor should they necessarily be investigated in the order
given. "Vhen the specific problem and its cause are obvious, as for
example in the case of waterlogging caused by canal seepage,
attention would need to be focused mainly on the water-source
factor.
The more complex problems require an orderly procedure of
investigation and analysis for their solution. For such problems,
answers must be obtained for questions like the following: (1) Is
•
there a suitable outlet for the drainage water? (2) Can the excess
water be removed readily from the root zone of the soil? (3) Does
the water have its source in rainfall, irrigation, seepage, or arte­
sian flow? (4) How much water must be removed? (5) What
type of drainage system will give the best results?
Such questions are fairly typical of those arising in the analysis
2lnd evaluation of the four basic elements of drainage infol" lation_
A few examples of how differences in topography, soil, and hydro­
logic conditions affect the selection of drainage systems and struc­
tures ill actual drainage practice will illustrate the importance anci
use of such information.
The to]JogJ'a}Jhll often indicates the most suitable type of drain­
age. The topographic survey may reveal that there is a lack of
natural outlets for drainage water, or that the terrain is unsuited
for the construction of open eh-ains except at excessive cost. E\'en
though the soil may be drainable, the configuration of the land
may be such as to prevent the ultimate djsposal of the drainage
water ill a feasible manner. The basin type of tOl)ography lends
itself well to pumping for drainage. Disregarding other factors,
flat slopes lend themselvep, well to tiling on a grid system, whereas

•
swales a11d benches suggest the use of interceptor lines. Pockets
requiring drainage are usually ber-;t drained by sumps. The extent
 DRAINAm;.INVESTIGATION METHODS FOR IRRIGATED AREAS 3
and effectiveness of existing canal systems often suggest the best
location for open drains.
The soils of the problem area influence the choice of a drainage
system in many ways. The sequence of permeable and impermeable
strata in the area and the ability of the separate layers to transmit
water largely determine both the type of system that should be
installed and its design. Open drains at I-mile intervals may be
adequate for draining areas vf extremely porous subsoils, whereas
a relatively heavy soil might require tile lines spaced not more
than 100 feet apart. Lack of drail1able strata in the 4- to 8-foot
zone may make drainage by tile lines unfeasible. Thus the size,
depth and spacing of tile lines; the size, depth, and capacity of
drainage wells; and the location and depth of sumps all depend on
the results of the soil survey and related geologic infurmation.
The height, movement, and cyclic trends of the wcttr?' tCLble de­
termine or affect the choice of drainage measures. For example,
artesian pressure areas are extremely difficult to drain with tile
lines and relief pumps usually are necessary to relieve the pressure
from below. Stream lines of flow indicate the points where seep­
age can be intercep\;ed to advantage.
The 1.('((ter-So1LTce S1u'11ey indicates the amount of water for
which drainage must be provided and thenatul'e of its source.
'Vhere rainfall is a factor in the drainage prob1em, open drains
usually are essential for the removal of excess surface flow. In
arid western areas in which no excessive rainfall volumes are
involved, pumping may be the solution to the drainage problem.

• \Vater-quality determinations are important in areas lacking ade­

quate water supplies. If drainage water is of good quality, for
eXl1mple, plans can be made to 1'e-use it for irrigation purposeF"
Obviously, if a drainage system can be made to produce usable
water at the points where it is needed, the cost of drainage can be
greatly reduced or almost completely written off.
In obtaining the essential data on these matters, full advantage
should be taken of any pertinent information resulting from previ­
ous surveys that have been made of the topography, soils, water
tables, and water sources in the problerl1 area and its general
vicinity.
PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATIONS
Preliminary investigations should be made before undertaking
intensive field studies, Such investigations include a review of all
existing written, tabular, and graphic data. pertaining to drainage
problems. in the area; discussions with local people; and a field
reconnaissance of the problem area.
The availability of adequate contour maps and aerial IJhoto­
graphs of the area should be explored in order to determine the
need for additional topographic surveys. Existing aerial photo­
graphs may reveal the location of seep areas and saline or alkaline
spots and may provide clues to the location of water sources. The
degree of crop growth shown on such photographs may indIcate
the presence of underground clay barriers or sand pockets that
• affect underground drainage. Early engineering reports relatillg
 4 TECHNICAL BULLETIN NO. 1065, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

to the area involved contain much useful information. Almost all

of the valleys in the western United States have been surveyed or
,I investigated at some time in the past to determine the possibility •
of reclaiming land or expanding the size of irrigated areas.
Other reports, such as geological papers, publications of the
United States Bureau of Mines, water-supply bulletins, reports of
experiment station studies, soil surveys, and State engineering
publications furnish valuable information. Such publications and
reports generally may be found in public libraries; in State, county,
or city engineer's offices; or in agricultural college files.
A revie'\v of the history of a drainage problem may reveal that
the area involved was always poorly drained and that unfavorable
conditions have merely been aggravated in more recent times by
improper methods of land development. The problem may have
developed as a result of the poor location or faulty design of a
canal, dam, or reservoir. It may be the result of a change in crop
production, the drilling of new wells, or the abandonment of old
ones. The occurrence of a drainage problem or the growing sever­
ity of such a problem may be coincident with cyclic peaks of pre­
cipitation or with an increase in water supply following the expan­
sion of adjacent irrigated areas. A gradual deterioration in
drainage conditions over a period of years may be due to regular
use of too much irrigation water. Many of the historical circum­
stances mentioned may indicate that the principal factor respon­
sible for drainage conditions is the source of the water. .
The preliminary field reconnaissance is an essential step in the
investigation since it forms the basis of all further investigations. •
It consists of a comparatively rapid examination of conditions on
the ground, preferably with a person familial' with the area. It
should be sufficiently thorough to furnish the following informa­
tion:
(1) Number and general location of natural waterways.
(2) Location and condition of possible drainage outlets.
(3) Location and general characteristics of canals, laterals,
wells, ponds, springs, reservoirs, and other wat~r sources.
(4) Location and general charact~ristics of drains adjacent to
the problem area, including existing tile lines and surface drains.
(5) The general characteriRtics of the irrigation practices in
current use, status of land leveling, grades, and mode and efficiency
of water application.
(6) The obvious topographic features such as dunes, benches,
pockets, and outcrops.
(7) The approximate present water-table level and its fluctua­
tions.
(8) Present cropping practices, condition of crops, and changes
from previous years.
GROUND-SURFACE INVESTIGATIONS
A ground surface investigation consists mainly of a topographic
survey of a proposed drainage area to determine the surface con­
figuration, including the RUl'face slopes, the direction of natural
drainage, and potential drainage outlets. This survey gives a clue •
 ,,

DRAINAG:El INVESTIGATION METHODS FOR IRRIGATED AREAS 5

to the type of drainage needed and the extent to which the eco­
nomic feasibility of this type is affected by the presence ofnatural
grades, outlets, and favorable topography-all of which help to
reduce drainage costs. It l'eveals the status of land preparation in
the irrigated areas and discloses the places where poor land level­
ing instead of poor drainage may be the cause of crop failure. It
gives more positive information upon which to base specific drain­
age plans and proposals than is obtained by visual inspection in a
prelimirlary reconnaissance.
A necessary preliminary of a ground-surface investigation is an
analysis of all existing maps, charts or aerial photographs of the
area in question. Aerial photographs and United States Geolog­
ical Survey quadrangle maps are hel pful in locating possible drain
outlets and boundaries of affected areas. A comparison of old
aerial photographs with more up-to-date pictures sometimes re­
veals differences in degree of crop growth which offer clues to the
nature and development of the drainage problem. For valley-wide
investigations, both Geological Survey topographic maps and
aerial photographs are needed to provide an over-all picture of
the problem.
The field survey provides all the physical measurements neces­
sary to map the surface configuration of the area. It should estab­
lish a system of bench ma~'ks from which a topographic map can
be made with a sufficiently small contour interval for planning the
drainage system. For farm or field areas, the topographic map
may be based on a system of grid shots on about 400-foot spacing.

• In many mountain valley areas the topographic grid must be based

upon verticai intervals rather than horizontal, the vertical interval
usually ranging from 2 t05 feet or more depending upon size of
area and steepness of land. Additional elevations at field corners
and at waste and head ditches 01' canal-"oater lines are useful.
Elevations should be obtained of all potential outlets 311d at breaks
in topography, and high-water elevations should be determined
for the points at which (h'ains empty into streams.
All survey information should be plotted on plan and profile
sheets. Although topographic maps provide the primary basis
for drainage layouts, profile drawingR are necesRary for planning
such details as the depth, slope, and alinement of drains. Breaks
in slope, benches, alluvial fans, canals, old creek channels, and
other natural drainageways are important land featureR, the loca­
tion of which may affect the solution of the drainage problem being
investigated. The locations of springs, seeps, abandoned wells or
diversion points may be important keys to the solution of the prob­
lem.
SOIL INVESTIGATION~,

The soil-stratum survey, which gives the location, extent, and

physical characteristics of the various underlying soil layers, is
probably the most important single technical phase of the drainage
investigation. No drainage system can be adequately designed
without a knowledge of the soil profile and the characteristics of
". the subsurface strata. Points which should be considered are:
 ,\{'

'6 TEOJ.lNICAL BULLETIN NO. 1061>, U. S. DEPT, OF AGRICULTURE

,.

•
STRATA SURVEY GRID
A

c
• 0

0
•
0
0

0
•
0
0

0
• 0 t

0 0
N
0 0
• 0
• 0
• 0

E .!) 0 0 0 0 0 0

F 0
• 0
• 0
• 0 )

A G
Z 3 4 5 6
7 8 9

PROFILE REPRESENTATION
100' BI 8Z 83 B·t B5 86 87 88 89

~ 98

...!:! 96

...iil~ 94
9Z

•
90

til BB
~ 86

CII
~ B4

8Z

B
LOG OF PROFILE BI PERMEAGRAPH
PERMEABILITY INDEX
JOO' o 2 4 6 8 10

100'

I I

~ 9B I , 98

...
!:! 96

96

...-'~ 94

9Z
94

92

\' '" 90
90

B8 88

til 86
86

:II
iil 84
04

~ 8Z
B2

c
FmURE l.·-Stratum-survey diagram showing strata-survey grid, profile
representation, log, and permeagruph.
 DIlAINAGE INVES'rlGNrlON I\Ig'l'HODS FOIl IItIlICA'fl,JO AlmAS 7
(l) Kinds of soils, (2) thickness of the various strata, (3) con­
tinuity of str~lta, and (4) position of the variolls strata with re­

• spect to the ground surface and to each other.

REVIEW OF EXISTING DA'l'A
Before a field survey of a farm, district, 01' valley is started, a
thorough review should be made of the existing soils information.
Sources of data include soil smveys, records of borings made by
public 01' private agencies, and the numerous well logs commonly
flled and recorded in local county court houses. Other sources are
reconnaissance reports of soil profiles observed in exposed ditch,
stream, 01' riverbanks, open excavations, and gravel pits. The
technical papers of the United States Geological Smvey contain
useful informa.tion on the deeper underlying strati Ocations of the
earth crust, a knowledge of which is vital to an understanding of
local drainage problems. They provide information on faulting,
I1ature and extent of gravel beds, dip of bedrock 01' shale layers,
and related information on geologic structure affecting the type
and design of the drainage system.
FIELD lvIEASUREMEN'l'S AND OBHERVATIONS
Investigations needed for planning drainage systems should take
into account the results of past soil borings and other available
data. Any additional soil borings needed are so located as to sup­
plement the existing data. Where little or n0 data are available,

•
borings should be made 011 a grid pattern designed to furnish the
Heeded soil information by the lise of a minimum number of holes.
Since it is not always possible, however, to determine beforehand
the exact spacing of holes needed for complete data, supplemental
intermediate borings may be necessary. For example, a continuous
sand aquifer stratum 'which has been found regularly at a depth
of 4 to 5 feet in a series of borings may be absent in the next adja­
cent ones. Additional borings closer to the known perimeter of
the sand stratum will 1'e\'eal its true extent.
Topographic features such as canals, drains, washes, and
benches frequently influence the location of holes. For example, if
the drainage l)roblem is caused by canal seepage, one or more lines
of holes at right angles to the canal will usually be required to
determine the proper location fol' interceptor drains. Grids are
generally oriented to the dominant slope. They should cover not
only the areas immediately afl'ected but also adjacent lands.
The grid layout and related data are illustrated in the stratum­
survey diagram (ng. 1). 'l'he boring grid can be expanded 01' COl1­
tra~t6d to covel' any desired area, but regardless of the size of area,
the numberliLg of the various borings locates the approximate posi­
tion of the various holes. 'l'hus, boring B9 on the strata-survey
grid is 011 horizontal line B and vertical line 9.
The grid system lends itself well to graphic profile analysis since
the borings are generally in a line and the soil profiles of a particu­

'.
lar series of borings hI the grid can be easily shown by means of
a pl'of1le representation, as illustrated in figure 1. A prof1le repre­
sentation can be made of any li1H~ of borings either horizontally or
213447"-63-2
 8 Tf:CHNIOAI. BULLETIN NO. 10G5, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICUf.TURE

vertically across the grid. Profiles of borings scattered at random

throughout an area, on the other hand, are hard to line up sys­
tematically. •
A profile graph of the type illush~ated shows not only the rela­
tion of each stratum to the others in the profile at any particular
sampling point in the area, but also the lateral extension of the soil
strata between sampling points, somewhat as if the problem area
had been sliced along the line of borings. In the method illustrated,
the various kinds of soil strata, such as nne sand, silty clay loam,
and clay, are plotted to a vertical scale a11d shown by hatching,
stippling, 01' solid blocking. Colors or other distinctive marks may
also be used for this purpose.
The logs of the borings are recorded in the regular way by notes
describing the various strata encountered. They may also be
depicted on the stratum-survey diagram in conjunction with the
strata-survey grid an~ profile representation as described above.
The permeagraph is a useful device for expressing the relative
permeability of the various subsurface strata. It provides a means
also of visualizing in approximate terms the probable relative rate
of water movement throughout the entire profile, and the location
of "bottlenecks" in the soil which retard or stop the free flow of
water. Thus a clay stratum which tends to inhibit the movement
of water through the subsoil is shown by a narrow column, where­
aR a relatively permeable sand stratum appears as a wide column.
EQUIPMENT
Soil-investigation equipment includes hand and power augers,

jetting rigs, coring tubes, and various kinds of laboratory appa­

ratus for making tests of permeability and other soil properties.

The equipment needed in making a stratum survey depends on the

information required.
•
A'llge1's.-Among the many types of augers used to make soil
borings for drainage i11Yestigations, the most common is probably
the post-hole auger. This tool is available with 2-inch, 4-inch, and
6-inch-diameter bits, which can be used interchangeably on the
same pipe shaft. Explorations to depths of 20 to 30 feet can be
made by adding extensiOllR to the shaft. The larger size of bit is
adapted to securing disturbed soil Ramples since the bucket-shaped
bit can extract a relatively large quantity of soil from the hole. In
wet soil the post-hole auger type of bit is more practical than some
of the small screw-type bits. The orchard auger, one of the various
modificatiolls developed for special soil conditions, is adapted for
use in sandy soil. The cylinder-shaped bit is 4 inches in diameter
and 10 inches long and has two cutting leaves on the bottom end.
Although the ordinary 5-foot soil auger equipped with a 1-inch­
diameter screw bit is widely used for making shallow borings, it
is unsuited for the deeper borings required in subsurface drainage
survey work. For such borings an adjustable-handle 9-foot auger
similar to the one developed for use in drainage investigations in
Imperial Valley, Calif" is more practical (fig. 2). This tool, which
has a screw-type bit 1% inches in diameter, is one of the best of
the variOlls auger types for mapping soil strata. It has a solid
shaft with a %-inch slot along one side. The handle is fitted with
•
I,

';'''' '. ' - ~ .... . .

. ,

DRAINAGE lNVESTlGATlON METHODS FOR IHRlGATElD AREAS 9

a screw key which may be moved in and out of the slot by turning

• the adjusting handle. This permits locking' the handle at any point
along the shaft. Boring is started with the handle at a height of
about 4 or 5 feet; as the hole deepens the handle is raised on the
shaft. The depth of boring is indicated by marks on the shaft
spaced at 1-foot intervals.
Several power augers are in commercial production. One type
of portable digger folds into the bed of a pickup truck. This
machine has a 4-cycle, 3-ho1'sepowe1' gasoline motor mounted
dil'ectly over a telescoping drill shaft which can be extended to 10
feet. By coupling on additional shafts, drilling can be still further
extended to a maximum depth of 30 to 40 feet. Optimum operating
depths, however, are from 8 to 16 feet depending on the kind of
soil mld the moisture conditions. Drill bits range from 2 to 10
inches in diameter. From four to six 10-foot holes per hour can
be bored under average soil conditions. Use of the portable type
is limited to areas accessible to the light transportation equipment
on ,vhic11 the device is mounted.
Boring with augers has several cliHad\'antages. It is difficult to
distinguish, in the soil samples, any thin Htrata of sand, silt, and
clay that are 2 inches or less in thiclmess. The Hamples themselves
may become mixed with other soil as the auger is withdrawn. Bor­
ing is alHO Jikely to destroy the inherent soil Htructure andl11akes
it difficult to identify minute soil lenses by visual inspection. In
saturated sand, boring is mechanically difficult because material
from the sides of the hole flows back into the hole andl'eplaces the

• removed soil almost as quickly as the sample is withdrawn.

Jetting '!'if/8.-The character of the subHoil at depths below 20
feet is important in connection with certain drainage problems,
especially where artesian pl'eSHUres may be a factor. The jetting
rig is probably the best type of device for logging sands and clays
to depths of 20 to 100 feet (10,11).3 It consists of a Hmall tube
%-inch to 1-inch in diameter, which is forced vertically into the
ground. 'Vater is pumped into the tube under pressure. The ease
with which the tube passes through successive segments of the soil
and the nature of the Hoil that bubbles out around the outside of
the tube, give a good indication of the location of sand Or clay in
the profile. The texture of the subsurface materials is also indi­
cated by the jetting pressure and rate of boring.
Jetting may be difficult "'here caliche or other hardpans are pres­
ent. Where extremely coarse gravels are encountered, aqua-gel
or driller's mud mUHt be used with the jetting water to enable the
tube to penetrate the strata.
Cm'ing tubes.-N either the auger type of tool nor the jetting
techniques are suitable fol' obtaining soil samples intact-"undis­
turbed" samples-for analysis of physical and hydraulic charac­
teristics and for other mmlyses h1 the laboratory. For these pur­
poses several inexpensive typefi of coring tubes are more suitable.
rfhe Veihmeyer type of Hoil-Hnmpling tube can be used to obtain
cores of small diameter 111 an but extremely COin'fie soils. This tube
ranges from 5 to 25 feet in length and con:-;ists of seamless steel

• aUatie numbers in parenthescs I'cfci' to Lilcl'att1l'c Ciled.

10 TECHNlCAL BULLETIN NO. 1065, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICUL'l'URE

o •
J--t--L

WOOD AUGER I 1/4" DIA. FISH TAILED AND

FLARED TO EXPEDITE BORING. ONE SIDE OF
THE AUGER CUTTING EDGE CAN BE COATED
WITH HARD SURFACE ROO. THIS HARD CUTTING
EDGE SLOWS DOWN WEAR ON THE AUGER AND
ALSO ACTS AS A SELF-SHARPENER.

FIGURE 2.-Imperial Valley soil auger.

•
 DRAINAGE INVESTIGATION METHODS FOR IRRIGA'rED AREAS 11
tubing, 1 inch in inside diameter, fitted with a driving head and
point. The cutting point is made of case-hardened nickel steel and
has a choke bore which permits the soil core to slide up inside the
tube without serious friction. The tubes are driven with a sliding
hammel' which fits over the top of the tube. The usual practice is
to drive in I-foot stages as indicated by I-foot graduations marked
on the outer wall of the tube. A special jack fitted with a set of
grippers is used for pulling the tube; however, under ordinary
conditions of soil moisture a jack is seldom l1eceSS~\l'Y. Figure 3
shows this tube, together with driving hammer and extracting
equipment .

FIGURE 3.-Veihmeyer type of soil-sampling tube which has been driven into
the soil. The g'L'ippers and jack are used to pull the tube out of the ground.
The hammer llsed to drive the tube is shown in foreground.

Sampling by this method gives accurate pl'o(j)e logs since the

relatively undisturbed cores clearly show the soil structure, minute
stratification, contacts between strata, and other physical soil
characteristics. The small diameter of the samples, however, pre­
cludes their use for laboratory tests of permeability based on un­
disturbed soil. Other disadvantages of the method are the unsuit­
ability of the tube for sampling strata that contain stones 01' large
gravel, the difficulty of securing cores below the water table, and
the difficulty of extracting moist sand or clay from the tubes.
For sampling to depths that do not exceed 30 inches, the core­

'.
sampling apparatus originated at the Ohio Agricultural Experi­
ment Station and subsequently improved by Uhland (12) is avail­
able. In using this device it is necessary to dig a pit to secure suc­
 12 TECHNICAL BULLETIN NO. 1065. U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

, ,
, 1
.:,1.'
'(~

FIGURE <t.-Field core-sampleI' patts before assembly: 1 and 2, driving

assembly; 3 and 6, upper and lower shoes, respectively; 4, extra cylindrical
head for use in taking cores with jack; 5, bale for pulling shoe assembly;
7, aluminum cylinder, fits into 3; 8, shock ring, fits on top of 7; 0, pint
carton for transporting cylinder and soil core.

cessive depth samples. FigurC' <1 illustrates the core sampler and
its variolls parts, and figure 5 its assembly for use in the field.
The digging of pits for core sampling is obviated by the use of
a modified core sample)' (fig. 6). When this sampler method is
followed a cleaning tool is used to ream out the hole and shape the
bottom after the hole has been dug' to the desired depth with a post­
hole auger. 'l'he (:ore sampler is then inserted to the bottom of the •
 DRAINAGE INVESTIGATION METHODS FOR 1nRTGATED AREAS 13
hole and the shoe iH driven into the soil by the force of a sliding
hammer striking the top of the sampler shaft.

• A similar device desi~ned to Hecure in-place samples at any depth

do\\:n to about 10 to 12 feet is the Pomona type of soil-sampling
de\'lce. A post-hole au gel' 01' orchard auger is used to open the hole
to the depth desired, and the sample iH then taken with the coring
tube. This method can be used only where the water table is below

•
FIGURE 5.-Core sampler heing assemhled lH'Cparutol'Y to taking' sample:
3 x 3-inch aluminum eylindt>l' (c()ntcl') (its into shoe ussmnblYi base of
driving assemhly (left) i~ inscl'tet\ in the upper end of the shoc; l-llint
container at right.

the sampling le\'el. The Ohio type, t1w Uhland modification, and
the pomona coring devices al'e so deHigned that the Hoil snnwlc may
be left in the coring tube for transpol'tation to the laboratory for
analysis.
Other coring tubes have been developed for securing in-plRce
cOJ'es of various t~rpes. The Imperial Valley soil-sampling appa~
ratus (3) is designed to secure in-place Hal11ples beneath the sat~
urated zone of the soil. A powel'-driven machine desip;nccl by the
Utah Research Foundation, and no", in commercial production,
takes 4-hlCh cores lip to 10 feet in length in some typeH of soils.
'rhis machine requires optimum soil-rnoiflture conditions to fl1nc~
tion properly. In wet soils the core may HUck in the tube and clog

• the bit; in soils that al'C too dry the core may tend to crumble.
 14 TgCIINICAL IlUI,LWrIN NO. 10ar.. U. S. DEl"l'. OF AGRICULTURE

FIGURE 6.-Modified sampler. The bottom of the sampling' hole is reamed out
and shaped with the cleaning tool (,4). The COI'e sampler attached to the •
bottom 01' the sampler shaft (f:) is then inserted to the bott.om of the hole
and the shoe of the sampler is driven into the soil by cll'opping' the hammer
(shown in front of Rampler) on top of tlw sampler shaft. C, Sampler shaft,
handle with shock fitting, and lowel' ('nel of Rll'iking' hammer.

DEPTH OF DORINGS
In Roil-survey work the suiJsurfacein\'cstigations are generally
confined to the upper 5-foot layer of soil; in drainage investiga­
tions of irrigated lands it is necessary to know the character and
the extent of the drainable strata to depths of at least 9 feet and
frequently much deeper. This is because the ground water in many
irrigated aJ'eas contains haJ'mful amounts of Halt and the water
table must be lowered to a depth of 4 to 5 feet to prevent injury to
the roots of gJ'owing plants. The water table must be kept low in
order to control subsequent upward movement of salt. Further­
more, for drainage lines to function properly for subsurface drain­
age, they must generally be jnstalled at depths of 5'h to 8 feet for
tile lines and 6 to 12 feet for open drains. Borings must therefore
be deep enough to provide data adequate for design requirements.
Watel' moving thl'ollg-h the soil to a tile line, open drain, or other
point of collection follows a cUl'ved path or streamline of flow
(4; 6, 7, 9). Figure 7 shows two typical patterllS of ground-water
movement through the soil to a tile drain. The flow pattern for
pervious homogeneous soils normally curves below the tile level •
 '--;J

DRAIN~GE INVESTIGATIQN METHODS FOR IRRIGATED AREAS 15

and back up to the tile, whereas in stratified fine-textu.:~d soils
the streamline flow may he sharply restricted. Thus the presence j
of l·estrictive soil layers partly determines the spacing of tile lines
and the optimum depth at which they should be placed. Adequate
information on the character of the deeper soil layers may obviate
the error of locating tile lines in or below impervious strata. Inf01·­
mation on soil strata to depths of 8 to 10 feet is essential for the
design of tile systems; to depths of 10 to 15 feet for open drains;
to depths of 15 to 25 feet for sumps and shallow wells; and from
25 feet down to the proposed depth of the well, for drainage by
l11E::ans of pump wells.
In farm-drainage investigations it is well to keep in mind that

~ I' •....·l.... ··r·.. · 'I ..•.. '''r........'.. ~·w .... ' ..'~'•• ' ..........~ ......"'.... r"..··....\..,'''".. 'j'........ y........ ",'On .. ··'-·1..·
I I \ 1 I I : 1 I I I \ 1 : I I
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---~~::~'.;'9f::~:~~- /' \__ '-:-'-~'Q~~<-'"_

.~~.~••• ~ ......, loi, .....' ....~:~')!t:~~(\~'! .... , • •.• :m.... ", " I " ' I I / ; n " ... " .................... ,., ...... ,,~.".\....H••• ho,'''''''''''' ";,,...

H......,\\\.,.'I'I.NIt\\II'W.. IO""t'I'\N''''t''.",,,,,,,,. .. ,,,'i\'.,,,,V,t'''''''''''''!'"H,,,,".t\,,/I,.,,,,H/I,Il\U'''V,,,,,tJI'I'\'''I'''' I""f'

ko..t,....···,,',"u.",."'II.'.. ·'I.'~'II.\I/lIII' 11,1'''' ".II;,'U"""""""""II "'''''.''N\'~'" .... 11" ",itt' .... '".IIIII'".', ~ ..<o,,'" "" ". rt, " . ' , ' ....

• " '" ." '\'I'/'''"1''\I"·.",,,U/lI'''''I''''',n ""'''''''' """"", ""',. """!' If' ,.v,. .",11., \I,. ...." , ,,,,,,,., f/, • • "" .,.", ••• , " ••" , f " " " \,v/",
,.." ....., ."", ,ulll\\I "H<oH" .. ",•• hr/,U' II,. 10"" •• 'UI'."" ....,.....,. "',O''''"''UII "~'n,""·I"'H/n"" ."." ,n'tl ". ", ,.,,,, ,,,,,, ,,,,,,,.,.,,
"""""I\·"II,II'''VII",,,,.,\,.,,...,,,,,, ,,,..h IMPERVIOUS CLAY STRATUM ,''''·'''IIH''"'II''''''''''.I''.''......,.",,,,... ,,,,o'J
""H"'",,,,,~,,,,, "".. ,.""",.U\l',...O'''''II..... i .. ,I',.'''''.'H'/u''U '\\'iI """ '" II, ."t,""", ,., "''''fj..."
•.,...., '~\I"'''''' H., "I,h." ,,,,,,,,,,,, ... ,,, , •• 1"

.,,,.. . ,..,....,.\•..,,.. , 'If'"~ 'J, "'1""""

I\ull." IJ. " " " ' ' ' ' ' ' 11••11 ".;./
'I .... ,,,
"H".,...,." ,If ,,,,II ,,~ lu ••
""""""\",,,'''10' ,"vt"'\1 " , .. ,1' "",/,,'0""11"""'\\'"'' •• /u. "/" ••• "i,,,. If'" ".1 , •• " .......
.,,.,.11, h"""""~" .,'."'f;\\\f'.....HI ,nlll U"""\'" ,,,.., ... ,,......V(,,,.jf, """ ,.. ,It.~. ,,,....,,••• '1'''. "iI""""" to' ,.,.,.~", ,•• ',.••• H.....
I'HI\/,/ , " " " " "

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\'j

•• FIGURE 7.-Lines of flow to a series of drain tiles: A. In an aquifer overlying

an impervious clay stratum; n. in an aquifet~ without an impervious clay
stratum or other harder.
213H7D-53-3
·;

16 'rECHNICAL BULLETIN NO. 1065, U. 8,. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

one 12-foot hole is better than two 6-foot holes, and at least one 9­

•
foot hole should be bored on each 10 acres.
RECORDING BORING DATA
A log should be made of each hole bored, preferably at the time
the boring is made. At the same time, the location of the hole
should be marked on the map of the area as an aid in delineating
the boundaries of different types of drainable or undrainable soils.
Survey notes, which should be made as the boring progresses,
should include information on the depth to water table, the relative
moisture content of the various strata, the degree of staining or
discoloration of the soil particles, and the })resence of roots and
minerals. Where core tubes are used notes should be made of the
soil structure, minute stratification, and the presence of lenticules
Or sand-filled cracks that help to improve permeability in the clay
parts of the soil profile; and, if the boring is in sand strata, of
minute layers of silts or clays that tend to slow up the movement
of water.
The identifying characteristics of a giYen soil, once determined,
can often be used to classify and delineate similar strata elsewtere.
For example, the minute shells typical of the best sand aquifer
material in one part of a large irrigated valley usually serve as a
good indicator of favorable drainage properties in the sand strata
of other parts of the same valley. Thtls, certain strata of soils
can sometimes be traced over an entire drainage area.
Identifying soil characteristics helps to maintain a high degree •
of consistency in subsoil mapping in which several technicians
take part and tends to reduce day-to-day variations in accuracy of
observation by the same individual. These soil characteristics may
also be used to roughly gage, in the field, the relative permeability
of the various soil layers as an aid in preparing the permeagraph
previously mentioned.
A convenient method of plotting the logs of a series of borings
is to draw a profile delineation of the underground strata. Such a
chart helps in determining the relation of the dip and slope of the
clay and sand layeni to the slope of the ground surface, to the vari­
ous topographic features, and to the slope of the water table.
The position of the water table in relation to the soil strata, as
determinf'd from the borings, is readily seen when the ,vater table
js plotted on the profile-delineation chart. The exact series of
profiles to be used in the charting depends on the nature of the
drainage problem. In mountain ,'alleys it is essential to draw
several delineations down slope in order to locate accurately the
underground extension of water-bearing aquifers that crop out to
the surface. Where tile systems are planned, a profile delineation
should be drawn along the general alinement of each tile line.
A method of depicting the boring data for mountain areas is to
locate the several boring sites on a hU'ge-scale map of the problem
area and insert a small-scale columnar chart of the log at each
boring site shown on the map. Distinctive eolot·s or other markings
are used to show the thickness of the respective strata. A study of •
 DRA1NAGE lNVESTlGAT10N METHODS FOR lRRlGATED AREAS 17
the map and related data will reveal the optimum location for
drains.'
Important layers of heavy clays or coarse~textUl'ed sands that
are continuous over large areas may be plotted to advantage 011 a
subsurface contour map. For example, a continuous stratum of
fine-textured clay may underlie a coarser drainable soil at depths
varying from 4 to 8 feet below the surface. Plotting the upper sur­
face of the clay layer on a contour map locates the low valleys of
the relatively impervious layer. Such information facilitates the
planning of a drainage system that will drain all the area with a
minimum footage of drains.
SOIL-PERMEABILJTY DETERMINATIONS
An estimate of the permeability of the strata underlying the soH
surface is essential in developing sound techniques of land dl'f..in"
age. Water-transmission rates should be determined in quantita~
tive terms to be of practical use in this connection.
COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY
Coefficient of permeability may be defined as the rate of flow of
water through a unit crol>s-sectional area uuder a unit head during
a unit period of time. For convenience in making comparisons, co­
efficient values are stated in terms of flows of water through
saturated soil.
Methods of accurately determining the coefficient of perme­
ability may be grouped in three broad classes, as follows:

• 1. Field measurements .
(a) Direct measurement of the permeability of an entire
soil profile, based on pumped~well data. A draw­
down curve and data on quantity of water pumped
are used to compute the coefficient (13).
(b) Direct measurement of the permeability of indi­
vidual strata by means of small tubes, piezometers,
01' auger holes (5).
2. Laboratory measurements utilizing a permeameter device
and either in~pla(;e undisturbed specimens taken in the
field by means of one of the various sampling devices, or
samples of dil>turbed soil prepared for laboratory examina~
tion by dryi)lg the soil and packing it into the permea­
meter.
3. Indirect evaluations of permeability based on physical and
chemical soil properties.
Each of these methods has its merits and draw-backs. The par~
ticular method selected will depend upon the requirements of the
drainage survey, the availability of appropriate measuring devices,
and the degree of accuracy desired.
FIELD MEASUREMENTS OF PERMEABILITY.-The determination
of subsoil permeability by means of direct field measurements
makes use of formulas based on the flow of water through the soil
to a discharging well. A basic assumption of these formulas is
that the cone of depression representing the pumped water table

• around the discharging well is in equilibrium; i.e./ the discharge

, , i
t ..
 (i

TECHNICAL· BULLETIN N.O. 1065. U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

r~se'mt1on "ells " \

••
Stat.icJ!Ulr _
fable
I-- - - - f--r - -- 1----1 - ­
5 _,.- _ ~- +
- - _ . ­
40--

r---..
pg.p1~
____ -=::if­

. .ter fable " "

/
\ V
h

I
~

Aquiler

FIGURE S.-Diagram of factors involved in calculation of permeability co­

efficient from field measurements, with well extending thrQugh aquifer to
barrier stratum.

from the well balances the inflow from the water-bearing stratum.
To secure the field data, a stratum survey is made of the proposed
well site, a small well is put down to tap the aquifier, and a system
of observation wells is laid out around this well. The well is then
pumped until equilibrium is reached between the discharge and
the draw:..down around the well.
The measurements needed to evaluate the permeability coefficient
are the quantity of water (Q), obtained by measuring the well dis­
charge; the hydraulic gradient (I); as determined by the position •

, '
 '. Q-,

DRAINAGE iNVESTIGATION METHODS FOR mRiGATED AREAS 19

of the draw-down curve for the observation wells; and the area of
fio"", (.4.), as determined by borings. The coefficient of permeability
(P)is calculated using an adaptation of the Darcy formula.
In simplifi€d form the adapted Darcy formula is: Q = PIA.
Assuming that the well extends through the aquifer to the barrier
stratum, the formula is expanded to
R2
Q 1,og If
P= __~__~~~'~1~-=~
'1f' (h2 + hI) (S1 - S2)
The dimensionless factors entering into the solution of this formula
are shown in figure 8.
The soil, water table, and other hydro)ogic conditions under
which this formula may be used have been stated by Wenzel (13)
as follows:
A water-bearing bed of uniform permeability is assumed to rest on a
relatively impervious formation of indefinite areal extent. A well equip­
ped with a pump extends to the bottom of the water-bearing material, and
two observation wells are placed on a line with the pumped well. The
pump is operated at a uniform rate during a period in which the water
table declines and takes a form similar to an inverted cone around the
pumped well. The nonpumping water table and the underlying imper­
vious bed are assumed to be horizontal.
Various modifications of the basic Darcy formula of flow of
water through soil are used, depending on the site conditions and
the measuring techniques employed. Modifications are necessary,
for example, for flows from confined aquifers or from aquifers
under artesian pressure. The use of this method must be varied also
lor aquirel's which are not uniformly permeable horizontally and
vertically. And in any event, of course, its use is limited to areas in
which the water table is high enough for practical pumping.
The mathematical explanation of the derivation of the various
formulas applicable to specific field conditions, including the deriva­
tion of the formula mentioned above, is fully described by Wenzel
al1d other workers in the field of hydrology, and will not be Ret forth
in detail here.
In another type of field measurement, water is introduced
through a pipe or well of small diameter that taps the soil stratum
to be investigated, 311d the rate of flow is measured. A variation of
this technique is to pump the water out of the tube and time the rate
of l'eCOvel'y in the tube. Frevert and Kirkham (5) described a
method for measuring the permeability of the soil below a water
table.
Although they probably provide the most accurate permeability
coefficients, field measurements are relatively time-consuming.
Furthermore, the field sites for the measurements must be carefully
selected.

LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS OF PERMEABILITY.~Laboratorymeas­

urements likewise are highly accurate when in-place samples are

used but they, too, require much time and, in addition, considerable

special equipment. They may be made either by the use of in-place

• undisturbed cores taken in the field and brought to the laboratory

20 TECHNICAL BULLETIN NO. 1065, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

for tests, or wifh samples of disturbed soil that have been dried, re­
duced to granule size, and then packed into a permeameter tube for
testing. Both methods require special tools and equipn'lent and rigid
conformance with standard procedural techniques as described by
1\fuskat (9) and other workers. In solving drainage problems of a
difficult nature and those in which high values are at stake the use
of the more time-consuming, complicated, and expensive laboratory
•
investigations usually is justified,
Fallin,:} Head Pel'mewmete1'.-The falling head permeam~ter is an
instrument suitable for use in the field or in a field office laboratory
to obtain quick and reasonably accurate measurements of perme­
ability. A permearneter of this type, patterned after a similar device
used by the United States Geological Survey (13), was developed
for use in Imperial Valley, Calif.4 'l'he device consists of a soil
column and a water column connected by a L!-tube and of measuring
and other attachments. Water is introduced into the water column.
From there it flows through the U-tube into and through the soil
at a iowel' elevation in the other columlL The rate of flow is a
measure of the permeability of the soil.
The Model-A type (figs. 9, A and 10, A) consists of a 2-inch brass
soil cylinder connected at the base with a small copper U-shaped.
tube to which is attached a glass manometer tube. An auxiliary
water-supply cylinder is connected to the U-shaped tube to furnish
water for the tests. Water is allowed to pass from the supply tube
to the soil tube until it saturates the sample and begins to flow over
the top rim of the brass cylinder. The supply valye is then turned
off and the rate of the drop of the water in the graduated glass
tubes is noted, This rate of drop is an indication of the permeabil­
ity of the soil.
The Model-B type (figs. 9, B and 10, B) is constructed of materials
that are readily available in most localities. The soil cylinder is
•
made from a short length of 1 1/!-inch smoothly reamed pipe. This
is threaded to a 11.4-inch coupling which in turn is attached to a
series of reducers, nipples, elbows, and other fittings. This device is
relatively inexpensive, costing approximately two dollars for the
material. The fittings may be obtained in any plumber's shop and
can be assembled with a pipe wrench and soldering iron. A coating
of stopcock grease is applied to the threads on the end of the soil
tube to prevent leakage.
Figure 9 shows details of construction and gives the dimensions
and material lists for permeametel' types A and B, respectively.
Figure 10 illustrates the assembled permeameters and parts.
The soil tubes of both models, being demountable from the rest
of the device, can be used to obtain undisturbed soil cores for test­
ing purposes without dismantling the entire apparatus or taking it
to the sampling site.
In-place samples are obtained by pressing the sampling tube into
the soil with a hydraulic j~ck. Side friction and resultant compres­
sion of the soil sample can be greatly reduced by wetting the soil
of Bradshaw, G. B. and Donnan, "T. W. A Falling Head Permeameter for
E'-aluating Permeability. U. S. Dept. of Agric., Soil Conserv. Service, 1950,
(Processed), •
 .~;'.'~'
• •
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---L'

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---Y ,
1. ___ .. ___... .J
§
!9

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~:.
o 0 " ,
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i
·•

&
~
L"
'~5".·
r'~ ~~
~A '&CHID)
,1~~.1 ..
rw HOI..[
)
Jln
•
!r 1/,,"11'&-':,­

r~ Tz_rti:~.',.v:,;, ~,;. . ~ LI~~·~a

~111t-.t1r'\OO\'fT!:/"~

.i
L
SU;fO'" ZU)i"t. VI," 11/41.0.'\0
~1}J~~~l!: 1.,"1

·••,
L
,. .n_
"~ .. Il"...•
• 01' .'cWtl.lI

·
;
::! i,.
c:l
>
~
l"l( ~
t:l
~,.s:

B ~
!
FIGURE9.-Construction details and materials specifications for falling head pel'lneameter; A, Type ~.
A; S, type B. ~

, ~'.

~t>, ,"'V:
'," .. C; •
.",',.-~~ ,~~
 , .
22 TECHNICAL BULLETIN NO. 10G5. U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

tube prior to sampling. Vertical samples can be obtained by using

the car bumper as a backstop for the jack. In order to obtain hori­
zontal samples, it is necessary to dig a sampling pit and push the
sampling tube into the side of the pit with the jack, using the
opposite wall of the pit for leverage. Vel'tical samples can be taken
to depths of 8 to 9 feet with the Model-B sampler by first boring a
•
hole with a post-hole auger and then using a 1 Y2-inch pipe-exten­
sion handle on the permeametel' soil tube.
In both shallow and deep sampling, the samples should be care­
fully removed from the surrounding soil and the extruding soil
gently broken away. The ends of the samples are then trimmed

FIGURE lO.-Two types of perl11eametcl's: A, Type-A permeamctel' and parts:

1, Assembled instt'ument; 2, dismantled permeameter; 3, cap used for
jacking soil tube 9 into Roil; 4, cap scrcws; 5, ring to hold soil tubcin Jllace;
6, scrcen and filter; 7, cutting cdge for in-placc sampling; 8, scating and
rcaming tool; 9, soil tube. fl, Asscmbled type-B pcrmeamctcl'.

with a spatula or other tool, a paper filter is placed over the bottom
end of the sample next to the soil, and this in turn is covered by a
screen to keep the soil from sloughing away. The tube containing
the sample is afTixed to the permeameter and the connections are
tightened to prevent leakage. A small weep hole at the point where
the screen and filter join the soil sample is used to bleed the ail' from
under the soil sample and prevents ail' from being forced through

•
the sample. As soon as the soil column is saturated the sample is
 DRAJN/.GE INVESTIGATION
,. METHODS FOR IRRIGATED AREAS 23
~
ready to be tested. Satisfactory results are obtained by using irri~
gation water for the permeability test.
The size of the glass manometer tube to be used depends on the
permeability of the soil to be tested. For freely permeable soil, a
tube with a diameter of l1.5, 5.5, 01' 7.5 millimeters is most suitable.
For slowly permeable soils, a smaller tube of 1, 2, or 3 millimeters
should be used. The device is so constructed that these glass tubes
are interchangeable.
The permeability of the soil sample is obtained by noting the
time required for the watel'in the glass manometer tube to fall
from an initial head reading to some other desired head reading.
Computations are simplified if the initial head is set at 115 centi~
meters and the final head 5 centimeters, resulting in a head dif­
'ferential of 10 centimeters. In testing slowly permeable, fine-tex­
tured soils an ordinary watch with a second hand may be used for
timing; for more permeable soils a stop watch is needed
The coefficient of permeability is calculated by means of the
following equation:

P = 2.3025!J d:! L
D~ t
h
-. . log ._-_<:'. (3-600)
10 h
in which:
p is the coefrkient of pel'meability in cubic centimeters pel'
square centimeter pel' hour,

•
d is the diameter of the glass tube in centimeters,
D is the diameter of the soil tube in centimeters,
L is the length of the soil tube in centimeters,
t is the time of fall of water f1'ol11 110 to h in seconds,
!to is the initial head in centimeters,
h ii:; the final head in centimeters, and
3600 i!::i the factor for cOlwerting the result in second-units lo
hour-units.
Obviollsly, fOl' any given type of: falling-head device many of these
factors are constants.
TemlJ81'aiw'(' cOl'l'eclioll.-The coefficient of permeability is defined
for a water temperature of GO° F. If the test is made with watel' of
~l.ny other temperature, the calculated coefficient must be corrected
for the difference in Yiscosity of liquid due to higher or lower tem­
perature. 'l'his correction is necessary because the viscosity becomes
less as the temperature rises and the rate of flow of water through
the soil increases. Viscosity is inversely propol'tional to both tem­
perature and permeability. For each degree of temperature varia­
tion above 01' below GO° F. the correction is made by multiplying the
unadjusted calculated coefficient by the proper correction factor.
The temperature-correction factors for converting coefficients of
permeability computed at water temperatures of 40° ot 90° F. to
coefficients of permeability at water temperature of 60° F. are

• given in the following tabulation .

I
 . \

24 TECHNICAL
. BULLETIN NO. lOGo, U•. S. DEPT.
. ~
OF AGRICULTURE

of. , C01'1'()ction of. C<n'I'ecf,ion of. C01'1'ection

factm' factor factor
40 ................ 1.37 57 . __..._.___.. _.. 1.04 74 ................ 0.83

'11 ................ 1.35 58 .... _.... _..._.. 1.03 75 ................ .82

42 ................ 1.33 59 _.... _.....__.__ 1.01 76 ................ .81

43 ................ 1.31 60 ........__..._.. 1.00 77 ................ .80

44 .,.............. 1.28 61 ..__...._.___.._ .99 78 ................ .79

45 ................ 1.26 62 .. _.._._....__.. .97 79 .................78

,," 46 ................ 1.24 63 ._.___...._____. .96 80 ...:............ .77

47 .,."............ 1.22 64 ._.___..__...... .95 81 ................ .76

,
~\ T
48 ................ 1.20 65 _.. _... _..._.... .93 82 ................ .75

49 ................ 1.18 66 ..___........... .92 83 ................ .74

50 .,.............. 1.16 67 ................ .91 84 ................ .73

51 .,.............. 1.15 68 ................ .89 85 .................72

5~ ................ 1.13 69 ...... _.... _... _ .88 86 .................71

53 ................ 1.11 70 ...... _.._._.... .87 87 ................ .70

54 ................ 1.09 71 ............. ___ .86 88 ................ .69

55 .,....... ....... 1.08 72 ...__........... .85 89 ................ .68

56 ................ 1.06 73 ................ .84 90 ... _........... _ .67

Results of tests.-The most reliable and consistent measurements

of the permeability coefficient h~e been obtained by the use of un­
disturbed soil samples taken ill place. Laboratory-packed samples
are less suitable since the same degree of compaction is difficult to
obtain in aU samples. Comparative test runs with in-place and
packed samples reveal that for sand there is a fair correlation, but
for fine-textured soils the difference in results may vary as much as
500 percent.
In using the in-place technique, it is desirable to use both hori­
zontal and vertical samples. The flow of water horizontally through
the soil under some conditions may be much greater than the flow
•
vertically. This is due to the tendency of certain soil particles, in
settling out of a suspension, to fall with the flatter sides overlap­
ping each other, resulting in a shingle-like arrangement of the soil
particles in the deposited stratum. The bedding of soil particles in
microscopic horizontal strata tends to impede vertical flow and thus
t,~nds to give higher coefficients for in-place samples taken in a
horizontal direction. This tendency is important because, in actual
practice, drainage design is based mainly on flows to tile lines or
open drains in a horizontal 01' nearly horizontal direction.
For practical dr.1inage-investigation purposes, short-term test
runs of about 1 hour on saturated undisturbed samples give a suf­
ficiently accurate indication of the coefficient of permeability. Al­
though many research workers feel that the only true test of flow
of water through the soil requires a run of several days, a com­
pilation of permeability data for 26 different in-place samples of
soil from Imperial Valley, Calif., showed that long runs were not
essential for reasonably accurate determinations (table 1). The
samples were taken in horizontal, vertical, and diagonal directions.
These runs were carried on for periods ranging from 96 hours to
906 hours. Yet in a majority of the tests the measured coefficients of
permeability at the start 'of the runs were only slightly different

•
~ «'
'"~l'. ~ ..."'~ ->. ~., ~
 " '¥
. I

DJiAINAGE INVESTIGA'rIOJ~ l'ttETHObs FOR IllRlGATED AREAS 25

from the actual average coefficient based on all the observations
during the l·Ull. '; .
'. •...,
,

,TABLE 1.- Results of meaim,I'ements of coefficient of pel'meability

of soils) l1nperial Valle1l1 Calif,1
.
C'I
.... Ul
Total Coefficient of permeability in
ot.D
Sample QJ.5 houl's cubit;! centimetet·s pel' square eentimetpl' pel' hour
>=~
No. ~s:4 of
-5
P-4~
Ul
Tun Start of run
I End of run
I Average3

46-C1.. ..... , H 214 18.65 14.72 17.00

46-E2._.. V 18r. 3.13 5.24 4.78

46-E3...._., H 188 7.10 11.40 10.85

46-D1....... V 165 11.00 11.50 11.12

46-D2..__.. H 120 11.59 7.55 8.55

96-A!....... H 284 1.15 1.57 1.37
96-A2.,.., V 28,1 .62 2.30 1.31
96-E ........ H 284 .73 1.68 1.23
122-A....... H 310 14.08 14.05 13.95
122-B...... V 96 7.89 8.68 8.42
122-G.."... V 906 1':].75 7.50 9.14
123-A._... H 117 11.15 16.05 11.50
123-B..•... H 116 12.05 11.05 11.85
123-B ... H 342 13.80 10.44 12.15
123-C_.. _ V 146 8.67 11.49 9.43
123-G..,.. V 169 8.68 6.52 7.36
125-A.,. . " 162 13.70 14.!l5 14.22

H
125-B... V 841 8.85 7.14 8.65
149-A.. V 340 10.90 7.!l1 10.13
149-B ....... H 362 7.78 8.40 8.09
149-C...... D 339 11.30 13.40 11.51
150-A... H 303 18.10 21.80 22.41
150-B ..... V 339 7.64 6,45 8.23
213-A H 483 .77 .56 .71
213-B H 146 1.45 1.'73 1.47
213-C ., V 479 1.06 .75 1.03

1 Data from Preliminary Progress Report of Cooperative Investigations in

Imperial Valley, Calif., 1943-44, by W. W. Fox, V. S. Aronovici, and W. W.
Donnan. Soil Consel'v. Service. 1944. (Unpublished.)
2 H-hol'h:ontal, V-vertical, D-qiagonal.
3 Average based on all observations taken during the test.

INDIRECT EVALUATIONS OF PERMEABJLITY.-Some of the soil char­

acteristics that control the movement of ,vater through the soil are
type of structure, arrangement of aggregates, grain size, texture,
pore space, dispersion, swelling, and type of clay mineral. In many
sections of the country, including western United States, visible soil
characteristics have been correlated with measured percolation
rates, and the soil permeability is graded in accordance with a
classification which has been used extensively by the Soil Conserva­
tion Service in describing mapping units of soil conservation sur­

• veys. This classification follows:

 .. ", ," , ....,. "' .

26 'EEClINICALDULUJ'j'JN NO. 10M, U. S. DEI''!'. OF AGJUCUIfj'URE

l'arcolatio,i r([il! in i-"chen 'Jmr· hour

Permctlbillty t"rouf/" satltrllted "",/i8/ltT/Hld corCB
Permeability clas8 illdo., ,,"dcr %';'IC" hea,/ of 10Mcr
Very slow ......____._
Slow .. _.........__....____.
Moderately slow __.__
Moderate _._•..._._.__
Moderately rapid ____
1
2
3
4
5
Less than 0.05
0.05 to 0.2
0.2 to 0.8
0.8 to 2.5
2.5 to 5.0
•
Rapid __.. _••.._ _._..• 6 5.0 to 10.0
Very rapid .._._.,,_.__• 7 More than 10.0

t' Estimating the permeability of significant soil zones below the

topsoil by correlation with visible soil characteristics provides a
means of delineating the general boundaries between drainable and
undrainable strata. The approximate ratings must be supplemented
by actual field measurement.~, however, jf precise quantitative
values of permeability are required. Indirect evaluations such as
these, by which permeability is graded according to distinctive and
J;
easily observable soil characteristics, are suitable only when suf­
ficient correlations have been made between soil characteristics and
water transmission rates in a particular locality to furnish a re­
liable base for the permeability estimates.
WATER-TABLE INVESTIGATIONS
The water-table survey provides essential information on the
position of the water table at different points in the problem area
and in the various soil strata, and on the extent and degree of
severity of the drainage problem in general. Ground-water flow
patterns are prepared from the piezometric data obtained. These
flow patterns fUl'l1ish a good basis for the design of improvement
works. •
EXISTING DATA
Records of water levels, maps of depths to water table, and other
hydrologic data for past years are available for many drainage
problem areas. Such data, when correlated with current conditions,
often furnish clues to the cause of fluctuations in the water table.
The plotting of water-table hydrographs in conjunction with data
on precipitation, irrigation, runoff, effect of pumping, and other
hydrologic phenomena provides a useful basis of analYRiR.
OBSERVATION WELLS
Unfavorable water-table conditions are often indicated by cer­
tain well-recognized symptoms. Thus, poor crop production and the
presence of marshy areas or alkali spots usually are visible evidence
of waterlogging. The use of observation wells, however, is neces­
sary to obtain positive data on the position and fluctuation of the
water table.
The type. location, and number of observation wells to be in­
stalled depends on the type of informatiol1 needed. The most com­
1110n types are open holes bored with a soil auger 01' post-hole auger,
or wells drilled with a commercial rig. Open holes made in the
course of soil surveying can also be used for this purpose. Open
•
 ·... " ,,.

DRAI~AGE Il-lVESTIGA'rwN ME'l'HODS FOR IRRlGNl'ED AUEAS 27

wells, if they are to be used for any length of time, should be cased
to prevent caving. Casing materials range from thin sheet-metal
pipe, stovepipe, and drain tile to the standard commercial types of
well casing.
The kind, size, and depth of well and the type of casing depend
largely on the type of investigation being made. For a reconnais­
sance of a small plot of ground, auger holes usuaily suffice; for a
valley-wide drainage investigation, observation wells of a semi­
permanent type should be installed. The mo:.t effective system for a
valley-wide investigation is a series of wells in a grid pattern
oriented to the strata-survey grid, to facilitate correlation with
soils data.
Observation wells are generally installed by placing the pipe or
casing in an auger hole dug to the desired depth, as shown in dia­
gram A of figure 11. Casing pipes range from % inch to 6 inches
in diameter. Pipes open only at the ends should be set on a small
quantity of gravel at the bottom of the hole. Gravel is then back­
filled around the pipe to a point above the ground-water table.
Native material may be used to fill the remaining portion of the hole
to the ground surface. The pipe is left projecting 12 to 18 inches
above th(\ ground surface and is covered by a pipe cap to protect
the well.
PIEZOMETERS
A most useful drainage-investigation tool is the ground-water
piezometer, an unperforated small-diameter pipe so designed and

•
installed that after it has been driven into the soil the underground
water can enter it only at the bottom end (1,2). The device regis­
ters the hydrostatic pressure of the underground water only at the
bottom of the pipe. Almost all types of cased wells, on the other
hand, are perforated throughout their length or have numerous
access points for water to pass from the soil to the well. In an open
uncased hole 01' ordinary cased wall, therefore, water seeps in at all
points and fills the hole to whatever height the strongest hydro­
static pressure will produce. Such a well registel's the depth of
water or hydrostatic pressure in the entire soil profile penetrated by
the well. Diagram B of figure 11 illustrates this fundamental dif­
ference between the piezometer and an ordinary well.
The availability of an instrument like the piezometer, which can
be used to ascertain the hydrostatic pressure at any level in the soil
profile, opens up a wide range of possibilities in drainage investiga­
tions. Since underground water moves from a point of high hydro­
static pressure to one of low pressure, the movement of water can
be charted if the hydrostatic pressures are measured. With sets of
piezometers spaced at intervals, the hydrostatic pressure at dif­
ferent points in an entire profile may be determined and seepage
movement detected. Under certain conditions, a single piezometer
may be used to reveal seepage, as when a piezometer pipe is in­
stalled in the soil in the center of a flowing canal or drain. If the
water level in such a piezometer is higher than that in the canal, it

••
,
may be an indication that water is seeping from the lower level
soil into the canal.
 .0

OBSERVATION WELL PIEZOMETER WELL DRIVING HAMMER

GROUND
r- r- tQ
-til PIEZOMETER
o
~,

.~: ..
;:.~:
SURFACE GROUND
...............
SURFACE

-1. =
Z
~.
:?:~ /::"
t"'

:;.~~ PIPE ci

I I c:
t"'

_~UND_ _~~E!!... -1 __L -!~EL. ,t"'

--:~l- =tII
~
....
-1 1111 ­ Z
~§l
III
-;-+ I III - z
:.~I ?
-)-:::::-
i
1I11I

- 1 111 -
III
...
e
."
!"
~
A B -1,,11- III
C
. 'i
POST
HOLE
.J,\ til::
-c,,- L PLUG rn
::;, ,~

!d
It "
ARROWS INDICATe:
GROUND WATER ENTRANCE -II) L.I 3/4" PIPE
CAVITY FORMED
BY FLUSHING ~

o
THE PIEZOMETER INDICATES THE PRESSURE

AT THE POINT OF ENTRANCE RATHER THAN

THE LEVEL OF THE GROUND-WATER TABLE.
LrY "'.1
>
C)

~
GRAVEL BACKFILL ALLOWS ENTRANCE THE WELL INDICATES THE LEVEL OF THE
g
OF WATER FROM ANY POINT

.~
SURROUNDING GROUND- WATER TABLE.

~, ~.

FIGURE ll.-Some details of observation wells and piezometers: A, Cross-section view of observation well, showing proper method
of backfill ; B, diagram illustrating fundamental difference in flow of underground water to well and piezometer; C, detaifs of
piezometer driving hammer and method of installation (from "Ground-Water Studies in Relation to Drainage" by J. E.
Christiansen) .

.- /

•• ...
""
_ ....':
-j.-!.,.i
 DItAINAGE INVESTIGATION METHODS FOIt IfHUGATED AREAS 29
DESCRIPTION OF PIEZOMETER
The ground-water piezometer consists of a standard :1,4,- or %­
inch iron pipe driven vertically into the ground to a definite level.
Before driving is started, a loose rivet is placed in the lower end of
the pipe to keep soil from entering. When the desired depth is
reached, a jointed rod is inserted and the rivet .is punched out,
leaving an open pipe or piezometer. In some soils the prptecting
rivet is not needed. Before driving, the exact length of the pipe
should be noted so that the elevation of the bottom of the pipe after
driving may be determined.
The driving is done with a special hammer fashioned like a steel
fence-post driver. It consists of two pieces of %-inch pipe, 15 inches
and 5 feet long, respectively, joined by a 1-foot section of 1 lh-inch
pipe filled with lead (diagram C of figure 11). This leaded section
is fitted with a steel plug at each end to receiye the impact of the
blow. The top of the piezometer pipe is fitted with a removable
%-inch driving head. The piezometer is started into the ground
with the 5-foot end of the hammer over the driving head of the
piezometer. When the top of the piezometer has been driven to
within 5 feet of the ground surface, the hammer is inverted and the
drivil1g continued until the top of the piezometer is at the desired
elevation, about 1 foot above the ground. Piezometers may be
driven with a pneumatic jackhammer if the top of the piezometer
pipe is fitted with a driving cap for seating the jackhammer pilot.
Power driving makes it possible to install piezometers to a depth of
30 feet even in very heavy soils. Figure 12, A, shows a piezometer

being driven with a jackhammer.

The deeper the piezometer penetrates the soil, the greater will be
the friction on the sides. Since hand driving of even a 15-foot piezo­
meter in some soils may entail considerable laber, the use of this
method is definitely limited. Placing a joint and coupling about 1
foot from the bottom of the pipe slightly enlarges the hole through
which the pipe passes as the piezometer is forced down. This helps
to reduce side friction and cuts down the resistance to penetration.
The use of such a coupling permits driving of piezometers by air
hammer to depths of approximately 40 feet without causing leak­
age down the sides of the pipe and a resultant los~ of benefit from
the piezometric principle. Earth from the side walls of the hole
closes up the enlarged space surrounding the pipe above thE'
coupling. The 1-foot section of pipe below the coupling is, of
course, ::;ealed at all times against any leakage.
Piezometers should be driven as nearly plumb as possible. Single
lengths up to 14 feet may be installed by working from a step­
ladder. For greater depths, several sections of pipe are joined with
standard pipe couplings, the maximum depth of installation being
limited only by the difficulty of driving the pipe and removing the
rivets.
FLUSHING
For sllccessful installation and operation of piezometers, the
soil at the lower end of the piezometer should be removed by flush­
ing, leaving a small cavity at the bottom of the pipe, as shown in
;e diagram C, figure 11. Flushing is done by punching the rivet from
!
 "'
o

..;
t'l
o
:::
z
Q
>­
r­
c:
c:
t"
t"
~
Z
z
~

""'"
~.,

S
!"
c
t'l
~
;:
o
'::
>­
C'i
~

(=j
c:
~
C;
FIGURE 12.-Driving and jetting piezometers. A, Driving 1/4-inch piezometer with an air hammer.
Tubing in lO-foot lengths may be joined and sunk to a depth of 30 fect by this method. fl, Jetting
] '2-inch piezometcr, Coachella Vallc~r, Calif.

• • •
 ',,,,<

.j'

J)RAINAGE INVESTIGA'flON METHODS FOR IIUUGA't'EI> AUEAS 31

the lower end of the piezometer by punch rods after the pipe has
been driven to the desired depth, then cleaning out the pipe by
pumping water into it through a flexible tube. The water escapes by
flowing upward through the narrow space between the tubing and
the inside wall of the pipe. The equipment needed includes a water
container, stirrup pump, and enough plastic tubing l.4-inch in
outside diameter to reach the bottom of the deepest piezometer
used (fig. 13). The tubing is marked with colored lacquer at I-foot
intervals.

• "

r·

":!
"
...~

•
r
!

! ~
I

FIGURE 13.-Some equipment used in piezometer and, well investigations.

Left to 1'iuht: StilTup pump and plastic tubing for flushing; electric water­
level indicator for piezometer; sounding bell for 1-1/2-inch and larger
pipes; sounding rods, usable also as punch rods for l"emoving rivet from
piezometer.

The plastic tUbing is pushed down inside the pipe during pump­
ing until it nears the bottom, then gradually lowered until the end
is about even with or slightly belOW the end of the piezometer~
Flushing is accelerated by working the tubing up and down, care
being taken to avoid lowering the tubing beyond the depth specified.

>.
The water that overflows the pipe is usually very silty at first. With
continued pumping, however, the water clears. The tubing is then
slowly withdrawn while pumping continues.
, ,
 ".,.

TECHNICAL BULLETIN NO. 1065. U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

The piezometer is tested for sensitivity by filling the piezometer

•
I:~ pipe and observing the rate at which the water drops. Experience
will soon indicate the approximate rate to be expected. If the rate
of drop' appears too slow the flushing is repeated, the tubing being
lowered slightly below its previous level to enlarge the cavity. In
l1ighly permeable sands, piezometers take the water so rapidly that
no overflow occurs, whereas in some soils of low permeability the
rate of subsidence of water in the piezometer is hardly perceptible.
In some instances an equilibrium level is obtained in a few minutes;
in extreme cases, 24 hours or more may be required.
In some soils, piezameters may be driven to advantage without
rivets. Although plugs of soil 6 to 8 inches long may pack in the
lower end, they can be flushed out in less time than would be re­
quired to punch out the rivets.
Piezometers may occasionally seal up after being in use for
several months. Erratic variation in the pressure reading of any
piezometer as compared with others in the same vicinity may indi­
cate sealing, which can be readily overcome by reflushing.
JETTING PIEZOMETERS
Both piezometers and wells have been installed successfully in
certain areas to depths of 100 feet 01' more by jetting (10, 11).
Figure 12, B, illustrates jetting- equipment designed and built for
use in connection with cooperati\"e drainage investigations in
Coachella Valley, Calif. Much greater depths can be attained by
jetting than by driving, the depth of installation being limited
mainly by the size of the aggregate encountered. Some highly •
porous formations take the water faster than it can be pumped
down and 110 deepening of the jetted hole results.
In jetting, the soil is removed by flushing it up around the pipe
and out of the hole. Although this may result in side leakage and
cause. the pipe to act as a regular well when the well is new, the
sides seal up after a period of time and the well then functions like
a piezometer. The difficulty of determining the extent of the seal
along the sides of the pipe makes it hard to determine whether the
readings obtained are from a well or a piezometer. Nevertheless,
jetting is a quick and easy way to install a deep observation well,
and the ease and economy of installation far outweigh the limita­
tions.
REMOVAL OF PIEZOMETERS
Piezometer pipes may be used many times over if care is taken
in removing them from the ground. Lengths up to 8 feet usually
can be pulled by hand after they have been loosened by turning with
a pipe wrench. For deeper installations, the pipes are easily ex­
tracted by means of a ratchet hoist suspended frol11 an A-frame or
tripod of 2- by 4-inch material (fig. 1<1). A set of small metal
grippers is fastened to the piezometer and attached to the pull
chain of the hoist. After removal, the pipe should be cleaned of soil
and corrosive scale, straightened, and, if non galvanized, covered
with a light coating of oil to prevent rllsting.

.'
The piezometer tube may also be raised with an ordinary soil­
•
..
 DRAINAGE INVESTIGAT!()N .METHODS FOR JHRiCA'l'EIJ .\I{EAS 33

FlGCRf. 14..-Ratcl1l't hoi:".t. tl'ipod, and g'l'ippC')' used in (>xtracting

d('('p pi('Z(lIl1l'tt'I' pjPt~.

t.ube jack, using' a S(lt of' sl1lalll1ll'tal grippers fittcd around the pie­
zometer pipe to provide a bt'Hl'ing' sUJ'faec fol' the jade
MEAseRIXG DE\'1('ES
There are lJlany differcnt methods of measuring the water
elenltion in OIJiien'ution wells and pie%ometcl's. For 11 ~-inch and
laJ'ger pipes, a sounding b('\1 (lig. ];3) can be utilized. The bell is
made by boring out th.' ('('nLer of a l-ineh-c1ial11etel' brass rod to a
depth of 1 inch until the walls aJ'e approximMely 1 i;32-inch thick.
A I~-inch shank is formed by turning' clown the end of the rod for
about l' ~ inehes and ~;pttilJg' a }Jin in the end. A brass chain about
0inC'hes 10llg is used to join t11(' b('11 to the' low-reading end 0'£ a
metalli(' tape. I r it l'ulJ-leng'tJl Lapp is used without foreshortening, a
correction must \)(' applied to the watcl'-t'!('\'ation reading- to COIll­
• l1ensate 1'01' the 1<.'Ilg'th of the sOLinding' 1)(.'11 and ehain. As an alterna­
~.~ .. ' ".

34 TECHNICAL BULLETIN NO. 1066. U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

tive, a piece of the tape equal in length to the combined length of

bell and chain may be cut off before it is fastened to the chain. The
tape then gives direct readings. The bell is lowered on the end of
the tape until the sound of the bell, which is clearly audible as much
as 100 feet from some wells, indicates that it has contacted the
water surface.
•
;' A relatively simple adaptation of the sounding bell described
above, designed to facilitate the reading of open uncased holes
made with soil augers, has been used successfully in wells of small
diameter. The bell of this device is made by brazing a large cart­
l"idge case, similar to a .45-.70, to a jointed 1/b-inch rod. The rod is
graduated and marked as desired.
The depth to water in piezometers and wells may also be sounded
by lowering a length of plastic tubing into the pipe while air is
being blown into the free end of the tUbing above grut..:dd. When
the tubing touches the water an audible vibration is set up in the
pipe. The water level may be determined either by withdrawing the
tubing and measuring the length removed, or by using a tube on
which unit distances have previously been marked with differently
colored lacquers.
WATER-LEVEL INDICATOR FOR PIEZOMETERS
The type of sounding device commonly used for larger observa­
tion wells is unsuited for use with piezometer pipes of small
diameter. A satisfactory electric water-level indicator has been
developed for this purpose (fig. 15). The essential parts of the de­
vice are a flexible rubber-covered wire marked with I-foot gradua- •
tions, small penlight batteries for current, and a milliammeter 01'
voltmeter to indicate the closing of the electric circuit.
The wire should be highly flexible, well insulated, and not easily
kinked. Type FF single-conductor flexible cord is satisfactory.
The end of the wire is equipped with a weighted sounder tip made
from about eight lengths ofY.i.-inch brass tubing, each section 11/:!
inches long. This flexible end permits the plumbing of bent and
damaged piezometers. The insulated contact wire passes through
the series of tubes and is soldered to a metal tip. This tip is in­
sulated from the brass tubing with a piece of lucite machined to
fit into the end of the tubing. The wire is marked at I-foot intervals
with bands of colored lacquer to indicate successive foot readings.
It is held on a reel and passes in front of a fixed scale 1 foot long
graduated in tenths and hundredths of a foot. This scale reads from
the top down so that readings are obtained directly to 0.01 foot. A
reel harrow enough to accommodate only one width of wire has
been found most satisfactory.
A milliammeter of 0-25 milliampere range is well adapted as an
indicator although a high-resistance voltmeter also gives satis­
factory results. For ground waters that contain a relatively large
amount of dissolved salts, a single battery cell furnishes sufficient
current to give a satisfactory reading; for waters with weaker
concentration of salts, two cells may be required.
The instrument is so arranged that when it is seated over the top
of the piezometer pipe the readings give the distance from the top •
 •

REEL I/z4" SHEET IR..SS .." IH

IIt:EL CIIANII
DI....ETER
1/4")( III"
IAR iliA"
GOIITACOT 11.,,1/24" SKEET 'R~' I l~~
,CONT..CT WIRE SINGLE STR .. ND "EEL IIIAicE .. 'Y'
RUBBER COVERED TINSEL WillE
TYPE F f, MINIIoIU... LEN GTH
1/4 01 X 1/2."
IAR IRASS
i \ r .. .g
20 FT. ,i:;..
.~
c:'l
MILLIAMMETER O-ZS REAORITE D. C. SC..LE BAR lie" x I/z" BAR IIEEL "ANDLE l'l
ADJUSTABLE BRASS, LENGTH IS" LUCITE 011 EOUAL
~
<
l'l'

.WEIGHTED TIP END 1/4" O. D.

g
;>:
TUiE IR"SS INSUL..TE!!, I

,~
SECTIONS I ~2" LONG.

IATTEIIY TUIE S,," O. D. IY "II I. D. LENGTIf 12"

rUle IRASS WIT" LUCITE OR EQUAL END

FITTINGS LENGrli ," liC
l'l
6!o
A B C
rJl

~
~,

_SGREW CLA~P 3/1&" BR~SS

CENTIIAL ST.. FF 3/4" O. D. IY 51." I. D. LEFT SIDE VIEW

TUIE IR..S5, LENOT" ZO" •

SEATING 7/8" O. D. BY 3/4" I. D.

TUBE BRASS, LENGTH s"
i

;>
:c
~
rJl
_SCREW Cl.lMP 3/16" BRASS
IIt:MOV".LE INNEII SLEEVE 11/1'" o. D. IY
s/l" I. D. TUIE IIIASS, LENITH 4 lIz"
RIGHT SIDE VIEW

FIGURE I5.-Piezometer sounding device. ~

.
'~
 36 TECHNICAL BULLETIN NO. 1065, U. S. DEPT. Ol? AGJUCUL'l'URE

of the piezometer to the water surface. The weighted wire is un­

reeled into the piezometer until the tip end contacts the water sur­
face, completing the electric circuit. The piezometer itself acts as a
part of the circuit, one terminal of the dry cell being grounded to
the instrument, which makes contact with the piezometer. With
care in operation of the device, readings accurate to within 0.01 foot
•
I". ean be obtained.
APPLICATIONS TO GROUND-WATER PROBLEMS
The simplicity, ease of installation, and accuracy of the piezo­
meter make this instrument a highly effective device for determin­
ing the height of the ground-water table and its fluctuations. When
used for this purpose, it is installed in single units in a grid pattern
over the area to be observed. The spacing varies from a 400-foot
interval for a 160-acre field to a spacing of VI. to I/~ mile for a less
intensive study covering several square miles. The depth of in­
stallation is governed by the probable depth of water table at the
low ebb of the yearly water-fluctuation cycle and by the existence
of unusual stratifications as indicated by borings.
Piezometers may also be used to determine the effect of over­
irrigation on the water table in connection with water-use 01' water­
application-efficiency studies. For this purpose, pipes are spaced
at frequent intervals along the length of the irrigation run or set of
furrows. They quickly register any rise in the water table as well as
any gradual fall due to subsurface drainage, use of water by the
crops grown, and losses by evaporation. Unlike a large-sized well, •
the pipes take up little space and can be installed and removed with
a minimum of disturbance to the crO.!Jd.
It is important to note that the watel'-table levels registered by
piezometers are the result of hydrostatic pressure at the bottom
end of the pipes. It is necessary, therefore, to ascertain the general
stratification of the soil before the piezometers are installed so that
they can be terminated in the desired stratunJ.
GROUND-\VATER FLOW PATTERNS.-Piezometers may be used to
advantage to secure ground-water flow patterns as a means of
determining the efficiency of various types of drainage devices; in
studies of canal seepage; and in studies of the source and direction
of extraneolls ground-water flow. For these purposes, piezometers
are installed in groups of two or more at each location. They are
driven to different depths depending on the stratiflc(ltion of the
subsoil and the depth of flow pattern desired.
A typical example of the manner in which differential-length
piezometers may be used in sets to obtain hydrologic data for
drainage investigations-specifically, to determine whether a canal
is leaking-is illustrated in figure 16. In this hypothetical example,
groups of foul' piezometers 5, 10, 15, and 20 feet in length have been
installed on a line perpendicular to the axis of the canal at distances
of 15, 60, and 100 feet from the center line of the canal (diagram
A). 'I'he immediate object is to secure hydrostatic pressures .at a
large number of points under the watm' table adjacent to the canal.
In diagram TJ, which represents the same cross section shown in
A, the small circles indicate the tel~mination points or the tip ends •
 DRAINAGE INVESTIGATION METII()DS FOR IRRIGATED AREAS 37

AS!lU~EO ELEVATION
'FEET ) A
100 r SURFACE
'\ DAllAL I G"OUND

\~~I I
~

.l2..
SIX IATTEIIES OF OIFf£IIENTIAL-LENGTH PIEZOMETERS 8RACMETING AN IRRIGATION CANAL AND
T£"MIIIA1ING AT D£PTHS OF 5. 10.15 AND 20 FEET.

e
100

0 0 .ll.. ')]rtr.:e'21 095.91 95.0e 0

.­
,/, 0 0 .!2... 0 o 97.50 o 9!1.~O 95.000

0 Q .U_ 0 095.72 o 95.75 94.'50

• 0 0 .tQ.. 0 0".20
THE ~EFT SIDE IS i'LOTTEOTO SIIOW THE PIEZOMETER TERMINATION ~EVE~S. THE PlIES SUMS IN THE
PIEZOMETERS AAE MEASURED AT THESE POINTS.
TH£ AIGHT SIDE GIVES THE WATEA E~EVATION! IN THE PIEZOMETER TuaES. THESE ELEVATIONS ARE
PLOTTED AT THE PIEZOMETER TERMINATION POINTS,
o 95.50 '4.700

• C

WATER
TA8~£
_ - -
"i
\
....
_\
C ~~::=
Ei 7- I- - -_
".0"
-------­
J ~

P::;,
011 ge.21 --" OJ
~ ~;,. ~,,~
0\'5.00 \~ IS.' 0 \. •...~~.5C 0 ~~-
o
'4.15
'01'\0 ".T~ 096.72 -V 0
OJ'''''0)1'"
'"
:: 0

094.70\ 095.50" 0 !H20 0"""'"

...... ' / 0
THE LEFT SIDE SHOWS LINES OF EOUAL PRESSURE PARTL~ ORAWII, LIliES OF EQUAL PRESSUIIE
A"E DIIAWN SIMILAR TO GROUND-SURFACE COHTOURs.
THE RIGMT SIDE SHOWS THE FINISHED LIN£S OF EQUAL P"ESsUR" AND Til" A""OWS INDICATE THE
OIlIlCTION Of G"OUIID-WATER MOVEMENT.
100
..'
to !
10 40
,
t? . I
o to 40 10 . 10 . . . . 100 .
DISTANCE FRON CANAL ('££T)

FIGURE I6.-Plotting differential-length piezometer data in t~edeterminatjon

of equipotential pressure lines.
 38 'J'ECIINICAL BULLE'fIN NO, 1060, U, S, DEP'l', OF AGRICULTURE

of each piez0i11eter. The numerical designation beside each circle is

the water-level elevation in each piezometer. Thus, the 5-foot
piezometer located 15 feet to the right of the canal has a water level •
of 98.21 feet above zero datum (1.79 feet below ground-surface
datum of 100). In similar manner, the 10-foot piezometer at the
same spot has a water-level elevation of 97.50 and the 15-foot piezo­
meter a water-level elevation of 96.72, 'l'hese elevations are a direct
reflection of the hydrostatic pressure at the respective points in the
soil and provide, in effect, a water-level profile of the area adjacent
to the canal.
The third step is to draw contoul'S of equal hydrostatic pressl\l'es
(equipotential lines), as in diagram C. These pressure lines are
drawn in the vertical plane in much the same manner as ground­
sm'face contour lines are drawn in the horizontal plane. The con­
tour lines provide a pattern of the hydrostatic pressure potential
for the soil profile about the canal and indicate the direction of
water movement through the soil. The charting of the various
'i paths of movement, called stream lines of flow, is based on the
principle that water in the soil moves from points of high hydro­
static pressure to points of low hydrostatic pressure in a path of
underground flow that is always at right angles to the contour line
of equal pressure. For example, a particle of water in the soil at the
98.0 pressure line will move towards the 97.5 pressure Iinc.
The following rules arc helpful in plotting- piezometer data:
1. Equipotential lines must interRect the frce water surface at
right angles, and at equal increments of elevation.
2. The head loss between adjacent equipotential lines must be •
constant.
3. The quantity of seepage flow between adjacent flow lines iR
constant.
•1. The canal bottom and canal sides compriRc the upper equi­
potential line.
5. The static water table is the 10 ,vest equipotential line.
6. The water surface is the long-est flow line.
7. The vertical line of flow along the center line of the canal if;
the shortest flow line.
Stream lines of flow can be charted to show the dil'e('tion of
water movement toward drains, tile lines, Sllmps, wells, canals,
springs, or any spot for which information on ground-water move­
ment is needed. A knowledge of the orig-in of the excess water and
its direction of movement makes pORsible the deRign of a drainage
svstem which will either intercept the flow of water or check it at
the SOllrce. Ground-water information al~o aids in determining
whether draillage devices already installed are functioning prop­
erly and provides clues to the betterment of existing designs of
improvement works and the development of new ones.
WATER-SOURCE SURVEY
The water-source survey provides a ]{ey to the measures needed
to remedy undesirable drainage conditions. More specifically, the
water SOUl'ce often governs the type of drainage to be installed.
Thus, if excess water is due to precipitation, the remedial measure •
 !
Ii

DRAINAGE INVESTIGATION METHODS FOR IRItIGATED AREAS 39

would probably be better surface drainage; if due to canal seepage,
an interception drain may be indicated; and if due to artesian pres­
sUl'e, }'elief wells may provide the most practicable remedy. In
some p}'oblem al'eas the source of water is obvious. In otherl'l, iIi­
cluding many westel'll valleys, the sources of water may be both
numerous and complex, making specific origins difficult to discern.
A consideration of all the pertinent information on geology, top­
ography, soil strata, and water table mentioned in previous sec­
tions is needed to detel'mine the source of the water.
SOURCES OF WATER
The common sources of water of major importance in drainage
problems in irrigated areas are precipitation, irrigation, seepage,
and hydrostatic pressure manifested in various forms,
PRECIPITATION
Precipitation records should be gathered and analyzed for the
area under investigation in order to determine both the monthly
distribution and the long-term cyclic trend of preCilJitation,
A positive correlation between the distribution of precipitation
during the year and the fluctuations in ,vater-table elevations may
be evidence that seasonal precipitation is one of the chief SOUl'ces
of water. Lack of such cOl'relation indicates that precipitation
probably has little effect on the water table,
An attempt should be made to determine whether long-term

• cycles of precipitation are related to long-term hydrographs of

water levels; for example, whether wet cycles are followed by ris­
ing water tables, and vice versa, Deep seepage to artesian or other
aquifers, though slow, may often be manifested by a rise in water
levelS, sometimes years after the peak of a precipitation cycle has
passed. In some areas changes in ground-water levels may be more
closely associated with the snowfall in adjacent or distmlt mountain
areas, and with the period and rate of snow melt, than with rajnfall.
Precipitation affects artesian wells, deep static wells, and shal­
low piezometer wells differently. The l'esponse of water surface
levels in these wells provides indications of the degree, mode, and
duration of influence of precipitation on the water table.
IRRIGATION
Many drainage problems in irrigated areas are traceable to
faulty irrigittion practices, particularly the application of too much
irrigation water, In order to determine the extent to which irriga­
tion practices contribute to such problems, studies should be made
of (1), the effect on the water table of single irrigations; (2),
water-table fluctuations throughout the irrigation season; and (3),
long-time changes in water-table elevation over a period of years
subsequent to the beginning of irrigatioil,
Poor methods of water application and inefficient use of irriga­
tion water are likely to result in the loss of large amounts of water
by deep percolation and surface runoff, Methods of applying water
'. vary widely, depending on such factors as soil, slope, crops, size of
 '. '

40 'l'];CHNICAL BULLETIN NO. 1066, U, S. DEPT. Ol~ AGlUCUL'l'URE

field, delivery schedule of water, and availability of water. Irriga­

tion practices should be related to crop needs and soil properties.
Only the amounts of water needed for the crops and to maintain a •

suitable salt balance should be applied. Efficient water management

reduces the need for drainage in irrigated areas.
Perched water tables, caused by the accumulation of excess
amounts of irrigation water over impervious layers in the sol1
profile, are common in many irrigated areas. Since it is extremely
difficult to apply exactly enough water, the tendency is to put more
water on the land than is actually needed. The surplus must be
disposed of in some manner. The adequaey of waste ways, outlets
to natural 01' man-made open drains, and other disposal facilities
should be carefully determined and the possibilities for improve­
ment thoroughly explored.
SEEPAGE
Seepage, a major source of wateL' in many drainage problem
areas, likewise requires careful field study. Man-macle seepage
u~ually stems from poorly com;tructecl OJ' improperly located il'l'iga­
tion works such as Cal1<t1s, reservoirs, and other conveyance and
impounding structures. Seepage from these sources may be de­
tected by methodil predously described. A comparison of fluctua­
tions of water level in the ground with those of water levels in
adjacent canals 01' resenoil's indicates whether water is seeping
from these structures into the underground water table. Evidence
of subsurface seepage is often prodded by the presence of tules,
willows, and other \n1ter-lo\'ing plants. Under certain conditions •

seepage may also be detected by introducing dyes 01' concenb-ated

saline solutions at or neal' the suspected source of seepage and not­
ing their movement and point of emergence (13).
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURES
Underground aquifers under l1ydrostatic pressure may be a
direct'contributory source of water in a drainage problem area.
Impermeable geologic straUl. that overlie such aquifers impede the
free vertical flow of water, but the drilling of wells through the
confining strata releases the pressure and forces the 'water to the
surface as flowing artesian wells. It is important to identify the
aquifer stratum yielding the (Jo\\, in order that the artesian pres­
sure may be traced to its source. Examination of well logs often
provides the clue. to the location of the aquifer under pressure.
Other clues are given by the pressure differential in wells of dif­
ferent depths, and by the period of peak pressure and the quality
of water in different wells.
For example, it is not uncommon in artesian pressure areas for
several aquifer zones to be separated by layers of shale or heavy
clay. By measuring the pressures in wells that tap different con­
fined strata, the relative significance of each stratum can be de­
termined. Where the pressure and consequent flow from wells
fluctuate, a comparison of the cycle of fluctuation with other hydro­
logic pl1enomena may furnish a clue to the source of artesian water.
Thus, in mountain valleys, a decline of artesian pressures following •

 DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONlIfETHODS FOR IRRIGATED AREAS 41

l'egularly upon the termination of spring snow melt furnishes good
evidence that the artesian flow has its source in the mountain snow
packs. The dwindling runoff is insufficient to recharge the water­
bearing strata and maintain the hydrostatic pressure.
The quality of water in artesian wells probably furnishes the
most reliable clue to the location of the source. A relatively pure
water, free of saline elements, suggests that the source is either
runoff from precipitation 01' some deep-level l'echarge from sur­
rounding watershed areas. Water high in calcium carbonate con­
tent suggests a limestone-aquifer source. Certain contaminating
saline elements are traceable for many miles. Boron and other
minerals, in fact, are often used to classify and identify artesian
zones and sources of pressure.
LEAKAGE FROM WELLs.-In the irrigated areas of many western
valleys it is not uncommon to find wells 50 years old which had
been drilled for domestic or irl'igation use. Such wells, especially
the artesian, are often a source of seepage into surrounding lands.
They also serve as conduits for the flow of water from one stratum
to another as the casings rust out. Lealwge llOt only causes an ap­
preciable loss of water in the well but may aiso cause waterlogging
of adjacent soil.
Leakage in artesian wells may be detected in various ways (8).
The most common method is to lower a specially devised current
meter into the well and record the fiow at various depths. A flow
greater at any level than at the top is positive proof of leakage
some place along the well casing. Careful current-meter readings

• taken at 5-foot intervals will locate the approximate points of in­

flow and otJtflow of artesian water.
Semial'tesian wells-those 1n which the artesian pressure is too
slight to enable the flow to rise to the g,round surface-may leak
entirely below the ground surface. Such wells are usually char­
acterized by a water level higher than that of the shallow water
table in the surrounding area. The leakage is. difficult to detect
because the movement of water is generally too slow to be meas­
ured by current meters.
A method involving the introduction of a salt brine into the well
has been used successfully to detect the direction, but not the
quantity, of water movement. The well being investigated is logged
electrically by lowering a two-wire electrode into the water and
taking conductance readings at successive 5-foot intervals. Plastic
tubing 1/.1 inch in diameter is then lowered into the well a distance
of about 50 feet (in a 75-foot well) and 2 gallons of salt brine are
pumped into the well. This brine contaminates about a 6-foot zone
of water in the well and can be accurately located with the con­
ductance electrode wire. Being heavier than fresh water, it dif­
fuses downward in a nonleaking or nonartesian wen. In a semi.
artesian well with upward flow it diffuses upward and may be
detected at successively higher points in the well by means of the
electrodes. This upward movement can be charted by logging the
well at about half-hour intervals.
SPRINGS AND SEEPS.-Two types of springs or seeps should be
distinguished-those originating at the base of steep slopes
where the topography breaks abruptly and those caused by fault­
 42 TECHNICAL BULLETIN NO. lOGo, U•• S. DEP'l'. OF AGRICULTURE
" ,

ing. The first type, which is usually found along the edges of a
valley, is characterized by perennial flow and fresh cold water. The

I.'
second is caused by the fracture or displacement of confining clay
or rock layers above an artesian aquifer, thus forcing the water in
the artesian zone to the surface. A line of such springs may de­
lineate a fault line. Springs of this type are often thermal and may
•
contain excessive amounts of minerals or mineralized compounds.
According to an old rule of thumb, the depth of source of water
feeding a spl'ing can be estimated by the temperature of the water;
i.e., the hotter the water, 'the deeper is the source. Ordinarily the
deep-seated fault springs are warm, whereas the shallow springs,
originating as bedrock outcrop seepage, are cold.
SALINITY OF WATER
.\ A knowledge of the salinity of the ground water in a particular
drainage problem area is important because of the adverse effect
"

of saline water on the growth and production of crop plants. In

areas of nonsaline soil water the solution to the drainage problem
is largely a matter of merely lowering the water table to a point
far enough below the root zone of the plants to keep excess water
from interfering with normal plant-growth processes. Some lati­
tude in the fluctuation of the water-table elevations is permissible.
In areas of saline ground water, however, the water table must
not only be lowered to a point well below the feeding zone of the
plant roots but must also be kept from rising above that level so
that evaporation and capillary forces will not concentrate the salts
in the root zone. 'rhe presence of large amounts of harmful mineral
elements in the root zone of the soil intensifies the drainage problem
since steps must then be taken to drain not only the excess water
initially present but also any additional quantities that must be
applied to leach the salts out of the soil. The danger of losing es­
•
sential plant nutrients in the leaching process further complicates
the problem of devising effective drainage systems and measures.
The scope of this bulletin does not permit a detailed treatment
of salinity-investigation procedures, which is a specialized field
of its own. It is desired to point out, however, that salinity investi­
gations, including tests to determine the character and amount of
mineral elements in the soil and water, are needed for the develop­
ment of sound solutions to the drainage problems in saline areas.
TYPES OF DRAINAGE SYSTEMS AND STRUCTURES
The type of drainage needed in a particular drainage problem
I area will depend in large measure on the facts revealed by the
topographic, soil, water-table, and "rater-source surveys outlined
in the preceding pages. As brought out in the section entitled "Basic
Drainage Il1formatioll," the development of suitable remedies f01" J
undesirable conditions should be undertaken only after a thorough
analysis and evaluation of all the physical factors involved. Some
of the limitations and possibilities of various types of drainage
systems in current use, together 'with examples of conditions under
which they may be expected to function satisfactorily, were pre­

",.

I'
sented in that earlier section.
•
I'i;;,':', "" l' """, ",':'" ",,' '1 ,.-' -;- ;', '

I'::' ".
DRAINAGE INVESTIGATION METHODS :1'OR IRRIGATED AREAS 43

.'
It is important to note, as a final consideration, that methods of
drainage investigation for a particular area or for a particular
problem should be selected with aue regard for the prastical aspects
of drainage works, including design and construction require­
ments and the practical limitations of operation and use of the
different types of drainage structures. In this connection, three
broad types of drainage structures may be distinguished-Open
drains, covered drains, and sumps and wells. The following brief
description of commonly used drainage works covers some of the
more important features of drainage structures with which per­
sons engaged in drainage investigations should become familiar.
It is not a guide to farm-drainage construction, a subject treated
more fully in current bulletins published by State and Federal
agencies and industrial concerns, alld in standard reference works
on the subject.
OPEN DRAINS

Open drains may be either shallow 01' deep, each type having
its specific use in drainage.
Shallow open drains are used primarily to remove excess ,vater
from the stu'face of the field, They range in depth from 2 to 4 feet
and may have cross sections of various shapes depending on the
soil, depth of drain, and location in the field. In areas where it is
advantageous to remove winter precipitation and dry the surface
soil for early spring planting, shallow drains are placed parallel

• to the direction of irrigation. Shallo'w drains are usually built

with broad, gently sloping sides that can be crossed with planting,
tillage, and harvesting machines. In areas where the application
of irrigation water is difficult to control, waste ditches are neces­
sary at the lower ends of the fields. Shallow drains for this purpose
are generally built with steep side slopes. Channel grades should be
kept to nonerodible slopes. Outlet structures should always be pro­
vided at points where shallow drains must empty into deeper
drains in an abrupt drop.
Deep open drains are used to transport excess water to a lake,
river, or other outlet, 01' to remove underground water from
adjacent areas. They also serve as outlets for shallow surface waste
drains. In general, the bottom width is not less than 3 to 4 feet to
provide for easy cleaning with machines. The sides are sloped at an
angle corresponding to the 110rmal angJe of repose of the natural
soil material, to prevent bank caving and resultant blocking of the
drain. In the lighter sandy soils, side slopes as gentle as 3 to 1 may
be required; whereas in certain heavy clay soils, side slopes of 1 to
1. are permissible. The channel grades vary with soil conditions.
The optimum grade is a function of the velocity of water move­
ment in the drain. Although a velocity in the range of 21/2 to 4 feet
per second tends to erode the bottom, drains designed for velocities
within that range in most soils usually stabilize themselves and
become more 01' less self-cleaning, '
Deep open drains range in depth from 4 to 20 feet or more, the

•
actual depth being governed by soil, topography, depth of lead-in
drains, and related conditions. In flat lacustrine valleys, depth is
44 TECHNICAL BULLETIN NO. 1065, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

generally controlled by outlet depth; in mountain areas of rough

topography, by the stratification of the soils. In order to secure
optimum underdrainage the deep drain should cut vertically across •

the more permeable strata, thus tapping the water-bearing layers

of"the soil and letting the excess water flow into the drain.
COVERED DRAINS
Covered drains include various kinds of manufactured conduits
such as concrete tile, clay tile, and fiber pipe; also, brush-filled and
gravel-filled ditches. The covered drain almost universally used in
westel'll United States is the concrete 01' clay tile. All covered con­
duit drains are constructed by laying the conduit in a vertical-sided
trench and completely backfilling the trench. Covered drains vary
in depth, but for effective drainage in irrigated areas the bottom
of the drain should be not less than i1 ~~ feet below the ground sur­
face. Covered drains require a suitable outlet into which the water
carried by them may discharge. The outlet is generally an open
drain but a sump may also be used. "Vater that has drained to a
sump is disposed of by pumping into surface \\'asteways.
Tile lines, by far the most common kind of covered drain, are
of two main types-relief systems and interceptor lines. Relief
systems consist of a series of lateral tile lines laid out in a grid
01' herringbone pattern, each line being connected to a main trunk
which in turn outlets into an open drain. An interceptor tile line
is a single line installed along the base of a hill, parallel to a leak­
ing canal, or around a leaking reservoir. It intercepts ground­
water flow at an advantageous point and prevents movement of •

water into the drainage-problem area.

The depth of tile lines is dependent upon outlet depth, general
topography of the ground surface, and the position of the \\'ater­
bearing strata in the soil profile. Since the primary function of the
tile line is the removal of underground water, the tiles should
preferabljr be placed in the more pervious soil strata. This assures
easy access of the water to the conyeyor line and provides wide
lateral drainage.
Tile systems must be instalJed in rigid conformance with de­
signed slopes and alinement. The minimum grade for a tile line is
1 foot of fall per thousand feet of line. Steeper grades are desirable.
The steeper the grade, the less likelihood there will be that silt wiII
clog the line and the less exacting will be the control of grade
required during trench construction.
WELLS AND SUMPS
Drainage wells vary in depth, size, and capacity according to the
nature of the drainage problem involved. When installed as a part
of the irrigation system they may be utilized as a water supply for
the area bp.ing drained. In artesian areas they may be installed in
or along the side of deep open drains to capture excess artesian
water that Hows to the surface. 'This helps to relieve pressure on
the aquifer and results in the lowering of the watel' level.
The depth of the well, its capacity, and the effective radius of
drainage depend in part upon the geologic strati fication of the area. •

 DRAINAGE INVESTIGA'l'ION METHODS FOR IRRIGATED ARElAS 45

The water collected in drainage wells may be disposed of by

• pumping into open drains. Pumping for drainage alone, however, is

liable to be expensive, especially where an extensive area is in­
volved, because the amount of water that must be pumped to
produce a significant drop in the water level at a remote distance
from a wen is relatively large. For drainage wells to be eco­
nomically feasible, therefore, some provision should be made to
make productive use of the water pumped.
Sumps are lal'ge shallow holes, generally 110t over 20 feet in
depth, into which water seeps from the surrounding soil. They
are used primarily to dispose of exce::;s water from small water­
logged areas or l)oc:l{ets. Because of their shallow depth their ef­
fective radius is small. They may also be used as outlets for tile
lines.

LITERATURE CITED
(1) CHRISTIANSEN, .J. K
19·13. GROUND WATER liTUDIES IN RELATION '1'0 OIlArNAGE. Agl'. Engin.
N:339-3..J.2.
(2) DONNAN, W. W. AND CHHlSTIANSEN, .J. E.
1944. P1EZOl\lBTERS FOR GROUND-WA'l'ER INVESTlGA'l'ION. West.
Construct. Ncws 19 :77-79, illus.
(3) DONNAN, W. W., ARONOVICI, V. S., AND Fox, IY. W.
19·14. TIlE 1l\IPEllfAL VAl,r,EY SOfL SAl\II'LTNG DEVICE. Soil Sci. Soc.
A mer. Proc. 8: 367-:371.
(4) DONNAN", \\". W.

H)46. STREA;'IIl.INE Fl.OW. Iowa Engin. 46: 126-130, illus.

(5) FmJVERT, R. K. AND KmKHA:lI, DON.

19'18. A FJELD "IETHOD FOR :.n:ASl·IUNG TilE PEHlIIEABIl,ITY OF SOTT,
B~Jr.oW A WATER 'l'AllI,E. Highway Res. Bd. PJ'oc, 28 :433-442.
(6) I-IAIlDIN"G, S. W. AND WOOO, .1. K.
1942. ;'IIOIJEI. TESTS OF FLOW INTO DRAINS. Soil Sci. Soc. Amcr. Proc.
6:117-119.
(7) KmIGfA:lJ, DON.
1940. PRE):;SL'1lE AXD STREA~ll,IXr~DlSTlnBUTJON IN WAn:nr.OGGED LAND
OVEHJ,YING AN IMI'ERVIOL'S I.AYER. Soil Sci. Soc. AllieI'. PI·oe.
5: 'i5-(jS, ill us.
(8) MEINZER, O. E.
1927. "IE1'HODS OF EXPLORING AND REPAIRING LEAKY ARTESIAN WEI,LS.
U. S. Geo!. SUl've~' Water-Supply Paper 596-A. illus.
(!l) uIUSKAT, M.
1937. Fl.OW OF HOMOGENEOUS FI.UlOS THHOUGH POROUS ~IED{A.
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
(10) PU,LSBUltY, A. F. AND CHRISTIANS~}N, .LE.
1947. INSTALLING GROUND WATER PIEZO:lIET~;RS BY JETTING FOn
DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS. Agl'i. Engin. 28: 409-410.
(11) REGER, J. S., Prr,LSUUHY, A. F., REEVE, R. C., J\ND PETERSUN, R. K.
1950. TECHNIQUES FOR DRAIN Am) INVESTIGATIONS IN COAClIEL1,A VAL­
U;Y, CAf,IFORNIA. Agr. Engin. ::.a:1'59-564.
(12) UHLAND, R. E. AND O'NEAl" A. 111.
1951. SOIT, PER!\IEABH,ITY DETERlIIIN!\TIONS FOR USE IN SOil, AND WATER
CONSERVA'rION. U. S. Soil Conserv. Servo TP-l01. 36pp.,
mus.
(13) WENSEL, L. K.
1!N2. JIIETHODS FOR DETERMINING PERlIIEAllll,ITY OF WATER-IlEARING
lIIATERIAl,S. U.S. Ceo!. Survey Water-Supply Papet· 887.
192 pp., iJlus.

• .'J u. S GOVERNMENT PRfNrJNG OFFICE 19S3~2t3447