Two Dimensions of Freedom

Natural Freedom
Freedom is absence of determinism.
Hard Determinism
Libertarianism
Social Freedom
Freedom is absence of force/coercion.
Compatibilism

Nature of Accountability

Meaning of Accountability
3 senses of “Responsibility”
Responsibility as accountability
Responsibility as duty
Responsibility as agency

Conditions of Accountability
Incriminating Conditions
Knowledge
Choice
Excusing Conditions
Real Ignorance
Absence of Intention
Mitigating/Aggravating Factors
Pressure/Difficulty in Life
Intensity of Wrongdoing
Degree of Knowledge
Degree of Involvement
Determinism
All events in the world are caused by previous events or conditions
along with the laws of nature. It follows that if we know the relevant
conditions for an event to occur and the natural laws governing its
occurrence, we will be able to predict the occurrence of this event.
Thus, if determinism is correct, human choices and actions are in
principal predictable.
Hard determinism
The belief that all events are caused by past events such that
nothing other than what does occur could occur.
“No free will, no moral responsibility”
Libertarianism
The belief that some human actions are freely chosen
“Actions are determined and are propelled by the mind (self)”
Principle of Alternate Possibilities
This principle says that an action is free only if the agent – that is, the
person doing the thing – could have done otherwise.
Event Causation
No physical event can occur without having been caused by a
previous physical event

Agent Causation
An agent – a being propelled by a mind – can start a whole chain of
causality that wasn’t caused by anything else.
Compatibilism ( or soft determinism)
It maintains that human freedom is still possible even if determinism
happens to be true. It also maintains that the reality of human
freedom but rejects the view that human freedom and determinism
are incompatible.
Hard Libertarianism Compatibilism
Determinism
Is freedom Yes Yes No
incompatible
with
determinism?
Is determinism Yes No It does not
correct? matter
Are humans No Yes Yes
free?
When are When they are When they are When they are
human not not not forced to
choices/actions determined by determined by make choices
free? external external factors or do actions
factors

Being with Others

Respect for Persons
Promoting Human Well-being
Caring for the Environment
The Environmental Crisis
Promoting Environmental Protection
Interacting with Society
Society and the State
Managing State Power
Death and Meaning
Understanding Human Death
Meaning and Authenticity

Inter-subjectivity
Theoretical (Subj. – Obj.)
it occurs when a person sees the other person as a subject, and not
as an object
Object – when she or he is seen as someone who is unconscious and
unfree, and has a defined or fixed essence.
Subject – when she or he is seen as someone who is conscious and
free, and lacks a defined or fixed essence.

Practical Level
Means – when a person uses another person to get what he/she
wants
Ends – what you are trying to achieve. Consequently, the other
person is treated as a person if he/she is treated as an end.

For Martin Buber, for instance, seeing a person as a person is see the
person as YOU, while seeing a person as a non-persons as an IT.

(I – It)
Objectify – way of addressing another person
- Treating others impersonally
- Not acknowledging the humanity of the person
- Being treated as a number

Fully Engaged – Reciprocity

- Highest form of human dialogue
- Each affirms other as cherished and unique
- We meet other in their wholeness and individuality
- We accept in their totality
- We don’t mask ourselves, we fully open up

Seeming (I – it)
 - Preoccupied in our image
- Individuals presents himself in a certain way when dealing with
others
- Unconscious, natural act on the part of humans

Dailogue (I – it)
- Genuine relationship
- Acknowledge each other’s presence
- Revealing who we really are

Interpersonal Being Others

Relationships Person Non-person
Buber I-Thou / I-You I – It
Heidegger Being-with Being-alongside
Sartre Being-for-itself Being-In-Itself

Immanuel Kant
Practical Approach
Human beings should be treated as ends and not as means. Act
in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own
person or in the person of any other, never merely as a means to
an end, but always at the same time as an end.
Perfection and Happiness
He argues that one’s moral duty to one self is the perfection of
one’s (rational) nature, while one’s moral duty to other person is
the promotion of their happiness.
Moral Duty to oneself
Means – fulfils maternal duties to accomplish moral perfection
Moral Duty to others
Ends – Promote the well-being of the baby
 Persons and Rights
Rights – are entitlements or interests one is allowed or permitted to
pursue, or more simply things one may or may not do.
Duty – are things that we ought to perform. There are usually
sanctions (in the form of blame or punishment) if one fails to
perform a duty, while there are none if one fails to exercise a right.
A. Duties imposed on others
1. Negative rights or duties of non-interference are duties not to
interfere in the exercise of rights
2. Positive rights are duties to provide necessary conditions for
the exercise of rights
B. Features Relevant for Acquiring Rights
1.
2. Legal rights possessed by virtue of one’s citizenship which
was acquired either by birth or by choice.
3. Human rights are rights possessed by all humans by the virtue
of simply being humans

Characteristics of Human Rights

1. Natural – inherent in all human beings by virtue of their
humanity alone (they do not have to be purchased or to be
granted)
2. Universal – everyone is born with and possesses the same rights,
regardless of where they live, their gender or race, or religion
3. Inalienable – cannot be taken away from anyone
Morality – self-defined on what is right and just / morality is subjective
Ethics - the agreed upon views on what is right and just / ethics is
determined by society
Meta ethics – studies the nature of moral judgment in terms of how
they are known and acquired their meaning.
Normative ethics – studies the principles or standards used as bases
for making moral judgements (either good or bad)
Applied ethics – studies the application in some areas like law,
medicine, and the environment.

Normative ethical Theory

1. Consequentialism – regards the consequences of actions as
the morally relevant considerations; and claims that actions are
good when they result in good consequences while bad if they
result in bad consequences
a. Hedonistic / Non-hedonistic
b. Agent relative / Agent neutral
c. Utilitarian – actions are good if it positively affects many
people
2. Deontology – regards the rules followed by action as the
morally relevant consideration; and it claims that actions are
good if they follow good rules while bad if they follow bad rules
3. Virtue Ethics – regards the character traits of the doer of actions
as the morally relevant consideration; and it claims that actions
are good if they are done by people with good character traits
while bad if they are done by people of with bad character
traits
Duty or Right Based Theory
1. Religious Deontology – defines rules as the rules of laws or God
and a bad action as one which violates these laws
 2. Rational Deontology – defines good laws of reason; and thus
defines a good action as one of which follows the laws of
reason and a bad action as one which violates these laws
Categorical Imperatives – commands you must follow, regardless of
your desires. Moral obligations are derived from pure reason
1. Universalizability principle – “act only according to that maxim
which you can at the same time will that it should become a
universal law without contradiction”
2. The Formula of Humanity – “act so that you treat humanity,
whether in your own person or in that of another, always as an
end, and not mere means

Virtue Ethics – a good action is one that is performed by a virtuous

person while a bad action is one that is performed by a vicious
person
Virtue – the excellence of a thing in terms of the exercise of its
proper functions

Kinds of Virtue
Intellectual Virtue – the excellence of reason; acquired through
study
Practical/Moral Virtue – the excellence of the will; acquired
through practice and habit
Principle of Golden Means – the mid-point between two extremes

Being Just to others

When actions toward other people just?
Kinds of Justice
Retributive – just imposition of penalties or punishments on those
who have done wrong
Compensatory – just compensation of recipients of wrongful
actions for the injuries done on them
Distributive – the just distribution of benefits and burdens

Egalitarianism – which claims that a distribution is just if people get

equal share of the distribution
Capitalism – which claims that a distribution is just if what people
get from the distribution is according to their contribution
Socialism – which claims that a distribution is just if what people
get from the distribution is according to their needs
Justice as fairness – which claims that a distribution is just if it
follows principles that are fairly chosen
Fair opportunity – which claims that a distribution is just if what
people get from the distribution is according to their efforts
Libertarianism – which claims that a distribution A

Society
6 Types Subsistence

State – Sovereign / Supreme

Types of Government
1. Presidential
2. Parliamentary
3. Federal
4. Socialist

Presidential
(Executive – the power to make peace or war, Legislative – the
power to enact or abolish a law, Judiciary – the power to punish
criminals or resolve disputes between individuals)
Challenges
Ruler’s fitness
The Will of the people