Dbms Practical Manual1

Database Management System | 2130703
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PRACTICAL 1
TO STUDY DDL-CREATE AND DML-INSERT COMMANDS
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 DDL (Data Definition Language)
It is a set of SQL commands used to create, modify and delete database objects such as tables,
views, indices, etc.
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It is normally used by DBA and database designers.
It provides commands like:
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• CREATE: to create objects in a database.
• ALTER: to alter the schema, or logical structure, of the database.
• DROP: to delete objects from the database.
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• TRUNCATE: to remove all records from the table.
 DML (Data Manipulation Language)

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It is a set of SQL commands used to insert, modify and delete data in a database.
It is normally used by general users who are accessing database via pre-developed
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applications.
• INSERT: to insert data into a table.
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• UPDATE: to modify existing data in a table.

• DELETE: to delete records from a table.
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• LOCK: to lock tables to provide concurrency control among multiple users.

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 DQL (Data Query Language)

It is a component of SQL that allows data retrieval from the database.
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It provides command like SELECT. This command is a heart of SQL, and allows data
retrieval in different ways.
 DCL (Data Control Language)

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It is set of SQL commands used to control access to data and database. Occasionally DCL
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commands are grouped with DML commands.

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• COMMIT: to save work permanently.

• ROLLBACK: to undo work and restore database to previous state.
• SAVEPOINT: to identify a point in a transaction to which work can be undone.
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• GRANT: to give access privileges to users on the database .
• REVOKE: to withdraw access privileges given to users on the database.
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 DATA TYPES:
1. CHAR (Size): This data type is used to store character strings values of fixed length.
The size in brackets determines the number of characters the cell can hold. The
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maximum number of character is 255 characters. The data held is right padded with
spaces to whatever length specified.
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2. VARCHAR (Size) / VARCHAR2 (Size): This data type is used to store variable length
alphanumeric data. The maximum character can hold is 4000 character. Inserted value
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will not be padded with spaces. CHAR is much faster that VARCHAR sometimes up to
50%.
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NUMBER (P, S): The NUMBER data type is used to store number (fixed or floating
point). Number of virtually any magnitude may be stored up to 38 digits of precision.
The precision (p) determines the number of places to the right of the decimal. If scale is
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omitted then the default is zero. If precision is omitted, values are stored with their
original precision up to the maximum of 38 digits.
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4. DATE: This data type is used to represent date and time. To enter dates other than the
standard format, use the appropriate functions. Date time stores date in the 24-Hours
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format. By default the time in a date field is 12:00:00 am, if no time portion is specified.
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The default date for a date field is the first day the current month.
5. LONG: This data type is used to store variable length character strings containing up to
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2GB. Long data can be used to store arrays of binary data in ASCII format. LONG
values cannot be indexed, and the normal character functions such as SUBSTR cannot be
applied. Only one LONG value can be define per table.
6. RAW: The RAW data type is used to store binary data, such as digitized picture or
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image. Data loaded into columns of these data types are stored without any further
conversion. RAW data type can have a maximum length of 255 bytes. LONG RAW data
type can contain up to 2GB.
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 CONSTRAINTS:
A constraint is a rule that restricts the values that may be present in the database.
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Constraints can be mainly classified in to two categories.
1. Input/Output Constraints
2. Business Constraints
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Oracle
Constraints
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Input/Output Business Rule
Constraints Constraints
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Primary Key Foreign Key Unique Key Not Null Check
 Primary Key Constraint or

• “A primary key is a set of one or more columns used to identify each record uniquely in
a column.”
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• A single column primary key is called a simple key, while a multi-column primary key is
called composite primary key.
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• Oracle provides a primary key constraint to define primary key for a table.
• A table cannot have more than one primary key.

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• A primary key constraint is combination of UNIQUE constraint and NOT NULL

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constraint
• A column, defined as a primary key, cannot have duplicate values across all records
and cannot have a null value.
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• Primary Key is not mandatory but it is recommended.
• Primary key helps to identify one record from another record and also helps in relating
tables with one another.
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• Primary Key can’t be LONG and LONG RAW.

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• If multiple columns need to be defined as primary key column, then only table level
definition is applicable.
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• Maximum 16 columns can be combined as a composite primary key in a table.
Primary Key Defined at Column Level using Constraint Name

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<Columnname> <Datatype>(size) CONSTRAINT Cons_name Primary Key

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Primary Key Defined at Table Level using Constraint Name
CREATE TABLE table_name
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(
column1 datatype null/not null,
...
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CONSTRAINT constraint_name PRIMARY KEY (column1, column2, ...
column n));
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Create Primary Key - Using ALTER statement
You can create a primary key in Oracle with the ALTER TABLE statement.
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ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD CONSTRAINT constraint_name PRIMARY KEY (column1, column2, ...
column_n);
Drop Primary Key - Using ALTER statement or
You can drop a primary key in Oracle using the ALTER TABLE statement.
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DROP CONSTRAINT constraint_name;
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Disable/Enable Primary Key

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DISABLE/ENABLE CONSTRAINT constraint_name;

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 Foreign Key Constraint

• A foreign key constraint represents relationships between two tables.
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• This constraint is used to ensure consistency among records of the two tables.
• The table, in which a foreign key is defined, is called a foreign table, detail table or
child table.
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• The table, of which primary key or unique key is defined, is called a primary table,
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master table or parent table.
• Child may have duplicates and nulls but unless it is specified.

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Restriction on child table:
• Child table contains a foreign key. And, it is related to master table.

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• Insert or update operation involving value of foreign key is not allowed, if corresponding
value does not exist in a master table.
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Restriction on master table :
• Master table contains a primary key, which is referred by foreign key in child table.
• Delete or update operation on records in master table are not allowed, if corresponding
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records are present in child table.
Foreign Key Defined at Column Level using Constraint Name
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<Columnname> <Datatype>(size) REFERENCES <parenttablename>
[<columnname>][ON DELETE CASCADE]
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Foreign Key Defined at Table Level using Constraint Name

(
or
...
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CONSTRAINT constraint_name
FOREIGN KEY (column1, column2, ... column_n)
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REFERENCES parent_table (column1, column2, ... column_n)

);
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Create Foreign Key - Using ALTER statement

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You can create a Foreign key in Oracle with the ALTER TABLE statement.

ADD CONSTRAINT constraint_name
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REFERENCES parent_table (column1, column2, ... column_n);
What is a foreign key with ON DELETE CASCADE in Oracle?

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A foreign key with cascade delete means that if a record in the parent table is deleted, then
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the corresponding records in the child table will automatically be deleted. This is called a
cascade delete in Oracle.
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A foreign key with a cascade delete can be defined in either a CREATE TABLE statement or
an ALTER TABLE statement.
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(
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...
CONSTRAINT fk_column
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ON DELETE CASCADE
);
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Create Foreign Key with ON DELETE CASCADE - Using ALTER statement
You can create a Foreign key in Oracle with the ALTER TABLE statement.
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ADD CONSTRAINT constraint_name
ON DELETE CASCADE;
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Drop Foreign Key - Using ALTER statement
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You can drop a foreign key in Oracle using the ALTER TABLE statement.
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Disable/Enable Foreign Key

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 Unique Constraint
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• Sometime there may be requirement that column cannot contain duplicate values.
• A column, defined as a unique, cannot have duplicate values across all records.
• Though, a unique constraint does not allow duplicate values, NULL values can be
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duplicated in a column defined as a UNIQUE column.

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• A table can have more than one column defined as a unique column.
• If multiple columns need to be defined as composite unique column, then only table level
definition is applicable.
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• Unique index is automatically created.

• Maximum 16 columns can be combined as a composite unique key in a table
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• Unique Key cannot be LONG Datatype.

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Unique Key Defined at Column Level using Constraint Name
<Columnname> <Datatype>(size) CONSTRAINT Cons_name UNIQUE
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Unique Key Defined at Table Level using Constraint Name
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(
column1 datatype [ NULL | NOT NULL ],
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...
CONSTRAINT constraint_name UNIQUE (uc_col1, uc_col2, ... uc_col_n));
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Create Unique Key - Using ALTER statement
You can create a Unique key in Oracle with the ALTER TABLE statement.
ALTER TABLE table_name or
ADD CONSTRAINT constraint_name UNIQUE (column1, column2, ...
column_n);
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Drop Unique Key - Using ALTER statement
You can drop a unique key in Oracle using the ALTER TABLE statement.
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Disable/Enable Unique Key

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 Check constraint
• The check constraint is used to implement business rule. So, it is also called business rule
constraint.
• Example of business rule: A balance in any account should not be negative.
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• Business rule define a domain for a particular column.

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• The check constraint is bound to a particular column.

• Once check constraint is implemented, any insert or update operation on that table must
follow this constraint.
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• If any operation violates condition, it will be rejected.

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Check Constraint Defined at Column Level using Constraint Name
<Columnname> <Datatype>(size) CHECK (<Logical Expression>)
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Check Constraint Defined at Table Level using Constraint Name
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(
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...
CHECK (<Logical Expression>), CHECK (<Logical Expression>),… );
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Create Check Constraints - Using ALTER statement
You can create check constraints in Oracle with the ALTER TABLE statement.
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ADD CONSTRAINT constraint_name CHECK (column_name condition)
[DISABLE];
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Drop Check Constraints - Using ALTER statement
You can drop a unique key in Oracle using the ALTER TABLE statement.
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Disable/Enable Check Constraints

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 Not Null constraint

• A null value indicates ‘not applicable’, ‘missing’, or ‘not known’.
• A null value is different from zero or blank space.
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• A column, defined as a not null, cannot have a null value.

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• Such a column become a mandatory (compulsory) column and cannot be left empty for
any record.
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Not Null Constraint Defined at Column Level using Constraint Name
<Columnname> <Datatype>(size) [ NULL | NOT NULL ],

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Table-1: Countries_____
COUNTRY_ID COUNTRY_NAME REGION_ID
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CA Canada 2
DE Germany 1
UK United Kingdom 1
US United States of America 2
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CREATE TABLE COUNTRIES_____
(COUNTRY_ID CHAR(2),
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COUNTRY_NAME VARCHAR2(40),
REGION_ID NUMBER(4));
Write Create table query using Constraints:
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Write Insert query for COUNTRIES Table
INSERT INTO COUNTRIES_____ VALUES ('CA','Canada',2);

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ADD COUNTRY_ID AS PRIMARY KEY using Alter query

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ADD COUNTRY_NAME AS NOT NULL using Alter query

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ADD REGION_ID AS FOREIGN KEY using Alter query
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Table-2: Departments_____
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DEPARTMENT_ID DEPARTMENT_NAME MANAGER_ID LOCATION_ID
10 Administration 200 1700

20 Marketing 201 1800
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50 Shipping 124 1500
60 IT 103 1400
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80 Sales 149 2500
90 Executive 100 1700
110 Accounting 205 1700
190 Contracting or - 1700
CREATE TABLE DEPARTMENTS_____

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(DEPARTMENT_ID NUMBER(4),
DEPARTMENT_NAME VARCHAR2(30),
MANAGER_ID NUMBER(6),
LOCATION_ID NUMBER(4));
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Write Insert query for DEPARTMENTS Table

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INSERT INTO DEPARTMENTS_____ VALUES

(10,'Administration',200,1700);
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ADD DEPARTMENT_ID AS PRIMARY KEY
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ADD DEPARTMENT_NAME AS NOT NULL
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ADD Location_ID AS Foreign Key
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ADD Manager_ID AS Foreign Key

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Table-3: Employees_____
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CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEES_____

(EMPLOYEE_ID NUMBER(6),
FIRST_NAME VARCHAR2(20),
LAST_NAME VARCHAR2(20),
EMAIL VARCHAR2(25),
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PHONE_NO VARCHAR2(20),
HIRE_DATE DATE,
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JOB_ID VARCHAR2(10),
SALARY NUMBER(8,2),
COMMISSION_PCT NUMBER(2,2),
MANAGER_ID NUMBER(6),
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DEPARTMENT_ID NUMBER(4));
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Write Insert query for Employees_____ Table
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INSERT INTO EMPLOYEES VALUES (100,'Steven','King',

'sking@gmail.com','5151234567',TO_DATE('17-JUL-1987','DD-MON-Y
YYY'),'AD_PRES',24000,NULL, NULL,90);
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ADD EMPLOYEE_ID AS PRIMARY KEY

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ADD LAST_NAME, EMAIL, HIRE_DATE, JOB_ID AS NOT NULL

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ADD JOB_ID AS FOREIGN KEY

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ADD EMAIL AS UNIQUE KEY

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APPLY CHECK CONSTRAINTS ON SALARY where salary must not be less
that 2500/-
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Table-4: Jobs_____
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JOB_ID JOB_TITLE MIN_SALARY MAX_SALARY
AC_ACCOUNT Public Accountant 4200 9000

AC_MGR Accounting Manager 8200 16000
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AD_ASST Administration Assistant 3000 6000
AD_PRES President 20000 40000
AD_VP Administration Vice President 15000 30000
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IT_PROG Programmer 4000 10000
MK_MAN Marketing Manager 9000 15000
MK_REP Marketing Representative 4000 9000
SA_MAN
SA_REP
Sales Manager
Sales Representative
or 10000
6000
20000
12000
ST_CLERK Stock Clerk 2000 5000
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ST_MAN Stock Manager 5500 8500
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CREATE TABLE JOBS_____

(JOB_ID VARCHAR2(10),
JOB_TITLE VARCHAR2(35),
MIN_SALARY NUMBER(6),
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MAX_SALARY NUMBER(6));
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Write Insert query for Jobs Table
INSERT INTO JOBS____ VALUES ('AD_PRES','President',20000,40000);
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ADD PRIMARY KEY ON JOB_ID

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ADD JOB_TITLE AS NOT NULL

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Table 5: Job_grades_____
GRADE_LEVEL LOWEST_SAL HIGHEST_SAL
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A 1000 2999
B 3000 5999
C 6000 9999
D 10000 14999
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E 15000 24999
F 25000 40000
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CREATE TABLE JOB_GRADES_____
(GRADE_LEVEL VARCHAR2(3),
LOWEST_SAL NUMBER,
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HIGHEST_SAL NUMBER);

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Write Insert query for Job_Grades Table

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INSERT INTO JOB_GRADES_____ VALUES('A',1000,2999);

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Table 5: Job_history_____
EMPLOYEE_ID START_DATE END_DATE JOB_ID DEPARTMENT_ID
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101 28-10-1993 15-03-1997 AC_MGR 110
101 21-09-1989 27-10-1993 AC_ACCOUNT 110
102 13-01-1993 24-07-1998 IT_PROG 60
114 24-03-1998 31-12-1999 ST_CLERK 50
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122 01-01-1999 31-12-1999 ST_CLERK 50
176 01-01-1999 31-12-1999 SA_MAN 80
176 24-03-1998 31-12-1998 SA_RE 80
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200 17-09-1987 17-06-1993 AD_ASST 90
200 01-07-1994 31-12-1998 AC_ACCOUNT 90
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201 17-02-1996 19-12-1999 MK_REP 20
CREATE TABLE JOB_HISTORY_____

(EMPLOYEE_ID NUMBER(6),
START_DATE DATE,
END_DATE DATE,
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JOB_ID VARCHAR2(10),
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DEPARTMENT_ID NUMBER(4));

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Write Insert query for Job_History Table

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INSERT INTO JOB_HISTORY VALUES (102,

TO_DATE('13-JAN-1993','DD-MON-YYYY'),
TO_DATE('24-JUL-1998','DD-MON-YYYY'),'IT_PROG',60);
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ADD EMPLOYEE_ID, START_DATE, END_DATE, JOB_ID AS NOT NULL

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ADD EMPLOYEE_ID FOREIGN KEY

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ADD JOB_ID AS FOREIGN KEY
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Table 6: Locations_____
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LOCATION_ID STREET_ADRESS POSTAL_CODE CITY STATE_PROVINCE COUNTRY_ID
1400 2014 Jabberwocky Rd 26192 Southlake Texas US

South San
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1500 2011 Interiors Blvd 99236 California US
Francisco
1700 2004 Charade Rd 98199 Seattle Washington US
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1800 460 Bloor St. W. ON M5S 1X8 Toronto Ontario CA
Magdalen Centre, The
2500 OX9 9ZB Oxford Oxford UK
Oxford Science Park
CREATE TABLE LOCATIONS_____

(LOCATION_ID NUMBER(4),
STREET_ADRESS VARCHAR2(40),
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POSTAL_CODE VARCHAR2(12),
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CITY VARCHAR2(30),
STATE_PROVINCE VARCHAR2(25),
COUNTRY_ID CHAR(2));
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Write Insert query for Locations Table
INSERT INTO LOCATIONS_____ VALUES (1400,'2014 Jabberwocky

Rd','26192','Southlake','Texas','US');
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ADD LOCATION_ID AS PRIMARY KEY
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ADD COUNTRY_ID AS FOREIGN KEY

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ADD CITY AS NOT NULL

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Table 6: Regions_____
REGION_ID REGION_NAME
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1 Europe
2 Americas
3 Asia
4 Middle East and Africa
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CREATE TABLE REGIONS_____
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(REGION_ID NUMBER(4),
REGION_NAME VARCHAR2(25));
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Write Insert query for Regions Table
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INSERT INTO REGIONS_____ VALUES (1,'Europe');

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ADD REGION_ID AS PRIMARY KEY

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PRACTICAL 2
TO STUDY DQL-SELECT COMMANDS
 ALIASES
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Oracle ALIASES can be used to create a temporary name for columns or tables.
• COLUMN ALIASES are used to make column headings in your result set easier to
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read.
• TABLE ALIASES are used to shorten your SQL to make it easier to read or when you
are performing a self-join (ie: listing the same table more than once in the FROM
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clause).
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The syntax to ALIAS A COLUMN in
column_name AS alias_name
The syntax to ALIAS A TABLE

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table_name alias_name
Note:
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• If the alias_name contains spaces, you must enclose the alias_name in quotes.
• It is acceptable to use spaces when you are aliasing a column name. However, it is not
generally good practice to use spaces when you are aliasing a table name.
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• The alias_name is only valid within the scope of the SQL statement.
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 DISTINCT
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The Oracle DISTINCT clause is used to remove duplicates from the result set. The
DISTINCT clause can only be used with SELECT statements.
The syntax for the DISTINCT clause

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SELECT DISTINCT expressions

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FROM tables
[WHERE conditions];
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Note:
• When only one expression is provided in the DISTINCT clause, the query will return
the unique values for that expression.
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• When more than one expression is provided in the DISTINCT clause, the query will
retrieve unique combinations for the expressions listed.
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In Oracle, the DISTINCT clause doesn't ignore NULL values. So when using the
DISTINCT clause in your SQL statement, your result set will include NULL as a
distinct value.
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 WHERE
The Oracle WHERE clause is used to filter the results from a SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE,
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or DELETE statement.
The syntax for the WHERE clause
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WHERE conditions;
 AND conditions or
The Oracle AND condition (also called the AND Operator) is used to test for two or more
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conditions in a SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement along with WHERE.
The syntax for the AND Condition
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WHERE condition1
AND condition2
...
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AND condition_n;
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Note:
• The Oracle AND condition allows you to test 2 or more conditions.
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• The Oracle AND condition requires that all of the conditions (ie: condition1,
condition2, condition_n) be must be met for the record to be included in the result set.
 OR conditions
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The Oracle OR condition is used to test multiple conditions where records are returned when
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any one of the conditions are met. It can be used in a SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or
DELETE statement along with WHERE.
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The syntax for the AND Condition

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WHERE condition1
OR condition2
...
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OR condition_n;
Note:
• The Oracle OR condition allows you to test 2 or more conditions.
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• The Oracle OR condition requires that any of the conditions (ie: condition1, condition2,
condition_n) be must be met for the record to be included in the result set.
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 BETWEEN conditions
The Oracle BETWEEN conditions is used to retrieve values within a range in a SELECT,
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INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement.
The syntax for the BETWEEN condition
expression BETWEEN value1 AND value2;

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Note:
• The Oracle BETWEEN conditions will return the records where expression is within
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the range of value1 and value2 (inclusive).

• value1 must be always less than value2.
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 COMPARISION Operators
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Comparison operators are used in the WHERE clause to determine which records to select.
Here is a list of the comparison operators that you can use in Oracle/PLSQL:
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Comparison Operator Description

= Equal
<> Not Equal
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!= Not Equal
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> Greater Than

>= Greater Than or Equal
< Less Than
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<= Less Than or Equal

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The syntax for the COMPARISION operator
SELECT *
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FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator parameter/value;
 IN condition/Operator
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The Oracle IN condition is used to help reduce the need to use multiple OR conditions in a
SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement.
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The syntax for the IN condition
expression IN (value1, value2, ... value_n);
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Note:
• The Oracle IN condition will return the records where expression is value1, value2..., or
value_n.
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• The Oracle IN condition is also called the Oracle IN operator.
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 IS NULL condition
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The Oracle IS NULL condition is used to test for a NULL value. You can use the Oracle IS
NULL condition in either a SQL statement or in a block of PLSQL code.
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The syntax for the IS NULL condition

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expression IS NULL
Note:
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• If expression is a NULL value, the condition evaluates to TRUE.

• If expression is not a NULL value, the condition evaluates to FALSE.
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 LIKE condition
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The Oracle LIKE condition allows wildcards to be used in the WHERE clause of a
SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement. This allows you to perform pattern
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matching.
The syntax for the LIKE condition
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expression LIKE 'pattern' [ ESCAPE 'escape_character' ]

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Wildcard Explanation
% Allows you to match any string of any length (including zero length)
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_ Allows you to match on a single character
Using Escape Characters

It is important to understand how to "Escape Characters" when pattern matching. These
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examples deal specifically with escaping characters in Oracle.
Let's say you wanted to search for a % or a _ character in the Oracle LIKE condition. You can
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do this using an Escape character.
Please note that you can only define an escape character as a single character (length of 1).
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 NOT condition
The Oracle NOT condition (also called the NOT Operator) is used to negate a condition in a
SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement. or
The syntax for the NOT condition
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NOT condition
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Note:
• The Oracle NOT condition requires that the opposite of the condition be must be met
for the record to be included in the result set.
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Combine with IN condition

The syntax for the NOT IN condition
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expression NOT IN (value1, value2, ... value_n);
Combine with IS NULL condition

The syntax for the IS NOT NULL condition
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expression IS NOT NULL
Combine with LIKE condition

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The syntax for the NOT LIKE condition
Expression NOT LIKE 'pattern' [ ESCAPE 'escape_character' ]

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Combine with BETWEEN conditions
The syntax for the NOT BETWEEN condition
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Expression NOT BETWEEN value1 AND value2;
 ORDER BY Clause
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The Oracle ORDER BY clause is used to sort the records in your result set. The ORDER BY
clause can only be used in SELECT statements.
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The syntax for the ORDER BY clause
SELECT expressions
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FROM tables
[WHERE conditions]
ORDER BY expression [ ASC | DESC ];
Note:
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If the ASC or DESC modifier is not provided in the ORDER BY clause, the results will
be sorted by expression in ascending order (which is equivalent to ORDER BY
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expression ASC)
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SQL Queries
1. Describe Countries_____
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2. Describe Regions_____
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3. Retrieve all the data from Employees_____

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4. Retrieve all the data from Jobs_____

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5. Retrieve all the data from Job_History_____

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6. Retrieve data from Job_Grades_____ and assign title of the
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column “Grade Level”, “Minimum Salary” and “Maximum Salary”
Respectively.
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7. Retrieve the First Name, Last Name and Joining Date of the
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Employee, assign appropriate column name and arrange the data
as per the First Name.
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8. Display the names of employee who are Stock Clerk.
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9. Retrieve all Jobs whose minimum salary is less than 5000.

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10. Display the name of Department whose Location ID is 1700.

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11. Display all the Job id and title whose minimum salary is
greater than 5000 and maximum salary is less than 18000.
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12. Display the entire employee name, whose hire date is between
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01 Jul, 1995 and 01 Jan, 1997.

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13. Display City and State whose Country ID is US
re
14. Retrieve the Employees names that are having salary greater
than 10000 in descending order.
dp
15. or
Find out the grade level for salary 23000
.w
16. Display Employee ID and Job ID for that employee who does
lit
job in 80, 90 and 110 Department ID with the help of IN operator.

e
at
17. Display Employee ID, First Name and Mobile no of those

employees whose department lies between 40 and 70. Assign
appropriate alias name for columns.
ajp
18. Display the First and Last Name of Employees whose commission
/
percentage IS NULL.
s:/
tp
19. Display list of employees who do not belong to any Department.

ht

m
20. Display the First Name of Employees whose name contains ‘en’.
.co
21. Display all the record of employees whose Job ID start with
ST.
ss
re
22. Display all employees whose name start with ‘J’ and third
character is ‘n’.
dp
23. Display name, Email ID, Hire date of those employee whose
or
name is 5 character long and mobile no start with ‘59’
.w
24. Display the null value of employee and employee last name
lit
last character is ‘s’.

e
at
25. Display the non-null values of employees whose First Name

2 char contains ‘e’ and Last name 2 char contains ‘a’.
ajp
26. What will be output if you are giving LIKE predicate as ‘%\_%’
ESCAPE ‘\’ in JOBS table?
/
s:/
27. Display details of employee whose Job ID is 7 Character long

tp
and third character is ‘_’

ht

m
PRACTICAL 3
TO PERFORM VARIOUS AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS AND SORTING
CONCEPT ON ALL CREATED TABLES
.co
FUNCTIONS NAME
1. Group Function (Aggregate Functions)
ss
Functions that act on a set of values are called Group Functions. For ex SUM is a functions
which calculate the total set of numbers. A group functions returns a single result row for a
re
group of queried rows.
2. Scalar Function (Single Row Functions)
dp
Functions that act on only one value at a time are called scalar Functions. For ex LENGTH
is a function which calculates the length of one particular string value. A single row function
returns one result for every row of a queried table or view
 AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS
or
•
.w
AVG
Return an average value of ‘n’ ignoring null value in a column

lit
Syntax
AVG([<DISTINCT>|<ALL>]<n>)
e
• MIN
at
Return minimum value of Expression
Syntax
ajp
MIN([<DISTINCT>|<ALL>]<expr>)
• COUNT
Return the number of rows where expr is not null

/
s:/
Syntax
COUNT([<DISTINCT>|<ALL>]<expr>)
OR
tp
COUNT(*)
ht
Returns the number of rows in the table including duplicates and with null.

m
• MAX
Return maximum value of Expression
.co
Syntax
MAX([<DISTINCT>|<ALL>]<expr>)
ss
• SUM
re
Return Sum value of ‘n’
Syntax
dp
SUM([<DISTINCT>|<ALL>]<n>)
 NUMERIC FUNCTIONS
• DUAL TABLE or
The DUAL table is a special one-row, one-column table present by default in Oracle and
.w
other database installations. In Oracle, the table has a single VARCHAR2(1) column called
DUMMY that has a value of 'X'. It is suitable for use in selecting a pseudo column such as
SYSDATE or USER
lit
• ABS
e
Return the absolute value of ‘n’

at
Syntax
ABS(n)
ajp
Ex: Select ABS(-5) from Dual
• POWER
Return m raised to the nth power n must be an integer, else an error is returned
/
Syntax
s:/
POWER(m,n)
Ex: Select POWER(3,2) from Dual
tp
• ROUND
Return n. rounded to m place to the right of a decimal point. If m is omitted, n is rounded
ht
to 0 places

m
Syntax
ROUND(n[,m])
.co
Ex: Select ROUND(15.19, 1) from Dual
• SQRT
Return square root of n if n<0, NULL
ss
Syntax
re
SQRT(n)
Ex: Select SQRT(25) from Dual
dp
• EXP
Return e raised to the nth power where e=2.71828183
Syntax or
EXP(n)
.w
Ex: Select EXP(5) from Dual
• GREATEST
lit
Return the greatest value in a list of the expression.
Syntax
e
GREATEST(expr_1, expr_2, … expr_n)

at
Ex: Select GREATEST(4, 5, 17) from Dual
• LEAST
ajp
Return the smallest value in a list of the expression.
Syntax
/
LEAST(expr_1, expr_2, … expr_n)

s:/
Ex: Select LEAST(4, 5, 17) from Dual
• MOD
tp
Returns the remainder of a first no divided by second no passed as a parameter. If the

second no is 0, the result is same as the first no.
ht

m
Syntax
MOD(m,n)
.co
Ex: Select MOD(15, 7) from Dual
• TRUNC
Return a number truncated to a certain number of decimal places. The decimal place
ss
value be an integer.
re
Syntax
TRUNC(number,[Decimal_place])
dp
Ex: Select TRUNC(125.815, 1), TRUNC(125.815, -2) from Dual
• FLOOR(n)
or
Return the largest integer value that is equal to or less than a number.
Syntax
.w
FLOOR(n)
Ex: Select FLOOR(24.8), FLOOR(13.15) from Dual
lit
• CEIL
Return the smallest int value that is greater than or equal to a number.
e
Syntax
at
CEIL(n)
Ex: Select CEIL(24.8), CEIL(13.15) from Dual
ajp
 STRING FUNCTIONS
• LOWER
/
Return char with all letters in the lower case.

s:/
Syntax
LOWER(char)
tp
• INITCAP
Return a string with the first letter of each word in upper case and rest will be in lower
ht
case char with all letters in the lower case.

m
Syntax
INITCAP(char)
.co
• UPPER
Return char with all letters in the upper case.
Syntax
ss
UPPER(char)
re
• SUBSTR
Return a portion of character, beginning at char m, and going upto character n. If n is
dp
omitted, the result returned is upto the last character in the string. The First position of
character is 1.
Syntax
SUBSTR(<string>,<start_position>,<length>)
or
•
.w
ANCII(<Single_character>)
Return the number code that represents the specified character. If more than one char is
lit
entered, the function will return the value for first char and ignore rest of all characters.
Syntax
e
ANSCII(<Single_Char>)
at
• INSTR
Return the location of a sub string in a string.

ajp
Syntax
INSTR(<string_1>,<string_2>,[<start_position>],[<nth_appeare
nce>])
/
Ex: Select INSTR('AMIT on the net','t'), INSTR('AMIT on the

s:/
net','t',1 ,2) from Dual
• LENGTH
tp
Return the length of a word.
Syntax
ht
LENGTH(word)

m
• LTRIM
Remove the char from the left of char with Initial char removed upto the first char not in
.co
a set.
Syntax
LTRIM(char[,set]>)
ss
Ex: Select LTRIM('AMIT','A') from Dual
• RTRIM
re
Remove the char from the final character removed after the last char not in a set.
dp
Syntax
RTRIM(char[,set]>)
Ex: Select RTRIM('AMIT','A') from Dual
• TRIM
or
.w
Remove all specifies characters either from the beginning or the ending of a string.
Syntax
lit
TRIM([Leading|Trailing|Both[<trim_char> from]]<string>)
Ex: Select TRIM(BOTH 'x' FROM 'xxAMITxx') from Dual
e
• LPAD
at
Returns char_1, left padded to length n with the sequences of character specifies in
char_2. If char2 is not specified, oracle uses blank by default.
ajp
Syntax
LPAD(char1,n[,char2])
Ex: Select LPAD('Page1',10,*) from Dual
/
•
s:/
RPAD
Returns char_1, right padded to length n with the sequences of character specifies in
char_2. If char2 is not specified, oracle uses blank by default.
tp
Syntax
RPAD(char1,n[,char2])
ht
Ex: Select RPAD('Page1',10,*) from Dual

m
 CONVERSION FUNCTIONS
• TO_CHAR
.co
The TO_CHAR function converts a number or date to a string.
Syntax
TO_CHAR(n[,format])
ss
TO_CHAR(date[,format])
Ex:
re
Select TO_CHAR(1210.73, '9999.9') from Dual
Select TO_CHAR(1210.73, '$9,999.00') from Dual
dp
Select TO_CHAR(sysdate, 'yyyy/mm/dd') from Dual
Select TO_CHAR(sysdate, 'MON DDTH, YYYY') from Dual
Select TO_CHAR(sysdate, 'DDSP') from Dual
or
Select TO_CHAR(sysdate, 'MONTH DDSPTH') from Dual
.w
• TO_DATE
The TO_DATE function converts a string to a date.

lit
Syntax
TO_DATE(string[,format])
e
Ex:
at
Select TO_DATE('2003/07/09', 'yyyy/mm/dd') from Dual

Select TO_DATE('20020315', 'yyyymmdd') from Dual
ajp
 DATE CONVERSION FUNCTIONS
• ADD_MONTHS
/
Returns date after adding the number of months specified in function

s:/
Syntax
ADD_MONTHS(d,n)
Where d stands for Date or date column & n stands for integer
tp
number or number of months to be added.

Ex: Select ADD_MONTHS(sysdate, 4) from Dual
ht

m
• LAST_DAY
Returns the last date of the Month specified with the functions
.co
Syntax
LAST_DAY(d)
Ex: Select LAST_DAY(sysdate) from Dual
ss
• MONTHS_BETWEEN
re
Returns no of months between d1 and d2
Syntax
dp
MONTHS_BETWEEN(d1,d2)
Ex: Select MONTHS_BETWEEN (TO_DATE ('2003/01/01',
'yyyy/mm/dd'), TO_DATE ('2003/03/14', 'yyyy/mm/dd')) from Dual
• NEXT_DAY
or
.w
Returns the date of the first weekday named by char that is after the date named by date.
Char must be a day of the week.
lit
Syntax
NEXT_DAY(date,char)
e
Ex: Select NEXT_DAY('01-Aug-18', 'TUESDAY') from Dual

at
SQL Queries
ajp
1. Count total number of departments.

/
2. List total salary credited in employee account.

s:/
tp
3. Display average salary credited in dept. no 50.

ht

m
4. Mention the minimum salary, employee name in dept. no 80
.co
5. Mention the maximum salary, Employee name whose manager ID is
149.
ss
6. Display First character capital and rest of them small in
re
Employee first and Last name, email ID must be in small character
& Job id must be in Capital Letters.
dp
or
7. Display the Job title and mention the length of Job titles.
.w
lit
8. Sort the records of employee on bases of Hire date.

e
at
9. Sort the records of Jobs on bases of minimum salary.

ajp
10. Display Employee ID of those employees who have left the

company in ascending order.
/
s:/
tp
ht

m
PRACTICAL 4
TO STUDY SINGLE-ROW FUNCTIONS
.co
SQL Queries
1. Write a query to display the current date. Label the column Date
ss
2. For each employee, display the employee number, job, salary,
re
and salary increased by 15% and expressed as a whole number.
Label the column New Salary
dp
or
3. Modify your query no 4.(2) to add a column that subtracts the
old salary from the new salary. Label the column Increase
.w
lit
4. Write a query that displays the employee’s names with the first
e
letter capitalized and all other letters lowercase, and the

at
length of the names, for all employees whose name starts with
J, E, or S. Give each column an appropriate label. Sort the
ajp
results by the employees’ last names.

/
s:/
5. Write a query that produces the following for each employee:

<employee First name> <employee Last name> earns <salary>
tp
monthly.
ht

m
6. Display the name, hire date, number of months employed and day
.co
of the week on which the employee has started. Order the results
by the day of the week starting with Monday.
ss
re
7. Display the hire date of employees in a format that appears as
Seventh of June 1994 12:00:00 AM.
dp
or
8. Write a query to calculate the annual compensation of all
employees (sal+comm.) & round it to 0 places.
.w
lit
9. Append additional character (*) up to 10 character in front of

e
name of employees in uppercase.

at
ajp
10. Identify which department does not have any employee without
using aggregate functions.
/
s:/
tp
ht

m
PRACTICAL 5
DISPLAYING DATA FROM MULTIPLE TABLES (JOINS)
.co
JOIN
• Sometime it is necessary to work with multiple tables as though they were a single
ss
entity.
• Then a single SQL Statement can manipulate data from all the tables.
• Tables are joined on columns that have a same datatype and data width
re
TYPES OF JOIN
dp
• INNER JOIN (or sometimes called simple join)
• LEFT OUTER JOIN (or sometimes called LEFT JOIN)
• RIGHT OUTER JOIN (or sometimes called RIGHT JOIN)
•
•
or
FULL OUTER JOIN (or sometimes called FULL JOIN)
CROSS JOIN
.w
SYNTAX:
ANSI Style
lit
SELECT <col_1>, <col_2>, <col_n> FROM <tablename_1>

INNER JOIN <tablename_2>
e
ON <tablename_1>.<col_1> = <tablename_2>.<COL_2>
at
WHERE <condition>
ORDER BY <col_1>, <col_2>
ajp
THETA STYLE
SELECT <col_1>, <col_2>, <col_n> FROM

/
<tablename_1>, <tablename_2>
s:/
WHERE <tablename_1>.<col_1> = <tablename_2>.<COL_2>

AND <condition>
ORDER BY <col_1>, <col_2>
tp
ht

m
 INNER JOIN (simple join)
Chances are, you've already written a statement that uses an Oracle INNER JOIN. It is the
.co
most common type of join. Oracle INNER JOINS return all rows from multiple tables where
the join condition is met.
ss
re
dp
SELECT columns
FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.column = table2.column;
or
.w
The Oracle INNER JOIN would return the records where table1 and table2 intersect.
 LEFT OUTER JOIN

lit
Another type of join is called an Oracle LEFT OUTER JOIN. This type of join returns all
rows from the Left-hand table specified in the ON condition and only those rows from the
e
other table where the joined fields are equal (join condition is met).
at
/ ajp
SELECT columns
s:/
FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2
tp
The Oracle LEFT OUTER JOIN would return the all records from table1 and only those
ht
records from table2 that intersect with table1.

m
 RIGHT OUTER JOIN
Another type of join is called an Oracle RIGHT OUTER JOIN. This type of join returns all
.co
rows from the Right-hand table specified in the ON condition and only those rows from the
other table where the joined fields are equal (join condition is met).
ss
re
dp
SELECT columns
FROM table1
RIGHT JOIN table2
or
.w
The Oracle RIGHT OUTER JOIN would return the all records from table2 and only those
records from table1 that intersect with table2.
lit
 FULL OUTER JOIN

e
Another type of join is called an Oracle FULL OUTER JOIN. This type of join returns all
rows from the Left-hand table and Right-hand table with nulls in place where the join
at
condition is not met.

/ ajp
s:/
SELECT columns
FROM table1
tp
FULL JOIN table2

ht
The Oracle FULL OUTER JOIN would return the all records from both table1 and table2.

m
 INTERSECT Operator
The Oracle INTERSECT operator is used to return the results of 2 or more SELECT
.co
statements. However, it only returns the rows selected by all queries or data sets. If a record
exists in one query and not in the other, it will be omitted from the INTERSECT results.
ss
re
dp
SELECT expression1, expression2, ... expression_n
FROM tables
[WHERE conditions]
INTERSECT
or
.w
FROM tables
[WHERE conditions];
lit
Note
• There must be same number of expressions in both SELECT statements and have
e
similar data types.

at
 MINUS Operator
The Oracle MINUS operator is used to return all rows in the first SELECT statement that are
ajp
not returned by the second SELECT statement. Each SELECT statement will define a dataset.
The MINUS operator will retrieve all records from the first dataset and then remove from the
results all records from the second dataset.
/
s:/
tp
ht

m
FROM tables
[WHERE conditions]
.co
MINUS
FROM tables
ss
[WHERE conditions];
Note
re
• There must be same number of expressions in both SELECT statements and have
similar data types.
dp
 UNION Operator
The Oracle UNION operator is used to combine the result sets of 2 or more Oracle SELECT
or
statements. It removes duplicate rows between the various SELECT statements.
Each SELECT statement within the UNION operator must have the same number of fields in
.w
the result sets with similar data types.

lit
FROM tables
[WHERE conditions]
e
UNION
at
FROM tables
[WHERE conditions];
ajp
Note
• There must be same number of expressions in both SELECT statements.
 UNION ALL Operator

/
s:/
The Oracle UNION operator is used to combine the result sets of 2 or more Oracle SELECT
statements. It does not remove duplicate rows between the various SELECT statements.
Each SELECT statement within the UNION operator must have the same number of fields in
tp
the result sets with similar data types.

Note
• There must be same number of expressions in both SELECT statements.
ht

m
FROM tables
.co
[WHERE conditions]
UNION ALL
ss
FROM tables
[WHERE conditions];
re
SQL Queries
dp
1. Give the name of employees and department name in which
particular employer is working with appropriate title.
or
.w
lit
2. List departments and name of manager of all departments.

e
at
3. Mention Employee name, salary and range of min salary and max
ajp
salary for particular job.

/
s:/
4. Mention Employee name, salary and Job grades for all employees.
tp
ht

m
5. List full address of all the managers with manager name.
.co
ss
6. Display first name, last name, department no for all Employees
who belongs to dept no 50 and 80.
re
dp
or
7. List the name of employees who are working in washington.
.w
8. Display all departments including those where does not have any
lit
employee.
e
at
ajp
9. Display Employee name, Department of Employee, Locations of

Department (City and State) province for United States of
America order by Department name.
/
s:/
tp
ht

m
10. Display those employees which contain a letter ‘e’ to their
first name and also display their last name, department, city,
.co
state and country.
ss
re
11. Display first and last name and salary for those employees
dp
who earns less than the employee earn whose no is 202.
or
.w
12. Display the first name of all employees including the first
lit
name of their manager with appropriate title.

e
at
ajp
13. Display Job Title, Department, Full name of employee and

starting date for all the jobs which started on or after 1st Jan,
1993 and end with on or before 31st Aug, 1997.
/
s:/
tp
ht

m
14. Display Job Title, full name of employees and difference
between maximum salary for the job and salary of the employee.
.co
ss
re
15. Display the name of the country, city and the department which
are running there.
dp
or
.w
16. Display the details of Job which was done by any of the
employees who is presently earning a salary on and above 10000.
e lit
at
17. Display the country, name, city and number of those

ajp
departments where at least 2 employees are working.

/
s:/
tp
18. Display Full Name, Job Title, starting and Ending date of
last jobs for those employees with worked without a commission
PCT.
ht

m
.co
ss
re
dp
or
.w
e lit
at
/ ajp
s:/
tp
ht

m
PRACTICAL 6
TO APPLY THE CONCEPT OF AGGREGATING DATA USING
FUNCTIONS.
.co
 GROUP BY Clause
The Oracle GROUP BY clause is used in a SELECT statement to collect data across multiple
ss
records and group the results by one or more columns. The group by clauses create a data set,
containing several sets of records grouped together based on conditions.
re
SYNTAX
SELECT expression1, expression2, ... expression_n,
dp
aggregate_function (aggregate_expression)
FROM tables
[WHERE conditions]
GROUP BY expression1, expression2, ... expression_n;
or
 HAVING Clause
.w
The Oracle HAVING clause is used in combination with the GROUP BY clause to restrict
the groups of returned rows to only those, whose the condition is TRUE. Having clause can
lit
be used in conjunction with the group by clause.
Having imposes conditions on the group by clause, which further filters the group created by
e
the group by clauses.

at
SYNTAX
SELECT expression1, expression2, ... expression_n,
ajp
aggregate_function (aggregate_expression)
FROM tables
[WHERE conditions]
GROUP BY expression1, expression2, ... expression_n
HAVING having condition;
/
s:/
RULES FOR GROUP BY AND HAVING CLAUSES

1. Column listed in the Select statement have to be listed in the Group by clause.
2. Column listed in the Group by clause need not to be listed in the select statement.
tp
3. Only group functions can be used in the Having clauses

4. The group function listed in the having clause need not be listed in the select
ht
statement.

m
SQL Queries
1. List total Salary of employee having join after 01-01-1996.
.co
ss
2. List total salary of employee whose manager is Steven.
re
dp
3. List employees who are working under each Manager.
or
4. List maximum salary of employee who is working in sales dept.
.w
lit
5. Display the total number of employee hired in year 1997, 1998,

e
1999.
at
ajp
6. Find the avg salaries for each dept and mention its dept name.
/
s:/
7. Display the total salary being paid to each dept. Within each
dept.
tp
ht

m
8. Find the avg salary > 8000 for each dept displaying with dept
no.
.co
ss
9. List the Job id having avg salary more than 10000
re
10. List the department where at least two employees are working.
dp
11.
or
Display the Grade, Number of employees, and maximum salary
.w
of each grade.
e lit
12. Display the department name, grade, no. of employees where

at
at least two employees are working as a SALESMAN

/ ajp
13. List the no. of employees in each department where the no.
s:/
is less than 4.
tp
ht

m
PRACTICAL 7
TO SOLVE QUERIES USING THE CONCEPT OF SUB QUERY.
.co
• A sub query is a form of an SQL statement that appears inside SQL statement.
• It is also termed as nested query.
• The statement containing a sub query is called a parent statement. The parent statements use
ss
the rows returned by the sub query.
• A sub query must be enclosed in parentheses.
• A sub query must be placed on the right side of the comparison operator.
re
• Use single-row operators with single-row sub queries.
dp
 Type of Sub queries
• Single row sub query: Returns zero or one row.
or
• Multiple row sub query: Returns one or more rows.
• Multiple column sub queries: Returns one or more columns.
• Correlated sub queries: Reference one or more columns in the outer SQL statement. The sub
.w
query is known as a correlated sub query because the sub query is related to the outer SQL
statement.
lit
• Nested sub queries: Sub queries are placed within another sub query.
e
Some Important points to be remember.

• A sub query must produce a single column of data as its result.
at
• Sub queries cannot manipulate their results internally; therefore ORDER BY clause
cannot be added into a sub query. You can use an ORDER BY clause in the main
ajp
SELECT statement (outer query) which will be the last clause.

• If a sub query (inner query) returns a null value to the outer query, the outer query will
not return any rows when using certain comparison operators in a WHERE clause.
• A sub query cannot be a UNION only a single select statement is allowed.
/
• Using IN or Not IN predicate

s:/
tp
ht

m
SQL Queries
1. List all the Employees who are working under Shipping
.co
Department.
ss
re
2. List Country Name and ID who belongs to region Europe.
dp
or
3. Display Employee ID and Name whose Job Title is Sales
.w
Representative
e lit
at
4. List the name of Employees who have left the country.

/ ajp
5. Display the full address for Region America.

s:/
tp
ht

m
6. Give the name of employees having same dept as Jonathan and
having salary amount greater than 10000.
.co
ss
re
7. Create a query to display the Employee ID and First Name of all
Employees who earn more than avg salary. Sort the result in
descending order of salary.
dp
or
.w
8. Give the Employee details of employee whose Job Title is Stock
Clerk and Dept. is shipping.
e lit
at
ajp
9. Give the Employee Details of Employee’s whose manager name is

Alexander.
/
s:/
tp
ht

m
10. List the name of Department who is having highest salary
credit.
.co
ss
re
11. List all the employees except ‘PRESIDENT’ & ‘MGR’ in asc
order of Salaries.
dp
or
.w
12. Display all the details of the employee whose salary is more
than the Sal of any SA_REP.
e lit
at
13. Display the department ID, full name (first and last name),
ajp
salary for those employees who are highest salary drawer in a

department.
/
s:/
tp
ht

m
14. Display the details of departments managed by Kevin.
.co
ss
re
15. Display all the information about those employees who earn
second lowest salary of all the employees
dp
or
.w
16. Display the details of the current job for those employees
lit
who worked as a Sales Representative in the past.

e
at
ajp
17. Display the full name (first and last name) of manager who
is supervising 4 or more employees.
/
s:/
tp
ht

m
18. Display the detail information of those departments which
starting salary is at least 8000.
.co
ss
re
19. Display the details of those departments which max salary
is 7000 or above for those employees who already done one or
more jobs.
dp
or
.w
lit
20. Display the city of the employee who’s ID 134 and works there.
e
at
ajp
21. Display the first and last name, salary, and department ID
for those employees who earn less than the minimum salary of
/
a department which ID is 70.

s:/
tp
ht

m
22. Display the first and last name, salary, and department ID
for those employees who earn more than the minimum salary of
.co
a department which ID is 40.
ss
re
dp
or
.w
e lit
at
/ ajp
s:/
tp
ht

m
PRACTICAL 8
DATA MANIPULATION COMMANDS
.co
 Modifying the structure of Tables.
• The structure of table can be modifying by using the ALTER TABLE command.
• ALTER TABLE allows changing the structure of an existing table.
ss
• With alter table queries it is possible to add, delete columns, create or destroy
indexes, change the data type of the existing columns or rename columns or table
re
itself.
Adding New Columns
dp
SYNTAX
ALTER TABLE <table_name>

ADD (<new_column_name> <datatype>(<size>),
<new_column_name> <datatype>(<size>)...)
or
.w
Dropping a column from a table
lit
DROP COLUMN <column_name>
Modifying Existing column

e

at
MODIFY (<column_name> <datatype>(<size>))

ajp
Restriction on the ALTER TABLE

• Change the name of TABLE
• Change the name of COLUMNS
• Decrease the size of the column if table date exists.
/
s:/
 RENAMING TABLE
Oracle allows renaming of tables. The rename operations is done atomically, which means that
no other thread can access any of the tables while the rename process is running.
tp
SYNTAX
RENAME <table_name> TO <new_tablename>

ht

m
 UPDATING TABLE DATA
The UPDATE command is used to change or modify data values in a table.
.co
Updating all rows
SYNTAX
UPDATE <table_name>
ss
SET <column_name1> = <expression>,
<column_name2> = <expression>
re
Above query will update all the rows from the table without any intimation.
Updating specific rows
SYNTAX
dp
UPDATE <table_name>
SET <column_name1> = <expression>,
<column_name2> = <expression>
WHERE <conditions>
or
.w
Above query will update selected rows from the table that satisfy the conditions without any
intimation.
lit
 DELETE TABLE
The DELETE command deletes rows from the table that satisfies the condition provided by its
e
where clause, and returns the number of records deleted.

at
Removal of all rows

SYNTAX
DELETE FROM <table_name>
ajp
Above query will delete all the rows from the table without any intimation.
Note:
Be careful while using delete query. User may loss all the data from the table.
/
Removal of Specific Row(s)

s:/
SYNTAX
DELETE FROM <table_name>
WHERE <conditions>
tp
Above query will delete selected rows from the table that satisfy the conditions without any
intimation.
ht

m
 TRUNCATING TABLES
.co
• Truncating table empties a table completely. It is similar to the Delete but practically
different.
Truncate table differs from Delete in following ways.
ss
• Truncating table drop the table and recreate empties table, which is much faster than
deleting rows one by one.
re
• Truncate opts are not transaction-safe (an error will occur if an active transaction or an
active table lock exists)
dp
• The numbers of deleted rows are not returned.
SYNTAX
TRUNCATE TABLE <table_name>

or
 DESTROYING TABLES
.w
Sometime we need to remove the whole table which is not in used.
SYNTAX
lit
DROP TABLE <table_name>

e
at
SQL Queries
ajp
1. Create table worker from table employees with all column

/
s:/
2. Create table Depts. from table Departments with first two

columns.
tp
ht

m
3. Create table Job from table Jobs with no record
.co
4. Insert the data into Job from Jobs whose second character should
ss
be ‘a’ and the Job ID should be 6 characters long.
re
5. Delete all the rows from Depts.
dp
or
6. Delete the details of worker whose manager id is 149.
.w
7. Rename the table Job
e lit
8. Destroy table Depts. with all the data.

at
9. Update the value dept id to 110 where manager id is 101 and dept
ajp
id is 10.
/
s:/
10. Update the postal code to 25432 for location id 1800.

tp
ht

m
PRACTICAL 9
TO STUDY THE CONCEPT OF CURSOR AND STORE PROCEDURE
.co
 CURSORS
Oracle creates a memory area, known as context area, for processing an SQL statement,
which contains all information needed for processing the statement, for example, number of
ss
rows processed, etc.
A cursor is a pointer to this context area. PL/SQL controls the context area through a cursor.
re
A cursor holds the rows (one or more) returned by a SQL statement. The set of rows the
cursor holds is referred to as the active set.
dp
You can name a cursor so that it could be referred to in a program to fetch and process the
rows returned by the SQL statement, one at a time. There are two types of cursors:
• Implicit cursors
or
• Explicit cursors
.w
Implicit Cursors
lit
Implicit cursors are automatically created by Oracle whenever an SQL statement is executed,
when there is no explicit cursor for the statement. Programmers cannot control the implicit
e
cursors and the information in it.

at
Whenever a DML statement (INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE) is issued, an implicit cursor
is associated with this statement. For INSERT operations, the cursor holds the data that needs
ajp
to be inserted. For UPDATE and DELETE operations, the cursor identifies the rows that
would be affected.
In PL/SQL, you can refer to the most recent implicit cursor as the SQL cursor, which always
/
has the attributes like %FOUND, %ISOPEN, %NOTFOUND, and %ROWCOUNT. The
s:/
SQL cursor has additional attributes, %BULK_ROWCOUNT and %BULK_EXCEPTIONS,

designed for use with the FORALL statement. The following table provides the description of
the most used attributes:
tp
ht

m
S.No Attribute & Description
1 %FOUND
.co
Returns TRUE if an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement affected one or more
rows or a SELECT INTO statement returned one or more rows. Otherwise, it returns
FALSE.
2 %NOTFOUND
ss
The logical opposite of %FOUND. It returns TRUE if an INSERT, UPDATE, or
DELETE statement affected no rows, or a SELECT INTO statement returned no rows.
re
Otherwise, it returns FALSE.
3 %ISOPEN
dp
Always returns FALSE for implicit cursors, because Oracle closes the SQL cursor
automatically after executing its associated SQL statement.
4 %ROWCOUNT
or
Returns the number of rows affected by an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement,
or returned by a SELECT INTO statement.
.w
EXAMPLE
lit
Implicit Cursor
The following program would update the table and increase salary of each customer by 500
e
and use the SQL%ROWCOUNT attribute to determine the number of rows affected:
at
DECLARE
total_rows number(2);
ajp
BEGIN
UPDATE EMPLOYEESAJPATELIT
SET SALARY = SALARY + 500;
/
IF sql%notfound THEN
s:/
dbms_output.put_line('NO EMPLOYEES SELECTED');

ELSIF sql%found THEN
total_rows := sql%rowcount;
tp
dbms_output.put_line( total_rows || ' EMPLOYEES SELECTED');

END IF;
ht
END;

m
OUTPUT
20 EMPLOYEES SELECTED
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
.co
Explicit Cursors
Explicit cursors are programmer defined cursors for gaining more control over the context
ss
area. An explicit cursor should be defined in the declaration section of the PL/SQL Block. It
is created on a SELECT Statement which returns more than one row.
The syntax for creating an explicit cursor is :
re
CURSOR cursor_name IS select_statement;
dp
Working with an explicit cursor involves four steps:
• Declaring the cursor for initializing in the memory
• Opening the cursor for allocating memory
•
•
Fetching the cursor for retrieving data or
Closing the cursor to release allocated memory
.w
Declaring the Cursor
Declaring the cursor defines the cursor with a name and the associated SELECT statement.
lit
For example:
CURSOR E_EMPLOYEESAJPATELIT is SELECT EMPLOYEE_ID,

e
FIRST_NAME, LAST_NAME FROM EMPLOYEESAJPATELIT;

at
Opening the Cursor

Opening the cursor allocates memory for the cursor and makes it ready for fetching the rows
ajp
returned by the SQL statement into it. For example, we will open above-defined cursor as
follows:
OPEN E_EMPLOYEESAJPATELIT;
/
Fetching the Cursor

s:/
Fetching the cursor involves accessing one row at a time. For example we will fetch rows
from the above-opened cursor as follows:
tp
FETCH E_EMPLOYEESAJPATELIT into E_ID, E_FNAME, E_LNAME;

ht

m
Closing the Cursor
Closing the cursor means releasing the allocated memory. For example, we will close
.co
above-opened cursor as follows:
CLOSE E_EMPLOYEESAJPATELIT;
EXAMPLE
ss
Explicit Cursor
re
DECLARE
E_ID EMPLOYEESAJPATELIT.EMPLOYEE_ID%type;
dp
E_FNAME EMPLOYEESAJPATELIT.FIRST_NAME%type;
E_LNAME EMPLOYEESAJPATELIT.LAST_NAME%type;
CURSOR E_EMPLOYEESAJPATELIT is
SELECT EMPLOYEE_ID, FIRST_NAME, LAST_NAME FROM
EMPLOYEESAJPATELIT;
BEGIN
or
OPEN E_EMPLOYEESAJPATELIT;
.w
LOOP
FETCH E_EMPLOYEESAJPATELIT into E_ID, E_FNAME, E_LNAME;
EXIT WHEN E_EMPLOYEESAJPATELIT%notfound;
lit
dbms_output.put_line(E_ID || ' ' || E_FNAME || ' ' ||

E_LNAME);
END LOOP;
e
CLOSE E_EMPLOYEESAJPATELIT;
END;
at
OUTPUT
ajp
100 Steven King

101 Neena Kochhar
102 Lex De Haan
103 Alexander Hunold
/
104 Bruce Ernst

107 Diana Lorentz
s:/
124 Kevin Mourgos

141 Trenna Rajs
142 Curtis Davies
tp
143 Randall Matos

144 Peter Vargas
149 Eleni Zlotkey
ht
174 Ellen Abel

m
176 Jonathon Taylor
178 Kimerely Grant
200 Jennifer Whalen
.co
201 Michael Hartstein
202 Pat Fay
205 Shelley Higgins
206 William Gietz
ss
 STORE PROCEDURE
A Procedure or Function is a logically grouped set of SQL and PL/SQL statements that
re
perform a specific task.
dp
PL/SQL subprograms are named PL/SQL blocks that can be invoked with a set of parameters.
PL/SQL provides two kinds of Subprograms:
• or
Functions: these subprograms return a single value, mainly used to compute and
return a value.
• Procedures: these subprograms do not return a value directly, mainly used to perform
.w
an action.
S.No Parts & Description
lit
1 Declarative Part
It is an optional part. However, the declarative part for a subprogram does not start with
e
the DECLARE keyword. It contains declarations of types, cursors, constants, variables,

at
exceptions, and nested subprograms. These items are local to the subprogram and cease
to exist when the subprogram completes execution.
2 Executable Part
ajp
This is a mandatory part and contains statements that perform the designated action.
3 Exception-handling
This is again an optional part. It contains the code that handles run-time errors.
/
s:/
WHY Store Procedure is used or Advantages of SP…?
• Performance
tp
Stored procedures are compiled once and stored in executable form, so procedure calls are
quick and efficient. Executable code is automatically cached and shared among users. This
lowers memory requirements and invocation overhead.
ht

m
By grouping SQL statements, a stored procedure allows them to be executed with a single
call. This minimizes the use of slow networks, reduces network traffic, and improves
.co
round-trip response time. OLTP applications, in particular, benefit because result set
processing eliminates network bottlenecks.
Additionally, stored procedures enable you to take advantage of the computing resources of
ss
the server. For example, you can move computation-bound procedures from client to server,
where they will execute faster. Likewise, stored functions called from SQL statements
re
enhance performance by executing application logic within the server.
• Productivity and Ease of Use
dp
By designing applications around a common set of stored procedures, you can avoid
redundant coding and increase your productivity. Moreover, stored procedures let you extend
the functionality of the RDBMS. For example, stored functions called from SQL statements
enhance the power of SQL.
or
.w
• Scalability
Stored procedures increase scalability by isolating application processing on the server. In
lit
addition, automatic dependency tracking for stored procedures aids the development of
scalable applications.
e
The shared memory facilities of the Multi-Threaded Server (MTS) enable Oracle to support
at
more than 10,000 concurrent users on a single node. For more scalability, you can use the
Net8 Connection Manager to multiplex Net8 connections.
ajp
• Maintainability
Once it is validated, a stored procedure can be used with confidence in any number of
applications. If its definition changes, only the procedure is affected, not the applications that
/
calls it. This simplifies maintenance and enhancement. Also, maintaining a procedure on the
s:/
server is easier than maintaining copies on various client machines.
• Security
tp
You can restrict access to Oracle data by allowing users to manipulate the data only through
stored procedures that execute with their definer's privileges. For example, you can allow
access to a procedure that updates a database table, but deny access to the table itself.
ht

m
• Replication
With Oracle Advanced Replication, stored procedures can be replicated (copied) from one
.co
Oracle database to another. This feature makes them ideal for implementing a central set of
business rules. Once written, the stored procedures are replicated and distributed to work
groups and branch offices throughout the company. In this way, policies can be revised on a
central server rather than on individual servers.
ss
CREATING A PROCEDURE
re
A procedure is created with the CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE statement. The
simplified syntax for the CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE statement is as follows:
dp
SYNTAX
CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE procedure_name
[(parameter_name [IN | OUT | IN OUT] type [, ...])]
{IS | AS}
or
BEGIN
.w
< procedure_body >
END procedure_name;
Where,
lit
• procedure-name specifies the name of the procedure.

• [OR REPLACE] option allows modifying an existing procedure.
e
• The optional parameter list contains name, mode and types of the parameters. IN
at
represents that value will be passed from outside and OUT represents that this
parameter will be used to return a value outside of the procedure.
ajp
• procedure-body contains the executable part.

• The AS keyword is used instead of the IS keyword for creating a standalone
procedure.
/
EXAMPLE
s:/
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE greetings

AS
BEGIN
tp
dbms_output.put_line('Hello World!');
END;
/
ht

m
RUN
BEGIN
greetings;
.co
END;
DELETING A PROCEDURE
A standalone procedure is deleted with the DROP PROCEDURE statement. Syntax for
ss
deleting a procedure is:
re
SYNTAX
DROP PROCEDURE procedure-name;
dp
EXAMPLE
DROP PROCEDURE greetings;
PARAMETER MODES IN PL/SQL PROCEDURE

or
S.No Parameter Mode & Description
.w
1 IN
An IN parameter lets you pass a value to the subprogram. It is a read-only parameter.
Inside the subprogram, an IN parameter acts like a constant. It cannot be assigned a
lit
value. You can pass a constant, literal, initialized variable, or expression as an IN

parameter. You can also initialize it to a default value; however, in that case, it is
e
omitted from the subprogram call. It is the default mode of parameter passing.
at
Parameters are passed by reference.

2 OUT
ajp
An OUT parameter returns a value to the calling program. Inside the subprogram, an
OUT parameter acts like a variable. You can change its value and reference the value
after assigning it. The actual parameter must be variable and it is passed by value.
3 IN OUT
/
An IN OUT parameter passes an initial value to a subprogram and returns an updated

s:/
value to the caller. It can be assigned a value and the value can be read.
The actual parameter corresponding to an IN OUT formal parameter must be a variable,

tp
not a constant or an expression. Formal parameter must be assigned a value. Actual

parameter is passed by value.
ht

m
EXAMPLE-1
DECLARE
.co
a number;
b number;
c number;
ss
PROCEDURE findMin(x IN number, y IN number, z OUT number) IS
BEGIN
IF x < y THEN
re
z:= x;
ELSE
z:= y;
dp
END IF;
END;
BEGIN
a:= 23;
b:= 45;
or
findMin(a, b, c);
.w
dbms_output.put_line(' Minimum of (23, 45) : ' || c);
END;
lit
OUTPUT
Minimum of (23, 45) : 23
e
EXAMPLE-2
at
DECLARE
a number;
ajp
PROCEDURE squareNum(x IN OUT number) IS

BEGIN
x := x * x;
END;
/
s:/
BEGIN
a:= 23;
squareNum(a);
tp
dbms_output.put_line(' Square of (23): ' || a);

END;
OUTPUT
ht
Square of (23): 529

m
PRACTICAL 10
TO STUDY TRANSACTION CONTROL COMMANDS
.co
Transaction Control Language (TCL) commands are used to manage transactions in the
database. These are used to manage the changes made to the data in a table by DML
statements. It also allows statements to be grouped together into logical transactions.
ss
 COMMIT COMMAND
COMMIT command is used to permanently save any transaction into the database.
re
When we use any DML command like INSERT, UPDATE or DELETE, the changes made by
dp
these commands are not permanent, until the current session is closed, the changes made by
these commands can be rolled back.
or
To avoid that, we use the COMMIT command to mark the changes as permanent.
Following is commit command's syntax,

.w
COMMIT;
lit
 ROLLBACK COMMAND
This command restores the database to last committed state. It is also used with SAVEPOINT
e
command to jump to a save point in an ongoing transaction.

at
If we have used the UPDATE command to make some changes into the database, and realize
that those changes were not required, then we can use the ROLLBACK command to rollback
ajp
those changes, if they were not committed using the COMMIT command.
Following is rollback command's syntax,

/
ROLLBACK TO savepoint_name;
s:/
 SAVEPOINT COMMAND
SAVEPOINT command is used to temporarily save a transaction so that you can roll back to
tp
that point whenever required.

ht

m
Following is save point command's syntax,
SAVEPOINT savepoint_name;
.co
In short, using this command we can name the different states of our data in any table and
then roll back to that state using the ROLLBACK command whenever required.
Using Save point and Rollback
ss
Following is the table class,
re
ID NAME
1 Abhi
2 Adam
dp
4 Alex
Let’s use some SQL queries on the above table and see the results.
INSERT INTO class VALUES(5, 'Rahul');

or
COMMIT;
.w
UPDATE class SET name = 'Abhijit' WHERE id = '5';
lit
SAVEPOINT A;
INSERT INTO class VALUES(6, 'Chris');

e
SAVEPOINT B;
at
INSERT INTO class VALUES(7, 'Bravo');
SAVEPOINT C;
ajp
SELECT * FROM class;
The resultant table will look like,

/
ID NAME
s:/
1 Abhi
2 Adam
4 Alex
tp
5 Abhijit
6 Chris
ht
7 Bravo

m
Now let's use the ROLLBACK command to roll back the state of data to the save point B.
ROLLBACK TO B;
.co
Now our class table will look like,
ss
ID NAME
1 Abhi
re
2 Adam
4 Alex
dp
5 Abhijit
6 Chris
Now let's again use the ROLLBACK command to roll back the state of data to the save point A
ROLLBACK TO A;
or
.w
Now the table will look like,

lit
ID NAME
1 Abhi
e
2 Adam
at
4 Alex
5 Abhijit
ajp
 AUTOCOMMIT
AUTOCOMMIT command automatically commits each transaction after its execution. If this
command is set, then no need to explicitly issue commit. We cannot rollback our transactions,
if AUTOCOMMIT is on. This needs to be set /unset before we begin any transactions.
/
s:/
SET AUTOCOMMIT ON; -- Sets AUTOCOMMIT to ON
SET AUTOCOMMIT OFF; -- Sets AUTOCOMMIT to OFF

tp
ht

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Database Management System | 2130703

 DML (Data Manipulation Language)

• UPDATE: to modify existing data in a table.

• LOCK: to lock tables to provide concurrency control among multiple users.

 DQL (Data Query Language)

 DCL (Data Control Language)

commands are grouped with DML commands.

• COMMIT: to save work permanently.

Alpha College of Engineering and Technology Department of Information Technology | Page 1

Alpha College of Engineering and Technology Department of Information Technology | Page 2

 Primary Key Constraint or

• A table cannot have more than one primary key.

• A primary key constraint is combination of UNIQUE constraint and NOT NULL

• Primary Key is not mandatory but it is recommended.

• Primary Key can’t be LONG and LONG RAW.

• Maximum 16 columns can be combined as a composite primary key in a table.

Primary Key Defined at Column Level using Constraint Name

<Columnname> <Datatype>(size) CONSTRAINT Cons_name Primary Key

Alpha College of Engineering and Technology Department of Information Technology | Page 3

CREATE TABLE table_name

Disable/Enable Primary Key

ALTER TABLE table_name

DISABLE/ENABLE CONSTRAINT constraint_name;

 Foreign Key Constraint

master table or parent table.

• Child may have duplicates and nulls but unless it is specified.

Restriction on child table:

• Child table contains a foreign key. And, it is related to master table.

Alpha College of Engineering and Technology Department of Information Technology | Page 4

Foreign Key Defined at Column Level using Constraint Name

CREATE TABLE table_name

REFERENCES parent_table (column1, column2, ... column_n)

Create Foreign Key - Using ALTER statement

ALTER TABLE table_name

FOREIGN KEY (column1, column2, ... column_n)

What is a foreign key with ON DELETE CASCADE in Oracle?

Alpha College of Engineering and Technology Department of Information Technology | Page 5

CREATE TABLE table_name

ALTER TABLE table_name

Disable/Enable Foreign Key

ALTER TABLE table_name

duplicated in a column defined as a UNIQUE column.

• Unique index is automatically created.

• Unique Key cannot be LONG Datatype.

Alpha College of Engineering and Technology Department of Information Technology | Page 6

<Columnname> <Datatype>(size) CONSTRAINT Cons_name UNIQUE

CREATE TABLE table_name

CONSTRAINT constraint_name UNIQUE (uc_col1, uc_col2, ... uc_col_n));

ALTER TABLE table_name

Disable/Enable Unique Key

ALTER TABLE table_name

• Business rule define a domain for a particular column.

• The check constraint is bound to a particular column.

• If any operation violates condition, it will be rejected.

Alpha College of Engineering and Technology Department of Information Technology | Page 7

<Columnname> <Datatype>(size) CHECK (<Logical Expression>)

CREATE TABLE table_name

CHECK (<Logical Expression>), CHECK (<Logical Expression>),… );

ALTER TABLE table_name

Disable/Enable Check Constraints

ALTER TABLE table_name

 Not Null constraint

• A column, defined as a not null, cannot have a null value.